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diff --git a/14006-h/14006-h.htm b/14006-h/14006-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c4e8fa --- /dev/null +++ b/14006-h/14006-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17376 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content= +"HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 1st August 2004), see www.w3.org" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of An English Grammar, by W.M. +Baskervill & J.W. Sewell.</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + } + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + + .center {text-align: center;} + + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left;} + .sn {position: absolute; right: 91%; text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .poem {margin-left:5%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem span.i10 {display: block; margin-left: 10em;} + .poem span.i6 {display: block; margin-left: 6em;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14006 ***</div> + +<h1><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR</h1> +<p class="center">FOR THE USE OF</p> +<p class="center">HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES</p> +<h3>BY</h3> +<h2>W.M. BASKERVILL</h2> +<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE +IN VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN.</p> +<h3>AND</h3> +<h2>J.W. SEWELL</h2> +<p class="center">OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN.</p> +<p class="center"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>1895</p> +<h3><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>PREFACE.</h3> +<p>Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should +there be till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more +happily wedded. In this field much valuable work has already been +accomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to +take the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressed +rather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an +advanced grammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, +and difficult principles, is not altogether an easy matter. These +things enhance the difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences +in grasping and assimilating the facts of grammar, and create a +distaste for the study. It is therefore the leading object of this +book to be both as scholarly and as practical as possible. In it +there is an attempt to present grammatical facts as simply, and to +lead the student to assimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and +at the same time to do away with confusing difficulties as far as +may be.</p> +<p>To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the +foreground the <i>real basis of grammar</i>; that is, good +literature. Abundant quotations from standard authors have been +given to show the student that he is dealing with the facts of the +language, and not with the theories of grammarians. It is also +suggested that in preparing written exercises the student use +English classics instead of "making up" sentences. But it is not +intended that the use of literary masterpieces for grammatical +purposes should supplant or even interfere with their proper use +and real value as works of art. It will, however, doubtless be +found helpful to alternate the regular reading and æsthetic +study of literature with a grammatical study, so that, while the +mind is being enriched and the artistic sense quickened, there may +also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen observation of +all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it has been deemed +best to omit explanations, and to withhold <a name="Page_4" id= +"Page_4"></a>personal preferences, in order that the student may, +by actual contact with the sources of grammatical laws, discover +for himself the better way in regarding given data. It is not the +grammarian's business to "correct:" it is simply to record and to +arrange the usages of language, and to point the way to the +arbiters of usage in all disputed cases. Free expression within the +lines of good usage should have widest range.</p> +<p>It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is +consistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, in +addition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we +have endeavored to attain two other objects,—to cultivate +mental skill and power, and to induce the student to prosecute +further studies in this field. It is not supposable that in so +delicate and difficult an undertaking there should be an entire +freedom from errors and oversights. We shall gratefully accept any +assistance in helping to correct mistakes.</p> +<p>Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at +first hand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to +express our obligation to the following books and +articles:—</p> +<p>Meiklejohn's "English Language," Longmans' "School Grammar," +West's "English Grammar," Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and +"Composition Grammar," Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New +English Grammar," etc., Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English," +Morris's "Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar," +Lounsbury's "English Language," Champney's "History of English," +Emerson's "History of the English Language," Kellner's "Historical +Outlines of English Syntax," Earle's "English Prose," and Matzner's +"Englische Grammatik." Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English," +Battler's articles on "Prepositions" in the "Anglia," and many +other valuable papers, have also been helpful and suggestive.</p> +<p>We desire to express special thanks to Professor W.D. Mooney of +Wall & Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., for a +critical examination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to +Professor Jno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn., +and Professor W.R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many +valuable suggestions and helpful criticism.</p> +<p>W.M. BASKERVILL.</p> +<p>J.W. SEWELL.</p> +<p>NASHVILLE, TENN., January, 1896.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a><a name="Page_5" id= +"Page_5"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> +<p><b><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a><br /></b><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#PART_I"><b>PART I.<br /></b> <i>THE PARTS OF +SPEECH</i>.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#NOUNS"><b>NOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PRONOUNS"><b>PRONOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ADJECTIVES"><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ARTICLES"><b>ARTICLES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VERBS_AND_VERBALS"><b>VERBS AND VERBALS..</b></a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#VERBS"><b>Verbs.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#VERBALS"><b>Verbals.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#HOW_TO_PARSE_VERBS_AND_VERBALS"><b>How To Parse Verbs And +Verbals.</b></a></span><br /> +<a href="#ADVERBS"><b>ADVERBS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CONJUNCTIONS"><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREPOSITIONS"><b>PREPOSITIONS..</b></a><br /> +<a href="#WORDS_THAT_NEED_WATCHING"><b>WORDS THAT NEED +WATCHING.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INTERJECTIONS"><b>INTERJECTIONS.</b></a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#PART_II"><b>PART II.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ANALYSIS_OF_SENTENCES"><i>ANALYSIS OF +SENTENCES.</i></a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_FORM"><b>CLASSIFICATION +ACCORDING TO FORM.</b></a><br /> +<a href= +"#CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_NUMBER_OF_STATEMENTS"><b>CLASSIFICATION +ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS.</b></a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#SIMPLE_SENTENCES"><b>Simple Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#CONTRACTED_SENTENCES"><b>Contracted +Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#COMPLEX_SENTENCES"><b>Complex Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#COMPOUND_SENTENCES"><b>Compound Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#PART_III"><b>PART III.</b><br /> +<i>SYNTAX</i></a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#INTRODUCTORY"><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#NOUNSIII"><b>NOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PRONOUNSIII"><b>PRONOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ADJECTIVESIII"><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ARTICLESIII"><b>ARTICLES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VERBSIII"><b>VERBS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDIRECT_DISCOURSE"><b>INDIRECT DISCOURSE.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VERBALSIII"><b>VERBALS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INFINITIVES"><b>INFINITIVES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ADVERBSIII"><b>ADVERBS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CONJUNCTIONSIII"><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREPOSITIONSIII"><b>PREPOSITIONS<br /></b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX<br /></b></a><br /></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a><a name="INTRODUCTION" id= +"INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> +<p>So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of +teaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is +plain the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a +science. The object we have, or should have, in teaching science, +is not to fill a child's mind with a vast number of facts that may +or may not prove useful to him hereafter, but to draw out and +exercise his powers of observation, and to show him how to make use +of what he observes.... And here the teacher of grammar has a great +advantage over the teacher of other sciences, in that the facts he +has to call attention to lie ready at hand for every pupil to +observe without the use of apparatus of any kind while the use of +them also lies within the personal experience of every +one.<span class="smcap">—Dr Richard Morris.</span></p> +<p>The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of +the highest order. If I except discussions on the comparative +merits of Popery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most +important discipline of my boyhood.<span class="smcap">—John +Tyndall.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a><b>INTRODUCTION.</b></p> +<p>What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in +answer to the question, <i>What is grammar?</i> may be shown by the +following—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definitions of grammar.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>English grammar is a description of the usages of the English +language by good speakers and writers of the present +day.<span class="smcap">—Whitney</span></p> +<p>A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or +make of a language is called its grammar<span class= +"smcap">—Meiklejohn</span></p> +<p>Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of +using it in speaking and writing.<span class= +"smcap">—Patterson</span></p> +<p>Grammar is the science of <i>letter</i>; hence the science of +using words correctly.<span class="smcap">—Abbott</span></p> +<p>The English word <i>grammar</i> relates only to the laws which +govern the significant forms of words, and the construction of the +sentence.<span class="smcap">—Richard Grant White</span></p> +</div> +<p>These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about +English grammar—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Synopsis of the above.</i></div> +<p>(1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words.</p> +<p>(2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow.</p> +<p>(3) It is concerned with the <i>forms</i> of the language.</p> +<p>(4) English <i>has</i> no grammar in the sense of forms, or +inflections, but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of +words in sentences.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The older idea and its origin.</i></div> +<p>Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous +works have been written to uphold the theories. The first of them +remained popular for a very long time. It originated from <a name= +"Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>the etymology of the word <i>grammar</i> +(Greek <i>gramma</i>, writing, a letter), and from an effort to +build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammar +as a model.</p> +<p>Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more +popular, though there has been vastly more classification than +there are forms.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The opposite view</i>.</div> +<p>During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but +they have had hard work to displace the older and more popular +theories. It is insisted by many that the student's time should be +used in studying general literature, and thus learning the fluent +and correct use of his mother tongue. It is also insisted that the +study and discussion of forms and inflections is an inexcusable +imitation of classical treatises.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The difficulty</i>.</div> +<p>Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this is +answered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories +must be taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded.</p> +<p>The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two +distinct things,—what the <i>definition</i> of grammar should +be, and what the <i>purpose</i> of grammar should be.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The material of grammar</i>.</div> +<p>The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider +than is indicated by any one of the above definitions; and the +student ought to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Few inflections</i>.</div> +<p>It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections +at present, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small +grammar will hold them all.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Making rules is risky</i>.</div> +<p>It is also evident, to those who have studied the <a name= +"Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>language historically, that it is very +hazardous to make rules in grammar: what is at present regarded as +correct may not be so twenty years from now, even if our rules are +founded on the keenest scrutiny of the "standard" writers of our +time. Usage is varied as our way of thinking changes. In Chaucer's +time two or three negatives were used to strengthen a negation; as, +"Ther <i>nas no</i> man <i>nowher</i> so vertuous" (There never was +no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare used good English when +he said <i>more elder</i> ("Merchant of Venice") and <i>most +unkindest</i> ("Julius Cæsar"); but this is bad English +now.</p> +<p>If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, +and stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome +places, there is still much for the grammarian to do.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A broader view</i>.</div> +<p>Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its +peculiar and abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to +express every possible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious +study, apart from the mere memorizing of inflections and +formulation of rules.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mental training. An æsthetic +benefit.</i></div> +<p>Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it +will train the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at +the same time, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen +observation and a correct literary taste. The continued contact +with the highest thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst +for the "well of English undefiled."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What grammar is</i>.</div> +<p>Coming back, then, from the question, <i>What ground should +grammar cover?</i> we come to answer <a name="Page_12" id= +"Page_12"></a>the question, <i>What should grammar teach?</i> and +we give as an answer the definition,—</p> +<p><i>English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of +words, their forms, and their uses and relations in the +sentence</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The work it will cover.</i></div> +<p>This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" +(with their inflections), "Analysis," and "Syntax." It will also +require a discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, +assist the classification of kindred expressions, or draw the +attention of the student to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus +incite his observation.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Authority as a basis</i>.</div> +<p>A few words here as to the <i>authority</i> upon which grammar +rests.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Literary English</i>.</div> +<p>The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from +the leading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from +the eighteenth century on. This <i>literary English</i> is +considered the foundation on which grammar must rest.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Spoken English</i>.</div> +<p>Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from +<i>spoken</i> or <i>colloquial English</i>, by which is meant the +free, unstudied expressions of ordinary conversation and +communication among intelligent people.</p> +<p>These quotations will often throw light on obscure +constructions, since they preserve turns of expressions that have +long since perished from the literary or standard English.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Vulgar English</i>.</div> +<p>Occasionally, too, reference will be made to <i>vulgar +English,</i>—the speech of the uneducated and +ignorant,—which will serve to illustrate points of syntax +once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly bad grammar.</p> +<p><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>The following pages will +cover, then, three divisions:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections.</p> +<p>Part II. Analysis of Sentences.</p> +<p>Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a><a name="Page_16" id= +"Page_16"></a>PART I.</h2> +<h3><i>THE PARTS OF SPEECH</i>.</h3> +<h2><a name="NOUNS" id="NOUNS"></a><a name="Page_17" id= +"Page_17"></a><b>NOUNS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>1.</b></span> In the more simple +<i>state</i> of the <i>Arabs</i>, the <i>nation</i> is free, +because each of her <i>sons</i> disdains a base <i>submission</i> +to the <i>will</i> of a <i>master</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Name words</i></div> +<p>By examining this sentence we notice several words used as +names. The plainest name is <i>Arabs</i>, which belongs to a +people; but, besides this one, the words <i>sons</i> and +<i>master</i> name objects, and may belong to any of those objects. +The words <i>state, submission,</i> and <i>will</i> are evidently +names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, not objects; +and the word <i>nation</i> stands for a whole group.</p> +<p>When the meaning of each of these words has once been +understood, the word naming it will always call up the thing or +idea itself. Such words are called <b>nouns</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>2.</b></span> A noun is a name word, +representing directly to the mind an object, substance, or +idea.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Classes of nouns</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>3.</b></span> Nouns are classified as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Proper.</b><br /> +<br /> +(2) <b>Common.</b> (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 14em;">ii. Collective.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">(b) MATERIAL.</span><br /> +<br /> +(3) <b>Abstract.</b> (a) ATTRIBUTE.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">(b) VERBAL</span><br /></p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a><i>Names +for special objects.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>4.</b></span> A <b>proper noun</b> is a name +applied to a particular object, whether person, place, or +thing.</p> +<p>It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, +reducing it to a narrow application. Thus, <i>city</i> is a word +applied to any one of its kind; but <i>Chicago</i> names one city, +and fixes the attention upon that particular city. <i>King</i> may +be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, but <i>Alfred the Great</i> +is the name of one king only.</p> +<p>The word <i>proper</i> is from a Latin word meaning <i>limited, +belonging to one</i>. This does not imply, however, that a proper +name can be applied to only one object, but that each time such a +name is applied it is fixed or proper to that object. Even if there +are several Bostons or Manchesters, the name of each is an +individual or proper name.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Name for any individual of a +class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>5.</b></span> A <b>common noun</b> is a name +possessed by <i>any</i> one of a class of persons, animals, or +things.</p> +<p><i>Common</i>, as here used, is from a Latin word which means +<i>general, possessed by all</i>.</p> +<p>For instance, <i>road</i> is a word that names <i>any</i> +highway outside of cities; <i>wagon</i> is a term that names +<i>any</i> vehicle of a certain kind used for hauling: the words +are of the widest application. We may say, <i>the man here</i>, or +<i>the man in front of you</i>, but the word <i>man</i> is here +hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is of +general application.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Name for a group or collection of +objects.</i></div> +<p>Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we +may think of them in groups, and appropriate names to the +groups.</p> +<p><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>Thus, men in groups may be +called a <i>crowd</i>, or a <i>mob</i>, a <i>committee</i>, or a +<i>council</i>, or a <i>congress</i>, etc.</p> +<p>These are called <b>COLLECTIVE NOUNS</b>. They properly belong +under common nouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and +the name applied to it belongs to any group of its class.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Names for things thought of in +mass.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>6.</b></span> The definition given for +common nouns applies more strictly to class nouns. It may, however, +be correctly used for another group of nouns detailed below; for +they are common nouns in the sense that the names apply to <i>every +particle of similar substance</i>, instead of to each individual or +separate object.</p> +<p>They are called <b>MATERIAL NOUNS</b>. Such are <i>glass</i>, +<i>iron</i>, <i>clay</i>, <i>frost</i>, <i>rain</i>, <i>snow</i>, +<i>wheat</i>, <i>wine</i>, <i>tea</i>, <i>sugar</i>, etc.</p> +<p>They may be placed in groups as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) The metals: <i>iron</i>, <i>gold</i>, <i>platinum</i>, +etc.</p> +<p>(2) Products spoken of in bulk: <i>tea</i>, <i>sugar</i>, +<i>rice</i>, <i>wheat</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) Geological bodies: <i>mud</i>, <i>sand</i>, <i>granite</i>, +<i>rock</i>, <i>stone</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(4) Natural phenomena: <i>rain</i>, <i>dew</i>, <i>cloud</i>, +<i>frost</i>, <i>mist</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(5) Various manufactures: <i>cloth</i> (and the different kinds +of cloth), <i>potash</i>, <i>soap</i>, <i>rubber</i>, <i>paint</i>, +<i>celluloid</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>7. NOTE.</b>—There are some nouns, such as <i>sun</i>, +<i>moon</i>, <i>earth</i>, which seem to be the names of particular +individual objects, but which are not called proper names.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a><i>Words +naturally of limited application not proper.</i></div> +<p>The reason is, that in proper names the intention is <i>to +exclude</i> all other individuals of the same class, and fasten a +special name to the object considered, as in calling a city +<i>Cincinnati</i>; but in the words <i>sun</i>, <i>earth</i>, etc., +there is no such intention. If several bodies like the center of +our solar system are known, they also are called <i>suns</i> by a +natural extension of the term: so with the words <i>earth</i>, +<i>world</i>, etc. They remain common class names.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Names of ideas, not things.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>8.</b></span> <b>Abstract nouns</b> are +names of qualities, conditions, or actions, considered abstractly, +or apart from their natural connection.</p> +<p>When we speak of a <i>wise man</i>, we recognize in him an +attribute or quality. If we wish to think simply of that quality +without describing the person, we speak of the <i>wisdom</i> of the +man. The quality is still there as much as before, but it is taken +merely as a name. So <i>poverty</i> would express the condition of +a poor person; <i>proof</i> means the act of proving, or that which +shows a thing has been proved; and so on.</p> +<p>Again, we may say, "<i>Painting</i> is a fine art," +"<i>Learning</i> is hard to acquire," "a man of +<i>understanding</i>."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>9.</b></span> There are two chief divisions +of abstract nouns:—</p> +<p>(1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities.</p> +<p>(2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Attribute abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>10.</b></span> The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS +are derived from adjectives and from common nouns. Thus, <a name= +"Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>(1) <i>prudence</i> from <i>prudent</i>, +<i>height</i> from <i>high</i>, <i>redness</i> from <i>red</i>, +<i>stupidity</i> from <i>stupid</i>, etc.; (2) <i>peerage</i> from +<i>peer</i>, <i>childhood</i> from <i>child</i>, <i>mastery</i> +from <i>master</i>, <i>kingship</i> from <i>king</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Verbal abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><b>II.</b> The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as +their name implies. They may be—</p> +<p>(1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering +its function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long +<i>run</i>" "a bold <i>move</i>," "a brisk <i>walk</i>."</p> +<p>(2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a +suffix: <i>motion</i> from <i>move</i>, <i>speech</i> from +<i>speak</i>, <i>theft</i> from <i>thieve</i>, <i>action</i> from +<i>act</i>, <i>service</i> from <i>serve</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>(3) Derived from verbs by adding <i>-ing</i> to the simple verb. +It must be remembered that these words are <i>free from any verbal +function</i>. They cannot govern a word, and they cannot +<i>express</i> action, but are merely <i>names</i> of actions. They +are only the husks of verbs, and are to be rigidly distinguished +from <i>gerunds</i> (Secs. 272, 273).</p> +<p>To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples:</p> +<p>The best thoughts and <i>sayings</i> of the Greeks; the moon +caused fearful <i>forebodings</i>; in the <i>beginning</i> of his +life; he spread his <i>blessings</i> over the land; the great +Puritan <i>awakening</i>; our birth is but a sleep and a +<i>forgetting</i>; a <i>wedding</i> or a festival; the rude +<i>drawings</i> of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic +<i>reasoning</i>; the <i>teachings</i> of the High Spirit; those +opinions and <i>feelings</i>; there is time for such +<i>reasonings</i>; the <i>well-being</i> of her subjects; her +<i>longing</i> for their favor; <i>feelings</i> which their +original <i>meaning</i> will by no means justify; the main +<i>bearings</i> of this matter.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_22" id= +"Page_22"></a><i>Underived abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>12.</b></span> Some abstract nouns were not +derived from any other part of speech, but were framed directly for +the expression of certain ideas or phenomena. Such are +<i>beauty</i>, <i>joy</i>, <i>hope</i>, <i>ease</i>, <i>energy</i>; +<i>day</i>, <i>night</i>, <i>summer</i>, <i>winter</i>; +<i>shadow</i>, <i>lightning</i>, <i>thunder</i>, etc.</p> +<p>The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either +themselves derived from the nouns or are totally different words; +as <i>glad</i>—<i>joy</i>, <i>hopeful</i>—<i>hope</i>, +etc.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common +nouns, five proper, five abstract.</p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—Remember that all sentences are to be +<i>selected</i> from standard literature.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>2. Under what class of nouns would you place (<i>a</i>) the +names of diseases, as <i>pneumonia</i>, <i>pleurisy</i>, +<i>catarrh</i>, <i>typhus</i>, <i>diphtheria</i>; (<i>b</i>) +branches of knowledge, as <i>physics</i>, <i>algebra</i>, +<i>geology</i>, <i>mathematics</i>?</p> +<p>3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of +the following individual nouns:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>man</li> +<li>horse</li> +<li>bird</li> +<li>fish</li> +<li>partridge</li> +<li>pupil</li> +<li>bee</li> +<li>soldier</li> +<li>book</li> +<li>sailor</li> +<li>child</li> +<li>sheep</li> +<li>ship</li> +<li>ruffian</li> +</ul> +<p>4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these +abstract nouns is derived:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>sight</li> +<li>speech</li> +<li>motion</li> +<li>pleasure</li> +<li>patience</li> +<li>friendship</li> +<li>deceit</li> +<li>bravery</li> +<li>height</li> +<li>width</li> +<li>wisdom</li> +<li>regularity</li> +<li>advice</li> +<li>seizure</li> +<li>nobility</li> +<li>relief</li> +<li>death</li> +<li>raid</li> +<li>honesty</li> +<li>judgment</li> +<li>belief</li> +<li>occupation</li> +<li>justice</li> +<li>service</li> +<li>trail</li> +<li>feeling</li> +<li>choice</li> +<li>simplicity</li> +</ul> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a><b>SPECIAL USES OF +NOUNS.</b></p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Nouns change by use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>13.</b></span> By being used so as to vary +their usual meaning, nouns of one class may be made to approach +another class, or to go over to it entirely. Since words alter +their meaning so rapidly by a widening or narrowing of their +application, we shall find numerous examples of this shifting from +class to class; but most of them are in the following groups. For +further discussion see the remarks on articles (p. 119).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Proper names transferred to common +use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>14.</b></span> <b>Proper nouns are used as +common</b> in either of two ways:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself</i>: +that is, the name of the inventor may be applied to the thing +invented, as a <i>davy</i>, meaning the miner's lamp invented by +Sir Humphry Davy; the <i>guillotine</i>, from the name of Dr. +Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or the name of the country or city +from which an article is derived is used for the article: as +<i>china</i>, from China; <i>arras</i>, from a town in France; +<i>port</i> (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; <i>levant</i> and +<i>morocco</i> (leather).</p> +<p>Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we +can scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for +example, the word <i>port</i>, above. Others of similar character +are <i>calico</i>, from Calicut; <i>damask</i>, from Damascus; +<i>currants</i>, from Corinth; etc.</p> +<p>(2) <i>The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities +is transferred to any person or place possessing those +qualities</i>; thus,—<a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a +very strong man <i>a Hercules</i> or <i>a Samson</i>. Sodom was +famous for wickedness, and a similar place is called <i>a Sodom</i> +of sin.</p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>A Daniel</i> come to judgment!<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, <i>a +Locke</i>, <i>a Lavoisier</i>, <i>a Hutton</i>, <i>a Bentham</i>, +<i>a Fourier</i>, it imposes its classification on other men, and +lo! a new system.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Names for things in bulk altered for +separate portions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>15.</b></span> <b>Material nouns may be used +as class names.</b> Instead of considering the whole body of +material of which certain uses are made, one can speak of +particular uses or phases of the substance; as—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Of individual objects</i> made from metals or other +substances capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a +number of objects made of iron. The material <i>iron</i> embraces +the metal contained in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the +<i>irons</i> hot," referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put +in <i>irons</i>" meaning chains of iron. So also we may speak of +<i>a glass</i> to drink from or to look into; <i>a steel</i> to +whet a knife on; <i>a rubber</i> for erasing marks; and so on.</p> +<p>(2) <i>Of classes</i> or <i>kinds</i> of the same substance. +These are the same in material, but differ in strength, purity, +etc. Hence it shortens speech to make the nouns plural, and say +<i>teas</i>, <i>tobaccos</i>, <i>paints</i>, <i>oils</i>, +<i>candies</i>, <i>clays</i>, <i>coals</i>.</p> +<p>(3) <i>By poetical use</i>, of certain words necessarily +singular in idea, which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as +in the following:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The lone and level <i>sands</i> stretch +far away.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a> +<span class="i10">From all around—<br /></span> <span>Earth +and her <i>waters</i>, and the depths of air—<br /></span> +<span>Comes a still voice.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i10">Their airy ears<br /></span> +<span><i>The winds</i> have stationed on the mountain +peaks.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Percival.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Of detached portions</i> of matter used as class names; +as <i>stones</i>, <i>slates</i>, <i>papers</i>, <i>tins</i>, +<i>clouds</i>, <i>mists</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Personification of abstract +ideas.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>16.</b></span> <b>Abstract nouns are +frequently used as proper names</b> by being personified; that is, +the ideas are spoken of as residing in living beings. This is a +poetic usage, though not confined to verse.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Next <i>Anger</i> rushed; his eyes, on +fire,<br /></span> <span class="i2">In lightnings owned his secret +stings.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Collins.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Freedom's</i> fame finds wings on every wind.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><i>Death</i>, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, +smiled.<span class="smcap">—Hayne.</span></p> +<p><i>Traffic</i> has lain down to rest; and only <i>Vice</i> and +<i>Misery</i>, to prowl or to moan like night birds, are +abroad.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A halfway class of words. Class nouns in +use, abstract in meaning.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>17.</b></span> <b>Abstract nouns are made +half abstract</b> by being spoken of in the plural.</p> +<p>They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class +nouns. For example, examine this:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>arts</i> differ from the <i>sciences</i> in this, that +their power is founded not merely on <i>facts</i> which can be +communicated, but on <i>dispositions</i> which require to be +created.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>When it is said that <i>art</i> differs from <i>science</i>, +that the power of art is founded on <i>fact</i>, that +<i>disposition</i> is the thing to be created, the words italicized +are pure abstract nouns; but in case <i>an art</i> or <i>a +science</i>, or <i>the arts</i> and <i>sciences</i>, be spoken of, +the <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>abstract idea is partly +lost. The words preceded by the article <i>a</i>, or made plural, +are still names of abstract ideas, not material things; but they +widen the application to separate kinds of <i>art</i> or different +branches of <i>science</i>. They are neither class nouns nor pure +abstract nouns: they are more properly called <i>half +abstract</i>.</p> +<p>Test this in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Let us, if we must have great <i>actions</i>, make our own +so.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>And still, as each repeated <i>pleasure</i> tired, Succeeding +<i>sports</i> the mirthful band inspired.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But ah! those <i>pleasures</i>, +<i>loves</i>, and <i>joys</i><br /></span> <span class="i4">Which I +too keenly taste,<br /></span> <span>The Solitary can +despise.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Burns.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All these, however, were mere <i>terrors</i> of the +night.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>By ellipses, nouns used to +modify.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>18.</b></span> <b>Nouns used as descriptive +terms.</b> Sometimes a noun is attached to another noun to add to +its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a <i>family</i> +quarrel," "a <i>New York</i> bank," "the <i>State Bank Tax</i> +bill," "a <i>morning</i> walk."</p> +<p>It is evident that these approach very near to the function of +adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these +reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not +express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives +are.</p> +<p>They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another +word, but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical +expressions, meaning a walk <i>in the morning</i>, a bank <i>in New +York</i>, a bill <i>as to tax on the banks</i>, etc.</p> +<p><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>NOTE.—If the +descriptive word be a <i>material</i> noun, it may be regarded as +changed to an adjective. The term "<i>gold</i> pen" conveys the +same idea as "<i>golden</i> pen," which contains a pure +adjective.</p> +<p><b>WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The noun may borrow from any part of +speech, or from any expression.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>19.</b></span> Owing to the scarcity of +distinctive forms, and to the consequent flexibility of English +speech, words which are usually other parts of speech are often +used as nouns; and various word groups may take the place of nouns +by being used as nouns.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjectives, Conjunctions, +Adverbs.</i></div> +<p>(1) <i>Other parts of speech</i> used as nouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>The great</i>, <i>the wealthy</i>, fear thy blow.<span class= +"smcap">—Burns.</span></p> +<p>Every <i>why</i> hath a <i>wherefore</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>When I was young? Ah, woeful +<i>When</i>!<br /></span> <span>Ah! for the change 'twixt +<i>Now</i> and <i>Then</i>!<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Certain word groups</i> used like single +nouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Too swift</i> arrives as tardy as <i>too +slow</i>.<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Then comes the "<i>Why, sir</i>!" and the "<i>What then, +sir</i>?" and the "<i>No, sir</i>!" and the "<i>You don't see your +way through the question, sir</i>!"<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, +without reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of +books are treated as simple nouns.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>it</i>, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean +the sun or the cold.—Dr BLAIR</p> +<p>In this definition, is the word "<i>just</i>," or +"<i>legal</i>," finally to stand?<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>There was also a book of Defoe's called an "<i>Essay on +Projects</i>," and another of Dr. Mather's called "<i>Essays to do +Good</i>."—B. FRANKLIN.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_28" id= +"Page_28"></a><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>20.</b></span> It is to be remembered, +however, that the above cases are shiftings of the <i>use</i>, of +words rather than of their <i>meaning</i>. We seldom find instances +of complete conversion of one part of speech into another.</p> +<p>When, in a sentence above, the terms <i>the great</i>, <i>the +wealthy</i>, are used, they are not names only: we have in mind the +idea of persons and the quality of being <i>great</i> or +<i>wealthy</i>. The words are used in the sentence where nouns are +used, but have an adjectival meaning.</p> +<p>In the other sentences, <i>why</i> and <i>wherefore</i>, +<i>When</i>, <i>Now</i>, and <i>Then</i>, are spoken of as if pure +nouns; but still the reader considers this not a natural +application of them as name words, but as a figure of speech.</p> +<p>NOTE.—These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words +as become pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective +<i>good</i> has no claim on the noun <i>goods</i>; so, too, in +speaking of the <i>principal</i> of a school, or a state +<i>secret</i>, or a faithful <i>domestic</i>, or a <i>criminal</i>, +etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective +force.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which +class each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to +another.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast.</p> +<p>2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate.</p> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Stone walls do not a prison +make.<br /></span> <span class="i2">Nor iron bars a +cage.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named.</p> +<p>5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a +little courage.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Power laid his rod aside,<br /></span> +<span>And Ceremony doff'd her pride.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a> +<p>7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies.</p> +<p>8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A little weeping would ease my +heart;<br /></span> <span class="i2">But in their briny +bed<br /></span> <span>My tears must stop, for every +drop<br /></span> <span class="i2">Hinders needle and +thread.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves +something for hereafter.</p> +<p>11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is +humble that he knows no more.</p> +<p>12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast.</p> +<p>13.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And see, he cried, the +welcome,<br /></span> <span>Fair guests, that waits you +here.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain.</p> +<p>15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows.</p> +<p>16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving.</p> +<p>17.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Some mute inglorious Milton here may +rest,<br /></span> <span class="i2">Some Cromwell guiltless of his +country's blood.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands.</p> +<p>19.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A man he seems of cheerful +yesterdays<br /></span> <span class="i2">And confident +to-morrows.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone.</p> +<p>21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea.</p> +<p>22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy.</p> +<p>23.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But pleasures are like poppies +spread,<br /></span> <span>You seize the flower, its bloom is +shed.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day.</p> +</div> +<h3>INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS.</h3> +<h3>GENDER.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What gender means in English. It is +founded on sex.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>21.</b></span> In Latin, Greek, German, and +many other languages, some general rules are given that names of +male beings are usually masculine, and names of females are usually +feminine. There are exceptions even to this general statement, but +not so in <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>English. Male beings +are, in English grammar, always masculine; female, always +feminine.</p> +<p>When, however, <i>inanimate</i> things are spoken of, these +languages are totally unlike our own in determining the gender of +words. For instance: in Latin, <i>hortus</i> (garden) is masculine, +<i>mensa</i> (table) is feminine, <i>corpus</i> (body) is neuter; +in German, <i>das Messer</i> (knife) is neuter, <i>der Tisch</i> +(table) is masculine, <i>die Gabel</i> (fork) is feminine.</p> +<p>The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the +<i>meaning</i> of the word, in other languages gender follows the +<i>form</i>; that is, in English, gender depends on <i>sex</i>: if +a thing spoken of is of the male sex, the <i>name</i> of it is +masculine; if of the female sex, the <i>name</i> of it is feminine. +Hence:</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>22.</b></span> <b>Gender</b> is the mode of +distinguishing sex by words, or additions to words.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>23.</b></span> It is evident from this that +English can have but two genders,—<b>masculine</b> and +<b>feminine</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Gender nouns. Neuter nouns.</i></div> +<p>All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal +classes,—<b>gender nouns</b>, those distinguishing the sex of +the object; and <b>neuter nouns</b>, those which do not distinguish +sex, or names of things without life, and consequently without +sex.</p> +<p>Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; +neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Some words either gender or neuter nouns, +according to use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>24.</b></span> Some words may be either +gender nouns or neuter nouns, according to their use. Thus, the +word <i>child</i> is neuter in the sentence, "A little <i>child</i> +<a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>shall lead them," but is +masculine in the sentence from Wordsworth,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i10">I have seen<br /></span> +<span>A curious <i>child</i> ... applying to <i>his</i> +ear<br /></span> <span>The convolutions of a smooth-lipped +shell.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or +which arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in +these sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Before the barn door strutted the gallant <i>cock</i>, that +pattern of a husband, ... clapping <i>his</i> burnished +wings.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p><i>Gunpowder</i> ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a +suddenness that had nearly sent <i>his</i> rider sprawling over +<i>his</i> head—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of +as neuter, the sex being of no consequence.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not a <i>turkey</i> but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, +with <i>its</i> gizzard under <i>its</i> wing.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>He next stooped down to feel the <i>pig</i>, if there were any +signs of life in <i>it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>No "common gender.</i>"</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>25.</b></span> According to the definition, +there can be no such thing as "common gender:" words either +distinguish sex (or the sex is distinguished by the context) or +else they do not distinguish sex.</p> +<p>If such words as <i>parent</i>, <i>servant</i>, <i>teacher</i>, +<i>ruler</i>, <i>relative</i>, <i>cousin</i>, <i>domestic</i>, +etc., do not show the sex to which the persons belong, they are +neuter words.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>26.</b></span> Put in convenient form, the +division of words according to sex, or the lack of it, +is,—</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 7em;">(MASCULINE: Male +beings.</span><br /> +<b>Gender nouns</b> {<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 7em;">(FEMININE: Female +beings.</span><br /></p> +<p><b>Neuter nouns:</b> Names of inanimate things, or of living +beings whose sex cannot be determined.</p> +<p><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>27.</b></span> The inflections for gender belong, of +course, only to masculine and feminine nouns. <i>Forms</i> would be +a more accurate word than <i>inflections</i>, since inflection +applies only to the <i>case</i> of nouns.</p> +<p>There are three ways to distinguish the genders:—</p> +<p>(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word.</p> +<p>(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word.</p> +<p>(3) By using a different word for each gender.</p> +<h3>I. Gender shown by Prefixes.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Very few of class I.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>28.</b></span> Usually the gender words +<i>he</i> and <i>she</i> are prefixed to neuter words; as +<i>he-goat</i>—<i>she-goat</i>, <i>cock +sparrow</i>—<i>hen sparrow</i>, +<i>he-bear</i>—<i>she-bear</i>.</p> +<p>One feminine, <i>woman</i>, puts a prefix before the masculine +<i>man</i>. <i>Woman</i> is a short way of writing +<i>wifeman</i>.</p> +<h3>II. Gender shown by Suffixes.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>29.</b></span> By far the largest number of +gender words are those marked by suffixes. In this particular the +native endings have been largely supplanted by foreign +suffixes.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Native suffixes.</i></div> +<p>The <b>native suffixes</b> to indicate the feminine were +<i>-en</i> and <i>-ster</i>. These remain in <i>vixen</i> and +<i>spinster</i>, though both words have lost their original +meanings.</p> +<p>The word <i>vixen</i> was once used as the feminine of +<i>fox</i> by the Southern-English. For <i>fox</i> <a name= +"Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>they said <i>vox</i>; for <i>from</i> +they said <i>vram</i>; and for the older word <i>fat</i> they said +<i>vat</i>, as in <i>wine vat</i>. Hence <i>vixen</i> is for +<i>fyxen</i>, from the masculine <i>fox</i>.</p> +<p><i>Spinster</i> is a relic of a large class of words that +existed in Old and Middle English,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id= +"FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> but +have now lost their original force as feminines. The old masculine +answering to <i>spinster</i> was <i>spinner</i>; but +<i>spinster</i> has now no connection with it.</p> +<p>The <b>foreign suffixes</b> are of two kinds:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little +used.</i></div> +<p>(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as <i>czarina</i>, +<i>señorita</i>, <i>executrix</i>, <i>donna</i>. These are +attached to foreign words, and are never used for words recognized +as English.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Slightly changed and widely +used.</i></div> +<p>(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the +feminine, <i>-ess</i> (French <i>esse</i>, Low Latin <i>issa</i>), +the one most used. The corresponding masculine may have the ending +<i>-er</i> (<i>-or</i>), but in most cases it has not. Whenever we +adopt a new masculine word, the feminine is formed by adding this +termination <i>-ess</i>.</p> +<p>Sometimes the <i>-ess</i> has been added to a word already +feminine by the ending <i>-ster</i>; as <i>seam-str-ess</i>, +<i>song-str-ess</i>. The ending <i>-ster</i> had then lost its +force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the words +<i>huckster</i>, <i>gamester</i>, <i>trickster</i>, +<i>punster</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a><i>Ending +of masculine not changed.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>30.</b></span> The ending <i>-ess</i> is +added to many words without changing the ending of the masculine; +as,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>baron—baroness</li> +<li>count—countess</li> +<li>lion—lioness</li> +<li>Jew—Jewess</li> +<li>heir—heiress</li> +<li>host—hostess</li> +<li>priest—priestess</li> +<li>giant—giantess</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Masculine ending dropped.</i></div> +<p>The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine +<i>-ess</i> is added; as,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>abbot—abbess</li> +<li>negro—negress</li> +<li>murderer—murderess</li> +<li>sorcerer—sorceress</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Vowel dropped before adding</i> +-ess.</div> +<p>The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; +as in—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>actor—actress</li> +<li>master—mistress</li> +<li>benefactor—benefactress</li> +<li>emperor—empress</li> +<li>tiger—tigress</li> +<li>enchanter—enchantress</li> +</ul> +<p><i>Empress</i> has been cut down from <i>emperice</i> (twelfth +century) and <i>emperesse</i> (thirteenth century), from Latin +<i>imperatricem</i>.</p> +<p><i>Master</i> and <i>mistress</i> were in Middle English +<i>maister</i>—<i>maistresse</i>, from the Old French +<i>maistre</i>—<i>maistresse</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>31.</b></span> When the older <i>-en</i> and +<i>-ster</i> went out of use as the distinctive mark of the +feminine, the ending <i>-ess</i>, from the French <i>-esse</i>, +sprang into a popularity much greater than at present.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ending</i> -ess <i>less used now than +formerly.</i></div> +<p>Instead of saying <i>doctress</i>, <i>fosteress</i>, +<i>wagoness</i>, as was said in the sixteenth century, or +<i>servauntesse</i>, <i>teacheresse</i>, <i>neighboresse</i>, +<i>frendesse</i>, as in the fourteenth century, we have dispensed +with the ending <a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>in many cases, +and either use a prefix word or leave the masculine to do work for +the feminine also.</p> +<p>Thus, we say <i>doctor</i> (masculine and feminine) or <i>woman +doctor</i>, <i>teacher</i> or <i>lady teacher</i>, <i>neighbor</i> +(masculine and feminine), etc. We frequently use such words as +<i>author</i>, <i>editor</i>, <i>chairman</i>, to represent persons +of either sex.</p> +<p>NOTE.—There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we +speak of a female <i>as an active agent</i> merely, we use the +masculine termination, as, "George Eliot is the <i>author</i> of +'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak purposely <i>to denote a +distinction from a male</i>, we use the feminine, as, "George Eliot +is an eminent <i>authoress</i>."</p> +<h3>III. Gender shown by Different Words.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>32.</b></span> In some of these pairs, the +feminine and the masculine are entirely different words; others +have in their origin the same root. Some of them have an +interesting history, and will be noted below:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>bachelor—maid</li> +<li>boy—girl</li> +<li>brother—sister</li> +<li>drake—duck</li> +<li>earl—countess</li> +<li>father—mother</li> +<li>gander—goose</li> +<li>hart—roe</li> +<li>horse—mare</li> +<li>husband—wife</li> +<li>king—queen</li> +<li>lord—lady</li> +<li>wizard—witch</li> +<li>nephew—niece</li> +<li>ram—ewe</li> +<li>sir—madam</li> +<li>son—daughter</li> +<li>uncle—aunt</li> +<li>bull—cow</li> +<li>boar—sow</li> +</ul> +<p><b>Girl</b> originally meant a child of either sex, and was used +for male or female until about the fifteenth century.</p> +<p><b>Drake</b> is peculiar in that it is formed from a +corresponding feminine which is no longer used. It is not connected +historically with our word <i>duck</i>, <a name="Page_36" id= +"Page_36"></a>but is derived from <i>ened</i> (duck) and an +obsolete suffix <i>rake</i> (king). Three letters of <i>ened</i> +have fallen away, leaving our word <i>drake</i>.</p> +<p><b>Gander</b> and <b>goose</b> were originally from the same +root word. <i>Goose</i> has various cognate forms in the languages +akin to English (German <i>Gans</i>, Icelandic <i>gás</i>, +Danish <i>gaas</i>, etc.). The masculine was formed by adding +<i>-a</i>, the old sign of the masculine. This <i>gansa</i> was +modified into <i>gan-ra</i>, <i>gand-ra</i>, finally <i>gander</i>; +the <i>d</i> being inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many +other words.</p> +<p><b>Mare</b>, in Old English <i>mere</i>, had the masculine +<i>mearh</i> (horse), but this has long been obsolete.</p> +<p><b>Husband</b> and <b>wife</b> are not connected in origin. +<i>Husband</i> is a Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon +<i>hūsbonda</i> from Icelandic <i>hús-bóndi</i>, +probably meaning house dweller); <i>wife</i> was used in Old and +Middle English to mean woman in general.</p> +<p><b>King</b> and <b>queen</b> are said by some (Skeat, among +others) to be from the same root word, but the German etymologist +Kluge says they are not.</p> +<p><b>Lord</b> is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English +<i>hlāf-weard</i> (loaf keeper), written <i>loverd</i>, +<i>lhauerd</i>, or <i>lauerd</i> in Middle English. <b>Lady</b> is +from <i>hlœ̄̄fdige</i> +(<i>hlœ̄̄f</i> meaning loaf, and <i>dige</i> being +of uncertain origin and meaning).</p> +<p><b>Witch</b> is the Old English <i>wicce</i>, but <b>wizard</b> +is from the Old French <i>guiscart</i> (prudent), not immediately +connected with <i>witch</i>, though both are ultimately from the +same root.</p> +<p><b>Sir</b> is worn down from the Old French <i>sire</i> (Latin +<i>senior</i>). <b>Madam</b> is the French <i>ma dame</i>, from +Latin <i>mea domina</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a><i>Two +masculines from feminines.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>33.</b></span> Besides <i>gander</i> and +<i>drake</i>, there are two other masculine words that were formed +from the feminine:—</p> +<p><b>Bridegroom,</b> from Old English <i>brȳd-guma</i> +(bride's man). The <i>r</i> in <i>groom</i> has crept in from +confusion with the word <i>groom</i>.</p> +<p><b>Widower,</b> from the weakening of the ending <i>-a</i> in +Old English to <i>-e</i> in Middle English. The older forms, +<i>widuwa</i>—<i>widuwe</i>, became identical, and a new +masculine ending was therefore added to distinguish the masculine +from the feminine (compare Middle English +<i>widuer</i>—<i>widewe</i>).</p> +<h3>Personification.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>34.</b></span> Just as abstract ideas are +personified (Sec. 16), material objects may be spoken of like +gender nouns; for example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"Now, where the swift <i>Rhone</i> +cleaves <i>his</i> way."<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The <i>Sun</i> now rose upon the +right:<br /></span> <span>Out of the sea came +<i>he</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And haply the <i>Queen Moon</i> is on +<i>her</i> throne,<br /></span> <span>Clustered around by all her +starry Fays.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Keats.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Britannia</i> needs no +bulwarks,<br /></span> <span>No towers along the +steep;<br /></span> <span><i>Her</i> march is o'er the mountain +waves,<br /></span> <span><i>Her</i> home is on the +deep.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +</div> +<p>This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech +personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as +feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Effect of personification.</i></div> +<p>In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by +the form of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction +of gender is <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>confined to +difference of sex makes these departures more effective.</p> +<h3>NUMBER.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>35.</b></span> In nouns, number means the +mode of indicating whether we are speaking of one thing or of more +than one.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>36.</b></span> Our language has two +numbers,—<i>singular</i> and <i>plural</i>. The singular +number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more than +one.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>37.</b></span> There are three ways of +changing the singular form to the plural:—</p> +<p>(1) By adding <i>-en</i>.</p> +<p>(2) By changing the root vowel.</p> +<p>(3) By adding <i>-s</i> (or <i>-es</i>).</p> +<p>The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old +English, but in modern English <i>-s</i> or <i>-es</i> has come to +be the "standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we +make its plural by adding <i>-s</i> or <i>-es.</i></p> +<h3>I. Plurals formed by the Suffix <i>-en</i>.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The</i> -en <i>inflection.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>38.</b></span> This inflection remains only +in the word <b>oxen</b>, though it was quite common in Old and +Middle English; for instance, <i>eyen</i> (eyes), <i>treen</i> +(trees), <i>shoon</i> (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland +Scotch. <i>Hosen</i> is found in the King James version of the +Bible, and <i>housen</i> is still common in the provincial speech +in England.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>39.</b></span> But other words were +inflected afterwards, in imitation of the old words in <i>-en</i> +by making a double plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>-En +<i>inflection imitated by other words.</i></div> +<p><b>Brethren</b> has passed through three stages. The old plural +was <i>brothru</i>, then <i>brothre</i> or <i>brethre</i>, finally +<i>brethren</i>. The weakening of inflections led to this +addition.</p> +<p><b>Children</b> has passed through the same history, though the +intermediate form <i>childer</i> lasted till the seventeenth +century in literary English, and is still found in dialects; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see +your <i>childer</i> get up like, and get settled."<span class= +"smcap">—Quoted By De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Kine</b> is another double plural, but has now no +singular.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In spite of wandering <i>kine</i> and other adverse +circumstance.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>40.</b></span> Examples of this inflection +are,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>man—men</li> +<li>foot—feet</li> +<li>goose—geese</li> +<li>louse—lice</li> +<li>mouse—mice</li> +<li>tooth—teeth</li> +</ul> +<p>Some other words—as <i>book</i>, <i>turf</i>, +<i>wight</i>, <i>borough</i>—formerly had the same +inflection, but they now add the ending <i>-s</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>41.</b></span> Akin to this class are some +words, originally neuter, that have the singular and plural alike; +such as <i>deer</i>, <i>sheep</i>, <i>swine</i>, etc.</p> +<p>Other words following the same usage are, <i>pair</i>, +<i>brace</i>, <i>dozen</i>, after numerals (if not after numerals, +or if preceded by the prepositions <i>in</i>, <i>by</i>, etc, they +add <i>-s</i>): also <i>trout</i>, <i>salmon</i>; <i>head</i>, +<i>sail</i>; <i>cannon</i>; <i>heathen</i>, <i>folk</i>, +<i>people</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>The words <i>horse</i> and +<i>foot</i>, when they mean soldiery, retain the same form for +plural meaning; as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The <i>foot</i> are fourscore +thousand,<br /></span> <span>The <i>horse</i> are thousands +ten.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Lee marched over the mountain +wall,—<br /></span> <span>Over the mountains winding +down,<br /></span> <span><i>Horse</i> and <i>foot</i>, into +Frederick town.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Whittier.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>42.</b></span> Instead of <i>-s,</i> the +ending <i>-es</i> is added—</p> +<p>(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add <i>-s</i> and be +pronounced. Such are <i>box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz</i>, +etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>-Es added in certain cases</i>.</div> +<p>If the word ends in a <i>sound</i> which cannot add <i>-s</i>, a +new syllable is made; as, <i>niche—niches, race—races, +house—houses, prize—prizes, chaise—chaises</i>, +etc.</p> +<p><i>-Es</i> is also added to a few words ending in -o, though +this sound combines readily with <i>-s</i>, and does not make an +extra syllable: <i>cargo—cargoes, negro—negroes, +hero—heroes, volcano—volcanoes</i>, etc.</p> +<p>Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding +<i>-s</i>, and some <i>-es</i>.</p> +<p>(2) If a word ends in <i>-y</i> preceded by a consonant (the +<i>y</i> being then changed to <i>i</i>); e.g., <i>fancies, allies, +daisies, fairies</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Words in -ies.</i></div> +<p>Formerly, however, these words ended in <i>-ie</i>, and the real +ending is therefore <i>-s</i>. Notice these from Chaucer +(fourteenth century):—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a><i>Their +old form.</i></div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The <i>lilie</i> on hir stalke +grene.<br /></span> <span>Of <i>maladie</i> the which he hadde +endured.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Be well aware, quoth then that +<i>ladie</i> milde.<br /></span> <span>At last fair Hesperus in +highest <i>skie</i><br /></span> <span>Had spent his +lampe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>(3) In the case of some <b>words ending in -<i>f</i> or +-<i>fe</i></b>, which have the plural in <i>-ves</i>: +<i>calf</i>—<i>calves</i>, <i>half</i>—<i>halves</i>, +<i>knife</i>—<i>knives</i>, +<i>shelf</i>—<i>shelves</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>Special Lists.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>43.</b></span> <b>Material nouns</b> and +<b>abstract nouns</b> are always singular. When such words take a +plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over to other +classes (Secs. 15 and 17).</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>44.</b></span> <b>Proper nouns</b> are +regularly singular, but may be made plural when we wish to speak of +several persons or things bearing the same name; e.g., <i>the +Washingtons</i>, <i>the Americas</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>45.</b></span> Some words are <b>usually +singular</b>, though they are plural in form. Examples of these +are, <i>optics</i>, <i>economics</i>, <i>physics</i>, +<i>mathematics</i>, <i>politics</i>, and many branches of learning; +also <i>news</i>, <i>pains</i> (care), <i>molasses</i>, +<i>summons</i>, <i>means</i>: as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Politics</i>, in its widest extent, is both the science and +the art of government.—<span class="smcap"><i>Century +Dictionary.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>So live, that when thy <i>summons comes</i>, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It served simply as <i>a means</i> of sight.<span class= +"smcap">—Prof. Dana.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Means <i>plural</i>.</div> +<p>Two words, <b>means</b> and <b>politics</b>, <i>may be +plural</i> in their construction with verbs and +adjectives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by <i>those means</i> +which we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their +weakness in other respects.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>With great dexterity <i>these +means</i> were now applied.<span class= +"smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +<p>By <i>these means</i>, I say, riches will +accumulate.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Politics <i>plural</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Cultivating a feeling that <i>politics</i> are +tiresome.—<span class="smcap">G. W. Curtis</span>.</p> +<p>The <i>politics</i> in which he took the keenest interest +<i>were politics</i> scarcely deserving of the name.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Now I read all the <i>politics</i> that <i>come</i> +out.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>46.</b></span> Some words have <b>no +corresponding singular</b>.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>aborigines</li> +<li>amends</li> +<li>annals</li> +<li>assets</li> +<li>antipodes</li> +<li>scissors</li> +<li>thanks</li> +<li>spectacles</li> +<li>vespers</li> +<li>victuals</li> +<li>matins</li> +<li>nuptials</li> +<li>oats</li> +<li>obsequies</li> +<li>premises</li> +<li>bellows</li> +<li>billiards</li> +<li>dregs</li> +<li>gallows</li> +<li>tongs</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Occasionally singular words</i>.</div> +<p>Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction +of singular nouns. Notice the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of +<i>a scissors</i> can cut without the other.—<span class= +"smcap">J. L. Laughlin</span>.</p> +<p>A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been +<i>a tongs</i>.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>Besides this, it is furnished with <i>a forceps</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The air,—was it subdued when...the wind was trained only +to turn a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in <i>a +bellows</i>?<span class="smcap">—Prof. Dana.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In Early Modern English <i>thank</i> is found.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What <i>thank</i> have ye?—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Bible</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>47.</b></span> Three words were +<i>originally singular</i>, the present ending <i>-s</i> not being +really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed as +plural: <i>alms, eaves, riches</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>two plurals</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>48.</b></span> A few nouns have <b>two +plurals</b> differing in meaning.<a name="Page_43" id= +"Page_43"></a></p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>brother—brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or +church).</li> +<li>cloth—cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments).</li> +<li>die—dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for +gaming).</li> +<li>fish—fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or +kinds).</li> +<li>genius—geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).</li> +<li>index—indexes (to books), indices (signs in +algebra).</li> +<li>pea—peas (separately), pease (collectively).</li> +<li>penny—pennies (separately), pence (collectively).</li> +<li>shot—shot (collective balls), shots (number of times +fired).</li> +</ul> +<p>In speaking of coins, <i>twopence</i>, <i>sixpence</i>, etc., +may add <i>-s</i>, making a double plural, as two +<i>sixpences</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One plural, two meanings.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>49.</b></span> Other words have <b>one +plural form with two meanings</b>,—one corresponding to the +singular, the other unlike it.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>custom—customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue +duties.</li> +<li>letter—letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) +literature.</li> +<li>number—numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the +lines,—</li> +</ul> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I lisped in <i>numbers</i>, for the +numbers came.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Pope.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Tell me not, in mournful +<i>numbers</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></div> +</div> +<p><i>Numbers</i> also means issues, or copies, of a +periodical.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>pain—pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble,</li> +<li>part—parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties.</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two classes of compound words.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>50.</b></span> <b>Compound words</b> may be +divided into two classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute +one word.</i> These make the last part plural.<a name="Page_44" id= +"Page_44"></a></p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>courtyard</li> +<li>dormouse</li> +<li>Englishman</li> +<li>fellow-servant</li> +<li>fisherman</li> +<li>Frenchman</li> +<li>forget-me-not</li> +<li>goosequill</li> +<li>handful</li> +<li>mouthful</li> +<li>cupful</li> +<li>maidservant</li> +<li>pianoforte</li> +<li>stepson</li> +<li>spoonful</li> +<li>titmouse</li> +</ul> +<p>(2) <i>Those groups in which the first part is the principal +one, followed by a word or phrase making a modifier.</i> The chief +member adds <i>-s</i> in the plural.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>aid-de-camp</li> +<li>attorney at law</li> +<li>billet-doux</li> +<li>commander in chief</li> +<li>court-martial</li> +<li>cousin-german</li> +<li>father-in-law</li> +<li>knight-errant</li> +<li>hanger-on</li> +</ul> +<p>NOTE.—Some words ending in <i>-man</i> are not compounds +of the English word <i>man</i>, but add <i>-s</i>; such as +<i>talisman</i>, <i>firman</i>, <i>Brahman</i>, <i>German</i>, +<i>Norman</i>, <i>Mussulman</i>, <i>Ottoman</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>51.</b></span> Some groups pluralize both +parts of the group; as <i>man singer</i>, <i>manservant</i>, +<i>woman servant</i>, <i>woman singer</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two methods in use for names with +titles.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>52.</b></span> As to plurals of <b>names +with titles</b>, there is some disagreement among English writers. +The title may be plural, as <i>the Messrs. Allen</i>, <i>the Drs. +Brown</i>, <i>the Misses Rich</i>; or the name may be +pluralized.</p> +<p>The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the +latter is often found; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then <i>the three Miss +Spinneys</i>, then Silas Peckham.<span class="smcap">—Dr. +Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the <i>Earls +of Denbigh</i>, who drew their origin from the <i>Counts of +Hapsburgh</i>.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>The <i>Miss Flamboroughs</i> were reckoned the best dancers in +the parish.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The <i>Misses Nettengall's</i> young ladies come to the +Cathedral too.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>The <i>Messrs. Harper</i> have done the more than generous thing +by Mr. Du Maurier.—<span class="smcap"><i>The +Critic.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>53.</b></span> A number of <b>foreign words</b> have been +adopted into English without change of form. These are said to be +<i>domesticated</i>, and retain their foreign plurals.</p> +<p>Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their +power so as to conform to English words. They are then said to be +<i>naturalized</i>, or <i>Anglicized</i>, or <i>Englished</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Domesticated words.</i></div> +<p>The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of +them have a secondary English plural in <i>-s</i> or +<i>-es</i>.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:—</p> +<p>I. FROM THE LATIN.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>apparatus</li> +<li>appendix</li> +<li>axis</li> +<li>datum</li> +<li>erratum</li> +<li>focus</li> +<li>formula</li> +<li>genus</li> +<li>larva</li> +<li>medium</li> +<li>memorandum</li> +<li>nebula</li> +<li>radius</li> +<li>series</li> +<li>species</li> +<li>stratum</li> +<li>terminus</li> +<li>vertex</li> +</ul> +<p>II. FROM THE GREEK.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>analysis</li> +<li>antithesis</li> +<li>automaton</li> +<li>basis</li> +<li>crisis</li> +<li>ellipsis</li> +<li>hypothesis</li> +<li>parenthesis</li> +<li>phenomenon</li> +<li>thesis</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Anglicized words.</i></div> +<p>When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their +plurals in the regular way; as,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>bandits</li> +<li>cherubs</li> +<li>dogmas</li> +<li>encomiums</li> +<li>enigmas</li> +<li>focuses</li> +<li>formulas</li> +<li>geniuses</li> +<li>herbariums</li> +<li>indexes</li> +<li>seraphs</li> +<li>apexes</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a><i>Usage +varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>54.</b></span> <b>Letters, figures, +etc.,</b> form their plurals by adding <i>-s</i> or <i>'s</i>. +Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their meaning, +also add <i>-s</i> or <i>'s</i>; as, "His <i>9's</i> (or <i>9s</i>) +look like <i>7's</i> (or <i>7s</i>)," "Avoid using too many +<i>and's</i> (or <i>ands</i>)," "Change the <i>+'s</i> (or +<i>+s</i>) to <i>-'s</i> (or <i>-s</i>)."</p> +<h3>CASE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>55.</b></span> Case is an inflection or use +of a noun (or pronoun) to show its relation to other words in the +sentence.</p> +<p>In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word +<i>felon's</i> modifies <i>cell</i>, and expresses a relation akin +to possession; <i>cell</i> has another relation, helping to express +the idea of place with the word <i>in</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>56.</b></span> In the general wearing-away +of inflections, the number of case forms has been greatly +reduced.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Only two</i> case forms.</div> +<p>There are now only two case forms of English nouns,—one +for the <i>nominative</i> and <i>objective</i>, one for the +<i>possessive</i>: consequently the matter of inflection is a very +easy thing to handle in learning about cases.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Reasons for speaking of</i> three cases +<i>of nouns</i>.</div> +<p>But there are reasons why grammars treat of <i>three</i> cases +of nouns when there are only two forms:—</p> +<p>(1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or +not, must be understood for purposes of analysis.</p> +<p>(2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as +three case relations.</p> +<p><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>57.</b></span> Nouns, then, may be said to have three +cases,—the <b>nominative</b>, the <b>objective</b>, and the +<b>possessive</b>.</p> +<h3>I. Uses of the Nominative.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>58.</b></span> The nominative case is used +as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the subject of a verb</i>: "<i>Water</i> seeks its +level."</p> +<p>(2) <i>As a predicate noun</i>, completing a verb, and referring +to or explaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked +<i>tree</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>In apposition</i> with some other nominative word, adding +to the meaning of that word: "The reaper <i>Death</i> with his +sickle keen."</p> +<p>(4) <i>In direct address</i>: "<i>Lord Angus</i>, thou hast +lied!"</p> +<p>(5) <i>With a participle in an absolute or independent +phrase</i> (there is some discussion whether this is a true +nominative): "The <i>work</i> done, they returned to their +homes."</p> +<p>(6) <i>With an infinitive in exclamations</i>: "<i>David</i> to +die!"</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of +the nominative each one has.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive +grief, the enemy of the living.</p> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Excuses are clothes which, when asked +unawares,<br /></span> <span>Good Breeding to naked Necessity +spares.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>3. Human experience is the great test of truth.</p> +<p>4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers.</p> +<p>5. Three properties belong to wisdom,—nature, learning, +and experience; three things characterize man,—person, fate, +and merit.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy +wrath can send,<br /></span> <span>Save, save, oh save me from the +candid friend!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>7. Conscience, her first law +broken, wounded lies.</p> +<p>8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>O sleep! O gentle sleep!<br /></span> +<span>Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted +thee?<br /></span></div> +</div> +</div> +<h3>II. Uses of the Objective.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>59.</b></span> The objective case is used as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the direct object of a verb</i>, naming the person or +thing directly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare +that <i>tree</i>!"</p> +<p>(2) <i>As the indirect object of a verb</i>, naming the person +or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the +<i>devil</i> his due."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Adverbially</i>, defining the action of a verb by +denoting <i>time</i>, <i>measure</i>, <i>distance</i>, etc. (in the +older stages of the language, this took the regular accusative +inflection): "Full <i>fathom</i> five thy father lies;" "Cowards +die many <i>times</i> before their deaths."</p> +<p>(4) <i>As the second object</i>, completing the verb, and thus +becoming part of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time +makes the worst enemies <i>friends</i>;" "Thou makest the storm a +<i>calm</i>." In these sentences the real predicates are <i>makes +friends</i>, taking the object <i>enemies</i>, and being equivalent +to one verb, <i>reconciles</i>; and <i>makest a calm</i>, taking +the object <i>storm</i>, and meaning calmest. This is also called +the <i>predicate objective</i> or the <i>factitive object</i>.</p> +<p>(5) <i>As the object of a preposition</i>, the word toward which +the preposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He +must have a long spoon that would eat with the <i>devil</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>The preposition sometimes +takes the <i>possessive</i> case of a noun, as will be seen in Sec. +68.</p> +<p>(6) <i>In apposition with another objective</i>: "The opinions +of this junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a +<i>patriarch</i> of the village, and <i>landlord</i> of the +inn."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, +and tell which use each has:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills.</p> +<p>2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and +effect.</p> +<p>3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands of +precious gold.</p> +<p>4. But the flood came howling one day.</p> +<p>5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping.</p> +<p>6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the +pillory.</p> +<p>7. The noblest mind the best contentment has.</p> +<p>8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural +curiosity, the Great Stone Face.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And whirling plate, and forfeits +paid,<br /></span> <span>His winter task a pastime +made.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He broke the ice on the streamlet's +brink,<br /></span> <span>And gave the leper to eat and +drink.<br /></span></div> +</div> +</div> +<h3>III. Uses of the Possessive.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>60.</b></span> The possessive case always +modifies another word, expressed or understood. There are three +forms of possessive showing how a word is related in sense to the +modified word:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Appositional possessive</i>, as in these +expressions,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The blind old man of <i>Scio's</i> rocky isle.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>Beside a pumice isle in <i>Baiæ's</i> bay.<span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>In these sentences the +phrases are equivalent to <i>of the rocky isle [of] Scio</i>, and +<i>in the bay [of] Baiæ</i>, the possessive being really +equivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poetic +expression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose.</p> +<p>(2) <i>Objective possessive</i>, as shown in the +sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady +had been hanged for <i>Sir Thomas Overbury's</i> +murder.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in +writing <i>yesterday's</i> elegy.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +</div> +<p>In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a +verbal expression: as, <i>for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury</i>; +<i>an elegy to commemorate yesterday</i>. For this reason the use +of the possessive here is called objective.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Subjective possessive</i>, the most common of all; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The unwearied sun, from day to +day,<br /></span> <span>Does his Creator's power +display.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></div> +</div> +<p>If this were expanded into <i>the power which his Creator +possesses</i>, the word <i>Creator</i> would be the subject of the +verb: hence it is called a subjective possessive.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>61.</b></span> This last-named possessive +expresses a variety of relations. <i>Possession</i> in some sense +is the most common. The kind of relation may usually be found by +expanding the possessive into an equivalent phrase: for example, +"<i>Winter's</i> rude tempests are gathering now" (i.e., tempests +that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of <a name="Page_51" +id="Page_51"></a><i>several days'</i> growth" (i.e., growth which +several days had developed); "The <i>forest's</i> leaping panther +shall yield his spotted hide" (i.e., the panther which the forest +hides); "Whoso sheddeth <i>man's</i> blood" (blood that man +possesses).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How the possessive is formed.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>62.</b></span> As said before (Sec. 56), +there are only two case forms. One is the simple form of a word, +expressing the relations of nominative and objective; the other is +formed by adding <i>'s</i> to the simple form, making the +possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, only the +apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in <i>-s</i>; the +<i>'s</i> is added if the plural nominative does not end in +<i>-s</i>.</p> +<h3>Case Inflection.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Declension or inflection of +nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>63.</b></span> The full declension of nouns +is as follows:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left'>SINGULAR.</td> +<td align='left'>PLURAL.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. <i>Nom. and Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>lady</td> +<td align='left'>ladies</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>lady's</td> +<td align='left'>ladies'</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. <i>Nom. and Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>child</td> +<td align='left'>children</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>child's</td> +<td align='left'>children's</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A suggestion.</i></div> +<p>NOTE.—The difficulty that some students have in writing +the possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember +there are two steps to be taken:—</p> +<p>(1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53</p> +<p>(2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62.</p> +<h3>Special Remarks on the Possessive Case.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Origin of the possessive with its +apostrophe.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>64.</b></span> In Old English a large number +of words had in the genitive case singular the ending <i>-es</i>; +in Middle English still more words took this ending: for example, +in Chaucer, "From every <i>schires</i> <a name="Page_52" id= +"Page_52"></a>ende," "Full worthi was he in his <i>lordes</i> werre +[war]," "at his <i>beddes</i> syde," "<i>mannes</i> herte [heart]," +etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A false theory.</i></div> +<p>By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of +indicating the possessive had become general. The use of the +apostrophe, however, was not then regarded as standing for the +omitted vowel of the genitive (as <i>lord's</i> for <i>lordes</i>): +by a false theory the ending was thought to be a contraction of +<i>his</i>, as schoolboys sometimes write, "George Jones <i>his</i> +book."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the apostrophe.</i></div> +<p>Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a +great convenience, since otherwise words with a plural in <i>-s</i> +would have three forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now +distinct, but to the ear all may be alike, and the connection must +tell us what form is intended.</p> +<p>The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the +seventeenth century, from thinking that <i>s</i> was not a +possessive sign, and from a desire to have distinct forms.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes</i> s <i>is left out in the +possessive singular.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>65.</b></span> Occasionally the <i>s</i> is +dropped in the possessive singular if the word ends in a hissing +sound and another hissing sound follows, but the apostrophe remains +to mark the possessive; as, <i>for goodness' sake, Cervantes' +satirical work</i>.</p> +<p>In other cases the <i>s</i> is seldom omitted. Notice these +three examples from Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to +his <i>mistress's</i> apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the +<i>countess's</i> command;" "I saw what the <i>governess's</i> +views were of the matter."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_53" id= +"Page_53"></a><i>Possessive with compound expressions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>66.</b></span> In compound expressions, +containing words in apposition, a word with a phrase, etc., the +possessive sign is usually last, though instances are found with +both appositional words marked.</p> +<p>Compare the following examples of literary usage:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my +income, the items of my <i>son's</i>, <i>Captain Scrapegrace's</i>, +tailor's bill<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, +stands up for God's truth one man, the <i>poor miner Hans +Luther's</i> son.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>They invited me in the <i>emperor their master's</i> +name.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>I had naturally possessed myself of <i>Richardson the +painter's</i> thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise +Lost."—DE QUINCEY.</p> +<p>They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little +children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of <i>Og the king +of Bashan's</i> bedstead.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<p>More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into +an equivalent phrase; as, <i>in the name of the emperor their +master</i>, instead of <i>the emperor their master's name</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Possessive and no noun limited.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>67.</b></span> The possessive is sometimes +used without belonging to any noun in the sentence; some such word +as <i>house</i>, <i>store</i>, <i>church</i>, <i>dwelling</i>, +etc., being understood with it: for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Here at the <i>fruiterer's</i> the Madonna has a tabernacle of +fresh laurel leaves.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed +in the first sight of <i>St. Peter's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>I remember him in his cradle at <i>St. James's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Kate saw that; and she walked off from the +<i>don's</i>.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a><i>The +double possessive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>68.</b></span> A peculiar form, a double +possessive, has grown up and become a fixed idiom in modern +English.</p> +<p>In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old +English by the inflection <i>-es</i>, corresponding to <i>'s</i>. +The same relation was expressed in French by a phrase corresponding +to <i>of</i> and its object. Both of these are now used side by +side; sometimes they are used together, as one modifier, making a +double possessive. For this there are several reasons:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Its advantages: Euphony</i>.</div> +<p>(1) When a word is modified by <i>a</i>, <i>the</i>, +<i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>every</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>any</i>, +<i>each</i>, etc., and at the same time by a possessive noun, it is +distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, and +it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modified +noun with <i>of</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Emphasis.</i></div> +<p>(2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially +when used with <i>this</i> or <i>that</i>, for it brings out the +modified word in strong relief.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Clearness.</i></div> +<p>(3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, +"This introduction <i>of Atterbury's</i> has all these advantages" +(Dr. Blair), the statement clearly means only one thing,—the +introduction which Atterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase +<i>of Atterbury</i>, the sentence <i>might</i> be understood as +just explained, or it might mean this act of introducing Atterbury. +(See also Sec. 87.)</p> +<p>The following are some instances of double +possessives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This Hall <i>of Tinville's</i> is dark, ill-lighted except where +she stands.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>Those lectures <i>of +Lowell's</i> had a great influence with me, and I used to like +whatever they bade me like.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells</span></p> +<p>Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences <i>of +Cæsar's</i> can have come down to us.<span class= +"smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>Besides these famous books <i>of Scott's and Johnson's</i>, +there is a copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint +old French sword <i>of the Commodore's</i>.—<span class= +"smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each +is appositional, objective, or subjective.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into +equivalent phrases.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears.</p> +<p>2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe?</p> +<p>3. I must not see thee Osman's bride.</p> +<p>4.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>At lovers' perjuries,<br /></span> +<span>They say, Jove laughs.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son.</p> +<p>6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one.</p> +<p>7.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Now the bright morning star, day's +harbinger,<br /></span> <span class="i4">Comes dancing from the +East.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let +him seasonably water the one, and destroy the other.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">'Tis all men's office to speak +patience<br /></span> <span>To those that wring under the load of +sorrow.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A jest's prosperity lies in the +ear<br /></span> <span>Of him that hears it, never in the +tongue<br /></span> <span>Of him that makes it.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip.</p> +<p>12.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>There Shakespeare's self, with every +garland crowned,<br /></span> <span>Flew to those fairy climes his +fancy sheen.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>13.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">What supports me? dost thou +ask?<br /></span> <span>The conscience, Friend, to have lost them +[his eyes] overplied<br /></span> <span>In liberty's +defence.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>14.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Or where Campania's plain forsaken +lies,<br /></span> <span>A weary waste expanding to the +skies.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>15.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Nature herself, it seemed, would +raise<br /></span> <span>A minster to her Maker's +praise!<br /></span></div> +</div> +</div> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE NOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>69.</b></span> <b>Parsing</b> a word is +putting together all the facts about its form and its relations to +other words in the sentence.</p> +<p>In parsing, some idioms—the double possessive, for +example—do not come under regular grammatical rules, and are +to be spoken of merely as idioms.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>70.</b></span> Hence, in parsing a noun, we +state,—</p> +<p>(1) The class to which it belongs,—common, proper, +etc.</p> +<p>(2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which +gender.</p> +<p>(3) Whether singular or plural number.</p> +<p>(4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The correct method.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>71.</b></span> In parsing any word, the +following method should always be followed: tell the facts about +what the word <i>does</i>, then make the grammatical statements as +to its class, inflections, and relations.</p> +<h3>MODEL FOR PARSING.</h3> +<p>"What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief +by the throat every morning?"</p> +<p><i>Miller's</i> is a name applied to every individual of its +class, hence it is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, +hence it is a gender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, +therefore singu<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>lar number; it +expresses possession or ownership, and limits <i>neckcloth</i>, +therefore possessive case.</p> +<p><i>Neckcloth</i>, like <i>miller's</i>, is a common class noun; +it has no sex, therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore +singular number; subject of the verb <i>is</i> understood, and +therefore nominative case.</p> +<p><i>Thief</i> is a common class noun; the connection shows a male +is meant, therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of +the verb <i>takes</i>, hence objective case.</p> +<p><i>Throat</i> is neuter, of the same class and number as the +word <i>neckcloth</i>; it is the object of the preposition +<i>by</i>, hence it is objective case.</p> +<p>NOTE.—The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case +(see Sec. 68).</p> +<p><i>Morning</i> is like <i>throat</i> and <i>neckcloth</i> as to +class, gender, and number; as to case, it expresses time, has no +governing word, but is the adverbial objective.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate +virtue.</p> +<p>2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by +stealth, and to have it found out by accident.</p> +<p>3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a +fresh tapster.</p> +<p>4.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>That in the captain's but a choleric +word,<br /></span> <span>Which in the soldier is flat +blasphemy.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented ... +sleep!</p> +<p>6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, +Madame de Staël, were natives of Geneva.</p> +<p>7. He giveth his beloved sleep.<a name="Page_58" id= +"Page_58"></a></p> +<p>8. Time makes the worst enemies friends.</p> +<p>9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, +stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by a +drawbridge,—palace, castle, and prison, all in one.</p> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Wretches! ye loved her for her +wealth,<br /></span> <span>And hated her for her +pride.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman +shook his forefinger.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PRONOUNS" id="PRONOUNS"></a><b>PRONOUNS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The need of pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>72.</b></span> When we wish to speak of a +name several times in succession, it is clumsy and tiresome to +repeat the noun. For instance, instead of saying, "<i>The pupil</i> +will succeed in <i>the pupil's</i> efforts if <i>the pupil</i> is +ambitious," we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, "The +pupil will succeed in <i>his</i> efforts if <i>he</i> is +ambitious."</p> +<p>Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we +evidently cannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, +"<i>Whose</i> house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the +name till we learn the name.</p> +<p>This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were +<i>invented</i> because nouns were tiresome, since history shows +that pronouns are as old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns +must have sprung up naturally, from a necessity for short, +definite, and representative words.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p>A <b>pronoun</b> is a reference word, standing for a name, or +for a person or thing, or for a group of persons or things.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a><i>Classes +of pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>73.</b></span> Pronouns may be grouped in +five classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Personal pronouns</b>, which distinguish person by their +form (Sec. 76).</p> +<p>(2) <b>Interrogative pronouns</b>, which are used to ask +questions about persons or things.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Relative pronouns</b>, which relate or refer to a noun, +pronoun, or other word or expression, and at the same time connect +two statements They are also called <b>conjunctive</b>.</p> +<p>(4) <b>Adjective pronouns</b>, words, primarily adjectives, +which are classed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as +pronouns when they stand for nouns.</p> +<p>(5) <b>Indefinite pronouns</b>, which cannot be used as +adjectives, but stand for an indefinite number of persons or +things.</p> +<p>Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate +classes hereafter treated.</p> +<h3>PERSONAL PRONOUNS..</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Person in grammar.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>74.</b></span> Since pronouns stand for +persons as well as names, they must represent the person talking, +the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing talked +about.</p> +<p>This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of +<i>person</i>."</p> +<div class="sidenote">Person <i>of nouns</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>75.</b></span> This distinction was not +needed in discussing nouns, as nouns have the <i>same form</i>, +whether representing persons and things spoken to or spoken of. It +is evident that a noun could not represent the person speaking, +even if it had a special form.</p> +<p><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>From analogy to pronouns, +which have <i>forms</i> for person, nouns are sometimes spoken of +as first or second person by their <i>use</i>; that is, if they are +in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person, they +are said to have person by agreement.</p> +<p>But usually nouns represent something spoken of.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Three persons of pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>76.</b></span> Pronouns naturally are of +three persons:—</p> +<p>(1) First person, representing the person speaking.</p> +<p>(2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to.</p> +<p>(3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of.</p> +<h3>FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>77.</b></span> Personal pronouns are +inflected thus:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>FIRST PERSON.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>I</td> +<td align='center'>we</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>mine, my</td> +<td align='center'>our, ours</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>me</td> +<td align='center'>us</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>SECOND PERSON.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Singular.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center'><i>Old Form</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Common Form.</i></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>thou</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>thine, thy</td> +<td align='center'>your, yours</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>thee</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Plural.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>ye</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>your, yours</td> +<td align='center'>your, yours</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>THIRD PERSON.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Singular.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center'><i>Masc.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Fem.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Neut.</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>he</td> +<td align='center'>she</td> +<td align='center'>it</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>his</td> +<td align='center'>her, hers</td> +<td align='center'>its</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>him</td> +<td align='center'>her</td> +<td align='center'>it</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Plur. of all Three</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'>they</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'>their, theirs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'>them</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Remarks on These Forms.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>First and second persons without +gender.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>78.</b></span> It will be noticed that the +pronouns of the first and second persons have no forms to +distinguish gender. The speaker may be either male or female, or, +by personification, neuter; so also with the person or thing spoken +to.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Third person</i> singular <i>has +gender</i>.</div> +<p>But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for +each gender, and also for the neuter.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a><i>Old +forms</i>.</div> +<p>In Old English these three were formed from the same root; +namely, masculine <i>hē</i>, feminine <i>hēo</i>, neuter +<i>hit</i>.</p> +<p>The form <i>hit</i> (for <i>it</i>) is still heard in vulgar +English, and <i>hoo</i> (for <i>hēo</i>) in some dialects of +England.</p> +<p>The plurals were <i>hī</i>, <i>heora</i>, <i>heom</i>, in +Old English; the forms <i>they</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>, +perhaps being from the English demonstrative, though influenced by +the cognate Norse forms.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Second person always plural in ordinary +English.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>79.</b></span> <i>Thou</i>, <i>thee</i>, +etc., are old forms which are now out of use in ordinary speech. +The consequence is, that we have no singular pronoun of the second +person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural <i>you</i> +do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, even +when referring to a single object.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two uses of the old singulars.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>80.</b></span> There are, however, two +modern uses of <i>thou, thy</i>, etc.:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>In elevated style</i>, especially in poetry; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">With <i>thy</i> clear keen +joyance<br /></span> <span class="i6">Languor cannot +be;<br /></span> <span class="i4">Shadow of annoyance<br /></span> +<span class="i6">Never came near <i>thee</i>;<br /></span> +<span><i>Thou</i> lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad +satiety.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>In addressing the Deity</i>, as in prayers, etc.; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Oh, <i>thou</i> Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort +<i>thy</i> people of old, to <i>thy</i> care we commit the +helpless.<span class="smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The form</i> its.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>81.</b></span> It is worth while to consider +the possessive <i>its</i>. This is of comparatively recent growth. +The old form was <i>his</i> (from the nominative <i>hit</i>), and +<a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>this continued in use till the +sixteenth century. The transition from the old <i>his</i> to the +modern <i>its</i> is shown in these sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1 He anointed the altar and all <i>his</i> +vessels.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>his</i> refers to <i>altar</i>, which is a neuter noun. +The quotation represents the usage of the early sixteenth +century.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>2 It's had <i>it</i> head bit off by <i>it</i> young<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></p> +</div> +<p>Shakespeare uses <i>his</i>, <i>it</i>, and sometimes +<i>its</i>, as possessive of <i>it</i>.</p> +<p>In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) <i>its</i> occurs only +three times.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>3 See heaven <i>its</i> sparkling portals wide +display<span class="smcap">—Pope</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A relic of the olden time.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>82.</b></span> We have an interesting relic +in such sentences as this from Thackeray: "One of the ways to know +'<i>em</i> is to watch the scared looks of the ogres' wives and +children."</p> +<p>As shown above, the Old English objective was <i>hem</i> (or +<i>heom</i>), which was often sounded with the <i>h</i> silent, +just as we now say, "I saw '<i>im</i> yesterday" when the word +<i>him</i> is not emphatic. In spoken English, this form '<i>em</i> +has survived side by side with the literary <i>them</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the pronouns in +personification.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>83.</b></span> The pronouns <i>he</i> and +<i>she</i> are often used in poetry, and sometimes in ordinary +speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34).</p> +<h3>CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<h3>I The Nominative.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Nominative forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>84.</b></span> The nominative forms of +personal pronouns have the same uses as the nominative of nouns +<a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>(see Sec. 58). The case of most +of these pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of +nouns, for, besides a nominative <i>use</i>, they have a nominative +form. The words <i>I</i>, <i>thou</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, +<i>we</i>, <i>ye</i>, <i>they</i>, are very rarely anything but +nominative in literary English, though <i>ye</i> is occasionally +used as objective.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Additional nominatives in spoken +English.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>85.</b></span> In spoken English, however, +there are some others that are added to the list of nominatives: +they are, <i>me</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>us</i>, +<i>them</i>, when they occur in the <i>predicate position</i>. That +is, in such a sentence as, "I am sure it was <i>him</i>," the +literary language would require <i>he</i> after <i>was</i>; but +colloquial English regularly uses as predicate nominatives the +forms <i>me</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>them</i>, +though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet careful +speakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English.</p> +<h3>II. The Possessive.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not a separate class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>86.</b></span> The forms <i>my</i>, +<i>thy</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>our</i>, +<i>your</i>, <i>their</i>, are sometimes grouped separately as +POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, but it is better to speak of them as the +possessive case of personal pronouns, just as we speak of the +possessive case of nouns, and not make more classes.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Absolute <i>personal pronouns.</i></div> +<p>The forms <i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, +<i>theirs</i>, sometimes <i>his</i> and <i>its</i>, have a peculiar +use, standing apart from the words they modify instead of +immediately before them. From this use they are called ABSOLUTE +PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES.</p> +<p><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>As instances of the use of +absolute pronouns, note the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>'Twas <i>mine</i>, 'tis <i>his</i>, and has been slave to +thousands. <span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee +<i>mine</i>.<span class="smcap">—Cowper.</span></p> +<p>My arm better than <i>theirs</i> can ward it off.<span class= +"smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p><i>Thine</i> are the city and the people of Granada.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Old use of</i> mine <i>and</i> +thine.</div> +<p>Formerly <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> stood before their nouns, +if the nouns began with a vowel or <i>h</i> silent; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Shall I not take <i>mine</i> ease in <i>mine</i> +inn?<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>Give every man <i>thine</i> ear, but few thy +voice.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>If <i>thine</i> eye offend thee, pluck it +out.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>My greatest apprehension was for <i>mine</i> eyes.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This usage is still preserved in poetry.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Double and triple possessives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>87.</b></span> The forms <i>hers</i>, +<i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, are really double +possessives, since they add the possessive <i>s</i> to what is +already a regular possessive inflection.</p> +<p>Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up +of the preposition <i>of</i> with these double possessives, +<i>hers</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, and with +<i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>his</i>, sometimes <i>its</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Their uses.</i></div> +<p>Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>To prevent ambiguity</i>, as in the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy +friend <i>of theirs</i> with the astounding spirits of Thackeray +and Dickens.—<span class="smcap">J. T. Fields</span>.</p> +<p>No words <i>of ours</i> can describe the fury of the +conflict.—<span class="smcap">J. F. Cooper.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>To bring emphasis</i>, as in these +sentences:—<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This thing <i>of yours</i> that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is +a bit of rag-paper with ink.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>This ancient silver bowl <i>of mine</i>, it tells of good old +times. <span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>To express contempt, anger, or satire</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Do you know the charges that unhappy sister <i>of mine</i> and +her family have put me to already?" says the Master.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that +old Edinburgh house <i>of his</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>"Hold thy peace, Long Allen," said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee +that tongue <i>of thine</i> is not the shortest limb about +<i>thee</i>."<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>To make a noun less limited in application</i>; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A favorite liar and servant <i>of mine</i> was a man I once had +to drive a brougham.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting +upon a letter <i>of mine</i>.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>What would the last two sentences mean if the word <i>my</i> +were written instead of <i>of mine</i>, and preceded the nouns?</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>About the case of absolute +pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>88.</b></span> In their function, or use in +a sentence, the absolute possessive forms of the personal pronouns +are very much like adjectives used as nouns.</p> +<p>In such sentences as, "<i>The good</i> alone are great," "None +but <i>the brave</i> deserves <i>the fair</i>," the words +italicized have an adjective force and also a noun force, as shown +in Sec. 20.</p> +<p>So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: +<i>mine</i> stands for <i>my property</i>, <i>his</i> for <i>his +property</i>, in the first sentence; <i>mine</i> <a name="Page_66" +id="Page_66"></a>stands for <i>my praise</i> in the second. But the +first two have a nominative use, and <i>mine</i> in the second has +an objective use.</p> +<p>They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative or +objective in use, according as the modified word is in the +nominative or the objective.</p> +<h3>III. The Objective.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The old</i> dative <i>case.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>89.</b></span> In Old English there was one +case which survives in use, but not in form. In such a sentence as +this one from Thackeray, "Pick <i>me</i> out a whip-cord thong with +some dainty knots in it," the word <i>me</i> is evidently not the +direct object of the verb, but expresses <i>for whom</i>, <i>for +whose benefit</i>, the thing is done. In pronouns, this +<b>dative</b> use, as it is called, was marked by a separate +case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Now the objective.</i></div> +<p>In Modern English the same <i>use</i> is frequently seen, but +the <i>form</i> is the same as the objective. For this reason a +word thus used is called a <b>dative-objective</b>.</p> +<p>The following are examples of the dative-objective:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Give <i>me</i> neither poverty nor riches.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>Curse <i>me</i> this people.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Both joined in making <i>him</i> a present.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +<p>Is it not enough that you have <i>burnt me</i> down three houses +with your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb</span></p> +<p>I give <i>thee</i> this to wear at the collar.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Other uses of the objective.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>90.</b></span> Besides this use of the +objective, there are others:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the direct object of a verb.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They all handled <i>it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>(2) <i>As the object of a +preposition.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Time is behind <i>them</i> and before <i>them</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>In apposition.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, +<i>him</i> that so often and so gladly I talked with.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indefinite use of</i> you <i>and</i> +your.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>91.</b></span> The word <i>you</i>, and its +possessive case <i>yours</i> are sometimes used without reference +to a particular person spoken to. They approach the indefinite +pronoun in use.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Your</i> mere puny stripling, that winced at the least +flourish of the rod, was passed by with indulgence.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving</span></p> +<p>To empty here, <i>you</i> must condense there.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>The peasants take off their hats as <i>you</i> pass; <i>you</i> +sneeze, and they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows +<i>you</i> into her best chamber. <i>You</i> have oaten cakes baked +some months before.<span class="smcap">—Longfellow</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Uses of</i> it.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>92.</b></span> The pronoun <i>it</i> has a +number of uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>To refer to some single word preceding</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Ferdinand ordered the <i>army</i> to recommence <i>its</i> +march.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p><i>Society</i>, in this century, has not made <i>its</i> +progress, like Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity +in trifles.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>To refer to a preceding word group</i>; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet +<i>it</i> is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch +because they can do no other.<span class= +"smcap">—Bacon.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>it</i> refers back to the whole sentence before it, or +to the idea, "any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature."</p> +<p><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>(3) <i>As a grammatical +subject, to stand for the real, logical subject, which follows the +verb</i>; as in the sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>It</i> is easy in the world <i>to live after the world's +opinion</i>. <span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>It</i> is this <i>haziness</i> of intellectual vision which +is the malady of all classes of men by nature.<span class= +"smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +<p><i>It</i> is a pity <i>that he has so much learning, or that he +has not a great deal more</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which +need no other subject</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>It</i> is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their +barreled apples.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>And when I awoke, <i>it</i> rained.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>For when <i>it</i> dawned, they dropped their +arms.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>It</i> was late and after midnight.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a +preposition</i>; as in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Michael Paw, who <i>lorded it</i> over the fair +regions of ancient Pavonia.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>I made up my mind <i>to foot it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>A sturdy lad ... who in turn tries all the professions, who +<i>teams it, farms it, peddles it</i>, keeps a school.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life <i>of +it</i>."<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>There was nothing <i>for it</i> but to return.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>An editor has only to say "respectfully declined," and there is +an end <i>of it</i>.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Poor Christian was hard put <i>to it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Bunyan.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Reflexive use of the personal +pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>93.</b></span> The personal pronouns in the +objective case are often used <i>reflexively</i>; that is, +referring to the same person as the subject of the accompanying +verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "I found <i>me</i> a +good book," "He bought <i>him</i> a horse," <a name="Page_69" id= +"Page_69"></a>etc. This reflexive use of the +<i>dative</i>-objective is very common in spoken and in literary +English.</p> +<p>The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, +when they are <i>direct</i> objects. This occurs in poetry, but +seldom in prose; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Now I lay <i>me</i> down to sleep.<span class= +"smcap">—Anon.</span></p> +<p>I set <i>me</i> down and sigh.<span class= +"smcap">—Burns.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And millions in those solitudes, since +first<br /></span> <span>The flight of years began, have laid +<i>them</i> down<br /></span> <span>In their last +sleep.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Composed of the personal pronouns with</i> +-self, -selves.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>94.</b></span> The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or +COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are also called, are formed from the +personal pronouns by adding the word <i>self</i>, and its plural +<i>selves</i>.</p> +<p>They are <i>myself</i>, (<i>ourself</i>), <i>ourselves</i>, +<i>yourself</i>, (<i>thyself</i>), <i>yourselves</i>, +<i>himself</i>, <i>herself</i>, <i>itself</i>, +<i>themselves</i>.</p> +<p>Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of +the second person, used in poetry.</p> +<p><i>Ourself</i> is used to follow the word <i>we</i> when this +represents a single person, especially in the speech of rulers; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Methinks he seems no better than a +girl;<br /></span> <span>As girls were once, as we <i>ourself</i> +have been.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Origin of these reflexives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>95.</b></span> The question might arise, Why +are <i>himself</i> and <i>themselves</i> not <i>hisself</i> and +<i>theirselves</i>, as in vulgar English, after the analogy of +<i>myself</i>, <i>ourselves</i>, etc.?</p> +<p>The history of these words shows they are made up of the +dative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with <i>self</i>. +In Middle English the forms <a name="Page_70" id= +"Page_70"></a><i>meself</i>, <i>theself</i>, were changed into the +possessive <i>myself</i>, <i>thyself</i>, and the others were +formed by analogy with these. <i>Himself</i> and <i>themselves</i> +are the only ones retaining a distinct objective form.</p> +<p>In the forms <i>yourself</i> and <i>yourselves</i> we have the +possessive <i>your</i> marked as singular as well as plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the reflexives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>96.</b></span> There are three uses of +reflexive pronouns:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the +same person or thing as the subject</i>; as in these sentences from +Emerson:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He who offers <i>himself</i> a candidate for that covenant comes +up like an Olympian.</p> +<p>I should hate <i>myself</i> if then I made my other friends my +asylum.</p> +<p>We fill <i>ourselves</i> with ancient learning.</p> +<p>What do we know of nature or of <i>ourselves</i>?</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>To emphasize a noun or pronoun</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The great globe <i>itself</i> ... shall dissolve.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i8">Threats to all;<br /></span> +<span>To <i>you yourself</i>, to us, to every one.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—<i>Id.</i></span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Who would not sing for Lycidas! he +knew<br /></span> <span><i>Himself</i> to sing, and build the lofty +rhyme.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, +and the reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Only <i>itself</i> can inspire whom it will.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within +them till <i>myself</i> shall die.—<span class="smcap">E. B. +Browning</span>.</p> +<p>As if it were <i>thyself</i> that's here, I shrink with +pain.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>(3) <i>As the precise +equivalent of a personal pronoun</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Lord Altamont designed to take his son and +<i>myself</i>.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Victories that neither <i>myself</i> nor my cause always +deserved.<span class="smcap">—B. Franklin.</span></p> +<p>For what else have our forefathers and <i>ourselves</i> been +taxed?<span class="smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p>Years ago, Arcturus and <i>myself</i> met a gentleman from China +who knew the language.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises on Personal Pronouns.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, +some each of masculine, feminine, and neuter.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns +in the possessive, some of them being double possessives.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Tell which use each <i>it</i> has in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Come and trip it as we go,<br /></span> +<span>On the light fantastic toe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it.</p> +<p>3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.</p> +<p>4. Courage, father, fight it out.</p> +<p>5. And it grew wondrous cold.</p> +<p>6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom.</p> +<p>7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the +corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active.</p> +<p>8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the +word is one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it.</p> +<p>9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils.</p> +<p>10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the +soonest spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, +why it is that a touch of water utterly ruins it.<a name="Page_72" +id="Page_72"></a></p> +</div> +<h3>INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Three now in use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>97.</b></span> The interrogative pronouns +now in use are <i>who</i> (with the forms <i>whose</i> and +<i>whom</i>), <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One obsolete.</i></div> +<p>There is an old word, <i>whether</i>, used formerly to mean +which of two, but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Whether</i> of them twain did the will of his father?</p> +<p><i>Whether</i> is greater, the gold, or the temple?</p> +</div> +<p>From Steele (eighteenth century):—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It may be a question <i>whether</i> of these unfortunate persons +had the greater soul.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> who <i>and its forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>98.</b></span> The use of <i>who</i>, with +its possessive and objective, is seen in these +sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Who</i> is she in bloody coronation robes from +Rheims?<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Whose</i> was that gentle voice, that, +whispering sweet,<br /></span> <span>Promised, methought, long days +of bliss sincere?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bowles.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What doth she look on? <i>Whom</i> doth she behold?<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p>From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative +<i>who</i> refers to <i>persons only</i>; that it is not inflected +for gender or number, but for case alone, having three forms; it is +always third person, as it always asks <i>about</i> somebody.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>99.</b></span> Examples of the use of +interrogative <i>which</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Which</i> of these had speed enough to sweep between the +question and the answer, and divide the one from the +other?<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p><i>Which</i> of you, shall we say, doth love us +most?<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p><i>Which</i> of them [the sisters] shall I +take?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>As shown here, <i>which</i> +is not inflected for gender, number, or case; it refers to either +persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks out one or more +from a number of known persons or objects.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>100.</b></span> Sentences showing the use of +interrogative <i>what</i>:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Since I from Smaylho'me tower have +been,<br /></span> <span><i>What</i> did thy lady do?<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> is so rare as a day in June?<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><i>What</i> wouldst thou do, old man?<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<p>These show that <i>what</i> is not inflected for case; that it +is always singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, +etc., not to persons.</p> +<h3>DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>101.</b></span> The following are all the +interrogative forms:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left'>SING. AND PLUR.</td> +<td align='left'>SING. AND PLUR.</td> +<td align='left'>SINGULAR</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='left'>who?</td> +<td align='left'>which?</td> +<td align='left'>what?</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whose?</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whom?</td> +<td align='left'>which?</td> +<td align='left'>what?</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>In spoken English, <i>who</i> is used as objective instead of +<i>whom</i>; as, "<i>Who</i> did you see?" "<i>Who</i> did he speak +to?"</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>To tell the case of +interrogatives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>102.</b></span> The interrogative <i>who</i> +has a separate form for each case, consequently the case can be +told by the form of the word; but the case of <i>which</i> and +<i>what</i> must be determined exactly as in nouns,—by the +<i>use</i> of the words.</p> +<p>For instance, in Sec. 99, <i>which</i> is nominative in the +first sentence, since it is subject of the verb <i>had</i>; +nominative in the second also, subject of <a name="Page_74" id= +"Page_74"></a><i>doth love</i>; objective in the last, being the +direct object of the verb <i>shall take</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Further treatment of</i> who, which +<i>and</i> what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>103.</b></span> <i>Who</i>, <i>which</i>, +and <i>what</i> are also relative pronouns; <i>which</i> and +<i>what</i> are sometimes adjectives; <i>what</i> may be an adverb +in some expressions.</p> +<p>They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in +the treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127).</p> +<h3>RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Function of the relative +pronoun</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>104.</b></span> <b>Relative pronouns</b> +differ from both personal and interrogative pronouns in referring +to an antecedent, and also in having a conjunctive use. The +advantage in using them is to unite short statements into longer +sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. Thus we may say, "The +last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang of Border chivalry." +Or, it may be shortened into,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"The last of all the Bards was +he,<br /></span> <span><i>Who</i> sung of Border +chivalry."<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>In the latter sentence, <i>who</i> evidently refers to +<i>Bards</i>, which is called the <b>antecedent</b> of the +relative.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The antecedent.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>105.</b></span> The <b>antecedent</b> of a +pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other word or expression, for +which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes the pronoun.</p> +<p>Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, +as they take the place usually of a word already used; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The priest hath <i>his</i> fee who comes and shrives +us.<span class="smcap">—Lowell</span></p> +</div> +<p>In this, both <i>his</i> and <i>who</i> have the antecedent +<i>priest</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>The pronoun <i>which</i> may +have its antecedent following, and the antecedent may be a word or +a group of words, as will be shown in the remarks on <i>which</i> +below.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>106.</b></span> Relatives may be SIMPLE or +INDEFINITE.</p> +<p>When the word <i>relative</i> is used, a simple relative is +meant. Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple +relatives, will be discussed further on.</p> +<p>The SIMPLE RELATIVES are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>, +<i>what</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who <i>and its forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>107.</b></span> Examples of the relative +<i>who</i> and its forms:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Has a man gained anything <i>who</i> has received a hundred +favors and rendered none?<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>2. That man is little to be envied <i>whose</i> patriotism would +not gain force upon the plain of Marathon.<span class= +"smcap">—Dr Johnson.</span></p> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i6">For her enchanting +son,<br /></span> <span><i>Whom</i> universal nature did +lament.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +<p>4. The nurse came to us, <i>who</i> were sitting in an adjoining +apartment.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>5.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Ye mariners of England,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That guard our native seas;<br /></span> +<span><i>Whose</i> flag has braved, a thousand years,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The battle and the breeze!<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +</div> +<p>6. The men <i>whom</i> men respect, the women <i>whom</i> women +approve, are the men and women <i>who</i> bless their +species.<span class="smcap">—Parton</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which <i>and its forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>108.</b></span> Examples of the relative +<i>which</i> and its forms:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. They had not their own luster, but the look <i>which</i> is +not of the earth.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The embattled portal arch he +pass'd,<br /></span> <span><i>Whose</i> ponderous grate and massy +bar<br /></span> <span>Had oft roll'd back the tide of +war.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<p>3. Generally speaking, the dogs <i>which</i> stray around the +butcher<a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a> shops restrain their +appetites.<span class="smcap">—Cox.</span></p> +<p>4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in +<i>which</i> man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a +divine creation.—<span class="smcap">W. D. +Whitney</span>.</p> +5. +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else +this description will seem exaggerated, <i>which</i> it certainly +is not.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, +<i>which</i> prevented him from taking his usual ride.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>109.</b></span> Examples of the relative +<i>that</i>:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The man <i>that</i> hath no music in +himself,...<br /></span> <span>Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and +spoils.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></div> +</div> +<p>2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs <i>that</i> could be +had.<span class="smcap">—Lamb</span></p> +<p>3. Nature and books belong to the eyes <i>that</i> see +them.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything +<i>that</i> makes the land honorable.<span class="smcap">—H. +W. Beecher</span></p> +<p>5. Reader, <i>that</i> do not pretend to have leisure for very +much scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling +you.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>6. The Tree Igdrasil, <i>that</i> has its roots down in the +kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest +heaven!<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">What.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>110.</b></span> Examples of the use of the +relative <i>what</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be <i>what</i> it +chiefly trusts to, and <i>what</i> it takes most pains to render as +complete as possible.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>2. For <i>what</i> he sought below is passed above, Already done +is all that he would do.<span class="smcap">—Margaret +Fuller.</span></p> +<p>3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows +picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of <i>what</i> often +happens in that country.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>[<i>To the Teacher.</i>—If pupils work over the above +sentences carefully, and test every remark in the following +paragraphs, they will get a much better understanding of the +relatives.]<a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a></p> +<h3>REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><b>Who.</b></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>111.</b></span> By reading carefully the +sentences in Sec. 107, the following facts will be noticed about +the relative <i>who</i>:—</p> +<p>(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, +Sec. 107, <i>a man...who</i>; in the second, <i>that +man...whose</i>; in the third, <i>son</i>, <i>whom</i>; and so +on.</p> +<p>(2) It has three case forms,—<i>who</i>, <i>whose</i>, +<i>whom</i>.</p> +<p>(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the +antecedent. In sentence 4, <i>who</i> is first person; in 5, +<i>whose</i> is second person; the others are all third person. In +1, 2, and 3, the relatives are singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are +plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who <i>referring to animals</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>112.</b></span> Though in most cases +<i>who</i> refers to persons there are instances found where it +refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) that animals are +referred to by personal pronouns when their characteristics or +habits are such as to render them important or interesting to man. +Probably on the same principle the personal relative <i>who</i> is +used not infrequently in literature, referring to animals.</p> +<p>Witness the following examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], <i>who</i> class +With those who think the candles come too soon.<span class= +"smcap">—Leigh Hunt.</span></p> +<p>The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays +<i>who</i> used to build in our pines.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>The little gorilla, <i>whose</i> wound I had dressed, flung its +arms around my neck.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>A lake frequented by every fowl <i>whom</i> Nature has taught to +dip the wing in water.<span class="smcap">—Dr. +Johnson.</span><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a></p> +<p>While we had such plenty of domestic insects <i>who</i> +infinitely excelled the former, because they understood how to +weave as well as to spin.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>My horse, <i>who</i>, under his former rider had hunted the +buffalo, seemed as much excited as myself.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, +Scott, Cooper, Gibbon, and others.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>113.</b></span> The sentences in Sec. 108 +show that—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Which</i> refers to animals, things, or ideas, not +persons.</p> +<p>(2) It is not inflected for gender or number.</p> +<p>(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example +of its use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96).</p> +<p>(4) It has two case forms,—<i>which</i> for the nominative +and objective, <i>whose</i> for the possessive.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples of</i> whose, <i>possessive case +of</i> which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>114.</b></span> Grammarians sometimes object +to the statement that <i>whose</i> is the possessive of +<i>which</i>, saying that the phrase <i>of which</i> should always +be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the +possessive form <i>whose</i> is quite common in prose as well as in +poetry: for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious +elevations, on <i>whose</i> tops the sun kindled all the melodies +and harmonies of light.—<span class= +"smcap">Beecher.</span></p> +<p>Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without +pity, for a religion <i>whose</i> creed they do not understand, and +<i>whose</i> precepts they habitually disobey.—<span class= +"smcap">Macaulay</span></p> +<p>Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the +plain, <i>whose</i> grave was dug by the thunder of the +heavens.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span><a name="Page_79" +id="Page_79"></a></p> +<p>Many great and opulent cities <i>whose</i> population now +exceeds that of Virginia during the Revolution, and <i>whose</i> +names are spoken in the remotest corner of the civilized +world.<span class="smcap">—Mcmaster.</span></p> +<p>Through the heavy door <i>whose</i> bronze network closes the +place of his rest, let us enter the church itself.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>This moribund '61, <i>whose</i> career of life is just coming to +its terminus.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Which <i>and its antecedents</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>115.</b></span> The last two sentences in +Sec. 108 show that <i>which</i> may have other antecedents than +nouns and pronouns. In 5 (<i>a</i>) there is a participial +adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (<i>b</i>) there is a +complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs.</p> +<p>Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows <i>which</i>; +thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And, which is worse, <i>all you have +done</i><br /></span> <span><i>Hath been but for a wayward +son</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that +<i>men of business rarely know the meaning of the word +"rich</i>."<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,—first, +as being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or +predisposing advantages; secondly (which made her stare), <i>as +carrying with it no real or enviable distinction</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>116.</b></span> In the sentences of Sec. +109, we notice that—</p> +<p>(1) <i>That</i> refers to persons, animals, and things.</p> +<p>(2) It has only one case form, no possessive.</p> +<p>(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third +persons.</p> +<p>(4) It has the same form for singular and plural.</p> +<p><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>It sometimes borrows the +possessive <i>whose</i>, as in sentence 6, Sec. 109, but this is +not sanctioned as good usage.</p> +<div class="sidenote">What.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>117.</b></span> The sentences of Sec. 110 +show that—</p> +<p>(1) <i>What</i> always refers to things; is always neuter.</p> +<p>(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular.</p> +<p>(3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it +usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What I would, <i>that</i> do I not; but what I hate, <i>that</i> +do I.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible</i></span></p> +<p>What fates impose, <i>that</i> men must needs abide.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>What a man does, <i>that</i> he has.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Compare this:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Alas! is <i>it</i> not too true, what we said?<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>118.</b></span> These are the forms of the +simple relatives:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left' colspan='4'>SINGULAR AND PLURAL.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='left'>who</td> +<td align='left'>which</td> +<td align='left'>that</td> +<td align='left'>what</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whose</td> +<td align='left'>whose</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whom</td> +<td align='left'>which</td> +<td align='left'>that</td> +<td align='left'>what</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>119.</b></span> The <i>gender</i>, +<i>number</i>, and <i>person</i> of the relatives <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, and <i>that</i> must be determined by those of the +antecedent; the <i>case</i> depends upon the function of the +relative in its own clause.</p> +<p>For example, consider the following sentence:<a name="Page_81" +id="Page_81"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"He uttered truths <i>that</i> wrought upon and molded the lives +of those <i>who</i> heard him."</p> +</div> +<p>Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by +taking them out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: +(1) "He uttered truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded +the lives of the people;" (3) "These people heard him."</p> +<p><i>That</i> evidently refers to <i>truths</i>, consequently is +neuter, third person, plural number. <i>Who</i> plainly stands for +<i>those</i> or <i>the people</i>, either of which would be neuter, +third person, plural number. Here the relative agrees with its +antecedent.</p> +<p>We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in +<i>case</i>. <i>Truths</i> in sentence (2), above, is subject of +<i>wrought upon and molded</i>; in (1), it is object of +<i>uttered</i>. In (2), <i>people</i> is the object of the +preposition <i>of</i>; in (3), it is subject of the verb +<i>heard</i>. Now, <i>that</i> takes the case of <i>the truths</i> +in (2), not of <i>truths</i> which is expressed in the sentence: +consequently <i>that</i> is in the nominative case. In the same way +<i>who</i>, standing for <i>the people</i> understood, subject of +<i>heard</i>, is in the nominative case.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the +following sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose +blossoms are neither colored nor fragrant!</p> +<p>2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by +its fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona.</p> +<p>3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels +for filling an order.</p> +<p><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>4. Ill blows the wind that +profits nobody.</p> +<p>5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under +this avalanche of earthly impertinences.</p> +<p>6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, +which is, after all, the highest result of all education.</p> +<p>7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the +reading of novels as a waste of time.</p> +<p>8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be +cunninger than they.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Parsing</i> what, <i>the simple +relative</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>120.</b></span> The relative <i>what</i> is +handled differently, because it has usually no antecedent, but is +singular, neuter, third person. Its case is determined exactly as +that of other relatives. In the sentence, "What can't be cured must +be endured," the verb <i>must be endured</i> is the predicate of +something. What must be endured? Answer, <i>What can't be +cured</i>. The whole expression is its subject. The word +<i>what</i>, however, is subject of the verb <i>can't be cured</i>, +and hence is in the nominative case.</p> +<p>"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or +change." Here the subject of <i>is</i>, etc., is <i>what we call +nature</i>; but of this, <i>we</i> is the subject, and <i>what</i> +is the direct object of the verb <i>call</i>, so is in the +objective case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Another way.</i></div> +<p>Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the +following sentences, <i>what</i> is equivalent to <i>that +which</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It has been said that "common souls pay with <i>what</i> they +do, nobler souls with <i>that which</i> they are."<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>That which</i> is pleasant often appears under the name of +evil; and <i>what</i> is disagreeable to nature is called good and +virtuous.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Hence some take <i>what</i> as a double relative, and parse +<i>that</i> in the first clause, and <i>which</i> in the +sec<a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>ond clause; that is, "common +souls pay with <i>that</i> [singular, object of <i>with</i>] +<i>which</i> [singular, object of <i>do</i>] they do."</p> +<h3>INDEFINITE RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>121.</b></span> INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by +meaning and use, not as direct as the simple relatives.</p> +<p>They are <i>whoever</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, +<i>whatsoever</i>; less common are <i>whoso</i>, <i>whosoever</i>, +<i>whichsoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>. The simple relatives +<i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i> may also be used as +indefinite relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from +Emerson):—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. <i>Whoever</i> has flattered his friend successfully must at +once think himself a knave, and his friend a fool.</p> +<p>2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm +<i>whatever</i> he pleases.</p> +<p>3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or +stand on their head, or <i>what</i> else <i>soever</i>, in a new +and original way.</p> +<p>4. <i>Whoso</i> is heroic will always find crises to try his +edge.</p> +<p>5. Only itself can inspire <i>whom</i> it will.</p> +<p>6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. +Take <i>which</i> you please,—you cannot have both.</p> +<p>7. Do <i>what</i> we can, summer will have its flies.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning and use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>122.</b></span> The fitness of the term +<i>indefinite</i> here cannot be shown better than by examining the +following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There is something so overruling in <i>whatever</i> inspires +us with awe, in <i>all things which</i> belong ever so remotely to +terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>2. Death is there associated, not with <i>everything that</i> is +most endearing in social and domestic charities, but with +<i>whatever</i> is darkest in human nature and in human +destiny.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>It is clear that in 1, +<i>whatever</i> is equivalent to <i>all things which</i>, and in 2, +to <i>everything that</i>; no certain antecedent, no particular +thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites.</p> +<div class="sidenote">What <i>simple relative and</i> what +<i>indefinite relative</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>123.</b></span> The above helps us to +discriminate between <i>what</i> as a simple and <i>what</i> as an +indefinite relative.</p> +<p>As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative <i>what</i> is +equivalent to <i>that which</i> or the <i>thing +which</i>,—some particular thing; as shown by the last +sentence in Sec. 121, <i>what</i> means <i>anything that</i>, +<i>everything that</i> (or <i>everything which</i>). The difference +must be seen by the meaning of the sentence, as <i>what</i> hardly +ever has an antecedent.</p> +<p>The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that +<i>who</i> and <i>which</i> have no antecedent expressed, but mean +<i>any one whom</i>, <i>either one that</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">But <i>and</i> as.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>124.</b></span> Two words, <b>but</b> and +<b>as</b>, are used with the force of relative pronouns in some +expressions; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway <i>but</i> has +force in it: how else could it rot?<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>2. This, amongst such other troubles <i>as</i> most men meet +with in this life, has been my heaviest affliction.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Proof that they have the force of +relatives.</i></div> +<p>Compare with these the two following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>3. There is nothing <i>but</i> is related to us, nothing +<i>that</i> does <i>not</i> interest us.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such <i>as</i> +Hester never ceased to use, but <i>which</i> only wealth could have +purchased.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>Sentence 3 shows that +<i>but</i> is equivalent to the relative <i>that</i> with +<i>not</i>, and that <i>as</i> after <i>such</i> is equivalent to +<i>which</i>.</p> +<p>For <i>as</i> after <i>same</i> see "Syntax" (Sec. 417).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Former use of</i> as.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>125.</b></span> In early modern English, +<i>as</i> was used just as we use <i>that</i> or <i>which</i>, not +following the word <i>such</i>; thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I have not from your eyes that +gentleness<br /></span> <span>And show of love <i>as</i> I was wont +to have.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></div> +</div> +<p>This still survives in vulgar English in England; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, <i>as</i> charmed your warts for +you when you was a boy? "<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley</span></p> +</div> +<p>This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Other substitutes.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>126.</b></span> Instead of the phrases <i>in +which</i>, <i>upon which</i>, <i>by which</i>, etc., the +conjunctions <i>wherein</i>, <i>whereupon</i>, <i>whereby</i>, +etc., are used.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A man is the facade of a temple <i>wherein</i> all wisdom and +good abide.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>The sovereignty of this nature <i>whereof</i> we +speak.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The dear home faces +<i>whereupon</i><br /></span> <span>That fitful firelight paled and +shone.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Whittier.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Special caution needed here.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>127.</b></span> It is sometimes hard for the +student to tell a relative from an interrogative pronoun. In the +regular direct question the interrogative is easily recognized; so +is the relative when an antecedent is close by. But compare the +following in pairs:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Like a gentleman of leisure <i>who</i> is strolling +out for pleasure.<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a></p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Well we knew <i>who</i> stood behind, though the +earthwork hid them.</p> +</div> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) But <i>what</i> you gain in time is perhaps lost in +power.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) But <i>what</i> had become of them they knew not.</p> +</div> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) These are the lines <i>which</i> heaven-commanded +Toil shows on his deed.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge +<i>which</i> were the best of all these three.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>In sentences 1 (<i>a</i>), 2 (<i>a</i>) and 3 (<i>a</i>) the +regular relative use is seen; <i>who</i> having the antecedent +<i>gentleman</i>, <i>what</i> having the double use of pronoun and +antecedent, <i>which</i> having the antecedent <i>lines</i>.</p> +<p>But in 1 (<i>b</i>), 2 (<i>b</i>), and 3 (<i>b</i>), there are +two points of difference from the others considered: first, no +antecedent is expressed, which would indicate that they are not +relatives; second, a question is disguised in each sentence, +although each sentence as a whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 +(<i>b</i>), if expanded, would be, "Who stood behind? We knew," +etc., showing that <i>who</i> is plainly interrogative. So in 2 +(<i>b</i>), <i>what</i> is interrogative, the full expression +being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." Likewise with +<i>which</i> in 3 (<i>b</i>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How to decide.</i></div> +<p>In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an +antecedent of <i>who</i> or <i>which</i>, and whether <i>what</i> = +<i>that</i> + <i>which</i> (if so, it is a simple relative; if not, +it is either an indefinite relative or an interrogative pronoun); +(2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect question (if it does, +it is an interrogative; if not, it is an indefinite relative).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Another caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>128.</b></span> On the other hand, care must +be taken to see whether the pronoun is the word that really +<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a><i>asks the question</i> in an +interrogative sentence. Examine the following:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Sweet rose! whence is this +hue<br /></span> <span><i>Which</i> doth all hues +excel?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Drummond</span></div> +</div> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And then what wonders shall you +do<br /></span> <span><i>Whose</i> dawning beauty warms us +so?<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Walker</span></div> +</div> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of <i>what</i> +has lately been in a neighboring land?<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<p>These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the +pronoun ask the question. In the first, <i>whence</i> is the +interrogative word, <i>which</i> has the antecedent <i>hue</i>. In +the second, <i>whose</i> has the antecedent <i>you</i>, and asks no +question. In the third, the question is asked by the verb.</p> +<h3>OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Relative omitted when</i> object.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>129.</b></span> The relative is frequently +omitted in spoken and in literary English when it would be the +object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly a writer can be found who +does not leave out relatives in this way when they can be readily +supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>These are the sounds we feed upon.<span class= +"smcap">—Fletcher.</span></p> +<p>I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader +with all the curiosities I observed.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.</p> +<p>Put in the relatives <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, or <i>that</i> +where they are omitted from the following sentences, and see +whether the sentences are any smoother or clearer:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>2. They will go to Sunday +schools through storms their brothers are afraid of.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>3. He opened the volume he first took from the +shelf.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of +to his poor neighbor.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. +William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.<span class= +"smcap">—Forster</span></p> +<p>6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court +Calendars, but the life of man in England.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical +by instinct and habitude.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Relative omitted when</i> subject.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>130.</b></span> We often hear in spoken +English expressions like these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There isn't one here ‸ knows how to play ball.</p> +<p>There was such a crowd ‸ went, the house was full.</p> +</div> +<p>Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also +in literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, +and comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The silent truth that it was she was superior.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have a mind presages me such thrift.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>There is a nun in Dryburgh +bower,<br /></span> <span class="i2">Ne'er looks upon the +sun.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And you may gather garlands +there<br /></span> <span class="i2">Would grace a summer +queen.<br /></span> <span><i>—Id.</i><br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.<span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises on the Relative Pronoun.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the +relatives <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>, and +<i>what</i>.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences having five indefinite +relatives.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions +introduced by pronouns.</p> +<p><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>(<i>d</i>) Tell whether the +pronouns in the following are interrogatives, simple relatives, or +indefinite relatives:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to +attend the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding.</p> +<p>2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to +see what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on +what had happened.</p> +<p>3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word?</p> +<p>4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of +men; who were to be rulers over whom.</p> +<p>5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him.</p> +<p>6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother.</p> +</div> +<h3>ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Function of adjective pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>131.</b></span> Most of the words how to be +considered are capable of a double use,—they may be pure +modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for nouns. In the first use +they are adjectives; in the second they retain an adjective +<i>meaning</i>, but have lost their adjective <i>use</i>. Primarily +they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are +properly classed as adjective pronouns.</p> +<p>The following are some examples of these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Some</i> say that the place was bewitched.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i2">That mysterious realm where +<i>each</i> shall take<br /></span> <span>His chamber in the silent +halls of death.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>How happy is he born or +taught<br /></span> <span class="i2">That serveth not +<i>another's</i> will.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wotton</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> is more than any martyr can stand.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjectives, not pronouns.</i></div> +<p>Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we +have seen in such expressions as, "<i>The dead</i> are there;" that +is, a word, in order to be an adjective pronoun, <i>must not modify +any <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>word, expressed or +understood</i>. It must come under the requirement of pronouns, and +<i>stand for a noun</i>. For instance, in the following +sentences—"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on +<i>each</i> is written, in letters of gold, '<i>Truth</i>;'" "You +needs must play such pranks as <i>these</i>;" "They will always +have one bank to sun themselves upon, and <i>another</i> to get +cool under;" "Where two men ride on a horse, <i>one</i> must ride +behind"—the words italicized modify nouns understood, +necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each <i>cube</i>;" in +the second, "these <i>pranks</i>," in the others, "another +<i>bank</i>," "one <i>man</i>."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Classes of adjective pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>132.</b></span> Adjective pronouns are +divided into three classes:—</p> +<p>(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, +<i>the former</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as <i>each</i>, <i>either</i>, +<i>neither</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as <i>some</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>few</i>, +<i>many</i>, <i>none</i>, <i>all</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>133.</b></span> A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is +one that definitely points out what persons or things are alluded +to in the sentence.</p> +<p>The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in +another sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, +"Be <i>that</i> as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a +sentence, or an argument in a paragraph; but the demonstrative +clearly points to that thing.</p> +<p><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>The following are examples of +demonstratives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I did not say <i>this</i> in so many words.</p> +<p>All <i>these</i> he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not +see.</p> +<p>Beyond <i>that</i> I seek not to penetrate the veil.</p> +<p>How much we forgive in <i>those</i> who yield us the rare +spectacle of heroic manners!</p> +<p>The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when +<i>the latter</i> was the King of Spain.</p> +<p><i>Such</i> are a few isolated instances, accidentally +preserved.</p> +<p>Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow +wickedness, reap <i>the same</i>.</p> +<p>They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its +sacred duties. They have not shunned <i>the one</i>, and they have +well performed <i>the other</i>.</p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—It will be noticed in the first four sentences that +<i>this</i> and <i>that</i> are inflected for number.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective +pronouns.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) In which of the following is <i>these</i> a +pronoun?—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much +as possible from the books, and to hand <i>these</i> over to his +successor as little worn as he could.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>2. They had fewer books, but <i>these</i> were of the +best.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying +in wait for <i>these</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>4. Souls such as <i>these</i> treat you as gods +would.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>5. <i>These</i> are the first mountains that broke the uniform +level of the earth's surface.<span class= +"smcap">—Agassiz</span></p> +</div> +<h3>DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>134.</b></span> The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS +are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered +singly.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_92" id= +"Page_92"></a><i>Simple.</i></div> +<p>Some of these are <i>simple</i> pronouns; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to +<i>each</i>.</p> +<p>As two yoke devils sworn to <i>other's</i> purpose.</p> +<p>Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music +which <i>neither</i> could have claimed as all his own.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Compound</i>.</div> +<p>Two are compound pronouns,—<i>each other</i>, <i>one +another</i>. They may be separated into two adjective pronouns; +as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We violated our reverence <i>each</i> for <i>the other's</i> +soul. <span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their +thoughts.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Men take each other's measure when they react.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.—Find sentences containing three +distributive pronouns.</p> +<h3>NUMERAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>135.</b></span> The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are +those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or +things.</p> +<p>The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Trusting too much to <i>others'</i> care is the ruin of +<i>many</i>.</p> +<p>'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to +the end of <i>all</i>.</p> +<p><i>Another</i> opposes him with sound argument.</p> +<p>It is as if <i>one</i> should be so enthusiastic a lover of +poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton.</p> +<p>There were plenty <i>more</i> for him to fall in company with, +as <i>some</i> of the rangers had gone astray.<a name="Page_93" id= +"Page_93"></a></p> +<p>The Soldan, imbued, as <i>most</i> were, with the superstitions +of his time, paused over a horoscope.</p> +<p>If those [taxes] were the only <i>ones</i> we had to pay, we +might the more easily discharge them.</p> +<p><i>Much</i> might be said on both sides.</p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>If hand of mine <i>another's</i> task has +lightened.<br /></span> <span>It felt the guidance that it does not +claim.<br /></span> <span>So perish <i>all</i> whose breast ne'er +learned to glow<br /></span> <span>For <i>others</i>' good, or melt +for <i>others</i>' woe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>None</i> shall rule but the humble.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Some inflected.</i></div> +<p>It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and +number; such as <i>one other</i>, <i>another</i>.</p> +<p>The word <i>one</i> has a reflexive form; for +example,—</p> +<div class="sidenote">One <i>reflexive</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The best way to punish <i>oneself</i> for doing ill seems to me +to go and do good.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The lines sound so prettily to <i>one's self</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Exercise.—Find sentences containing ten numeral +pronouns.</p> +<h3>INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>136.</b></span> <b>Indefinite pronouns</b> +are words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of +persons or things; but, unlike adjective pronouns, they are never +used as adjectives.</p> +<p>Most of them are compounds of two or more words:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List.</i></div> +<p><i>Somebody</i>, <i>some one</i>, <i>something</i>; +<i>anybody</i>, <i>any one</i> (or <i>anyone</i>), <i>anything</i>; +<i>everybody</i>, <i>every one</i> (or <i>everyone</i>), +<i>everything</i>; <i>nobody</i>, <i>no one</i>, <i>nothing</i>; +<i>somebody else</i>, <i>anyone else</i>, <i>everybody else</i>, +<i>every one else</i>, etc.; also <i>aught</i>, <i>naught</i>; and +<i>somewhat</i>, <i>what</i>, and <i>they</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>The following sentences +contain indefinite pronouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit <i>everybody's</i> +fancy.</p> +<p><i>Every one</i> knows how laborious the usual method is of +attaining to arts and sciences.</p> +<p><i>Nothing</i> sheds more honor on our early history than the +impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.</p> +<p>Let us also perform <i>something</i> worthy to be +remembered.</p> +<p>William of Orange was more than <i>anything else</i> a religious +man.</p> +<p>Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of <i>everything</i> +that <i>nobody else</i> would buy.</p> +<p>These other souls draw me as <i>nothing else</i> can.</p> +<p>The genius that created it now creates <i>somewhat else</i>.</p> +<p><i>Every one else</i> stood still at his post.</p> +<p>That is perfectly true: I did not want <i>anybody else's</i> +authority to write as I did.</p> +</div> +<p><i>They</i> indefinite means people in general; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>At lovers' perjuries, <i>they</i> say, Jove laughs.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>What</i> indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you +<i>what</i>." It means <i>something</i>, and was indefinite in Old +English.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Now, in building of chaises, I tell you +<i>what</i>,<br /></span> <span>There is always somewhere a weakest +spot.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with six indefinite +pronouns.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>137.</b></span> Some indefinite pronouns are +inflected for case, as shown in the words <i>everybody's</i>, +<i>anybody else's</i>, etc.</p> +<p>See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the +forms with <i>else</i>.<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a></p> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A reminder.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>138.</b></span> In <b>parsing</b> pronouns +the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of +parsing words according to <i>form</i> instead of according to +function or use.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse in full the pronouns in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which +they were translated.</p> +<p>2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us +of herself.</p> +<p>3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he +pretends to, in his negotiations.</p> +<p>4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered +to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could +be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.</p> +<p>5. All was now ready for action.</p> +<p>6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself +again.</p> +<p>7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.</p> +<p>8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the +servant of his government, and of no other.</p> +<p>9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an +extent.</p> +<p>10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful +evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,—a +feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was +not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.</p> +<p>11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.</p> +<p>12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was +connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, +indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.</p> +<p><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>13. Whatever power the law +gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost.</p> +<p>14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my +fathers!</p> +<p>15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief +in this island of ours.</p> +<p>16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.</p> +<p>17. For this did God send her a great reward.</p> +<p>18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared +little about.</p> +<p>19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place +which he fills in his own vernacular literature?</p> +<p>20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.</p> +<p>21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last +night like a corpse?</p> +<p>22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence +I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the +semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity +reiterated in a foreign form.</p> +<p>23.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>What hand but would a garland +cull<br /></span> <span>For thee who art so +beautiful?<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>24.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And I had done a hellish +thing,<br /></span> <span>And it would work 'em +woe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension +is worth doing, that let him communicate.</p> +<p>26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled +dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, +whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.</p> +<p>27.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And will your mother pity +me,<br /></span> <span>Who am a maiden most +forlorn?<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>28.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>They know not I knew thee,<br /></span> +<span>Who knew thee too well.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>29.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I did remind thee of our own dear +Lake,<br /></span> <span>By the old Hall which may be mine no +more.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>30.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He sate him down, and seized a pen, and +traced<br /></span> <span>Words which I could not guess +of.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>31.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure +brow:<br /></span> <span>Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou +rollest now.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>32.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Wild Spirit which art moving +everywhere;<br /></span> <span>Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, +hear!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.</p> +<p><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>34. No man can learn what he +has not preparation for learning.</p> +<p>35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?</p> +<p>36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.</p> +<p>37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.</p> +<p>38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.</p> +<p>39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.</p> +<p>40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of +their constituents what they should say.</p> +<p>41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a +certain sleep.</p> +<p>42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to +those who live to the present.</p> +<p>43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift +comes from such as do not know my spirit.</p> +<p>44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad +step towards my liberation.</p> +<p>45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of +the two—which is the master.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADJECTIVES" id= +"ADJECTIVES"></a><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Office of Adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>139.</b></span> Nouns are seldom used as +names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to +their meaning. For example, if we wish to speak of a friend's +house, we cannot guide one to it by merely calling it <i>a +house</i>. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, +position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we +need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other +will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.</p> +<p>As to the kind of words used, we may begin <a name="Page_98" id= +"Page_98"></a>with the common adjectives telling the +<i>characteristics</i> of an object. If a chemist discovers a new +substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its +qualities: he will say it is <i>solid</i>, or <i>liquid</i>, or +<i>gaseous</i>; <i>heavy</i> or <i>light</i>; <i>brittle</i> or +<i>tough</i>; <i>white</i> or <i>red</i>; etc.</p> +<p>Again, in <i>pointing out</i> an object, adjectives are used; +such as in the expressions "<i>this</i> man," "<i>that</i> house," +"<i>yonder</i> hill," etc.</p> +<p>Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the <i>number</i> is +limited by adjectives; as, "<i>one</i> hat," "<i>some</i> cities," +"<i>a hundred</i> men."</p> +<p>The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the +application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at +the same time add to the meaning of the noun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Substantives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>140.</b></span> Nouns are not, however, the +only words limited by adjectives: pronouns and other words and +expressions also have adjectives joined to them. Any word or word +group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by +adjectives.</p> +<p>To make this clear, notice the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Pronoun.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If <i>he</i> be <i>thankful</i> for small benefits, it shows +that he weighs men's minds, and their trash.<span class= +"smcap">—Bacon.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Infinitives.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>To err</i> is <i>human</i>; <i>to forgive, +divine</i>.<span class="smcap">—Pope.</span></p> +<p>With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still +less <i>significant</i> "<i>and so</i>," they constitute all his +connections.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>141.</b></span> An <b>adjective</b> is a +word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression, to +describe it or to limit its application.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a><i>Classes +of adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>142.</b></span> Adjectives are divided into +four classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Descriptive adjectives</b>, which describe by expressing +qualities or attributes of a substantive.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Adjectives of quantity</b>, used to tell how many things +are spoken of, or how much of a thing.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Demonstrative adjectives</b>, pointing out particular +things.</p> +<p>(4) <b>Pronominal adjectives</b>, words primarily pronouns, but +used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing +for them. They include relative and interrogative words.</p> +<h3>DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>143.</b></span> This large class includes +several kinds of words:—</p> +<p>(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as <i>safe</i>, +<i>happy</i>, <i>deep</i>, <i>fair</i>, <i>rash</i>, +<i>beautiful</i>, <i>remotest</i>, <i>terrible</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown +together to make descriptive epithets. Examples are, +"<i>Heaven-derived</i> power," "this <i>life-giving</i> book," "his +spirit wrapt and <i>wonder-struck</i>," "<i>ice-cold</i> water," +"<i>half-dead</i> traveler," "<i>unlooked-for</i> burden," +"<i>next-door</i> neighbor," "<i>ivory-handled</i> pistols," "the +<i>cold-shudder-inspiring</i> Woman in White."</p> +<p>(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an +old <i>English</i> manuscript," "the <i>Christian</i> pearl of +charity," "the well-curb had a <i>Chinese</i> roof," "the +<i>Roman</i> writer Palladius."</p> +<p><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, +which are either pure participles used to describe, or participles +which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to +express quality. Examples are,—</p> +<p><i>Pure participial adjectives</i>: "The <i>healing</i> power of +the Messiah," "The <i>shattering</i> sway of one strong arm," +"<i>trailing</i> clouds," "The <i>shattered</i> squares have opened +into line," "It came on like the <i>rolling</i> simoom," "God +tempers the wind to the <i>shorn</i> lamb."</p> +<p><i>Faded participial adjectives</i>: "Sleep is a <i>blessed</i> +thing;" "One is hungry, and another is <i>drunken</i>;" "under the +<i>fitting</i> drapery of the jagged and trailing clouds;" "The +clearness and quickness are <i>amazing</i>;" "an <i>aged</i> man;" +"a <i>charming</i> sight."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>144.</b></span> Care is needed, in studying +these last-named words, to distinguish between a participle that +forms part of a verb, and a participle or participial adjective +that belongs to a noun.</p> +<p>For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly +accomplished," <i>was accomplished</i> is a verb; in this, "No man +of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished," <i>was</i> is +the verb, and <i>accomplished</i> is an adjective.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having +some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.</p> +<p>2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?—</p> +</div> +<p>The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh +<i>exhausted</i>.<a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a></p> +<h3>ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>145.</b></span> Adjectives of quantity tell +<i>how much</i> or <i>how many</i>. They have these three +subdivisions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How much.</i></div> +<p>(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as <i>little</i>, <i>much</i>, +<i>some</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>considerable</i>, sometimes +<i>small</i>, joined usually to singular nouns to express an +indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.</p> +<p>The following examples are from Kingsley:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So he parted with <i>much</i> weeping of +the lady.<br /></span> <span>Which we began to do with <i>great</i> +labor and <i>little</i> profit.<br /></span> <span>Because I had +<i>some</i> knowledge of surgery and blood-letting.<br /></span> +<span>But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take +<i>no</i><br /></span> <span class="i4">care as long as he was +by.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>Examples of <i>small</i> an adjective of quantity:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and +walked away with a laugh of <i>small</i> satisfaction.<span class= +"smcap">—Macdonald.</span></p> +<p>'Tis midnight, but <i>small</i> thoughts have I of +sleep.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>It gives <i>small</i> idea of Coleridge's way of +talking.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>When <i>some</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>no</i>, are used with plural +nouns, they come under the next division of adjectives.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How many.</i></div> +<p>(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by +numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite +amounts. Hence the natural division into—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Definite numerals</i>; as, "<i>one</i> blaze of +musketry;" "He found in the pathway <i>fourteen</i> Spaniards;" "I +have lost <i>one</i> brother, but I have gained <i>fourscore</i>;" +"<i>a dozen</i> volunteers."</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Indefinite numerals</i>, as the following from +Kingsley: "We gave <i>several</i> thousand pounds for it;" "In came +some five and twenty more, and <a name="Page_102" id= +"Page_102"></a>with them <i>a few</i> negroes;" "Then we wandered +for <i>many</i> days;" "Amyas had evidently <i>more</i> schemes in +his head;" "He had lived by hunting for <i>some</i> months;" "That +light is far too red to be the reflection of <i>any</i> beams of +hers."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Single ones of any number of +changes.</i></div> +<p>(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between +the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are +indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite +in referring to the objects one at a time. Thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Every</i> town had its fair; <i>every</i> village, its +wake.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>An arrow was quivering in <i>each</i> body.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>Few on <i>either</i> side but had their shrewd scratch to +show.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Before I taught my tongue to +wound<br /></span> <span>My conscience with a sinful +sound,<br /></span> <span>Or had the black art to +dispense<br /></span> <span>A <i>several</i> sin to <i>every</i> +sense.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Vaughan.</span></div> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of +quantity.</p> +<h3>DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not primarily pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>146.</b></span> The words of this list are +placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives, for the reason +that they are felt to be primarily adjectives; their pronominal use +being evidently a shortening, by which the words point out but +stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural +and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close +connection.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The list.</i></div> +<p>The <b>demonstrative adjectives</b> are <i>this</i>, +<i>that</i>, (plural <i>these</i>, <i>those</i>), <i>yonder</i> (or +<i>yon</i>), <i>former</i>, <i>latter</i>; <a name="Page_103" id= +"Page_103"></a>also the pairs <i>one</i> (or <i>the +one</i>)—<i>the other</i>, <i>the former</i>—<i>the +latter</i>, used to refer to two things which have been already +named in a sentence.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples.</i></div> +<p>The following sentences present some examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance +that would <i>those</i> looks reprove.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>These were thy charms...but all <i>these</i> charms are +fled.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>About <i>this</i> time I met with an odd volume of the +"Spectator."—<span class="smcap">B. Franklin</span>.</p> +<p><i>Yonder</i> proud ships are not means of annoyance to +you.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster.</span></p> +<p><i>Yon</i> cloud with <i>that</i> long purple cleft.<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic +examples of early art, of equal skill; but in <i>the one</i> case, +skill which was progressive—in <i>the other</i>, skill which +was at pause.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with five demonstrative +adjectives.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ordinal numerals classed under +demonstratives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>147.</b></span> The class of numerals known +as <b>ordinals</b> must be placed here, as having the same function +as demonstrative adjectives. They point out which thing is meant +among a series of things mentioned. The following are +examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>first</i> regular provincial newspapers appear to have +been created in the last decade of the <i>seventeenth</i> century, +and by the middle of the <i>eighteenth</i> century almost every +important provincial town had its local organ.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p>These do not, like the other numerals, tell <i>how many</i> +things are meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we +imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be.<a name= +"Page_104" id="Page_104"></a></p> +<h3>PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>148.</b></span> As has been said, +<b>pronominal adjectives</b> are primarily pronouns; but, when they +<i>modify</i> words instead of referring to them as antecedents, +they are changed to adjectives. They are of two +kinds,—RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,—and are used to join +sentences or to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns +do.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Modify names of persons or +things.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>149.</b></span> The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are +<i>which</i> and <i>what</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It matters not <i>what</i> rank he has, <i>what</i> revenues or +garnitures. <span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>The silver and laughing Xenil, careless <i>what</i> lord should +possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting +course.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>The taking of <i>which</i> bark. I verily believe, was the ruin +of every mother's son of us.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>In <i>which</i> evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought +desperately.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indefinite relative adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>150.</b></span> The INDEFINITE RELATIVE +adjectives are <i>what</i>, <i>whatever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, +<i>whichever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>. Examples of their use +are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make +<i>what</i> sour mouths he would for pretense, proved not +altogether displeasing to him.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p><i>Whatever</i> correction of our popular views from insight, +nature will be sure to bear us out in.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>Whatsoever</i> kind of man he is, you at least give him full +authority over your son.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow +moving along with his deformity, <i>whichever</i> way he turned +himself?<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a> <span>New +torments I behold, and new tormented<br /></span> <span>Around me, +<i>whichsoever</i> way I move,<br /></span> <span>And +<i>whichsoever</i> way I turn, and gaze.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow (From Dante).</span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>151.</b></span> The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES +are <i>which</i> and <i>what</i>. They may be used in direct and +indirect questions. As in the pronouns, <i>which</i> is selective +among what is known; <i>what</i> inquires about things or persons +not known.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>In direct questions.</i></div> +<p>Sentences with <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> in direct +questions:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Which</i> debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the +debt to the poor?<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>But when the Trojan war comes, <i>which</i> side will you take? +<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>But <i>what</i> books in the circulating library +circulate?<span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>What</i> beckoning ghost along the +moonlight shade<br /></span> <span>Invites my steps, and points to +yonder glade?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Pope.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>In indirect questions.</i></div> +<p>Sentences with <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> in indirect +questions:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle +neck to tell <i>which</i> way the wind blew.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix +<i>which</i> side of the garden walk would suit him +best.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was +uncertain <i>what</i> game you would catch, or whether +any.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>At <i>what</i> rate these materials would be distributed and +precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to +determine.<span class="smcap">—Agassiz.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjective</i> what <i>in +exclamations</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>152.</b></span> In exclamatory expressions, +<i>what</i> (or <i>what a</i>) has a force somewhat like a +descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor interrogative, +<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>but might be called an +EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Oh, <i>what a</i> revolution! and <i>what a</i> heart must I +have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that +fall!<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p><i>What a</i> piece of work is man!<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>And yet, alas, the making of it right, <i>what a</i> business +for long time to come!<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>Through <i>what</i> hardships it may attain to bear a sweet +fruit!<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find ten sentences containing pronominal +adjectives.</p> +<h3>INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<p><b>153</b> .Adjectives have two inflections,—<b>number</b> +and <b>comparison</b>.</p> +<p><b>NUMBER</b>.—<b><i>This</i></b>, <b><i>That</i></b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>History of</i> this—these <i>and</i> +that—those.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>154.</b></span> The only adjectives having a +plural form are <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> (plural <i>these</i>, +<i>those</i>).</p> +<p><i>This</i> is the old demonstrative; <i>that</i> being borrowed +from the forms of the definite article, which was fully inflected +in Old English. The article <i>that</i> was used with neuter +nouns.</p> +<p>In Middle English the plural of <i>this</i> was <i>this</i> or +<i>thise</i>, which changed its spelling to the modern form +<i>these</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Those <i>borrowed from</i> this.</div> +<p>But <i>this</i> had also another plural, <i>thās</i> +(modern <i>those</i>). The old plural of <i>that</i> was <i>tha</i> +(Middle English <i>tho</i> or <i>thow</i>): consequently <i>tho</i> +(plural of <i>that</i>) and <i>those</i> (plural of <i>this</i>) +became confused, and it was forgotten that <i>those</i> was really +the plural of <i>this</i>; and in Modern English we speak of +<a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a><i>these</i> as the plural of +<i>this</i>, and <i>those</i> as the plural of <i>that</i>.</p> +<h3>COMPARISON.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>155.</b></span> Comparison is an inflection +not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and +adverbs.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of comparison.</i></div> +<p>When we place two objects side by side, we notice some +differences between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it +is said that a cow is <i>larger</i> than a sheep, gold is +<i>heavier</i> than iron, a sapphire is <i>bluer</i> than the sky. +All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, +we do so by means of their qualities,—cow and sheep by the +quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of +heaviness, or weight, etc.,—but not the same degree, or +amount, of the quality.</p> +<p>The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or +conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, +giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler +valor;" "the largest soul."</p> +<p>Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more +matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Words that cannot be compared.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>156.</b></span> There are some descriptive +words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of +arms, whose <i>favorite</i> pupil he was.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>A <i>main</i> difference betwixt men is, whether they attend +their own affair or not.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson</span><a name="Page_108" id= +"Page_108"></a></p> +<p>It was his business to administer the law in its <i>final</i> +and closest application to the offender<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Freedom is a <i>perpetual, organic, universal</i> institution, +in harmony with the Constitution of the United States.<span class= +"smcap">—Seward.</span></p> +</div> +<p>So with the words <i>sole</i>, <i>sufficient</i>, +<i>infinite</i>, <i>immemorial</i>, <i>indefatigable</i>, +<i>indomitable</i>, <i>supreme</i>, and many others.</p> +<p>It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to +them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>157.</b></span> <b>Comparison</b> means the +changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or +amounts in quantity.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The two forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>158.</b></span> There are two forms for this +inflection: the <b>comparative</b>, expressing a greater degree of +quality; and the <b>superlative</b>, expressing the greatest degree +of quality.</p> +<p>These are called <b>degrees of comparison</b>.</p> +<p>These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, +uninflected form is usually called the <b>positive degree</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>159.</b></span> The comparative is formed by +adding <i>-er</i>, and the superlative by adding <i>-est</i>, to +the simple form; as, <i>red</i>, <i>redder</i>, <i>reddest</i>; +<i>blue</i>, <i>bluer</i>, <i>bluest</i>; <i>easy</i>, +<i>easier</i>, <i>easiest</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Substitute for inflection in +comparison.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>160.</b></span> Side by side with these +inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions +making use of the adverbs <b>more</b> and <b>most</b>. These are +often useful as alternative with the inflected forms, but in most +cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.</p> +<p><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>They came into use about +the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century +later.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Which rule</i>,— -er <i>and</i> -est +<i>or</i> more <i>and</i> most?</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>161.</b></span> The English is somewhat +capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with +<i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, so that no inflexible rule can be +given as to the formation of the comparative and the +superlative.</p> +<p>The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced +words of two syllables add <i>-er</i> and <i>-est</i>; and other +words are preceded by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>.</p> +<p>But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound +and for variety of expression.</p> +<p>To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be +given, examine the following taken at random:—</p> +<p>From Thackeray: "The <i>handsomest</i> wives;" "the +<i>immensest</i> quantity of thrashing;" "the <i>wonderfulest</i> +little shoes;" "<i>more odd, strange</i>, and yet familiar;" +"<i>more austere</i> and <i>holy</i>."</p> +<p>From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and +<i>patientest</i> fusing;" "<i>distantest</i> relationships;" +"<i>sorrowfulest</i> spectacles."</p> +<p>Carlyle uses <i>beautifulest</i>, <i>mournfulest</i>, +<i>honestest</i>, <i>admirablest</i>, <i>indisputablest</i>, +<i>peaceablest</i>, <i>most small</i>, etc.</p> +<p>These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but <i>more</i> and +<i>most</i> are frequently used with monosyllables.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>162.</b></span> Expressions are often met +with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative +<a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>meaning. These are equivalent +usually to <i>very</i> with the positive degree; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To this the Count offers a <i>most wordy</i> declaration of the +benefits conferred by Spain.—<i>The Nation</i>, No 1507</p> +<p>In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be +a <i>most genuine</i> substance.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was +<i>most finished</i>, <i>polished</i>, <i>witty</i>, <i>easy</i>, +<i>quiet</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which +hung behind in the <i>queerest</i> way.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on +his knees, and kissing the hand of his <i>dearest</i> +mistress.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjectives irregularly compared.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>163.</b></span> Among the variously derived +adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be +recognized as native English. These are adjectives <b>irregularly +compared</b>.</p> +<p>Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar +words, but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for +so many centuries.</p> +<p>The following lists include the majority of them:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'><b>LIST I.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1.</td> +<td align='left'>Good or well</td> +<td align='left'>Better</td> +<td align='left'>Best</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2.</td> +<td align='left'>Evil, bad, ill</td> +<td align='left'>Worse</td> +<td align='left'>Worst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3.</td> +<td align='left'>Little</td> +<td align='left'>Less, lesser</td> +<td align='left'>Least</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>4.</td> +<td align='left'>Much or many</td> +<td align='left'>More</td> +<td align='left'>Most</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>5.</td> +<td align='left'>Old</td> +<td align='left'>Elder, older</td> +<td align='left'>Eldest, oldest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>6.</td> +<td align='left'>Nigh</td> +<td align='left'>Nigher</td> +<td align='left'>Nighest, next</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>7.</td> +<td align='left'>Near</td> +<td align='left'>Nearer</td> +<td align='left'>Nearest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>8.</td> +<td align='left'>Far</td> +<td align='left'>Farther, further</td> +<td align='left'>Farthest, furthest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>9.</td> +<td align='left'>Late</td> +<td align='left'>Later, latter</td> +<td align='left'>Latest, last</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>10.</td> +<td align='left'>Hind</td> +<td align='left'>Hinder</td> +<td align='left'>Hindmost, hindermost</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a></div> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'><b>LIST II.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'>These have no adjective +positive:—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1.</td> +<td align='left'>[In]</td> +<td align='left'>Inner</td> +<td align='left'>Inmost, innermost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2.</td> +<td align='left'>[Out]</td> +<td align='left'>Outer, utter</td> +<td align='left'>Outmost, outermost<br /> +Utmost, uttermost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3.</td> +<td align='left'>[Up]</td> +<td align='left'>Upper</td> +<td align='left'>Upmost, uppermost</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'><b>LIST III.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'>A few of comparative form but not +comparative meaning:—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>After</td> +<td align='left'>Over</td> +<td align='left'>Under</td> +<td align='left'>Nether</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List I.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>164.</b></span> (1) The word good has no +comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive to +<i>better</i> and <i>best</i>. There was an old comparative +<i>bet</i>, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th +century), "Ich singe <i>bet</i> than thu dest" (I sing better than +thou dost). The superlative I form was <i>betst</i>, which has +softened to the modern <i>best</i>.</p> +<p>(2) In Old English, <b>evil</b> was the positive to +<i>worse</i>, <i>worst</i>; but later <i>bad</i> and <i>ill</i> +were borrowed from the Norse, and used as positives to the same +comparative and superlative. <i>Worser</i> was once used, a double +comparative; as in Shakespeare,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>O, throw away the <i>worser</i> part of it.<span class= +"smcap">—Hamlet.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <b>Little</b> is used as positive to <i>less</i>, +<i>least</i>, though from a different root. A double comparative, +<i>lesser</i>, is often used; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We have it in a much <i>lesser</i> degree.<span class= +"smcap">—Matthew Arnold.</span></p> +<p>Thrust the <i>lesser</i> half by main force into the fists of +Ho-ti. <span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>(4) The words <b>much</b> +and <b>many</b> now express quantity; but in former times +<i>much</i> was used in the sense of <i>large</i>, <i>great</i>, +and was the same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little +makes <i>a mickle</i>." Its spelling has been <i>micel</i>, +<i>muchel</i>, <i>moche</i>, <i>much</i>, the parallel form +<i>mickle</i> being rarely used.</p> +<p>The meanings <i>greater</i>, <i>greatest</i>, are shown in such +phrases as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>more</i> part being of one mind, to England we +sailed.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The <i>most</i> part kept a stolid +indifference.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>The latter, meaning <i>the largest part</i>, is quite +common.</p> +<p>(5) The forms <b>elder</b>, <b>eldest</b>, are earlier than +<i>older</i>, <i>oldest</i>. A few other words with the vowel +<i>o</i> had similar change in the comparative and superlative, as +<i>long</i>, <i>strong</i>, etc.; but these have followed +<i>old</i> by keeping the same vowel <i>o</i> in all the forms, +instead of <i>lenger</i>, <i>strenger</i>, etc., the old forms.</p> +<p>(6) and (7) Both <b>nigh</b> and <b>near</b> seem regular in +Modern English, except the form <i>next</i>; but originally the +comparison was <i>nigh</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>next</i>. In the same +way the word <b>high</b> had in Middle English the superlative +<i>hexte</i>.</p> +<p>By and by the comparative <i>near</i> was regarded as a positive +form, and on it were built a double comparative <i>nearer</i>, and +the superlative <i>nearest</i>, which adds <i>-est</i> to what is +really a comparative instead of a simple adjective.</p> +<p>(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, +coming about as follows: <b>further</b> really belongs to another +series,—<i>forth</i>, <a name="Page_113" id= +"Page_113"></a><i>further</i>, <i>first</i>. <b>First</b> became +entirely detached from the series, and <i>furthest</i> began to be +used to follow the comparative <i>further</i>; then these were used +as comparative and superlative of <i>far</i>.</p> +<p>The word <b>far</b> had formerly the comparative and superlative +<i>farrer</i>, <i>farrest</i>. In imitation of <i>further</i>, +<i>furthest</i>, <i>th</i> came into the others, making the modern +<i>farther</i>, <i>farthest</i>. Between the two sets as they now +stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps +<i>further</i> is more used than <i>farther</i> in the sense of +<i>additional</i>; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>When that evil principle was left with no <i>further</i> +material to support it.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(9) <b>Latter</b> and <b>last</b> are the older forms. Since +<i>later</i>, <i>latest</i>, came into use, a distinction has grown +up between the two series. <i>Later</i> and <i>latest</i> have the +true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time; +<i>latter</i> and <i>last</i> are used in speaking of succession, +or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with +the word <i>late</i>.</p> +<p>(10) <b>Hinder</b> is comparative in form, but not in meaning. +The form <i>hindmost</i> is really a double superlative, since the +<i>m</i> is for <i>-ma</i>, an old superlative ending, to which is +added <i>-ost</i>, doubling the inflection. <i>Hind-er-m-ost</i> +presents the combination comparative + superlative + +superlative.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List II.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>165.</b></span> In List II. (Sec. 163) the +comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, but they have no +adjective positives.</p> +<p>The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.</p> +<p>The superlatives show examples again of double <a name= +"Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>inflection, and of comparative added +to double-superlative inflection.</p> +<p>Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: +"revealing the <i>inner</i> splendor to him;" "a mind that has +penetrated into the <i>inmost</i> heart of a thing;" "This of +painting is one of the <i>outermost</i> developments of a man;" +"The <i>outer</i> is of the day;" "far-seeing as the sun, the +<i>upper</i> light of the world;" "the <i>innermost</i> moral +soul;" "their <i>utmost</i> exertion."</p> +<div class="sidenote">-Most <i>added to other words</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>166.</b></span> The ending <i>-most</i> is +added to some words that are not usually adjectives, or have no +comparative forms.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There, on the very <i>topmost</i> twig, sits that ridiculous but +sweet-singing bobolink.—<span class="smcap">H. W. +Beecher</span>.</p> +<p>Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman +of family in <i>northernmost</i> Spain.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Highest and <i>midmost</i>, was descried The royal banner +floating wide.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List III.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>167.</b></span> The adjectives in List III. +are like the comparative forms in List II. in having no adjective +positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative +force, being merely descriptive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Her bows were deep in the water, but her <i>after</i> deck was +still dry.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>Her, by the by, in <i>after</i> years I vainly endeavored to +trace.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>The upper and the <i>under</i> side of the medal of +Jove.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Have you ever considered what a deep <i>under</i> meaning there +lies in our custom of strewing flowers?<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Perhaps he rose out of some <i>nether</i> region.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>Over</i> is rarely used separately as an adjective.<a name= +"Page_115" id="Page_115"></a></p> +<h3>CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Think what each adjective belongs +to.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>168.</b></span> Some care must be taken to +decide what word is modified by an adjective. In a series of +adjectives in the same sentence, all may belong to the same noun, +or each may modify a different word or group of words.</p> +<p>For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was +tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all +four adjectives after <i>was</i> modify the noun <i>voice</i>. But +in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual +incomparable decision," <i>decision</i> is modified by the +adjective <i>incomparable</i>; <i>usual</i> modifies +<i>incomparable decision</i>, not <i>decision</i> alone; and the +pronoun <i>her</i> limits <i>usual incomparable decision</i>.</p> +<p>Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the <i>same +rank</i>; those modifying different words or word groups are said +to be adjectives of <i>different rank</i>. This distinction is +valuable in a study of punctuation.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following quotations, tell what each adjective +modifies:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black +eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and +intangibility.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of +Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be +controlled by some religious denomination.<span class= +"smcap">—Noah Porter.</span></p> +<p>3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood +backward to her heart.<span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Stowe.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>4. This, our new +government, is the first in the history of the world based upon +this great physical, philosophical, and moral +truth.—<span class="smcap">A. H. Stephens</span></p> +<p>5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate +universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system +rests?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, +satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural +entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate +and profound impression.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>169.</b></span> By a convenient brevity, +adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives; as, instead of saying, +"the one who was then king," in which <i>then</i> is an adverb, we +may say "the <i>then</i> king," making <i>then</i> an adjective. +Other instances are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>My <i>then</i> favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Our <i>sometime</i> sister, now our queen.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></p> +<p>Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the <i>then</i> and <i>still</i> +owners. <span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>The <i>seldom</i> use of it.<span class= +"smcap">—Trench.</span></p> +<p>For thy stomach's sake, and thine <i>often</i> +infirmities.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +</div> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What to tell in parsing.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>170.</b></span> Since adjectives have no +gender, person, or case, and very few have number, the method of +parsing is simple.</p> +<p>In <b>parsing</b> an adjective, tell—</p> +<p>(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.</p> +<p>(2) Its number, if it has number.</p> +<p>(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.</p> +<p>(4) What word or words it modifies.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>MODEL FOR PARSING.</h3> +<p>These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.</p> +<p><i>These</i> points out <i>what</i> truths, therefore +demonstrative; plural number, having a singular, <i>this</i>; +cannot be compared; modifies the word <i>truths</i>.</p> +<p><i>Unfamiliar</i> describes <i>truths</i>, therefore +descriptive; not inflected for number; compared by prefixing +<i>more</i> and <i>most</i>; positive degree; modifies +<i>truths</i>.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to +Eliza.</p> +<p>2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched +and creaked.</p> +<p>3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end +by a direct, frank, manly way.</p> +<p>4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.</p> +<p>5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their +way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.</p> +<p>6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible +enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and +most astounding were those frightful yells.</p> +<p>7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed +it to the fullest extent.</p> +<p>8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as +justice.</p> +<p>9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, +seventy-five drachmas.</p> +<p>10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his +or her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were +bound to be absent.</p> +<p>11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the +bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are +immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.</p> +<p>12. I know not what course others may take.</p> +<p>13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.</p> +<p><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>14. What a ruthless +business this war of extermination is!</p> +<p>15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal +country.</p> +<p>16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?</p> +<p>17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been +more to him than all the men in his country.</p> +<p>18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.</p> +<p>19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward +fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.</p> +<p>20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.</p> +<p>21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.</p> +<p>22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.</p> +<p>23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.</p> +<p>24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.</p> +<p>25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal +benefit there is in being serviceable.</p> +<p>26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and +hates nothing so much as pretenders.</p> +<p>27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that +were few, as for armies that were too many by half.</p> +<p>28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, +the same love to France would have been nurtured.</p> +<p>29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?</p> +<p>30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to +us, is the settlement of our own country.</p> +<p>31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all +directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.</p> +<p>32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.</p> +<p>33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most +unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so +noble a fruit.</p> +<p>34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is +no literary man.</p> +<p>35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!</p> +<p>36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.</p> +<p>37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.</p> +<a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLES" id="ARTICLES"></a><b>ARTICLES.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>171.</b></span> There is a class of words +having always an adjectival use in general, but with such subtle +functions and various meanings that they deserve separate +treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary brick house on +the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words <i>the</i> and +<i>an</i> belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot +be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are +nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Their origin.</i></div> +<p>172. The article <b>the</b> comes from an old demonstrative +adjective (<i>sē</i>, <i>sēo</i>, <i>ðat</i>, later +<i>thē</i>, <i>thēo</i>, <i>that</i>) which was also an +article in Old English. In Middle English <i>the</i> became an +article, and <i>that</i> remained a demonstrative adjective.</p> +<p><b>An</b> or <b>a</b> came from the old numeral <i>ān</i>, +meaning <i>one</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two relics.</i></div> +<p>Our expressions <i>the one</i>, <i>the other</i>, were formerly +<i>that one</i>, <i>that other</i>; the latter is still preserved +in the expression, in vulgar English, <i>the tother</i>. Not only +this is kept in the Scotch dialect, but the former is used, these +occurring as <i>the tane, the tother</i>, or <i>the tane, the +tither</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We ca' her sometimes <i>the tane</i>, sometimes <i>the +tother</i>.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">An <i>before vowel sounds</i>, a <i>before +consonant sounds</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>173.</b></span> Ordinarily <i>an</i> is used +before vowel sounds, and <i>a</i> before consonant sounds. Remember +that a <i>vowel sound</i> does not necessarily mean beginning with +a vowel, nor does <i>consonant sound</i> mean <a name="Page_120" +id="Page_120"></a>beginning with a consonant, because English +spelling does not coincide closely with the sound of words. +Examples: "<i>a</i> house," "<i>an</i> orange," "<i>a</i> +European," "<i>an</i> honor," "<i>a</i> yelling crowd."</p> +<div class="sidenote">An <i>with consonant sounds</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>174.</b></span> Many writers use <i>an</i> +before <i>h</i>, even when not silent, when the word is not +accented on the first syllable.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>An</i> historian, such as we have been attempting to +describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>The Persians were <i>an</i> heroic people like the +Greeks.<span class="smcap">—Brewer.</span></p> +<p>He [Rip] evinced <i>an</i> hereditary disposition to attend to +anything else but his business.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p><i>An</i> habitual submission of the understanding to mere +events and images.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p><i>An</i> hereditary tenure of these offices.<span class= +"smcap">—Thomas Jefferson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>175.</b></span> An <b>article</b> is a +limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot be used alone, but +always joins to a substantive word to denote a particular thing, or +a group or class of things, or any individual of a group or +class.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>176.</b></span> Articles are either +<b>definite</b> or <b>indefinite</b>.</p> +<p><b>The</b> is the definite article, since it points out a +particular individual, or group, or class.</p> +<p><b>An</b> or <b>a</b> is the indefinite article, because it +refers to any one of a group or class of things.</p> +<p><b>An</b> and <b>a</b> are different forms of the same word, the +older <i>ān</i>.</p> +<h3>USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Reference to a known object.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>177.</b></span> The most common use of the +definite article is to refer to an object that the listener or +<a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>reader is already acquainted +with; as in the sentence,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Don't you remember how, when <i>the</i> dragon was infesting +<i>the</i> neighborhood of Babylon, <i>the</i> citizens used to +walk dismally out of evenings, and look at <i>the</i> valleys round +about strewed with <i>the</i> bones?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>NOTE.—This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a +person is introduced by <i>a</i>, and afterwards referred to by +<i>the</i>:—</p> +<p>By and by <i>a</i> giant came out of the dark north, and lay +down on the ice near Audhumla.... <i>The</i> giant frowned when he +saw the glitter of the golden hair.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Heroes Of Asgard.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With names of rivers.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>178.</b></span> <i>The</i> is often prefixed +to the names of rivers; and when the word <i>river</i> is omitted, +as "<i>the</i> Mississippi," "<i>the</i> Ohio," the article +indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other +geographical division, is referred to.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>No wonder I could face <i>the</i> Mississippi with so much +courage supplied to me.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country +southwest of <i>the</i> Missouri.—<span class="smcap">G. +Bancroft</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>To call attention to attributes.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>179.</b></span> When <i>the</i> is prefixed +to a proper name, it alters the force of the noun by directing +attention to <i>certain qualities</i> possessed by the person or +thing spoken of; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>The</i> Bacon, <i>the</i> Spinoza, <i>the</i> Hume, +Schelling, Kant, or whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the +mind, is only a more or less awkward translator of things in your +consciousness.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With plural of abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>180.</b></span> <i>The</i>, when placed +before the pluralized abstract noun, marks it as half abstract or a +common noun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_122" id= +"Page_122"></a><i>Common.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His messages to <i>the</i> provincial +<i>authorities</i>.<span class="smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Half abstract.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was probably skilled in <i>the subtleties</i> of Italian +statesmanship.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With adjectives used as nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>181.</b></span> When <i>the</i> precedes +adjectives of the positive degree used substantively, it marks +their use as common and plural nouns when they refer to persons, +and as singular and abstract when they refer to qualities.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. <i>The simple</i> rise as by specific levity, not into a +particular virtue, but into the region of all the +virtues.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>2. If <i>the good</i> is there, so is <i>the +evil</i>.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>NOTE.—This is not to be confused with words that have +shifted from adjectives and become pure nouns; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As she hesitated to pass on, <i>the gallant</i>, throwing his +cloak from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish +the temerity of <i>the natives</i>.—<span class="smcap">G. +Bancroft</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One thing for its class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>182.</b></span> <i>The</i> before class +nouns may mark one thing as a representative of the class to which +it belongs; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and +moist fields from <i>the bluebird</i>, <i>the song sparrow</i>, and +<i>the redwing</i>, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they +fell!<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>In the sands of Africa and Arabia <i>the camel</i> is a sacred +and precious gift.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>For possessive person pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>183.</b></span> <i>The</i> is frequently +used instead of the possessive case of the personal pronouns +<i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>More than one hinted that a cord twined around <i>the head</i>, +or a match put between <i>the fingers</i>, would speedily extract +the required information.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p><i>The</i> mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the +strongest features in Wordsworth's face.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>The +<i>for</i> a.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>184.</b></span> In England and Scotland +<i>the</i> is often used where we use <i>a</i>, in speaking of +measure and price; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the +middle of the fourteenth century tenpence <i>the bushel</i>, barley +averaging at the same time three shillings <i>the +quarter</i>.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A very strong restrictive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>185.</b></span> Sometimes <i>the</i> has a +strong force, almost equivalent to a descriptive adjective in +emphasizing a word,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>No doubt but ye are <i>the</i> people, and wisdom shall die with +you.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>As for New Orleans, it seemed to me <i>the</i> city of the world +where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the +least.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He was <i>the</i> man in all Europe that could (if any could) +have driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mark of a substantive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>186.</b></span> <i>The</i>, since it belongs +distinctively to substantives, is a sure indication that a word of +verbal form is not used participially, but substantively.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for <i>the +gathering</i>.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>I thought <i>the writing</i> excellent, and wished, if possible, +to imitate it.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>187.</b></span> There is one use of +<i>the</i> which is different from all the above. It is an +adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. 283. Compare +this sentence with those above:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had +not previously noticed, and which grew still <i>the more +obvious</i> to the sight <i>the oftener</i> they looked upon +him.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a><b>Exercise.</b>—Find +sentences with five uses of the definite article.</p> +<h3>USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Denotes any one of a class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>188.</b></span> The most frequent use of the +indefinite article is to denote any one of a class or group of +objects: consequently it belongs to singular words; as in the +sentence,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Near the churchyard gate stands <i>a</i> poor-box, fastened to +<i>a</i> post by iron bands and secured by <i>a</i> padlock, with +<i>a</i> sloping wooden roof to keep off the rain.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Widens the scope of proper +nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>189.</b></span> When the indefinite article +precedes proper names, it alters them to class names. The qualities +or attributes of the object are made prominent, and transferred to +any one possessing them; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced <i>an +Alcibiades</i> or <i>a Cæsar</i>, have been exchanged for the +higher ideals of <i>a Bayard</i> or <i>a Sydney</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Pearson</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>190.</b></span> <i>An</i> or <i>a</i> before +abstract nouns often changes them to half abstract: the idea of +quality remains, but the word now denotes only one instance or +example of things possessing the quality.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Become half abstract.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The simple perception of natural forms is <i>a +delight</i>.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If thou hadst <i>a sorrow</i> of thine own, the brook might tell +thee of it.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne</span></p> +</div> +<p>In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of +delight, which cannot be singular or plural, <i>a delight</i> means +one thing delightful, and implies others having the same +quality.</p> +<p><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>So <i>a sorrow</i> means +one cause of sorrow, implying that there are other things that +bring sorrow.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Become pure class nouns.</i></div> +<p>NOTE.—Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with +the indefinite article, referring simply to persons; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not <i>a wit</i>, who +deserves to be called so?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He had a little brother in London with him at this +time,—as great <i>a beauty</i>, as great a dandy, as great a +villain.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>A youth</i> to fortune and to fame unknown.<span class= +"smcap">—Gray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Changes material to class nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>191.</b></span> <i>An</i> or <i>a</i> before +a material noun indicates the change to a class noun, meaning one +kind or a detached portion; as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>They that dwell up in the +steeple,...<br /></span> <span class="i2">Feel a glory in so +rolling<br /></span> <span>On the human heart <i>a +stone</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Poe.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">When God at first made +man,<br /></span> <span>Having <i>a glass</i> of blessings standing +by.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Herbert.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by <i>a +cement</i> that grew harder by time.<span class= +"smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Like the numeral adjective</i> one.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>192.</b></span> In some cases <i>an</i> or +<i>a</i> has the full force of the numeral adjective <i>one</i>. It +is shown in the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To every room there was <i>an</i> open and <i>a</i> secret +passage.<span class="smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +<p>In a short time these become a small tree, <i>an</i> inverted +pyramid resting on the apex of the other.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>All men are at last of <i>a</i> size.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, +two at <i>a</i> time.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Equivalent to the word</i> each <i>or</i> +every.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>193.</b></span> Often, also, the indefinite +article has the force of <i>each</i> or <i>every</i>, particularly +to express measure or frequency.<a name="Page_126" id= +"Page_126"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to +work eight or ten hours <i>a day</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Compare to Sec. 184.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence <i>a +gallon</i>, was then a penny <i>a gallon</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Froude</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With</i> such, many, what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>194.</b></span> <i>An</i> or <i>a</i> is +added to the adjectives <i>such</i>, <i>many</i>, and <i>what</i>, +and may be considered a part of these in modifying +substantives.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>How was I to pay <i>such a</i> debt?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>Many a</i> one you and I have had here below.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>What a</i> world of merriment then melody +foretells!<span class="smcap">—Poe.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With</i> not <i>and</i> many.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>195.</b></span> <i>Not</i> and <i>never</i> +with <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> are numeral adjectives, instead of +adverbs, which they are in general.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Not a</i> drum was heard, <i>not a</i> funeral +note.<span class="smcap">—Wolfe</span></p> +<p>My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said +<i>never a</i> word.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—All these have the function of adjectives; but in +the last analysis of the expressions, <i>such</i>, <i>many</i>, +<i>not</i>, etc., might be considered as adverbs modifying the +article.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With</i> few <i>or</i> little.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>196.</b></span> The adjectives <i>few</i> +and <i>little</i> have the negative meaning of <i>not much</i>, +<i>not many</i>, without the article; but when <i>a</i> is put +before them, they have the positive meaning of <i>some</i>. Notice +the contrast in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Of the country beyond the Mississippi <i>little</i> more was +known than of the heart of Africa.<span class= +"smcap">—Mcmaster</span></p> +<p>To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope +that when <i>a little</i> time, <i>a few</i> years, shall have +tried me more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them +together.—<span class="smcap"><i>Keats's +Letters.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Few</i> of the great characters of history have been so +differently judged as Alexander.<span class= +"smcap">—Smith,</span> <i>History of Greece</i></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With adjectives, changed to +nouns</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>197.</b></span> When <i>the</i> is used +before adjectives with no substantive following (Sec. 181 and +note), these <a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>words are +adjectives used as nouns, or pure nouns; but when <i>an</i> or +<i>a</i> precedes such words, they are always nouns, having the +regular use and inflections of nouns; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Such are the words <i>a brave</i> should use.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be <i>a +favorite</i>, and to have a good place.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for +use in the verses of <i>a rival</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Pearson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Bring up sentences with five uses of the +indefinite article.</p> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>198.</b></span> In parsing the article, +tell—</p> +<p>(1) What word it limits.</p> +<p>(2) Which of the above uses it has.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse the articles in the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or +bottling a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the +whole atmosphere are ours.</p> +<p>2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, +defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.</p> +<p>3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no +more.</p> +<p>4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that +is mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.</p> +<p>5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the +craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a +new light has arisen.</p> +<p>6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become +intelligent, and the wavering, determined.</p> +<p>7. The student is to read history actively, and not +passively.</p> +<p><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>8. This resistance was the +labor of his life.</p> +<p>9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.</p> +<p>10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably +coexist with faultless beauty.</p> +<p>11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of +civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, stamping, +jumping, tearing savage.</p> +<p>12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in +water.</p> +<p>13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.</p> +<p>14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!</p> +<p>15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making +of that brick.</p> +<p>16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the +Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and permanent +celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded talent.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VERBS_AND_VERBALS" id="VERBS_AND_VERBALS"></a><b>VERBS +AND VERBALS.</b>.</h2> +<h2><a name="VERBS" id="VERBS"></a>VERBS.</h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Verb,—the word of the +sentence.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>199.</b></span> The term <i>verb</i> is from +the Latin <i>verbum</i> meaning <i>word</i>: hence it is <i>the</i> +word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed without a verb. +When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, <i>See</i> the apple! or I +<i>have</i> an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the meaning +is, "Yonder <i>is</i> a sail!"</p> +<p>Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or +commands; and none of these can be put before the mind without the +use of a verb.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One group or a group of words.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>200.</b></span> The verb may not always be a +single word. On account of the lack of inflections, <i>verb +phrases</i> are very frequent. Hence the verb may consist of:</p> +<p><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>(1) <i>One word</i>; as, +"The young man <i>obeyed</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Several words of verbal nature, making one +expression</i>; as, (<i>a</i>) "Some day it <i>may be +considered</i> reasonable," (<i>b</i>) "Fearing lest he <i>might +have been anticipated</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>One or more verbal words united with other words to +compose one verb phrase</i>: as in the sentences, (<i>a</i>) "They +knew well that this woman <i>ruled over</i> thirty millions of +subjects;" (<i>b</i>) "If all the flummery and extravagance of an +army <i>were done away with</i>, the money could be made to go much +further;" (<i>c</i>) "It is idle cant to pretend anxiety for the +better distribution of wealth until we can devise means by which +this preying upon people of small incomes <i>can be put a stop +to</i>."</p> +<p>In (<i>a</i>), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in +(<i>b</i>), a verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; +in (<i>c</i>), an article, a noun, a preposition, are united with +verbs as one verb phrase.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>201.</b></span> A <b>verb</b> is a word used +as a predicate, to say something to or about some person or thing. +In giving a definition, we consider a verb as one word.</p> +<p>Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a +word used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In +(1), <i>obeyed</i> is a predicate; in (2, <i>a</i>), <i>may be +considered</i> is a unit in doing the work of one predicate; in (2, +<i>b</i>), <i>might have been anticipated</i> is also one +predicate, but <i>fearing</i> is not a predicate, hence is not a +verb; in (3, <i>b</i>), <i>to go</i> is no predicate, and not a +verb; in (3, <i>c</i>), <i>to pretend</i> and <i>preying</i> have +something of <a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>verbal nature in +expressing action in a faint and general way, but cannot be +predicates.</p> +<p>In the sentence, "<i>Put</i> money in thy purse," <i>put</i> is +the predicate, with some word understood; as, "Put <i>thou</i> +money in thy purse."</p> +<h3>VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE.</h3> +<h3>TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The nature of the transitive +verb.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>202.</b></span> By examining a few verbs, it +may be seen that not all verbs are used alike. All do not express +action: some denote state or condition. Of those expressing action, +all do not express it in the same way; for example, in this +sentence from Bulwer,—"The proud lone <i>took</i> care to +conceal the anguish she <i>endured</i>; and the pride of woman +<i>has</i> an hypocrisy which <i>can deceive</i> the most +penetrating, and <i>shame</i> the most astute,"—every one of +the verbs in Italics has one or more words before or after it, +representing something which it influences or controls. In the +first, lone <i>took</i> what? answer, <i>care</i>; <i>endured</i> +what? <i>anguish</i>; etc. Each influences some object, which may +be a person, or a material thing, or an idea. <i>Has</i> takes the +object <i>hypocrisy</i>; <i>can deceive</i> has an object, <i>the +most penetrating</i>; (can) <i>shame</i> also has an object, <i>the +most astute</i>.</p> +<p>In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to +the completion of the action expressed in the verb.</p> +<p>All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin +<i>transire</i>, which means <i>to go over</i>. Hence</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_131" id= +"Page_131"></a><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>203.</b></span> A transitive verb is one +which must have an object to complete its meaning, and to receive +the action expressed.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The nature of intransitive +verbs.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>204.</b></span> Examine the verbs in the +following paragraph:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She <i>sprang up</i> at that thought, and, taking the staff +which always guided her steps, she <i>hastened</i> to the +neighboring shrine of Isis. Till she <i>had been</i> under the +guardianship of the kindly Greek, that staff <i>had sufficed</i> to +conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of +Pompeii.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer</span></p> +</div> +<p>In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been +examined. <i>Sprang</i>, or <i>sprang up</i>, expresses action, but +it is complete in itself, does not affect an object; +<i>hastened</i> is similar in use; <i>had been</i> expresses +condition, or state of being, and can have no object; <i>had +sufficed</i> means <i>had been sufficient</i>, and from its meaning +cannot have an object.</p> +<p>Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). +Hence</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>205.</b></span> An intransitive verb is one +which is complete in itself, or which is completed by other words +without requiring an object.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Study</i> use, <i>not</i> form, <i>of +verbs here.</i></div> +<p>206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, +according to their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy +<i>walked</i> for two hours," or "The boy <i>walked</i> the horse;" +"The rains <i>swelled</i> the river," or "The river <i>swelled</i> +because of the rain;" etc.</p> +<p>The important thing to observe is, many words must be +distinguished as transitive or intransitive by <i>use</i>, not by +<i>form</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>207.</b></span> Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by +prepositions. These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may +follow the verb, and be used as an integral part of it: for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Asking her pardon for having <i>withstood</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to <i>undergo</i> +a second time.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child +that has <i>outgrown</i> its playthings.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and <i>look at</i> +the countenances passing by.—<span class="smcap">B. +Taylor</span>.</p> +<p>He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I +loved, <i>laughed at</i>, and pitied him.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had +cunningly <i>picked out</i> from her mother.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in +the following:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The women and children collected together at a distance.</p> +<p>2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.</p> +<p>3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden +a surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view +him; he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.</p> +<p>4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on +the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.</p> +<p>5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which +was a sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping +path or road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; +most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells +lay broken and scattered upon the ground.</p> +<p>6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged <a name= +"Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>my gun, set sail cautiously, along +shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to tremble.</p> +<p>7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had +advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange +trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made +their way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were +advancing toward me.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five +intransitive verbs.</p> +<h3>VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of active voice.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>208.</b></span> As has been seen, transitive +verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to +an object. This implies three things,—the agent, or person or +thing acting; the verb representing the action; the person or +object receiving the act.</p> +<p>In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and +accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these +three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by +<i>we</i>; the action is asserted by <i>reached</i> and +<i>accepted</i>; the things acted upon are <i>village</i> and +<i>invitation</i>. Here the subject is represented as doing +something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use of +a transitive verb is called the <b>active voice</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>209.</b></span> The <b>active voice</b> is +that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting; or</p> +<p>The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes +the <i>subject</i> and the <i>agent</i> the same word.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a><i>A +question.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>210.</b></span> Intransitive verbs are +<i>always active voice</i>. Let the student explain why.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of passive voice.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>211.</b></span> In the assertion of an +action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always +representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing, it +must often happen that the subject is spoken of as <i>acted +upon</i>; and the person or thing acting may or may not be +expressed in the sentence: for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are +speedily punished. They are punished by fear.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here the subject <i>infractions</i> does nothing: it represents +the object toward which the action of <i>are punished</i> is +directed, yet it is the subject of the same verb. In the first +sentence the agent is not expressed; in the second, <i>fear</i> is +the agent of the same action.</p> +<p>So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject +the same word, we have the <i>object</i> and <i>subject</i> the +same word, and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the +action.</p> +<p><i>Passive</i> is from the Latin word <i>patior</i>, meaning +<i>to endure</i> or <i>suffer</i>; but in ordinary grammatical use +<i>passive</i> means <i>receiving an action</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>212.</b></span> The passive voice is that +form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon; +or—</p> +<p>The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +<i>subject</i> and the <i>object</i> by the same word.</p> +<p><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a><b>Exercises.</b></p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive +voice:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking +about while the parties were preparing.</p> +<p>2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a +great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.</p> +<p>3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the +shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap +with a large visor.</p> +<p>4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; +their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.</p> +<p>5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.</p> +<p>6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every +afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.</p> +<p>7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts +which had been already formed.</p> +<p>8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till +some officer came and opened the fire plug.</p> +<p>9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he +excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate +it.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five +in the passive voice.</p> +<h3>MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>213.</b></span> The word <i>mood</i> is from +the Latin <i>modus</i>, meaning <i>manner</i>, <i>way</i>, +<i>method</i>. Hence, when applied to verbs,—</p> +<p><b>Mood</b> means the manner of conceiving and expressing action +or being of some subject.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a><i>The +three ways.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>214.</b></span> There are three chief ways +of expressing action or being:—</p> +<p>(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or +assumption.</p> +<p>(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.</p> +<p>(3) As urged or commanded.</p> +<h3>INDICATIVE MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Deals with facts.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>215.</b></span> The term <i>indicative</i> +is from the Latin <i>indicare</i> (to declare, or assert). The +indicative represents something as a fact,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Affirms or denies.</i></div> +<p>(1) <i>By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true</i>; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Distinction <i>is</i> the consequence, never the object, of a +great mind.<span class="smcap">—Allston.</span></p> +<p>I <i>do not remember</i> when or by whom I <i>was taught</i> to +read; because I <i>cannot</i> and never <i>could recollect</i> a +time when I <i>could not read</i> my Bible.—<span class= +"smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Assumed as a fact.</i></div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>By assuming a thing to be true</i> without declaring it +to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by +<i>if</i> (meaning <i>admitting that, granting that</i>, etc.), +<i>though, although</i>, etc. Notice that the action is not merely +conceived as possible; it is assumed to be a fact: for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; +if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her +population little exceeded two millions; if she was without +government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, +without military knowledge,—still her citizens had a just and +elevated sense of her rights.—<span class="smcap">A. +Hamilton</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>(3) <i>By asking a question +to find out some fact</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?<span class= +"smcap">—Hamilton.</span></p> +<p>With respect to novels what shall I say?—<span class= +"smcap">N. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><b>216</b> .The <b>indicative mood</b> is that form of a verb +which represents a thing as a fact, or inquires about some +fact.</p> +<h3>SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of the word.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>217.</b></span> <i>Subjunctive</i> means +<i>subjoined</i>, or joined as dependent or subordinate to +something else.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>This meaning is misleading.</i></div> +<p>If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect +every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, +and every clause <i>not</i> dependent to have its verb in some +other mood.</p> +<p>But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. +215, 2) several subjoined clauses introduced by <i>if</i> have the +indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found +having the verb in the subjunctive mood.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Cautions.</i></div> +<p>Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a +student who wishes to understand and use the English +subjunctive:—</p> +<p>(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main +difference is, that the subjunctive has no <i>-s</i> as the ending +of the present tense, third person singular; as, "If he +<i>come</i>."</p> +<p>(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by +certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you.</p> +<p>(3) The <i>meaning</i> of the verb itself must be keenly +studied.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_138" id= +"Page_138"></a><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>218.</b></span> The subjunctive mood is that +form or use of the verb which expresses action or being, not as a +fact, but as merely conceived of in the mind.</p> +<h3>Subjunctive in Independent Clauses.</h3> +<h3>I. Expressing a Wish.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>219.</b></span> The following are examples +of this use:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Heaven <i>rest</i> her soul!<span class= +"smcap">—Moore.</span></p> +<p>God <i>grant</i> you find one face there You loved when all was +young.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>Now <i>tremble</i> dimples on your cheek, Sweet <i>be</i> your +lips to taste and speak.<span class= +"smcap">—Beddoes.</span></p> +<p>Long <i>die</i> thy happy days before thy death.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. A Contingent Declaration or Question.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>220.</b></span> This really amounts to the +conclusion, or principal clause, in a sentence, of which the +condition is omitted.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to +choose one] <i>would be</i> this Goethe.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I <i>could lie</i> down like a tired +child,<br /></span> <span>And <i>weep</i> away the life of +care<br /></span> <span>Which I have borne and yet must +bear.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see +their loveliness, <i>might</i> it not <i>be</i> as well to ask +after the most beautiful road, rather than the +shortest?<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses.</h3> +<h3>I. Condition or Supposition.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>221.</b></span> The most common way of +representing the action or being as merely thought of, is by +<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>putting it into the form of a +<i>supposition</i> or <i>condition</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning <i>be</i> +the same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent +electrified clouds.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here no assertion is made that the two things <i>are</i> the +same; but, if the reader merely <i>conceives</i> them for the +moment to be the same, the writer can make the statement following. +Again,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If it <i>be</i> Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants +sit on the church steps and con their psalm books.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>222.</b></span> There are three kinds of +conditional sentences:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Real or true.</i></div> +<p>(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before +the mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If they <i>were</i> unacquainted with the works of philosophers +and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their +names <i>were not found</i> in the registers of heralds, they were +recorded in the Book of Life.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ideal,—may or may not be +true.</i></div> +<p>(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, +and <i>may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If, in our case, the representative system ultimately +<i>fail</i>, popular government must be pronounced +impossible.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +<p>If this <i>be</i> the glory of Julius, the first great founder +of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second +founder.<span class="smcap">—Bryce.</span></p> +<p>If any man <i>consider</i> the present aspects of what is called +by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. +<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_140" id= +"Page_140"></a><i>Unreal—cannot be true.</i></div> +<p>(3) Suppositions <i>contrary to fact</i>, which cannot be true, +or conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in +order to suggest what <i>might be</i> or <i>might have been</i> +true; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If these things <i>were</i> true, society could not hold +together. <span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><i>Did not</i> my writings <i>produce</i> me some solid pudding, +the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged +me.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p><i>Had</i> he for once <i>cast</i> all such feelings aside, and +<i>striven</i> energetically to save Ney, it <i>would have cast</i> +such an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but +regret its absence.<span class="smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced by +<i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>unless</i>, etc.; but +when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often +omitted: for example, "<i>Were I bidden</i> to say how the highest +genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.</p> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is +indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, +clear, melodious, and sonorous.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do +you think, be any the happier?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat +still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was +regarded as a prodigy.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in +Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take +such caution that he should have the honor entire.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>6. If he had reason to +dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was +dead.—<span class="smcap">N. P. Willis</span>.</p> +<p>7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what +native of the city would not mourn over its fall?<span class= +"smcap">—Gayarre.</span></p> +<p>8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a +failure of the association or union to effect the object for which +it was created.<span class="smcap">—Calhoun.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. Subjunctive of Purpose.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>223.</b></span> The subjunctive, especially +<i>be</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, and <i>should</i>, is used to +express purpose, the clause being introduced by <i>that</i> or +<i>lest</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he +<i>might be</i> strong to labor.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>I have been the more particular...that you <i>may compare</i> +such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made +there.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what +had passed, lest in the strife They <i>should engage</i> with +Julian's men.<span class="smcap">—Southey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>III. Subjunctive of Result.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>224.</b></span> The subjunctive may +represent the result toward which an action tends:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So many thoughts move to and +fro,<br /></span> <span>That vain it <i>were</i> her eyes to +close.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>So live, that when thy summons comes to +join<br /></span> <span>The innumerable caravan...<br /></span> +<span>Thou <i>go</i> not, like the quarry-slave at +night.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>IV. In Temporal Clauses.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>225.</b></span> The English subjunctive, +like the Latin, is sometimes used in a clause to express the time +when an action is to take place.<a name="Page_142" id= +"Page_142"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Let it rise, till it <i>meet</i> the sun in his +coming.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +<p>Rise up, before it <i>be</i> too late!<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But it will not be long<br /></span> +<span>Ere this <i>be thrown</i> aside.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>V. In Indirect Questions.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>226.</b></span> The subjunctive is often +found in indirect questions, the answer being regarded as +doubtful.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Ask the great man if there <i>be</i> none greater.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>What the best arrangement <i>were</i>, none of us could +say.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>Whether it <i>were</i> morning or whether it <i>were</i> +afternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly +known.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>VI. Expressing a Wish.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>227.</b></span> After a verb of wishing, the +subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it <i>were</i>! +<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Bright star! Would I <i>were</i> steadfast as thou +art!<span class="smcap">—Keats.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I've wished that little isle <i>had</i> +wings,<br /></span> <span>And we, within its fairy +bowers,<br /></span> <span><i>Were wafted</i> off to seas +unknown.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Moore.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>VII. In a Noun Clause.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>228.</b></span> The noun clause, in its +various uses as subject, object, in apposition, etc., often +contains a subjunctive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The essence of originality is not that it <i>be</i> +new.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Apposition or logical subject.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October +fruits, it is necessary that you <i>be breathing</i> the sharp +October or November air.—<span class= +"smcap">Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor +equivalent, is, that everything <i>be</i> in its place.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_143" id= +"Page_143"></a><i>Object.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men +they <i>be</i>.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>Some might lament that I <i>were</i> cold.<span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>After verbs of commanding.</i></div> +<p>This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of +<i>commanding</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>See that there <i>be</i> no traitors in your camp.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Come, tell me all that thou hast +seen,<br /></span> <span>And look thou <i>tell</i> me +true.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>See that thy scepter <i>be</i> heavy on his head.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>VIII. Concessive Clauses.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>229.</b></span> The concession may be +expressed—</p> +<p>(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Be</i> the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with +rheumatism to the end of his days.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p><i>Be</i> the appeal <i>made</i> to the understanding or the +heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.<span class= +"smcap">—Brougham</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Whatever <i>betide</i>, we'll turn +aside,<br /></span> <span>And see the Braes of Yarrow.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it +<i>may be</i>, is the ultimate fact of man's life.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Adverb.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Wherever he <i>dream</i> under mountain +or stream,<br /></span> <span>The spirit he loves +remains.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>230.</b></span> As shown by the wide range +of literature from which these examples are selected, the +subjunctive is very much used in literary English, especially by +those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their +thought.</p> +<p><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>At the present day, +however, the subjunctive is becoming less and less used. Very many +of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could +be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the +same thoughts.</p> +<p>The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to +express a wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.</p> +<p>In spoken English, the subjunctive <i>were</i> is much used in a +wish or a condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other +subjunctive forms are.</p> +<p>It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the +subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is +this true of unreal conditions in past time; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we <i>had found</i> +[should have found] a poem here.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>231.</b></span> The <b>imperative mood</b> +is the form of the verb used in direct commands, entreaties, or +requests.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Usually second person.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>232.</b></span> The imperative is naturally +used mostly with the <b>second person</b>, since commands are +directed to a person addressed.</p> +<p>(1) <i>Command.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Call up</i> the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for +your words; <i>point</i> to their immortal +works.—<span class="smcap">J. Q. Adams</span>.</p> +<p><i>Honor</i> all men; <i>love</i> all men; <i>fear</i> +none.<span class="smcap">—Channing.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Entreaty.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy +face<br /></span> <span><i>Spare</i> me and mine, nor <i>let</i> us +need the wrath<br /></span> <span>Of the mad unchained +elements.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>(3) <i>Request.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>Hush</i>! mother," whispered Kit. "<i>Come</i> along with +me."<span class="smcap">—Dickens</span></p> +<p><i>Tell</i> me, how was it you thought of coming +here?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes with</i> first person <i>in the +plural</i>.</div> +<p>But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first +person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, +but I + you, or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with +<i>we</i> in a command, request, etc., to <i>you</i> implied in it. +This is scarcely ever found outside of poetry.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Part we</i> in friendship from your +land,<br /></span> <span>And, noble earl, receive my +hand.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>Then <i>seek we</i> not their +camp—for there<br /></span> <span>The silence dwells of my +despair.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Break we</i> our watch +up.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<p>Usually this is expressed by <i>let</i> with the objective: +"<i>Let</i> us go." And the same with the third person: "<i>Let</i> +him be accursed."</p> +<h4>Exercises on the Moods.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and +what special use it is of that mood:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or +shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.</p> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Mark thou this difference, child of +earth!<br /></span> <span class="i2">While each performs his +part,<br /></span> <span>Not all the lip can speak is +worth<br /></span> <span class="i2">The silence of the +heart.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were +the supreme delight of knowing thy will!</p> +<p>4.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>'Twere worth ten years of peaceful +life,<br /></span> <span>One glance at their +array!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred +before justice.</p> +<a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The vigorous sun would catch it up at +eve<br /></span> <span>And use it for an anvil till he had +filled<br /></span> <span>The shelves of heaven with burning +thunderbolts.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Meet is it changes should +control<br /></span> <span>Our being, lest we rust in +ease.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>8.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Quoth she, "The Devil take the +goose,<br /></span> <span>And God forget the +stranger!"<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.</p> +<p>10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.</p> +<p>11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?</p> +<p>12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or +wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has +taken the pains to think of.</p> +<p>13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and +prosperities he like, no literary man.</p> +<p>14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these +flagrant points compose!</p> +<p>15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may +find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."</p> +<p>16.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>That sheaf of darts, will it not fall +unbound,<br /></span> <span>Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly +vaunt,<br /></span> <span>Thou bring it to be blessed where saints +and angels haunt?<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>17.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Forget thyself to marble, +till<br /></span> <span>With a sad leaden downward +cast<br /></span> <span>Thou fix them on the earth as +fast.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>18.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He, as though an instrument,<br /></span> +<span>Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,<br /></span> +<span>That they might answer him.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>19.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>From the moss violets and jonquils +peep,<br /></span> <span>And dart their arrowy odor through the +brain,<br /></span> <span>Till you might faint with that delicious +pain.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that +debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect +he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.</p> +<p>21.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The fat earth feed thy branchy +root<br /></span> <span class="i2">That under deeply +strikes!<br /></span> <span>The northern morning o'er thee +shoot,<br /></span> <span class="i2">High up in silver +spikes!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace +opinion,<a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a> all are at last +contained in the Eternal cause.</p> +<p>23. God send Rome one such other sight!</p> +<p>24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one +mentions the United States to the prisoner."</p> +<p>25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the +right to vote, she ought to have it.</p> +<p>26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.</p> +<p>27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display +of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a +general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and +unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.</p> +<p>28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence +whether there be a man behind it or no.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative +mood, five in the subjunctive, five in the imperative.</p> +<h3>TENSE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>233.</b></span> <i>Tense</i> means +<i>time</i>. The <b>tense</b> of a verb is the form or use +indicating the time of an action or being.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Tenses in English.</i></div> +<p>Old English had only two tenses,—the present tense, which +represented present and future time; and the past tense. We still +use the present for the future in such expressions as, "I <i>go</i> +away to-morrow;" "If he <i>comes</i>, tell him to wait."</p> +<p>But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of +the natural time divisions,—present, past, and +future,—but has other tenses to correspond with those of +highly inflected languages, such as Latin and Greek.</p> +<p>The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past +tenses, however: the others are <a name="Page_148" id= +"Page_148"></a>compounds of verbal forms with various helping +verbs, called <b>auxiliaries</b>; such as <i>be</i>, <i>have</i>, +<i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The tenses in detail.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>234.</b></span> Action or being may be +represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means +of the <b>present</b>, the <b>past</b>, and the <b>future +tense</b>. It may also be represented as <i>finished</i> in present +or past or future time by means of the present perfect, past +perfect, and future perfect tenses.</p> +<p>Not only is this so: there are what are called <b>definite +forms</b> of these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the +action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than +other languages, as will be shown later on, in the +conjugations.</p> +<h3>PERSON AND NUMBER.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>235.</b></span> The English verb has never +had full inflections for number and person, as the classical +languages have.</p> +<p>When the older pronoun <i>thou</i> was in use, there was a form +of the verb to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou +walk<i>est</i>," present; "Thou walked<i>st</i>," past; also, in +the third person singular, a form ending in -<i>eth</i>, as, "It is +not in man that walk<i>eth</i>, to direct his steps."</p> +<p>But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically +only one ending for person and number. This is the third person, +singular number; as, "He walk<i>s</i>;" and this only in the +present tense indicative. This is important in questions of +agreement when we come to syntax.<a name="Page_149" id= +"Page_149"></a></p> +<h3>CONJUGATION.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>236.</b></span> <b>Conjugation</b> is the +regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices, +moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.</p> +<p>In classical languages, <b>conjugation</b> means <i>joining +together</i> the numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in +English, inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the +exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express +the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Few forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>237.</b></span> Verbs in modern English have +only four or five forms; for example, <i>walk</i> has <i>walk</i>, +<i>walks</i>, <i>walked</i>, <i>walking</i>, sometimes adding the +old forms <i>walkest</i>, <i>walkedst</i>, <i>walketh</i>. Such +verbs as <i>choose</i> have five,—<i>choose</i>, +<i>chooses</i>, <i>chose</i>, <i>choosing</i>, <i>chosen</i> (old, +<i>choosest</i>, <i>chooseth</i>, <i>chosest</i>).</p> +<p>The verb <i>be</i> has more forms, since it is composed of +several different roots,—<i>am</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>is</i>, +<i>were</i>, <i>been</i>, etc.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>238.</b></span> <b>INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB +<i>BE</i></b>.</p> +<h3>Indicative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I am</td> +<td align='center'>We are</td> +<td align='center'>1. I was</td> +<td align='center'>We were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You are<br /> +(thou art)</td> +<td align='center'>You are</td> +<td align='center'>2. You were<br /> +(thou wast, wert)</td> +<td align='center'>You were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] is</td> +<td align='center'>[They] are</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] was</td> +<td align='center'>[They were]</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Subjunctive Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I be</td> +<td align='center'>We be</td> +<td align='center'>1. I were</td> +<td align='center'>We were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You (thou) be</td> +<td align='center'>You be</td> +<td align='center'>2. You were<br /> +(thou wert)</td> +<td align='center'>You were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] be</td> +<td align='center'>[They] be</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] were</td> +<td align='center'>[They] were</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a></p> +<h3>Imperative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center'>PRESENT TENSE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular and Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>Be.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Remarks on the verb</i> be.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>239.</b></span> This conjugation is pieced +out with three different roots: (1) <i>am</i>, <i>is</i>; (2) +<i>was</i>, <i>were</i>; (3) <i>be</i>.</p> +<p>Instead of the plural <i>are</i>, Old English had <i>beoth</i> +and <i>sind</i> or <i>sindon</i>, same as the German <i>sind</i>. +<i>Are</i> is supposed to have come from the Norse language.</p> +<p>The old indicative third person plural <i>be</i> is sometimes +found in literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Where <i>be</i> the sentries who used to salute as the Royal +chariots drove in and out?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>Where <i>be</i> the gloomy shades, and desolate +mountains?<span class="smcap">—Whittier</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Uses of</i> be.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>240.</b></span> The forms of the verb +<i>be</i> have several uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As principal verbs.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The light that never <i>was</i> on sea and land.<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>As auxiliary verbs</i>, in four ways,—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) With verbal forms in <i>-ing</i> (imperfect +participle) to form the definite tenses.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Broadswords <i>are maddening</i> in the rear,—Each +broadsword bright <i>was brandishing</i> like beam of +light.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) With the past participle in <i>-ed</i>, <i>-en</i>, +etc., to form the passive voice.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>By solemn vision and bright silver +dream,<br /></span> <span>His infancy <i>was +nurtured</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being +equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; +as,</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a> +<span>When we <i>are gone</i><br /></span> <span>From every object +dear to mortal sight.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We drank tea, which <i>was</i> now <i>become</i> an occasional +banquet.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>d</i>) With the infinitive, to express intention, +obligation, condition, etc.; thus,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It <i>was to have been called</i> the Order of +Minerva.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Ingenuity and cleverness <i>are to be rewarded</i> by State +prizes.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>If I <i>were to explain</i> the motion of a body falling to the +ground.<span class="smcap">—Burke</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>241.</b></span> INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB +<i>CHOOSE</i>.</p> +<h3>Indicative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I choose</td> +<td align='center'>We choose</td> +<td align='center'>1. I chose</td> +<td align='center'>We chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You choose</td> +<td align='center'>You choose</td> +<td align='center'>2. You chose</td> +<td align='center'>You chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] chooses</td> +<td align='center'>[They] choose</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] chose</td> +<td align='center'>[They] chose</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a></p> +<h3>Subjunctive Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I choose</td> +<td align='center'>We choose</td> +<td align='center'>1. I chose</td> +<td align='center'>We chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You choose</td> +<td align='center'>You choose</td> +<td align='center'>2. You chose</td> +<td align='center'>You chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] choose</td> +<td align='center'>[They] choose</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] chose</td> +<td align='center'>[They] chose</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Imperative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center'>PRESENT TENSE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular and Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>Choose.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB <i>CHOOSE</i>.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, +etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>242.</b></span> In addition to the above +<i>inflected</i> forms, there are many periphrastic or +<i>compound</i> forms, made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives +and <a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>participles. Some of these +have been indicated in Sec. 240, (2).</p> +<p>The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Future tense</i>, by using <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> +with the simple or root form of the verb; as, "I <i>shall be</i>," +"He <i>will choose.</i>"</p> +<p>(2) <i>Present perfect</i>, <i>past perfect</i>, <i>future +perfect</i>, tenses, by placing <i>have</i>, <i>had</i>, and +<i>shall</i> (or <i>will</i>) <i>have</i> before the past +participle of any verb; as, "I <i>have gone</i>" (present perfect), +"I <i>had gone</i>" (past perfect), "I <i>shall have gone</i>" +(future perfect).</p> +<p>(3) The <i>definite form</i> of each tense, by using auxiliaries +with the imperfect participle active; as, "I <i>am running</i>," +"They <i>had been running</i>."</p> +<p>(4) The <i>passive forms</i>, by using the forms of the verb +<i>be</i> before the past participle of verbs; as, "I <i>was +chosen</i>," "You <i>are chosen</i>."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>243.</b></span> The following scheme will +show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every +variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each +tense, will be given.</p> +<h3>ACTIVE VOICE.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'><b>Indicative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He chooses.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He is choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He chose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He was choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will he choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He has chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He has been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He had chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He had been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will have chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will have been choosing.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Subjunctive Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[If, though, lest, etc.]</td> +<td align='left'>he choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he be choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he chose (or were to choose).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he were choosing (or were to be choosing).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he have chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he have been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>Same as indicative.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>Same as indicative.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Imperative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>(2d per.)</td> +<td align='left'>Choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>Be choosing.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>NOTE.—Since participles and infinitives are not really +verbs, but verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).</p> +<h3>PASSIVE VOICE.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'><b>Indicative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He is chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He is being chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He was chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He was being chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He has been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He had been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will have been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Subjunctive Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i>.</td> +<td align='left'>[If, though, lest, etc.]</td> +<td align='left'>he be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he were chosen (or were to be chosen).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he were being chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he have been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he had been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Imperative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'>(2d per.)</td> +<td align='left'>Be chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Also, in <i>affirmative sentences</i>, the indicative present +and past tenses have emphatic forms made up of <i>do</i> and +<i>did</i> with the infinitive or simple form; as, "He <i>does +strike</i>," "He <i>did strike</i>."</p> +<p>[<i>Note to Teacher</i>.—This table is not to be learned +now; if learned at all, it should be as practice work on strong and +weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up +sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil +will find readily in literature.]</p> +<h3>VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>244.</b></span> According to form, verbs are +<b>strong</b> or <b>weak</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p>A <b>strong verb</b> forms its past tense by changing the vowel +of the present tense form, but adds no ending; as, <i>run</i>, +<i>ran</i>; <i>drive</i>, <i>drove</i>.</p> +<p>A <b>weak verb</b> always adds an ending to the present to form +the past tense, and <i>may</i> or <i>may not</i> change the vowel: +as, <i>beg</i>, <i>begged</i>; <i>lay</i>, <i>laid</i>; +<i>sleep</i>, <i>slept</i>; <i>catch</i>, <i>caught</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>245.</b></span> TABLE OF STRONG VERBS.</p> +<p>NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in +parentheses</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>abide</td> +<td align='left'>abode</td> +<td align='left'>abode</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>arise</td> +<td align='left'>arose</td> +<td align='left'>arisen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>awake</td> +<td align='left'>awoke (awaked)</td> +<td align='left'>awoke (awaked)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bear</td> +<td align='left'>bore</td> +<td align='left'>borne (active)born (passive)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>begin</td> +<td align='left'>began</td> +<td align='left'>begun</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>behold</td> +<td align='left'>beheld</td> +<td align='left'>beheld</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bid</td> +<td align='left'>bade, bid</td> +<td align='left'>bidden, bid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bind</td> +<td align='left'>bound</td> +<td align='left'>bound,[<i>adj.</i> bounden]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bite</td> +<td align='left'>bit</td> +<td align='left'>bitten, bit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>blow</td> +<td align='left'>blew</td> +<td align='left'>blown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>break</td> +<td align='left'>broke</td> +<td align='left'>broken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>chide</td> +<td align='left'>chid</td> +<td align='left'>chidden, chid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>choose</td> +<td align='left'>chose</td> +<td align='left'>chosen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cleave</td> +<td align='left'>clove, clave (cleft)</td> +<td align='left'>cloven (cleft)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>climb</td> +<td align='left'>[clomb] climbed</td> +<td align='left'>climbed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cling</td> +<td align='left'>clung</td> +<td align='left'>clung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>come</td> +<td align='left'>came</td> +<td align='left'>come</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>crow</td> +<td align='left'>crew (crowed)</td> +<td align='left'>(crowed)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>dig</td> +<td align='left'>dug</td> +<td align='left'>dug</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>do</td> +<td align='left'>did</td> +<td align='left'>done</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>draw</td> +<td align='left'>drew</td> +<td align='left'>drawn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>drink</td> +<td align='left'>drank</td> +<td align='left'>drunk, drank[<i>adj.</i> drunken]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>drive</td> +<td align='left'>drove</td> +<td align='left'>driven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>eat</td> +<td align='left'>ate, eat</td> +<td align='left'>eaten, eat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fall</td> +<td align='left'>fell</td> +<td align='left'>fallen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fight</td> +<td align='left'>fought</td> +<td align='left'>fought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>find</td> +<td align='left'>found</td> +<td align='left'>found</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fling</td> +<td align='left'>flung</td> +<td align='left'>flung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fly</td> +<td align='left'>flew</td> +<td align='left'>flown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>forbear</td> +<td align='left'>forbore</td> +<td align='left'>forborne</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>forget</td> +<td align='left'>forgot</td> +<td align='left'>forgotten</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>forsake</td> +<td align='left'>forsook</td> +<td align='left'>forsaken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>freeze</td> +<td align='left'>froze</td> +<td align='left'>frozen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>get</td> +<td align='left'>got</td> +<td align='left'>got [gotten]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>give</td> +<td align='left'>gave</td> +<td align='left'>given</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>go</td> +<td align='left'>went</td> +<td align='left'>gone</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>grind</td> +<td align='left'>ground</td> +<td align='left'>ground</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>grow</td> +<td align='left'>grew</td> +<td align='left'>grown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hang</td> +<td align='left'>hung (hanged)</td> +<td align='left'>hung (hanged)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hold</td> +<td align='left'>held</td> +<td align='left'>held</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>know</td> +<td align='left'>knew</td> +<td align='left'>known</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lie</td> +<td align='left'>lay</td> +<td align='left'>lain</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ride</td> +<td align='left'>rode</td> +<td align='left'>ridden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ring</td> +<td align='left'>rang</td> +<td align='left'>rung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>run</td> +<td align='left'>ran</td> +<td align='left'>run</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>see</td> +<td align='left'>saw</td> +<td align='left'>seen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shake</td> +<td align='left'>shook</td> +<td align='left'>shaken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shear</td> +<td align='left'>shore (sheared)</td> +<td align='left'>shorn (sheared)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shine</td> +<td align='left'>shone</td> +<td align='left'>shone</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shoot</td> +<td align='left'>shot</td> +<td align='left'>shot</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shrink</td> +<td align='left'>shrank or shrunk</td> +<td align='left'>shrunk</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shrive</td> +<td align='left'>shrove</td> +<td align='left'>shriven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sing</td> +<td align='left'>sang or sung</td> +<td align='left'>sung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sink</td> +<td align='left'>sank or sunk</td> +<td align='left'>sunk <i>[adj.</i> sunken]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sit</td> +<td align='left'>sat [sate]</td> +<td align='left'>sat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slay</td> +<td align='left'>slew</td> +<td align='left'>slain</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slide</td> +<td align='left'>slid</td> +<td align='left'>slidden, slid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sling</td> +<td align='left'>slung</td> +<td align='left'>slung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slink</td> +<td align='left'>slunk</td> +<td align='left'>slunk</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>smite</td> +<td align='left'>smote</td> +<td align='left'>smitten</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>speak</td> +<td align='left'>spoke</td> +<td align='left'>spoken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spin</td> +<td align='left'>spun</td> +<td align='left'>spun</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spring</td> +<td align='left'>sprang, sprung</td> +<td align='left'>sprung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stand</td> +<td align='left'>stood</td> +<td align='left'>stood</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stave</td> +<td align='left'>stove (staved)</td> +<td align='left'>(staved)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>steal</td> +<td align='left'>stole</td> +<td align='left'>stolen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stick</td> +<td align='left'>stuck</td> +<td align='left'>stuck</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sting</td> +<td align='left'>stung</td> +<td align='left'>stung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stink</td> +<td align='left'>stunk, stank</td> +<td align='left'>stunk</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stride</td> +<td align='left'>strode</td> +<td align='left'>stridden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>strike</td> +<td align='left'>struck</td> +<td align='left'>struck, stricken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>string</td> +<td align='left'>strung</td> +<td align='left'>strung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>strive</td> +<td align='left'>strove</td> +<td align='left'>striven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>swear</td> +<td align='left'>swore</td> +<td align='left'>sworn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>swim</td> +<td align='left'>swam or swum</td> +<td align='left'>swum</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>swing</td> +<td align='left'>swung</td> +<td align='left'>swung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>take</td> +<td align='left'>took</td> +<td align='left'>taken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>tear</td> +<td align='left'>tore</td> +<td align='left'>torn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>thrive</td> +<td align='left'>throve (thrived)</td> +<td align='left'>thriven (thrived)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>throw</td> +<td align='left'>threw</td> +<td align='left'>thrown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>tread</td> +<td align='left'>trod</td> +<td align='left'>trodden, trod</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wear</td> +<td align='left'>wore</td> +<td align='left'>worn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>weave</td> +<td align='left'>wove</td> +<td align='left'>woven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>win</td> +<td align='left'>won</td> +<td align='left'>won</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wind</td> +<td align='left'>wound</td> +<td align='left'>wound</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wring</td> +<td align='left'>wrung</td> +<td align='left'>wrung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>write</td> +<td align='left'>wrote</td> +<td align='left'>written</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a></div> +<h3>Remarks on Certain Verb Forms.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>246.</b></span> Several of the perfect +participles are seldom used except as adjectives: as, "his +<i>bounden</i> duty," "the <i>cloven</i> hoof," "a <i>drunken</i> +wretch," "a <i>sunken</i> snag." <i>Stricken</i> is used mostly of +diseases; as, "<i>stricken</i> with paralysis."</p> +<p>The verb <b>bear</b> (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one +participle (<i>borne</i>) for the active, and another (<i>born</i>) +for the passive. When it means <i>to carry</i> or to <i>endure</i>, +<i>borne</i> is also a passive.</p> +<p>The form <b>clomb</b> is not used in prose, but is much used in +vulgar English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Thou hast <i>clomb</i> aloft.<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth</span></p> +<p>Or pine grove whither woodman never <i>clomb</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>The forms of <b>cleave</b> +are really a mixture of two verbs,—one meaning <i>to +adhere</i> or <i>cling</i>; the other, <i>to split</i>. The former +used to be <i>cleave</i>, <i>cleaved</i>, <i>cleaved</i>; and the +latter, <i>cleave</i>, <i>clave</i> or <i>clove</i>, <i>cloven</i>. +But the latter took on the weak form <i>cleft</i> in the past tense +and past participle,—as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! thou +hast <i>cleft</i> my heart in twain,"—while <i>cleave</i> (to +cling) sometimes has <i>clove</i>, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin +tutor <i>clove</i> to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, +only one set remains certain,—<i>cleave</i>, <i>cleft</i>, +<i>cleft</i> (to split).</p> +<p><b>Crew</b> is seldom found in present-day English.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not a cock <i>crew</i>, nor a dog barked.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>Our cock, which always <i>crew</i> at eleven, now told us it was +time for repose.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Historically, <b>drunk</b> is the one correct past participle of +the verb <i>drink</i>. But <i>drunk</i> is very much used as an +adjective, instead of <i>drunken</i> (meaning intoxicated); and, +probably to avoid confusion with this, <b>drank</b> is a good deal +used as a past participle: thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We had each <i>drank</i> three times at the +well.—<span class="smcap">B. Taylor</span>.</p> +<p>This liquor <i>was</i> generally <i>drank</i> by Wood and +Billings. <span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier +period, it is found that the verb <b>eat</b> has the past tense and +past participle <i>eat</i> (ĕt), instead of <i>ate</i> and +<i>eaten</i>; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It ate the food it ne'er had <i>eat</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>How fairy Mab the junkets <i>eat</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The island princes overbold<br /></span> +<span>Have <i>eat</i> our substance.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>This is also very much used +in spoken and vulgar English.</p> +<p>The form <b>gotten</b> is little used, <i>got</i> being the +preferred form of past participle as well as past tense. One +example out of many is,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We <i>had</i> all <i>got</i> safe on shore.<span class= +"smcap">—De Foe.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Hung</b> and <b>hanged</b> both are used as the past tense +and past participle of <i>hang</i>; but <i>hanged</i> is the +preferred form when we speak of execution by hanging; as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The butler <i>was hanged</i>.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>The verb <b>sat</b> is sometimes spelled <i>sate</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Might we have <i>sate</i> and talked where gowans +blow.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>He <i>sate</i> him down, and seized a pen.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>"But I <i>sate</i> still and finished my plaiting."<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Usually <b>shear</b> is a weak verb. <i>Shorn</i> and +<i>shore</i> are not commonly used: indeed, <i>shore</i> is rare, +even in poetry.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>This heard Geraint, and grasping at his +sword,<br /></span> <span><i>Shore</i> thro' the swarthy +neck.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></div> +</div> +<p><i>Shorn</i> is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a +<i>shorn</i> lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, +"The sheep were <i>sheared</i>" instead of "The sheep were +<i>shorn</i>."</p> +<p><b>Went</b> is borrowed as the past tense of <i>go</i> from the +old verb <i>wend</i>, which is seldom used except in poetry; for +example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>If, maiden, thou would'st <i>wend</i> +with me<br /></span> <span>To leave both tower and +town.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a><b>Exercises.</b></p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs +having the same vowel changes as each of the following:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>1. Fall, fell, fallen.</li> +<li>2. Begin, began, begun.</li> +<li>3. Find, found, found.</li> +<li>4. Give, gave, given.</li> +<li>5. Drive, drove, driven.</li> +<li>6. Throw, threw, thrown.</li> +<li>7. Fling, flung, flung.</li> +<li>8. Break, broke, broken.</li> +<li>9. Shake, shook, shaken.</li> +<li>10. Freeze, froze, frozen.</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong +verbs.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong +verbs.</p> +<p>[<i>To the Teacher</i>,—These exercises should be +continued for several lessons, for full drill on the forms.]</p> +<h3>DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>247.</b></span> There are several verbs +which are lacking in one or more principal parts. They are as +follows:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>PRESENT.</td> +<td align='left'>PAST.</td> +<td align='left'>PRESENT.</td> +<td align='left'>PAST.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>may</td> +<td align='left'>might</td> +<td align='left'>[ought]</td> +<td align='left'>ought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>can</td> +<td align='left'>could</td> +<td align='left'>shall</td> +<td align='left'>should</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>[must]</td> +<td align='left'>must</td> +<td align='left'>will</td> +<td align='left'>would</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><span class="sn"><b>248.</b></span> May is used as either +indicative or subjunctive, as it has two meanings. It is indicative +when it expresses <i>permission</i>, or, as it sometimes does, +<i>ability</i>, like the word <i>can</i>: it is subjunctive when it +expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it +expresses wish, purpose, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_161" id= +"Page_161"></a><i>Indicative Use: Permission. Ability.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If I <i>may</i> lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his +coming shines."<span class="smcap">—Winier.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A stripling arm <i>might</i> +sway<br /></span> <span>A mass no host could raise.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His superiority none <i>might</i> question.<span class= +"smcap">—Channing.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subjunctive use.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution +<i>may</i> be arranged, there is one general principle, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Paine.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">(<i>See also Sec. 223.</i>)</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And from her fair and unpolluted +flesh<br /></span> <span><i>May</i> violets spring!<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>249.</b></span> <b>Can</b> is used in the +indicative only. The <i>l</i> in <i>could</i> did not belong there +originally, but came through analogy with <i>should</i> and +<i>would</i>. <i>Could</i> may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>250.</b></span> <b>Must</b> is historically +a past-tense form, from the obsolete verb <i>motan</i>, which +survives in the sentence, "So <i>mote</i> it be." <i>Must</i> is +present or past tense, according to the infinitive used.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All <i>must concede</i> to him a sublime power of +action.<span class="smcap">—Channing</span></p> +<p>This, of course, <i>must have been</i> an ocular +deception.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>251.</b></span> The same remarks apply to +<b>ought</b>, which is historically the past tense of the verb +<i>owe</i>. Like <i>must</i>, it is used only in the indicative +mood; as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The just imputations on our own faith <i>ought</i> first <i>to +be removed</i>.... Have we valuable territories and important +posts...which <i>ought</i> long since <i>to have been +surrendered</i>?—<span class="smcap">A. Hamilton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the +pure infinitive without <i>to</i>, while <i>ought</i> always has +<i>to</i>.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a><b>Shall and +Will.</b></h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>252.</b></span> The principal trouble in the +use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> is the disposition, especially +in the United States, to use <i>will</i> and <i>would</i>, to the +neglect of <i>shall</i> and <i>should</i>, with pronouns of the +first person; as, "I think I <i>will</i> go."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Uses of</i> shall <i>and</i> should.</div> +<p>The following distinctions must be observed:—</p> +<p>(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Futurity and questions—first +person.</i></div> +<p>(<i>a</i>) In making simple statements or predictions about +future time; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The time will come full soon, I <i>shall</i> be +gone.—<span class="smcap">L. C. Moulton</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) In questions asking for orders, or implying +obligation or authority resting upon the subject; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>With respect to novels, what <i>shall</i> I +say?—<span class="smcap">N. Webster</span>.</p> +<p>How <i>shall</i> I describe the luster which at that moment +burst upon my vision?—<span class="smcap">C. Brockden +Brown</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Second and third persons.</i></div> +<p>(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, <i>shall</i> and +<i>should</i> are used,—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) To express authority, in the form of command, +promise, or confident prediction. The following are +examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou <i>shalt</i> never want a +friend to stand by thee.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>They <i>shall</i> have venison to eat, and corn to +hoe.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>The sea <i>shall</i> crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the +loose beach <i>shall</i> grind and scoop thy grave.<span class= +"smcap">—Thaxter.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>She <i>should</i> not walk, he said, +through the dust and heat of<br /></span> <span>the +noonday;<br /></span> <span>Nay, she <i>should</i> ride like a +queen, not plod along like a<br /></span> +<span>peasant.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>(<i>b</i>) In <i>indirect +quotations</i>, to express the same idea that the original speaker +put forth (i.e., future action); for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He declares that he <i>shall</i> win the purse from +you.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she +<i>shall</i> make great use of her power over him.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the +conviction that he <i>should</i> win in the end.—<span class= +"smcap">A. Larned</span>.</p> +<p>Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they +<i>should</i> pass without combat were something +disconcerted.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) With <i>direct questions</i> of the second person, +when the answer expected would express simple futurity; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>Should</i> you like to go to school at +Canterbury?"<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>First, second and third persons.</i></div> +<p>(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Should</i> is used with the meaning of obligation, +and is equivalent to <i>ought</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I never was what I <i>should</i> be.—<span class= +"smcap">H. James, Jr</span>.</p> +<p>Milton! thou <i>should'st</i> be living at this +hour.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>He <i>should</i> not flatter himself with the delusion that he +can make or unmake the reputation of other men.<span class= +"smcap">—Winter.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Shall</i> and <i>should</i> are both used in +<i>dependent clauses</i> of condition, time, purpose, etc.; for +example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i6">When thy mind<br /></span> +<span><i>Shall</i> be a mansion for all stately forms.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Suppose this back-door gossip <i>should</i> be utterly +blundering and untrue, would any one wonder?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Jealous lest the sky <i>should</i> have a listener.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>If thou <i>should'st</i> ever come by chance or choice to +Modena.<span class="smcap">—Rogers.</span><a name="Page_164" +id="Page_164"></a></p> +<p>If I <i>should</i> be where I no more can hear thy +voice.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>That accents and looks so winning <i>should</i> disarm me of my +resolution, was to be expected.—<span class="smcap">C. B. +Brown</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>253.</b></span> <b>Will</b> and <b>would</b> +are used as follows:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Authority as to future action—first +person.</i></div> +<p>(1) With the FIRST PERSON, <i>will</i> and <i>would</i> are used +to express determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I <i>will</i> go myself now, and <i>will</i> not return until +all is finished.<span class="smcap">—Cable.</span></p> +<p>And promised...that I <i>would</i> do him justice, as the sole +inventor.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Disguising a command.</i></div> +<p>(2) With the SECOND PERSON, <i>will</i> is used to express +command. This puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely +expected action; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Thou <i>wilt</i> take the skiff, Roland, and two of my +people,... and fetch off certain plate and belongings.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>You <i>will</i> proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as +practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.—<i>War +Records.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mere futurity.</i></div> +<p>(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, <i>will</i> and +<i>would</i> are used to express simple futurity, action merely +expected to occur; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All this <i>will</i> sound wild and chimerical.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>She <i>would</i> tell you that punishment is the reward of the +wicked.<span class="smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p>When I am in town, <i>you'll</i> always have somebody to sit +with you. To be sure, so you <i>will</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, <i>would</i> is used +to express a <i>wish</i>,—the original meaning of the word +<i>will</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject</i> I <i>omitted: often +so.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Would</i> that a momentary emanation from thy glory would +visit me!—<span class="smcap">C. B. Brown</span>.<a name= +"Page_165" id="Page_165"></a></p> +<p>Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of +Beauty. <i>Would</i> thou hadst it not.<span class= +"smcap">—Rogers</span></p> +<p>It shall be gold if thou <i>wilt</i>, but thou shalt answer to +me for the use of it.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>What <i>wouldst</i> thou have a good great man +obtain?<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) With the THIRD PERSON, <i>will</i> and <i>would</i> often +denote an action as customary, without regard to future time; +as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They <i>will</i> go to Sunday schools, through storms their +brothers are afraid of.... They <i>will</i> stand behind a table at +a fair all day.<span class="smcap">—Holmes</span></p> +<p>On a slight suspicion, they <i>would</i> cut off the hands of +numbers of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p>In this stately chair <i>would</i> he sit, and this magnificent +pipe <i>would</i> he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant +motion.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>Conjugation of <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i> as Auxiliaries +(with <i>Choose</i>).</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>254.</b></span> To express simply expected +action:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +<td align='left'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. I shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>I shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>You will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [He] will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>[He] will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. We shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>We shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>You will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [They] will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>[They] will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>To express determination, promise, etc.:—<a name= +"Page_166" id="Page_166"></a></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +<td align='left'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. I will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>I will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>You shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [He] shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>[He] shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. We will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>1. We will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>2. You shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [They] shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>3. [They] shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Exercises on <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i>.</h3> +<p>(<i>a</i>) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or +outline of the various uses of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use +of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, or correct them if wrongly +used:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem.</p> +<p>2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so.</p> +<p>3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the +wardrobe keeper shall have orders to supply you.</p> +<p>4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly.</p> +<p>5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we +would reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian.</p> +<p>6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle +which we must solve if we would not be eaten.</p> +<p>7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we +not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind?</p> +<p>8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she +should see anything alive.</p> +<p>9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace.</p> +<p>10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will +spend it as you please, and I have nothing to say.</p> +<p>11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to +make inquiries.</p> +<p>12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to +understand several passages in the classics.</p> +<p>13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like +permission to remain with you a little while."</p> +<p>14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would +have more of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his +muzzle.</p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a><b>WEAK VERBS.</b></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>255.</b></span> Those weak verbs which add +<i>-d</i> or <i>-ed</i> to form the past tense and past participle, +and have no change of vowel, are so easily recognized as to need no +special treatment. Some of them are already given as secondary +forms of the strong verbs.</p> +<p>But the rest, which may be called <b>irregular weak verbs</b>, +need some attention and explanation.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>256.</b></span> The irregular weak verbs are +divided into two classes,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The two classes of irregular weak +verbs.</i></div> +<p>(1) Those which retain the <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i> in the past +tense, with some change of form for the past tense and past +participle.</p> +<p>(2) Those which end in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>, and have lost the +ending which formerly was added to this.</p> +<p>The old ending to verbs of Class II. was <i>-de</i> or +<i>-te</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This worthi man ful wel his wit <i>bisette</i> +[used].<span class="smcap">—Chaucer.</span></p> +<p>Of smale houndes <i>hadde</i> she, that sche <i>fedde</i> With +rosted flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with +the same form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>257.</b></span> <b>Irregular Weak +Verbs.—Class I.</b></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bereave</td> +<td align='left'>bereft, bereave</td> +<td align='left'>bereft, bereaved</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>beseech</td> +<td align='left'>besought</td> +<td align='left'>besought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>burn</td> +<td align='left'>burned, burnt</td> +<td align='left'>burnt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>buy</td> +<td align='left'>bought</td> +<td align='left'>bought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>catch</td> +<td align='left'>caught</td> +<td align='left'>caught</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>creep</td> +<td align='left'>crept</td> +<td align='left'>crept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>deal</td> +<td align='left'>dealt</td> +<td align='left'>dealt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>dream</td> +<td align='left'>dreamt, dreamed</td> +<td align='left'>dreamt, dreamed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>dwell</td> +<td align='left'>dwelt</td> +<td align='left'>dwelt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>feel</td> +<td align='left'>felt</td> +<td align='left'>felt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>flee</td> +<td align='left'>fled</td> +<td align='left'>fled</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>have</td> +<td align='left'>had</td> +<td align='left'>had (<i>once</i> haved)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hide</td> +<td align='left'>hid</td> +<td align='left'>hidden, hid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>keep</td> +<td align='left'>kept</td> +<td align='left'>kept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>kneel</td> +<td align='left'>knelt</td> +<td align='left'>knelt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lay</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lean</td> +<td align='left'>leaned, leant</td> +<td align='left'>leaned, leant</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>leap</td> +<td align='left'>leaped, leapt</td> +<td align='left'>leaped, leapt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>leave</td> +<td align='left'>left</td> +<td align='left'>left</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lose</td> +<td align='left'>lost</td> +<td align='left'>lost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>make</td> +<td align='left'>made (<i>once</i> maked)</td> +<td align='left'>made</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>mean</td> +<td align='left'>meant</td> +<td align='left'>meant</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>pay</td> +<td align='left'>paid</td> +<td align='left'>paid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>pen [inclose]</td> +<td align='left'>penned, pen</td> +<td align='left'>penned, pent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>say</td> +<td align='left'>said</td> +<td align='left'>said</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>seek</td> +<td align='left'>sought</td> +<td align='left'>sought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sell</td> +<td align='left'>sold</td> +<td align='left'>sold</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shoe</td> +<td align='left'>shod</td> +<td align='left'>shod</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sleep</td> +<td align='left'>slept</td> +<td align='left'>slept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spell</td> +<td align='left'>spelled, spelt</td> +<td align='left'>spelt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spill</td> +<td align='left'>spilt</td> +<td align='left'>spilt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stay</td> +<td align='left'>staid, stayed</td> +<td align='left'>staid, stayed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sweep</td> +<td align='left'>swept</td> +<td align='left'>swept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>teach</td> +<td align='left'>taught</td> +<td align='left'>taught</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>tell</td> +<td align='left'>told</td> +<td align='left'>told</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>think</td> +<td align='left'>thought</td> +<td align='left'>thought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>weep</td> +<td align='left'>wept</td> +<td align='left'>wept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>work</td> +<td align='left'>worked, wrought</td> +<td align='left'>worked, wrought</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>258.</b></span> <b>Irregular Weak +Verbs.—Class II.</b></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bend</td> +<td align='left'>bent, bended</td> +<td align='left'>bent, bended</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bleed</td> +<td align='left'>bled</td> +<td align='left'>bled</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>breed</td> +<td align='left'>bred</td> +<td align='left'>bred</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>build</td> +<td align='left'>built</td> +<td align='left'>built</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cast</td> +<td align='left'>cast</td> +<td align='left'>cast</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cost</td> +<td align='left'>cost</td> +<td align='left'>cost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>feed</td> +<td align='left'>fed</td> +<td align='left'>fed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>gild</td> +<td align='left'>gilded, gilt</td> +<td align='left'>gilded, gilt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>gird</td> +<td align='left'>girt, girded</td> +<td align='left'>girt, girded</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hit</td> +<td align='left'>hit</td> +<td align='left'>hit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hurt</td> +<td align='left'>hurt</td> +<td align='left'>hurt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>knit</td> +<td align='left'>knit, knitted</td> +<td align='left'>knit, knitted</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lead</td> +<td align='left'>led</td> +<td align='left'>led</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>let</td> +<td align='left'>let</td> +<td align='left'>let</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>light</td> +<td align='left'>lighted, lit</td> +<td align='left'>lighted, lit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>meet</td> +<td align='left'>met</td> +<td align='left'>met</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>put</td> +<td align='left'>put</td> +<td align='left'>put</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>quit</td> +<td align='left'>quit, quitted</td> +<td align='left'>quit, quitted</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>read</td> +<td align='left'>read</td> +<td align='left'>read</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>rend</td> +<td align='left'>rent</td> +<td align='left'>rent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>rid</td> +<td align='left'>rid</td> +<td align='left'>rid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>send</td> +<td align='left'>sent</td> +<td align='left'>sent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>set</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shed</td> +<td align='left'>shed</td> +<td align='left'>shed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shred</td> +<td align='left'>shred</td> +<td align='left'>shred</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shut</td> +<td align='left'>shut</td> +<td align='left'>shut</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slit</td> +<td align='left'>slit</td> +<td align='left'>slit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>speed</td> +<td align='left'>sped</td> +<td align='left'>sped</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spend</td> +<td align='left'>spent</td> +<td align='left'>spent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spit</td> +<td align='left'>spit [<i>obs.</i> spat]</td> +<td align='left'>spit [<i>obs.</i> spat]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>split</td> +<td align='left'>split</td> +<td align='left'>split</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spread</td> +<td align='left'>spread</td> +<td align='left'>spread</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sweat</td> +<td align='left'>sweat</td> +<td align='left'>sweat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>thrust</td> +<td align='left'>thrust</td> +<td align='left'>thrust</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wed</td> +<td align='left'>wed, wedded</td> +<td align='left'>wed, wedded</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wet</td> +<td align='left'>wet, wetted</td> +<td align='left'>wet, wetted</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Tendency to phonetic spelling.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>250.</b></span> There seems to be in Modern +English a growing tendency toward phonetic spelling in the past +tense and past participle of weak verbs. For <a name="Page_170" id= +"Page_170"></a>example, <i>-ed</i>, after the verb <i>bless</i>, +has the sound of <i>t</i>: hence the word is often written +<i>blest</i>. So with <i>dipt</i>, <i>whipt</i>, <i>dropt</i>, +<i>tost</i>, <i>crost</i>, <i>drest</i>, <i>prest</i>, etc. This is +often seen in poetry, and is increasing in prose.</p> +<h3>Some Troublesome Verbs.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">Lie <i>and</i> lay <i>in use and +meaning.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>260.</b></span> Some sets of verbs are often +confused by young students, weak forms being substituted for +correct, strong forms.</p> +<p><b>Lie</b> and <b>lay</b> need close attention. These are the +forms:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Pres. Participle.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. Lie</td> +<td align='left'>lay</td> +<td align='left'>lying</td> +<td align='left'>lain</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. Lay</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +<td align='left'>laying</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The distinctions to be observed are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Lie</i>, with its forms, is regularly <i>intransitive</i> +as to use. As to meaning, <i>lie</i> means to rest, to recline, to +place one's self in a recumbent position; as, "There <i>lies</i> +the ruin."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Lay</i>, with its forms, is always <i>transitive</i> as +to use. As to meaning, <i>lay</i> means to put, to place a person +or thing in position; as, "Slowly and sadly we <i>laid</i> him +down." Also <i>lay</i> may be used without any object expressed, +but there is still a transitive meaning; as in the expressions, "to +<i>lay</i> up for future use," "to <i>lay</i> on with the rod," "to +<i>lay</i> about him lustily."</p> +<div class="sidenote">Sit <i>and</i> set.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>261.</b></span> <b>Sit</b> and <b>set</b> +have principal parts as follows:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Pres. Participle.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. Sit</td> +<td align='left'>sat</td> +<td align='left'>sitting</td> +<td align='left'>sat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. Set</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +<td align='left'>setting</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>Notice these points of +difference between the two verbs:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Sit</i>, with its forms, is always <i>intransitive</i> in +use. In meaning, <i>sit</i> signifies (<i>a</i>) to place one's +self on a seat, to rest; (<i>b</i>) to be adjusted, to fit; +(<i>c</i>) to cover and warm eggs for hatching, as, "The hen +<i>sits</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Set</i>, with its forms, is always <i>transitive</i> in +use when it has the following meanings: (<i>a</i>) to put or place +a thing or person in position, as "He <i>set</i> down the book;" +(<i>b</i>) to fix or establish, as, "He <i>sets</i> a good +example."</p> +<p><i>Set</i> is <i>intransitive</i> when it means (<i>a</i>) to go +down, to decline, as, "The sun has <i>set</i>;" (<i>b</i>) to +become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes <i>set</i> in his head because +of the disease;" (<i>c</i>) in certain idiomatic expressions, as, +for example, "to <i>set</i> out," "to <i>set</i> up in business," +"to <i>set</i> about a thing," "to <i>set</i> to work," "to +<i>set</i> forward," "the tide <i>sets</i> in," "a strong wind +<i>set</i> in," etc.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Examine the forms of <i>lie</i>, <i>lay</i>, <i>sit</i> and +<i>set</i> in these sentences; give the meaning of each, and +correct those used wrongly.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his +purpose, all history must be ransacked.</p> +<p>2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on +Hamlet, and with his mouth open.</p> +<p>3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making +wheelbarrows and chairs,... can never again be the realities they +were.</p> +<p>4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was +gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt.</p> +<p>5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection.</p> +<p><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>6. For more than two +hundred years his bones lay undistinguished.</p> +<p>7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience.</p> +<p>8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could +bestride him.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And send'st him...to his gods where happy +lies<br /></span> <span>His petty hope in some near port or +bay,<br /></span> <span>And dashest him again to earth:—there +let him lay.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still.</p> +<p>11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins +in novel, and ends in essay.</p> +<p>12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VERBALS" id="VERBALS"></a><b>VERBALS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>262.</b></span> <b>Verbals</b> are words +that express action in a general way, without limiting the action +to any time, or asserting it of any subject.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p>Verbals may be <b>participles</b>, <b>infinitives</b>, or +<b>gerunds</b>.</p> +<h3>PARTICIPLES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>263.</b></span> Participles are +<i>adjectival</i> verbals; that is, they either belong to some +substantive by expressing action in connection with it, or they +express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having a +descriptive force. Notice these functions.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Pure participle in function.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. At length, <i>wearied</i> by his cries and agitations, and +not <i>knowing</i> how to put an end to them, he addressed the +animal as if he had been a rational being.<span class= +"smcap">—Dwight.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>wearied</i> and <i>knowing</i> belong to the subject +<i>he</i>, and express action in connection with it, but do not +describe.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_173" id= +"Page_173"></a><i>Express action and also describe.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>2. Another name glided into her petition—it was that of +the <i>wounded</i> Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of +bloodthirsty men, his <i>avowed</i> enemies.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>wounded</i> and <i>avowed</i> are participles, but are +used with the same adjectival force that <i>bloodthirsty</i> is +(see Sec. 143, 4).</p> +<p>Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but +we give further examples for the sake of comparison and +distinction.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Fossil participles as +adjectives.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>3. As <i>learned</i> a man may live in a cottage or a college +commmon-room.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns +<i>interesting</i> <span class="smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>5. How <i>charming</i> is divine philosophy!<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Forms of the participle.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>264.</b></span> Participles, in expressing +action, may be <b>active</b> or <b>passive</b>, incomplete (or +<b>imperfect</b>), complete (<b>perfect</b> or past), and +<b>perfect definite</b>.</p> +<p>They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), +because they have no tense of their own, but derive their tense +from the verb on which they depend; for example,—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, +<i>fulfilling</i> every section the minutest, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>Fulfilling</i> has the form to denote continuance, but +depends on the verb <i>walked</i>, which is past tense.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;">2. +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Now the bright morning star, day's +harbinger,<br /></span> <span>Comes <i>dancing</i> from the +East.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +</div> +<p><i>Dancing</i> here depends on a verb in the present tense.</p> +<p><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>265.</b></span> <b>PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB +<i>CHOOSE</i>.</b></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Imperfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Having chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Having been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Imperfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, +imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell +to what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they +modify.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large +and corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or +equatorial line, but lying, like that of our earth, between certain +tropics, or limits widely separated.</p> +<p>2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it +is possible to imagine.</p> +<p>3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, +were naturally the same as my mother's.</p> +<p>4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained +an uncontrolled ascendency over her people.</p> +<p>5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder.</p> +<p>6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, +I returned to reflection on my situation.</p> +<p>7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together +at their ends, formed a kind of bedstead.</p> +<p>8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our +system,—the creature warring against the creating power.</p> +<p>9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking.</p> +<p>10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of +this unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency.</p> +</div> +<h3>INFINITIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>266.</b></span> <b>Infinitives</b>, like +participles, have no tense. When active, they have an indefinite, +an imperfect, <a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>a perfect, and a +perfect definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a +perfect form, to express action unconnected with a subject.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>267.</b></span> INFINITIVES OF THE VERB +<i>CHOOSE.</i></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Indefinite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Imperfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] be choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] have chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] have been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Indefinite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] have been chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote">To <i>with the infinitive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>268.</b></span> In Sec. 267 the word +<i>to</i> is printed in brackets because it is not a necessary part +of the infinitive.</p> +<p>It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the +infinitive, expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ūt +ēode se sǣdere his sæd tō sāwenne" (Out +went the sower his seed <i>to sow</i>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Cases when</i> to <i>is omitted.</i></div> +<p>But later, when inflections became fewer, <i>to</i> was used +before the infinitive generally, except in the following +cases:—</p> +<p>(1) After the auxiliaries <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i> (with +<i>should</i> and <i>would</i>).</p> +<p>(2) After the verbs <i>may (might), can (could), must</i>; also +<i>let</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>do</i> (as, "I <i>do go</i>" etc.), +<i>see</i>, <i>bid</i> (command), <i>feel</i>, <i>hear</i>, +<i>watch</i>, <i>please</i>; sometimes <i>need</i> (as, "He +<i>need</i> not <i>go</i>") and <i>dare</i> (to venture).</p> +<p>(3) After <i>had</i> in the idiomatic use; as, "You <i>had</i> +better <i>go</i>" "He <i>had</i> rather <i>walk</i> than +<i>ride</i>."</p> +<p>(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"He <i>find</i> pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir +William.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span><a name= +"Page_176" id="Page_176"></a></p> +<p>I <i>urge</i> an address to his kinswoman! I <i>approach</i> her +when in a base disguise! I <i>do</i> this!<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>"She <i>ask</i> my pardon, poor woman!" cried +Charles.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>269.</b></span> <i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i> +are not to be taken as separate verbs, but with the infinitive as +one tense of a verb; as, "He <i>will choose</i>," "I <i>shall have +chosen</i>," etc.</p> +<p>Also <i>do</i> may be considered an auxiliary in the +interrogative, negative, and emphatic forms of the present and +past, also in the imperative; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What! <i>doth</i> she, too, as the credulous imagine, +<i>learn</i> [<i>doth learn</i> is one verb, present tense] the +love of the great stars? <span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p><i>Do</i> not <i>entertain</i> so weak an +imagination<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>She <i>did</i> not <i>weep</i>—she <i>did</i> not <i>break +forth</i> into reproaches.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>270.</b></span> The infinitive is sometimes +active in form while it is passive in meaning, as in the +expression, "a house <i>to let</i>." Examples are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed +where there were no opera boxes <i>to rent</i>.—<span class= +"smcap">De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Tho' it seems my spurs are yet <i>to win</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +<p>But there was nothing <i>to do</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +<p>They shall have venison <i>to eat</i>, and corn <i>to +hoe</i>.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>Nolan himself saw that something was <i>to +pay</i>.—<span class="smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>271.</b></span> The various offices which +the infinitive and the participle have in the sentence will be +treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as we are now learning +merely to recognize the forms.</p> +<h3>GERUNDS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>272.</b></span> The gerund is like the +participle in form, and like a noun in use.</p> +<p>The participle has been called an adjectival ver<a name= +"Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>bal; the gerund may be called a +<i>noun verbal</i>. While the gerund expresses action, it has +several attributes of a noun,—it may be governed as a noun; +it may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a +preposition; it is often preceded by the definite article; it is +frequently modified by a possessive noun or pronoun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Distinguished from participle and verbal +noun.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>273.</b></span> It differs from the +participle in being always used as a noun: it never belongs to or +limits a noun.</p> +<p>It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of +governing a noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing +action (the verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II).</p> +<p>The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Subject</i>: "The <i>taking</i> of means not to see +another morning had all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly +<i>dueling</i> is bad, and has been put down."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Object</i>: (<i>a</i>) "Our culture therefore must not +omit the <i>arming</i> of the man." (<i>b</i>) "Nobody cares for +<i>planting</i> the poor fungus;" "I announce the good of <i>being +interpenetrated</i> by the mind that made nature;" "The guilt of +<i>having been cured</i> of the palsy by a Jewish maiden."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Governing and Governed</i>: "We are far from <i>having +exhausted</i> the significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, +<i>b</i>), above; "He could embellish the characters with new +traits without <i>violating</i> probability;" "He could not help +<i>holding</i> out his hand in return."</p> +<p><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a><b>Exercise.</b>—Find +sentences containing five participles, five infinitives, and five +gerunds.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY OF WORDS IN <i>-ING</i></h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>274.</b></span> Words in <b>-ing</b> are of +six kinds, according to use as well as meaning. They are as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Part of the verb</i>, making the definite tenses.</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pure participles</i>, which express action, but do not +assert.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Participial adjectives</i>, which express action and also +modify.</p> +<p>(4) <i>Pure adjectives</i>, which have lost all verbal +force.</p> +<p>(5) <i>Gerunds</i>, which express action, may govern and be +governed.</p> +<p>(6) <i>Verbal nouns,</i> which name an action or state, but +cannot govern.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell to which of the above six classes each <i>-ing</i> word in +the following sentences belongs:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings.</p> +<p>2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the +returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they +find the nurslings untouched!</p> +<p>3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the +Scioto Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of +the saddle girths.</p> +<p>4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning!</p> +<p>5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language.</p> +<p>6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, +by object lessons, give reality to your teaching.</p> +<p>7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming?</p> +<p><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>8. It is years since I +heard the laughter ringing.</p> +<p>9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and +ascertaining.</p> +<p>10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which +we have been briefly contemplating.</p> +<p>11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow.</p> +<p>12. He spread his blessings all over the land.</p> +<p>13. The only means of ascending was by my hands.</p> +<p>14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round +which is an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national +emblem.</p> +<p>15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking.</p> +<p>16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages +without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out +sentence by sentence, slowly.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="HOW_TO_PARSE_VERBS_AND_VERBALS" id= +"HOW_TO_PARSE_VERBS_AND_VERBALS"></a><b>HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND +VERBALS.</b></h2> +<h3>I. VERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>275.</b></span> In parsing verbs, give the +following points:—</p> +<p>(1) Class: (<i>a</i>) as to <i>form</i>,—strong or weak, +giving principal parts; (<i>b</i>) as to +<i>use</i>,—transitive or intransitive.</p> +<p>(2) Voice,—active or passive.</p> +<p>(3) Mood,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.</p> +<p>(4) Tense,—which of the tenses given in Sec. 234.</p> +<p>(5) Person and number, in determining which you must +tell—</p> +<p>(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show +the person and number.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_180" id= +"Page_180"></a><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>276.</b></span> It has been intimated in +Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, "A verb agrees with its +subject in person and number." Sometimes it does; usually it does +not, if <i>agrees</i> means that the verb changes its form for the +different persons and numbers. The verb <i>be</i> has more forms +than other verbs, and may be said to <i>agree</i> with its subject +in several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends +in <i>-s</i>, or is an old or poetic form ending in <i>-st</i> or +<i>-eth</i>, it is best for the student not to state it as a +general rule that "the verb agrees with its subject in person and +number," but merely to <i>tell what the subject of the verb +is</i>.</p> +<h3>II. VERB PHRASES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>277.</b></span> Verb phrases are made up of +a principal verb followed by an infinitive, and should always be +analyzed as phrases, and not taken as single verbs. Especially +frequent are those made up of <i>should</i>, <i>would</i>, +<i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>can</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>must</i>, +followed by a pure infinitive without <i>to</i>. Take these +examples:—</p> +<p>1. Lee <i>should</i> of himself <i>have replenished</i> his +stock.</p> +<p>2. The government <i>might have been</i> strong and +prosperous.</p> +<p>In such sentences as 1, call <i>should</i> a weak verb, +intransitive, therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its +subject <i>Lee</i>. <i>Have replenished</i> is a perfect active +infinitive.</p> +<p>In 2, call <i>might</i> a weak verb, intransitive, active, +indicative (as it means could), past tense; has the subject +<i>government</i>. <i>Have been</i> is a perfect active +infinitive.</p> +<p>For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2).<a name= +"Page_181" id="Page_181"></a></p> +<h3>III. VERBALS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>278.</b></span> (1) <b>Participle.</b> Tell +(<i>a</i>) from what verb it is derived; (<i>b</i>) whether active +or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (<i>c</i>) to what word it +belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (<i>a</i>) and +(<i>b</i>), then parse it as an adjective.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Infinitive.</b> Tell (<i>a</i>) from what verb it is +derived; (<i>b</i>) whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Gerund.</b> (<i>a</i>) From what verb derived; (<i>b</i>) +its use (Sec. 273).</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in +nature or humanity.</p> +<p>2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no +sin nor sorrow, in the world.</p> +<p>3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; +let the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day +linger and play on its summit.</p> +<p>4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your +country in her grateful remembrance.</p> +<p>5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Right graciously he smiled on us, as +rolled from wing to wing,<br /></span> <span>Down all the line, a +deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!"<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and +wondered if she were yet awake.</p> +<p>8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul +reflected only broken and distorted images of things.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So, lest I be inclined<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To render ill for ill,<br /></span> +<span>Henceforth in me instill,<br /></span> <span class="i2">O +God, a sweet good will.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements.</p> +<p><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>11. Margaret had come into +the workshop with her sewing, as usual.</p> +<p>12.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Two things there are with memory will +abide—<br /></span> <span>Whatever else befall—while +life flows by.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the +hazy lines that bounded his oasis of flowers.</p> +<p>14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new +bursting forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, +from a sort of temporary death.</p> +<p>15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good +condition.</p> +<p>16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight +in nothing else than this conversation.</p> +<p>17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, +"traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," +there is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge.</p> +<p>18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,—a +getting-out of their bodies to think.</p> +<p>19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance.</p> +<p>20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of +skepticism than with untruth.</p> +<p>21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the +ambition of man and his power of performance.</p> +<p>22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon +the bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being +awakened by hearing me leap frantically up and down on the +floor.</p> +<p>23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert +plain to some far-off spring.</p> +<p>24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which +magnifies the smallest sensation.</p> +<p>25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend.</p> +<p>26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw +garlands on my victorious road.</p> +<p>27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own!</p> +<p>28.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Better it were, thou sayest, to +consent;<br /></span> <span>Feast while we may, and live ere life +be spent.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is +at hand.<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADVERBS" id="ADVERBS"></a><b>ADVERBS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adverbs modify.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>279.</b></span> The word <i>adverb</i> means +<i>joined to a verb</i>. The adverb is the only word that can join +to a verb to modify it.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A verb.</i></div> +<p>When <b>action</b> is expressed, an adverb is usually added to +define the action in some way,—time, place, or manner: as, +"He began <i>already</i> to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" +"One of the young heroes scrambled up <i>behind</i> [place];" "He +was absolute, but <i>wisely</i> and <i>bravely</i> ruling +[manner]."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>An adjective or an adverb.</i></div> +<p>But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs <i>only</i>: +many of them express degree, and limit <b>adjectives</b> or +<b>adverbs</b>; as, "William's private life was <i>severely</i> +pure;" "Principles of English law are put down <i>a little</i> +confusedly."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes a noun or pronoun.</i></div> +<p>Sometimes an adverb may modify <b>a noun or pronoun</b>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, +they are <i>more</i> himself than he is.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Is it <i>only</i> poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who +live with nature?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>To the <i>almost</i> terror of the persons present, Macaulay +began with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so +on.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Nor was it <i>altogether</i> nothing.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is +<i>almost</i> pain.<span class="smcap">—Shelley.</span></p> +<p>The condition of Kate is <i>exactly</i> that of Coleridge's +"Ancient Mariner."<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>He was <i>incidentally</i> news dealer.—<span class= +"smcap">T. B. Aldrich</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being +adverbs naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are <a name= +"Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>felt to be elliptical, and rather +forced into the service of adjectives.</p> +<p>Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from +those standing <i>after</i> a noun by ellipsis, but really +modifying, not the noun, but some verb understood; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the +lonely ear.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>With bowering leaves [that grow] <i>o'erhead</i>, to which the +eye Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.<span class= +"smcap">—Leigh Hunt.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A phrase.</i></div> +<p>An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an +adjective or an adverb, as shown in the sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They had begun to make their effort much <i>at the same +time</i>.<span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe <i>nibbled by +rabbits and hollowed out by crickets</i>, and perhaps <i>with a +leaf or two cemented to it</i>, but still <i>with a rich bloom to +it</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A clause or sentence.</i></div> +<p>It may also modify <b>a sentence</b>, emphasizing or qualifying +the statement expressed; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And <i>certainly</i> no one ever entered upon office with so few +resources of power in the past.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><i>Surely</i> happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. +<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>We are offered six months' credit; and that, <i>perhaps</i>, has +induced some of us to attend it.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>280.</b></span> An <b>adverb</b>, then, is a +modifying word, which may qualify an action word or a statement, +and may add to the meaning of an adjective or adverb, or a word +group used as such.</p> +<p><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>NOTE.—The expression +<i>action word</i> is put instead of <i>verb</i>, because +<i>any</i> verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the +forms used in predication.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>281.</b></span> Adverbs may be classified in +two ways: (1) according to the meaning of the words; (2) according +to their use in the sentence.</p> +<h3>ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>282.</b></span> Thus considered, there are +six classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Time</b>; as <i>now</i>, <i>to-day</i>, <i>ever</i>, +<i>lately</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>hitherto</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Place.</b> These may be adverbs either of</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>(<i>a</i>) PLACE WHERE; as +<i>here</i>,<i>there</i>,<i>where</i>,<i>near</i>,<i>yonder</i>, +<i>above</i>, etc.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>b</i>) PLACE TO WHICH; as +<i>hither</i>,<i>thither</i>,<i>whither</i>, <i>whithersoever</i>, +etc.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>c</i>) PLACE FROM WHICH; as +<i>hence</i>,<i>thence</i>,<i>whence</i>, <i>whencesoever</i>, +etc.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(3) <b>Manner</b>, telling <i>how</i> anything is done; as +<i>well</i>, <i>slowly</i>, <i>better</i>, <i>bravely</i>, +<i>beautifully</i>. Action is conceived or performed in so many +ways, that these adverbs form a very large class.</p> +<p>(4) <b>Number</b>, telling <i>how many times</i>: <i>once</i>, +<i>twice</i>, <i>singly</i>, <i>two by two</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(5) <b>Degree</b>, telling <i>how much</i>; as <i>little</i>, +<i>slightly</i>, <i>too</i>, <i>partly</i>, <i>enough</i>, +<i>greatly</i>, <i>much</i>, <i>very</i>, <i>just</i>, etc. (see +also Sec. 283).</p> +<p>(6) <b>Assertion</b>, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief +in a statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as +<i>perhaps</i>, <i>maybe</i>, <i>surely</i>, <i>possibly</i>, +<i>probably</i>, <i>not</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_186" id= +"Page_186"></a><i>Special remarks on adverbs of degree.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>283.</b></span> <b>The</b> is an adverb of +degree when it limits an adjective or an adverb, especially the +comparative of these words; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But not <i>the</i> less the blare of the tumultuous organ +wrought its own separate creations.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p><i>The</i> more they multiply, <i>the</i> more friends you will +have; <i>the</i> more evidently they love liberty, <i>the</i> more +perfect will be their obedience.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>This</b> and <b>that</b> are very common as adverbs in spoken +English, and not infrequently are found in literary English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The master...was for <i>this</i> once of her opinion.—R. +LOUIS STEVENSON.</p> +<p>Death! To die! I owe <i>that</i> much To what, at least, I +was.<span class="smcap">—Browning.</span></p> +<p><i>This</i> long's the text.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<p>[Sidenote <i>The status of such</i>.]</p> +<p><b>Such</b> is frequently used as an equivalent of <i>so</i>: +<i>such</i> precedes an adjective with its noun, while <i>so</i> +precedes only the adjective usually.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Meekness,...which gained him <i>such</i> universal +popularity.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p><i>Such</i> a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would +have been able to close his eyes there.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>An eye of <i>such</i> piercing brightness and <i>such</i> +commanding power that it gave an air of inspiration.<span class= +"smcap">—Lecky.</span></p> +</div> +<p>So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and +others.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Pretty.</i></div> +<p><b>Pretty</b> has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit +for.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I believe our astonishment is <i>pretty</i> equal.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know +<i>pretty</i> well by now.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The first of these generals is <i>pretty</i> generally +recognized as the greatest military genius that ever +lived.<span class="smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>A <i>pretty</i> large experience.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a><i>Pretty</i> is also used +by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, +Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Mighty.</div> +<p>The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>Mighty</i> well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of +the minister.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>"Maybe you're wanting to get over?—anybody sick? Ye seem +<i>mighty</i> anxious!"—<span class="smcap">H. B. +Stowe</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>It is only occasionally used in literary English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>You are <i>mighty</i> courteous.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>Beau Fielding, a <i>mighty</i> fine gentleman.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>"Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself +<i>mighty</i> wise, and art but a fool."<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>I perceived his sisters <i>mighty</i> busy.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Notice meanings.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>284.</b></span> Again, the meaning of words +must be noticed rather than their form; for many words given above +may be moved from one class to another at will: as these +examples,—"He walked too <i>far</i> [place];" "That were +<i>far</i> better [degree];" "He spoke <i>positively</i> [manner];" +"That is <i>positively</i> untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you +<i>before</i> [time];" "The house, and its lawn <i>before</i> +[place]."</p> +<h3>ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Simple.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>285.</b></span> All adverbs which have no +function in the sentence except to modify are called <b>simple +adverbs</b>. Such are most of those given already in Sec. 282.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Interrogative.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>286.</b></span> Some adverbs, besides +modifying, have the additional function of asking a question.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_188" id= +"Page_188"></a><i>Direct questions.</i></div> +<p>These may introduce <b>direct</b> questions of—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Time.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>When</i> did this humane custom begin?—<span class= +"smcap">H. Clay</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <b>Place.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Where</i> will you have the scene?<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <b>Manner.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And <i>how</i> looks it now?<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <b>Degree.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>How</i> long have you had this whip?" asked he.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <b>Reason</b>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Why</i> that wild stare and wilder cry?<span class= +"smcap">—Whittier</span></p> +<p>Now <i>wherefore</i> stopp'st thou me?<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indirect questions.</i></div> +<p>Or they may introduce indirect questions of—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Time.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I do not remember <i>when</i> I was taught to +read.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <b>Place.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I will not ask <i>where</i> thou liest low.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <b>Manner.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select +souls, or <i>how</i> to say anything to such?<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <b>Degree.</b></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Being too full of sleep to +understand<br /></span> <span><i>How</i> far the unknown transcends +the what we know.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow</span></div> +</div> +<p>(5) <b>Reason.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I hearkened, I know not <i>why</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Poe.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>287.</b></span> There is a class of words +usually classed as <b>conjunctive adverbs</b>, as they are said to +have the office of conjunctions in joining clauses, while <a name= +"Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>having the office of adverbs in +modifying; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>When</i> last I saw thy young blue eyes, they +smiled.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +</div> +<p>But in reality, <i>when</i> does not express time and modify, +but the whole clause, <i>when</i>...<i>eyes</i>; and <i>when</i> +has simply the use of a conjunction, not an adverb. For further +discussion, see Sec. 299 under "Subordinate Conjunctions."</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Bring up sentences containing twenty +adverbs, representing four classes.</p> +<h3>COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>288.</b></span> Many adverbs are compared, +and, when compared, have the same inflection as adjectives.</p> +<p>The following, irregularly compared, are often used as +adjectives:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Positive.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Comparative.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Superlative.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>well</td> +<td align='left'>better</td> +<td align='left'>best</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ill or badly</td> +<td align='left'>worse</td> +<td align='left'>worst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>much</td> +<td align='left'>more</td> +<td align='left'>most</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>little</td> +<td align='left'>less</td> +<td align='left'>least</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>nigh or near</td> +<td align='left'>nearer</td> +<td align='left'>nearest or next</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>far</td> +<td align='left'>farther, further</td> +<td align='left'>farthest, furthest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>late</td> +<td align='left'>later</td> +<td align='left'>latest, last</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>(rathe, <i>obs.</i>)</td> +<td align='left'>rather</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><span class="sn"><b>289.</b></span> Most monosyllabic adverbs +add <i>-er</i> and <i>-est</i> to form the comparative and +superlative, just as adjectives do; as, <i>high</i>, <i>higher</i>, +<i>highest</i>; <i>soon</i>, <i>sooner</i>, <i>soonest</i>.</p> +<p>Adverbs in <i>-ly</i> usually have <i>more</i> and <i>most</i> +instead of the inflected form, only occasionally having <i>-er</i> +and <i>-est</i>.<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Its strings <i>boldlier</i> swept.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>None can deem <i>harshlier</i> of me than I deem.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>Only that we may <i>wiselier</i> see.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Then must she keep it <i>safelier</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +<p>I should <i>freelier</i> rejoice in that absence.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Form</i> vs. <i>use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>290.</b></span> The fact that a word ends in +<i>-ly</i> does not make it an adverb. Many adjectives have the +same ending, and must be distinguished by their use in the +sentence.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell what each word in <i>ly</i> modifies, then whether it is an +adjective or an adverb.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their +habits, more courtly in their manners.</p> +<p>2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak.</p> +<p>3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly.</p> +<p>4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth.</p> +<p>5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>With his proud, quick-flashing +eye,<br /></span> <span>And his mien of kingly +state.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And all about, a lovely sky of +blue<br /></span> <span>Clearly was felt, or down the leaves +laughed through.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and +good-natured in secret.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>291.</b></span> Again, many words without +<i>-ly</i> have the same form, whether adverbs or adjectives.</p> +<p>The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived +from adjectives had the ending <i>-e</i> as a distinguishing mark; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If men smoot it with a yerde <i>smerte</i> [If men smote it with +a rod smartly].<span class="smcap">—Chaucer.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This <i>e</i> dropping off left both words having the same +form.<a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Weeds were sure to grow <i>quicker</i> in his +fields.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>O <i>sweet</i> and <i>far</i> from cliff and scar The horns of +Elfland faintly blowing.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +<p>But he must do his errand <i>right.</i><span class= +"smcap">—Drake</span></p> +<p><i>Long</i> she looked in his tiny face.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Not <i>near</i> so black as he was painted.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In some cases adverbs with <i>-ly</i> are used side by side with +those without <i>-ly</i>, but with a different meaning. Such are +<i>most</i>, <i>mostly</i>; <i>near</i>, <i>nearly</i>; +<i>even</i>, <i>evenly</i>; <i>hard</i>, <i>hardly</i>; etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Special use of</i> there.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>292.</b></span> Frequently the word +<b>there</b>, instead of being used adverbially, merely introduces +a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject and +predicate.</p> +<p>This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb +<i>be</i>, seems awkward or affected without this "<i>there</i> +introductory." Compare these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. <i>There</i> are eyes, to be sure, that give no more +admission into the man than blueberries.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes +rang.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>293.</b></span> <b>In parsing</b> adverbs, +give—</p> +<p>(1) The class, according to meaning and also use.</p> +<p>(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared.</p> +<p>(3) What word or word group it modifies.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it.</p> +<p>2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly +we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling +contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness.</p> +<p><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>3.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>We sit in the warm shade and feel right +well<br /></span> <span>How the sap creeps up and blossoms +swell.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that +he was theirs.</p> +<p>5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but +from my fall?</p> +<p>6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the +characters of our friends are chopped up.</p> +<p>7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little +calendars!</p> +<p>8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the +Madonna is in great glory.</p> +<p>9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their +opinion.</p> +<p>10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in +the center of the temple.</p> +<p>11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is +always politically unwise.</p> +<p>12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound?</p> +<p>13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely +and lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to +take root and blossom?</p> +<p>14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep.</p> +<p>15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the +road from Florence.</p> +<p>16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed.</p> +<p>17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house.</p> +<p>18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit +him best, but continually shifted.</p> +<p>19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward +the bank.</p> +<p>20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room +to wonder how it could have got there.</p> +<p>21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, +upon which the sun now shone forth.</p> +<p>22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as +they are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be +omnipotent for evil?</p> +<p>24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor +exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed.<a name="Page_193" +id="Page_193"></a></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONJUNCTIONS" id= +"CONJUNCTIONS"></a><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>294.</b></span> Unlike adverbs, conjunctions +do not modify: they are used solely for the purpose of +connecting.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of conjunctions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>They connect</i> words.</div> +<p>(1) <i>Connecting words</i>: "It is the very necessity +<i>and</i> condition of existence;" "What a simple <i>but</i> +exquisite illustration!"</p> +<div class="sidenote">Word groups: <i>Phrases.</i></div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Clauses.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>Connecting word groups</i>: "Hitherto the two systems +have existed in different States, <i>but</i> side by side within +the American Union;" "This has happened <i>because</i> the Union is +a confederation of States."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sentences.</i></div> +<p>(3) <i>Connecting sentences</i>: "Unanimity in this case can +mean only a very large majority. <i>But</i> even unanimity itself +is far from indicating the voice of God."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Paragraphs.</i></div> +<p>(4) <i>Connecting sentence groups</i>: Paragraphs would be too +long to quote here, but the student will readily find them, in +which the writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by +such words as <i>but</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>nor</i>, +<i>then</i>, <i>therefore</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>295.</b></span> A <b>conjunction</b> is a +linking word, connecting words, word groups, sentences, or sentence +groups.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Classes of conjunctions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>296.</b></span> Conjunctions have two +principal divisions:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Coördinate</b>, joining words, word groups, etc., of +the <i>same rank</i>.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Subordinate</b>, joining a subordinate or dependent +clause to a principal or independent clause.<a name="Page_194" id= +"Page_194"></a></p> +<h3>COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>297.</b></span> Coördinate conjunctions +are of four kinds:</p> +<p>(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the +same line of thought; as <i>and</i>, <i>also</i>, <i>as well +as</i>, <i>moreover</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are +opposite in thought; as <i>but</i>, <i>yet</i>, <i>still</i>, +<i>however</i>, <i>while</i>, <i>only</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, +<i>for</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>then</i>.</p> +<p>(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two +things. They are <i>or</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>else</i>, <i>nor</i>, +<i>neither</i>, <i>whether</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Correlatives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>298.</b></span> Some of these go in pairs, +answering to each other in the same sentence; as, +<i>both</i>...<i>and</i>; <i>not only</i>...<i>but</i> (or <i>but +also</i>); <i>either</i>...<i>or</i>; <i>whether</i>...<i>or</i>; +<i>neither</i>...<i>nor</i>; <i>whether</i>...<i>or +whether</i>.</p> +<p>Some go in threes; as, <i>not only</i>...<i>but</i>... +<i>and</i>; <i>either</i>...<i>or</i>...<i>or</i>; +<i>neither</i>...<i>nor</i>... <i>nor</i>.</p> +<p>Further examples of the use of coördinate +conjunctions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Copulative.</i></div> +<p>Your letter, <i>likewise</i>, had its weight; the bread was +spent, the butter <i>too</i>; the window being open, <i>as well +as</i> the room door.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adversative.</i></div> +<p>The assertion, <i>however</i>, serves but to show their +ignorance. "Can this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "<i>Howbeit</i>, I +have nothing to do with the governor and council."</p> +<p><i>Nevertheless</i>, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to +myself a sojourn of some weeks.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_195" id= +"Page_195"></a><i>Alternative.</i></div> +<p>While the earth bears a plant, <i>or</i> the sea rolls its +waves.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Nor</i> mark'd they less, where in the +air<br /></span> <span>A thousand streamers flaunted +fair.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Causal.</i></div> +<p><i>Therefore</i> the poet is not any permissive potentate, but +is emperor in his own right. <i>For</i> it is the rule of the +universe that corn shall serve man, and not man corn.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of correlatives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He began to doubt whether <i>both</i> he <i>and</i> the world +around him were not bewitched.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>He is <i>not only</i> bold and vociferous, <i>but</i> possesses +a considerable talent for mimicry, <i>and</i> seems to enjoy great +satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.<span class= +"smcap">—Wilson.</span></p> +<p>It is...the same <i>whether</i> I move my hand along the surface +of a body, <i>or whether</i> such a body is moved along my +hand.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p><i>Neither</i> the place in which he found himself, <i>nor</i> +the exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the +self-possession of the young Mohican.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p><i>Neither</i> was there any phantom memorial of life, +<i>nor</i> wing of bird, <i>nor</i> echo, <i>nor</i> green leaf, +<i>nor</i> creeping thing, that moved or stirred upon the soundless +waste.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>299.</b></span> Subordinate conjunctions are +of the following kinds:—</p> +<p>(1) PLACE: <i>where</i>, <i>wherever</i>, <i>whither</i>, +<i>whereto</i>, <i>whithersoever</i>, <i>whence</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) TIME: <i>when</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>after</i>, +<i>since</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>until</i>, <i>whenever</i>, +<i>while</i>, <i>ere</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) MANNER: <i>how</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>however</i>, +<i>howsoever</i>.</p> +<p>(4) CAUSE or REASON: <i>because</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>as</i>, +<i>now</i>, <i>whereas</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>seeing</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(5) COMPARISON: <i>than</i> and <i>as</i>.</p> +<p>(6) PURPOSE: <i>that</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>so that</i>, <i>in order +that</i>, <i>lest</i>, <i>so</i>...<i>as</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>(7) RESULT: <i>that</i>, +<i>so that</i>, especially <i>that</i> after <i>so</i>.</p> +<p>(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: <i>if</i>, <i>unless</i>, +<i>so</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>; <i>even +if</i>, <i>provided</i>, <i>provided that</i>, <i>in case</i>, +<i>on condition that</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(9) SUBSTANTIVE: <i>that</i>, <i>whether</i>, sometimes +<i>if</i>, are used frequently to introduce noun clauses used as +<i>subject, object, in apposition</i>, etc.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Place.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Where the treasure is, there will the heart be +also.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men +<i>whithersoever</i> they will.—<span class="smcap">J. +Quincy</span>.</p> +<p>An artist will delight in excellence <i>wherever</i> he meets +it. <span class="smcap">—Allston.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Time.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I promise to devote myself to your happiness <i>whenever</i> you +shall ask it of me.<span class="smcap">—Paulding.</span></p> +<p>It is sixteen years <i>since</i> I saw the Queen of +France.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Manner.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Let the world go <i>how</i> it will.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>Events proceed, not <i>as</i> they were expected or intended, +but <i>as</i> they are impelled by the irresistible +laws.<span class="smcap">—Ames.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Cause, reason.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I see no reason <i>why</i> I should not have the same +thought.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Then Denmark blest our +chief,<br /></span> <span><i>That</i> he gave her wounds +repose.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Now</i> he is dead, his martyrdom will +reap<br /></span> <span>Late harvests of the palms he should have +had in life.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—H. H. +Jackson.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Sparing neither whip nor spur, <i>seeing that</i> he carried the +vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Comparison.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes +<i>than</i> to perform exploits that are brilliant.<span class= +"smcap">—Ames.</span></p> +<p>All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with +as little permanent effect <i>as</i> [<i>as</i> follows the +semi-adverbs <i>as</i> and <i>so</i> in expressing comparison] the +passing breeze.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Purpose.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, <i>that</i> we +might celebrate its immense beauty.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_197" id= +"Page_197"></a><i>Result.</i></div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So many thoughts moved to and +fro,<br /></span> <span><i>That</i> vain it were her eyes to +close.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I was again covered with water, but not so long <i>but</i> I +held it out.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Condition.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A ridicule which is of no import <i>unless</i> the scholar heed +it.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>There flowers or weeds at will may +grow,<br /></span> <span><i>So</i> I behold them not.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Concession</i>.</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>What <i>though</i> the radiance which was +once so bright<br /></span> <span>Be now forever taken from my +sight.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Substantive.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It seems a pity <i>that</i> we can only spend it +once.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>We do not believe <i>that</i> he left any worthy man his foe who +had ever been his friend.<span class= +"smcap">—Ames.</span></p> +<p>Let us see <i>whether</i> the greatest, the wisest, the +purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in any wise on this +point.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Who can tell <i>if</i> Washington be a great man or +no?<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>300.</b></span> As will have been noticed, +some words—for example, <i>since</i>, <i>while</i>, +<i>as</i>, <i>that</i>, etc.—may belong to several classes of +conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the +sentence.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Bring up sentences containing five examples of +coördinate conjunctions.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences containing three examples of +correlatives.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate +conjunctions.</p> +<p>(<i>d</i>) Tell whether the italicized words in the following +sentences are conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if +conjunctions:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. <i>Yet</i> these were often exhibited throughout our +city.</p> +<p>2. No one had <i>yet</i> caught his character.</p> +<p>3. <i>After</i> he was gone, the lady called her servant.</p> +<p>4. And they lived happily forever <i>after</i>.</p> +<p>5. They, <i>however</i>, hold a subordinate rank.</p> +<p><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>6. <i>However</i> ambitious +a woman may be to command admiration abroad, her real merit is +known at home.</p> +<p>7. <i>Whence</i> else could arise the bruises which I had +received?</p> +<p>8. He was brought up for the church, <i>whence</i> he was +occasionally called the Dominie.</p> +<p>9. And <i>then</i> recovering, she faintly pressed her hand.</p> +<p>10. In what point of view, <i>then</i>, is war not to be +regarded with horror?</p> +<p>11. The moth fly, <i>as</i> he shot in air, Crept under the +leaf, and hid her there.</p> +<p>12. Besides, <i>as</i> the rulers of a nation are <i>as</i> +liable <i>as</i> other people to be governed by passion and +prejudice, there is little prospect of justice in permitting +war.</p> +<p>13. <i>While</i> a faction is a minority, it will remain +harmless.</p> +<p>14. <i>While</i> patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended +in his speech her authority with her charms.</p> +<p>15. <i>Hence</i> it is highly important that the custom of war +should be abolished.</p> +<p>16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the +lashings having given way; <i>only</i> what is the use of a guinea +amongst tangle and sea gulls?</p> +<p>17. <i>Only</i> let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the +frame will suit the picture.</p> +</div> +<h3>SPECIAL REMARKS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">As if.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>301.</b></span> <i>As if</i> is often used +as one conjunction of manner, but really there is an ellipsis +between the two words; thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i8">But thy soft +murmuring<br /></span> <span>Sounds sweet <i>as if</i> a sister's +voice reproved.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet <i>as</i> +[the sound would be] <i>if</i> a sister's voice reproved;" +<i>as</i>, in this case, expressing degree if taken separately.</p> +<p>But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of fre<a name="Page_199" +id="Page_199"></a>quently in writing, as is shown by the use of +<i>as though</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote">As though.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>302.</b></span> In Emerson's sentence, "We +meet, and part <i>as though</i> we parted not," it cannot be said +that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we part <i>as</i> [we +should part] <i>though</i>" etc.</p> +<p>Consequently, <i>as if</i> and <i>as though</i> may be taken as +double conjunctions expressing manner. <i>As though</i> seems to be +in as wide use as the conjunction <i>as if</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Do you know a farmer who acts and lives <i>as though</i> he +believed one word of this?<span class="smcap">—H. +Greeley.</span></p> +<p>His voice ... sounded <i>as though</i> it came out of a +barrel.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Blinded alike from sunshine and from +rain,<br /></span> <span><i>As though</i> a rose should shut, and +be a bud again.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Keats</span></div> +</div> +<p>Examples might be quoted from almost all authors.</p> +<div class="sidenote">As <i>for</i> as if.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>303.</b></span> In poetry, <i>as</i> is +often equivalent to <i>as if</i>.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And their orbs grew strangely +dreary,<br /></span> <span>Clouded, even <i>as</i> they would +weep.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Emily +Bronte.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So silently we seemed to +speak,<br /></span> <span class="i4">So slowly moved +about,<br /></span> <span><i>As</i> we had lent her half our +powers<br /></span> <span class="i4">To eke her living +out.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Hood.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><b>HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>304.</b></span> In parsing conjunctions, +tell—</p> +<p>(1) To what class and subclass they belong.</p> +<p>(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution</i>.</div> +<p>In classifying them, particular attention must <a name= +"Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>be paid to the <i>meaning</i> of the +word. Some conjunctions, such as <i>nor, and, because, when</i>, +etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to +several classes. For example, compare the sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. It continued raining, <i>so</i> that I could not stir +abroad.<span class="smcap">—Defoe</span></p> +<p>2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, +<i>so</i> they be each honest and natural in their +hour.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; +<i>so</i> they paddled on.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley</span></p> +</div> +<p>In sentence 1, <i>so that</i> expresses result, and its clause +depends on the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of +result; in 2, <i>so</i> means provided,—is subordinate of +condition; in 3, <i>so</i> means therefore, and its clause is +independent, hence it is a coördinate conjunction of +reason.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. When the gods come among men, they are not known.</p> +<p>2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain.</p> +<p>3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that +the woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them +suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed.</p> +<p>4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with +the lightness and delicate finish as well as the aërial +proportions and perspective of vegetable scenery.</p> +<p>5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, +dines with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as +beside his own chimneys.</p> +<p>6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, +but of the natural.</p> +<p>7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how <a name= +"Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>is it that whilst subject to papacy we +prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now we pray with the +utmost coldness, and very seldom?"</p> +<p>8. All the postulates of elfin annals,—that the fairies do +not like to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be +trusted; and the like,—I find them true in Concord, however +they might be in Cornwall or Bretagne.</p> +<p>9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of +nature.</p> +<p>10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is +his.</p> +<p>11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might +testify of that particular ray.</p> +<p>12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted.</p> +<p>13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries.</p> +<p>14. Goodness must have some edge to it,—else it is +none.</p> +<p>15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last.</p> +<p>16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on?</p> +<p>17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand.</p> +<p>18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only.</p> +<p>19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a +field.</p> +<p>20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a +heart, enthroned.</p> +<p>21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed.</p> +<p>22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book.</p> +<p>23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in +this they agree, that both were wayward.</p> +<p>24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate +thought he looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he +inquired for the young don.</p> +<p>25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him.</p> +<p>26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I +omit, seeing that it behooves me to hasten.</p> +<p>27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which +had such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it +were sinful like herself.</p> +<p><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>28. I rejoice to stand here +no longer, to be looked at as though I had seven heads and ten +horns.</p> +<p>29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his +equals.</p> +<p>30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted +with its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the +edge, when it was presented to them.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PREPOSITIONS" id= +"PREPOSITIONS"></a><b>PREPOSITIONS.</b>.</h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>305.</b></span> The word <i>preposition</i> +implies <i>place before</i>: hence it would seem that a preposition +is always <i>before</i> its object. It may be so in the majority of +cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances the +preposition is <i>after</i> its object.</p> +<p>This occurs in such cases as the following:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Preposition not before its object.</div> +<p>(1) <i>After a relative pronoun</i>, a very common occurrence; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The most dismal Christmas fun <i>which</i> these eyes ever +looked <i>on</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>An ancient nation <i>which</i> they know nothing +<i>of</i>.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A foe, <i>whom</i> a champion has fought <i>with</i> +to-day.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Some little toys <i>that</i> girls are fond +<i>of</i>.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"It's the man <i>that</i> I spoke to you <i>about</i>" said Mr. +Pickwick.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun</i>, +also frequently found:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> God doth the wizard pray <i>to</i>?<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> is the little one thinking about?—<span class= +"smcap">J. G. Holland</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Where</i> the Devil did it come <i>from</i>, I +wonder?<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>With an infinitive</i>, in such expressions as +these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A proper <i>quarrel</i> for a Crusader to do battle +<i>in</i>.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>"You know, General, it was +<i>nothing</i> to joke <i>about</i>."<span class= +"smcap">—Cable</span></p> +<p>Had no harsh <i>treatment</i> to reproach herself +<i>with</i>.<span class="smcap">—Boyesen</span></p> +<p>A <i>loss of vitality</i> scarcely to be accounted +<i>for</i>.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Places for <i>horses</i> to be hitched +<i>to</i>.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>After a noun</i>,—the case in which the preposition +is expected to be, and regularly is, before its object; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And unseen mermaids' pearly +song<br /></span> <span>Comes bubbling up, the weeds +<i>among</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Beddoes.<br /></span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>Forever panting and forever +young,<br /></span> <span>All breathing human passion far +<i>above</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Keats.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>306.</b></span> Since the object of a +preposition is most often a noun, the statement is made that the +preposition usually precedes its object; as in the following +sentence, "Roused <i>by</i> the shock, he started <i>from</i> his +trance."</p> +<p>Here the words <i>by</i> and <i>from</i> are connectives; but +they do more than connect. <i>By</i> shows the relation in thought +between <i>roused</i> and <i>shock</i>, expressing means or agency; +<i>from</i> shows the relation in thought between <i>started</i> +and <i>trance</i>, and expresses separation. Both introduce +phrases.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>307.</b></span> A <b>preposition</b> is a +word joined to a noun or its equivalent to make up a qualifying or +an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation between its object +and the word modified.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Objects, nouns and the +following</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>308.</b></span> Besides nouns, prepositions +may have as objects—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Pronouns</i>: "Upon <i>them</i> with the lance;" "With +<i>whom</i> I traverse earth."</p> +<p><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>(2) <i>Adjectives</i>: "On +<i>high</i> the winds lift up their voices."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Adverbs</i>: "If I live wholly from <i>within</i>;" "Had +it not been for the sea from <i>aft</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Phrases</i>: "Everything came to her from <i>on +high</i>;" "From <i>of old</i> they had been zealous +worshipers."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Infinitives</i>: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save +<i>to convey</i> some necessary command for her service."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Gerunds</i>: "They shrink from <i>inflicting</i> what +they threaten;" "He is not content with <i>shining</i> on great +occasions."</p> +<p>(7) <i>Clauses</i>:</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"Each soldier eye shall brightly +turn<br /></span> <span>To <i>where thy sky-born glories +burn</i>."<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Object usually objective case, if noun or +pronoun</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>309.</b></span> The object of a preposition, +if a noun or pronoun, is usually in the objective case. In +pronouns, this is shown by the form of the word, as in Sec. 308 +(1).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Often possessive</i>.</div> +<p>In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the +possessive case after <i>of</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There was also a book <i>of Defoe's</i>,... and another +<i>of</i> <i>Mather's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes nominative</i>.</div> +<p>And the prepositions <i>but</i> and <i>save</i> are found with +the nominative form of the pronoun following; as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Nobody knows <i>but</i> my mate and +<i>I</i><br /></span> <span>Where our nest and our nestlings +lie.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—BRYANT.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<h3><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>USES OF PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Inseparable.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>310.</b></span> Prepositions are used in +three ways:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Compounded with verbs</i>, <i>adverbs</i>, or +<i>conjunctions</i>; as, for example, with verbs, <i>with</i>draw, +<i>under</i>stand, <i>over</i>look, <i>over</i>take, +<i>over</i>flow, <i>under</i>go, <i>out</i>stay, <i>out</i>number, +<i>over</i>run, <i>over</i>grow, etc.; with adverbs, +there<i>at</i>, there<i>in</i>, there<i>from</i>, there<i>by</i>, +there<i>with</i>, etc.; with conjunctions, where<i>at</i>, +where<i>in</i>, where<i>on</i>, where<i>through</i>, +where<i>upon</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Separable.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>Following a verb</i>, and being really a part of the +verb. This use needs to be watched closely, to see whether the +preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional +function. For example, in the sentences, (<i>a</i>) "He broke a +pane <i>from</i> the window," (<i>b</i>) "He broke <i>into</i> the +bank," in (<i>a</i>), the verb <i>broke</i> is a predicate, +modified by the phrase introduced by <i>from</i>; in (<i>b</i>), +the predicate is not <i>broke</i>, modified by <i>into the +bank</i>, but <i>broke into</i>—the object, <i>bank</i>.</p> +<p>Study carefully the following prepositions with +verbs:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Considering the space they <i>took up</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>I loved, <i>laughed at</i>, and pitied him.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The sun <i>breaks through</i> the darkest clouds.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>They will <i>root up</i> the whole ground.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>A friend <i>prevailed upon</i> one of the +interpreters.<span class="smcap">—Addison</span></p> +<p>My uncle <i>approved of</i> it.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>The robber who <i>broke into</i> them.<span class= +"smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p>This period is not obscurely <i>hinted at</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>The judge <i>winked at</i> the iniquity of the +decision.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>The pupils' voices, <i>conning over</i> their +lessons.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>To <i>help out</i> his maintenance.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>With such pomp is Merry Christmas <i>ushered in</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_206" id= +"Page_206"></a><i>Ordinary use as connective, relation +words.</i></div> +<p>(3) As <i>relation words</i>, introducing phrases,—the +most common use, in which the words have their own proper +function.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Usefulness of prepositions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>311.</b></span> Prepositions are the +subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a +clear meaning into few words. Each preposition has its proper and +general meaning, which, by frequent and exacting use, has expanded +and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the +original one.</p> +<p>Take, for example, the word <i>over</i>. It expresses place, +with motion, as, "The bird flew <i>over</i> the house;" or rest, +as, "Silence broods <i>over</i> the earth." It may also convey the +meaning of <i>about</i>, <i>concerning</i>; as, "They quarreled +<i>over</i> the booty." Or it may express time: "Stay <i>over</i> +night."</p> +<p>The language is made richer and more flexible by there being +several meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some +of them having the same meaning as others.</p> +<h3>CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>312.</b></span> It would be useless to +attempt to classify all the prepositions, since they are so various +in meaning.</p> +<p>The largest groups are those of <b>place</b>, <b>time</b>, and +<b>exclusion</b>.</p> +<h3>PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>313.</b></span> The following are the most +common to indicate <b>place</b>:—</p> +<p>(1) PLACE WHERE: <i>abaft</i>, <i>about</i>, <i>above</i>, +<i>across</i>, <i>amid</i> (<i>amidst</i>), <i>among</i> +(<i>amongst</i>), <i>at</i>, <i>athwart</i>, <i>be<a name= +"Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>low</i>, <i>beneath</i>, +<i>beside</i>, <i>between</i> (<i>betwixt</i>), <i>beyond</i>, +<i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>over</i>, <i>under</i> +(<i>underneath</i>), <i>upon</i>, <i>round</i> or <i>around</i>, +<i>without</i>.</p> +<p>(2) PLACE WHITHER: <i>into</i>, <i>unto</i>, <i>up</i>, +<i>through</i>, <i>throughout</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>towards</i>.</p> +<p>(3) PLACE WHENCE: <i>down</i>, <i>from</i> (<i>away from</i>, +<i>down from</i>, <i>from out</i>, etc.), <i>off</i>, <i>out +of</i>.</p> +<p><b>Abaft</b> is exclusively a sea term, meaning <i>back +of</i>.</p> +<p><b>Among</b> (or <b>amongst</b>) and <b>between</b> (or +<b>betwixt</b>) have a difference in meaning, and usually a +difference in use. <i>Among</i> originally meant in the crowd +(<i>on gemong</i>), referring to several objects; <i>between</i> +and <i>betwixt</i> were originally made up of the preposition +<i>be</i> (meaning <i>by</i>) and <i>twēon</i> or +<i>twēonum</i> (modern <i>twain</i>), <i>by two</i>, and +<i>be</i> with <i>twīh</i> (or <i>twuh</i>), having the same +meaning, <i>by two</i> objects.</p> +<p>As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459).</p> +<h3>PREPOSITIONS OF TIME.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>314.</b></span> They are <i>after</i>, +<i>during</i>, <i>pending</i>, <i>till</i> or <i>until</i>; also +many of the prepositions of place express <b>time</b> when put +before words indicating time, such as <i>at</i>, <i>between</i>, +<i>by</i>, <i>about</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>within</i>, etc.</p> +<p>These are all familiar, and need no special remark.</p> +<h3>EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>315.</b></span> The chief ones are +<i>besides</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>save</i>, +<i>without</i>. The participle <i>excepting</i> is also used as a +preposition.</p> +<h3>MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>316.</b></span> <b>Against</b> implies +opposition, sometimes place where. In colloquial English it is +sometimes <a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>used to express +time, now and then also in literary English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me <i>against</i> +night.<span class="smcap">—Swift</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>About</b>, and the participial prepositions +<b>concerning</b>, <b>respecting</b>, <b>regarding,</b> mean +<i>with reference to</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Phrase prepositions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>317.</b></span> Many phrases are used as +single prepositions: <i>by means of</i>, <i>by virtue of</i>, <i>by +help of</i>, <i>by dint of</i>, <i>by force of</i>; <i>out of</i>, +<i>on account of</i>, <i>by way of</i>, <i>for the sake of</i>; +<i>in consideration of</i>, <i>in spite of</i>, <i>in defiance +of</i>, <i>instead of</i>, <i>in view of</i>, <i>in place of</i>; +<i>with respect to</i>, <i>with regard to</i>, <i>according to</i>, +<i>agreeably to</i>; and some others.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>318.</b></span> Besides all these, there are +some prepositions that have so many meanings that they require +separate and careful treatment: <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>), <i>at</i>, +<i>by</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>to</i>, +<i>with</i>.</p> +<p>No attempt will be made to give <i>all</i> the meanings that +each one in this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, +and to show how useful prepositions really are.</p> +<h3>At.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>319.</b></span> The general meaning of +<b>at</b> is <i>near</i>, <i>close to</i>, after a verb or +expression implying position; and <i>towards</i> after a verb or +expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, +while <i>in</i> is exact, meaning <i>within</i>.</p> +<p>Its principal uses are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Place where.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They who heard it listened with a curling horror <i>at</i> the +heart.—<span class="smcap">J. F. Cooper</span>.</p> +<a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There had been a strike <i>at</i> the neighboring manufacturing +village, and there was to be a public meeting, <i>at</i> which he +was besought to be present.—<span class="smcap">T. W. +Higginson</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Time</i>, more exact, meaning the point of time at +which.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He wished to attack <i>at</i> daybreak.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>They buried him darkly, <i>at</i> dead of night.<span class= +"smcap">—Wolfe</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Direction.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The mother stood looking wildly down <i>at</i> the unseemly +object.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>You are next invited...to grasp <i>at</i> the opportunity, and +take for your subject, "Health."<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here belong such expressions as <i>laugh at</i>, <i>look at</i>, +<i>wink at</i>, <i>gaze at</i>, <i>stare at</i>, <i>peep at</i>, +<i>scowl at</i>, <i>sneer at</i>, <i>frown at</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We <i>laugh at</i> the elixir that promises to prolong life to a +thousand years.<span class="smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +<p>"You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and +<i>shaking</i> her head <i>at</i> him.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Source</i> or <i>cause</i>, meaning <i>because of</i>, +<i>by reason of</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I felt my heart chill <i>at</i> the dismal +sound.—<span class="smcap">T. W. Knox</span>.</p> +<p>Delighted <i>at</i> this outburst against the +Spaniards.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) Then the idiomatic phrases <i>at last</i>, <i>at length</i>, +<i>at any rate</i>, <i>at the best</i>, <i>at the worst</i>, <i>at +least</i>, <i>at most</i>, <i>at first</i>, <i>at once</i>, <i>at +all</i>, <i>at one</i>, <i>at naught</i>, <i>at random</i>, etc.; +and phrases signifying state or condition of being, as, <i>at +work</i>, <i>at play</i>, <i>at peace</i>, <i>at war</i>, <i>at +rest</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three different uses +of <i>at</i>.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>By.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>320.</b></span> Like <i>at</i>, <b>by</b> +means <i>near</i> or <i>close to</i>, but has several other +meanings more or less connected with this,—</p> +<p>(1) The general meaning of <i>place</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Richard was standing <i>by</i> the window.<span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p>Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel <i>by</i> the +roadside.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But <i>by</i> this time the bell of Old Alloway began +tolling.<span class="smcap">—B. Taylor</span></p> +<p>The angel came <i>by</i> night.—<span class="smcap">R. H. +Stoddard</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Agency</i> or <i>means</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Menippus knew which were the kings <i>by</i> their howling +louder.—<span class="smcap">M. D. Conway</span>.</p> +<p>At St. Helena, the first port made <i>by</i> the ship, he +stopped. <span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Measure of excess</i>, expressing the degree of +difference.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>At that time [the earth] was richer, <i>by</i> many a million of +acres.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>He was taller <i>by</i> almost the breadth of my +nail.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) It is also used in <i>oaths and adjurations</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>By</i> my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of +eighty-four!<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +<p>They implore us <i>by</i> the long trials of struggling +humanity; <i>by</i> the blessed memory of the departed; <i>by</i> +the wrecks of time; <i>by</i> the ruins of nations.<span class= +"smcap">—Everett.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three different +meanings of <i>by</i>.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>For.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>321.</b></span> The chief meanings of +<b>for</b> are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Motion towards</i> a place, or a tendency or action +toward the attainment of any object.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Pioneers who were opening the way <i>for</i> the march of the +nation.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>She saw the boat headed <i>for</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Warner.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>In favor of</i>, <i>for the benefit of</i>, <i>in behalf +of</i>, a person or thing.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He and they were <i>for</i> immediate attack.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman</span></p> +<p>The people were then against us; they are now <i>for</i> +us.<span class="smcap">—W. L. Garrison.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Duration of time</i>, or <i>extent of space</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>For</i> a long time the disreputable element outshone the +virtuous.—<span class="smcap">H. H. Bancroft</span>.</p> +<p>He could overlook all the country <i>for</i> many a mile of rich +woodland.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Substitution</i> or <i>exchange</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There are gains <i>for</i> all our losses.<span class= +"smcap">—Stoddard.</span></p> +<p>Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement <i>for</i> the +butchery of Fort Caroline.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Reference</i>, meaning <i>with regard to</i>, <i>as +to</i>, <i>respecting</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>For</i> the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you +best.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>For</i> him, poor fellow, he repented of his +folly.<span class="smcap">—E. E. Hale</span></p> +</div> +<p>This is very common with <i>as</i>—<i>as for</i> me, +etc.</p> +<p>(6) Like <i>as</i>, meaning <i>in the character of</i>, <i>as +being</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master +Brackett, "I shall own you <i>for</i> a man of skill indeed!" +<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Wavering whether he should put his son to death <i>for</i> an +unnatural monster.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>(7) <i>Concession</i>, +meaning <i>although</i>, <i>considering that</i> etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>For</i> a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast +counseled wisely."<span class="smcap">—Scott</span></p> +<p>By my faith, that is a very plump hand <i>for</i> a man of +eighty-four!<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(8) Meaning <i>notwithstanding</i>, or <i>in spite of</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But the Colonel, <i>for</i> all his title, had a forest of poor +relations.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Still, <i>for</i> all slips of +hers,<br /></span> <span>One of Eve's family.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Hood.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(9) <i>Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The twilight being...hardly more wholesome <i>for</i> its +glittering mists of midge companies.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, +<i>for</i> famine.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped <i>for</i> +joy.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(10) <i>For</i> with its object preceding the infinitive, and +having the same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this +sentence:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It is by no means necessary <i>that he should devote his whole +school existence to physical science</i>; nay, more, it is not +necessary for <i>him to give up more than a moderate share of his +time to such studies</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with five meanings of +<i>for</i>.</p> +<h3>From.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>322.</b></span> The general idea in +<b>from</b> is separation or source. It may be with regard +to—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Place.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Like boys escaped <i>from</i> school.<span class= +"smcap">—H. H. Bancroft</span></p> +<p>Thus they drifted <i>from</i> snow-clad ranges to burning +plain.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>(2) <i>Origin.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Coming <i>from</i> a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited +the faculty of dreaming also by night.<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>From</i> harmony, <i>from</i> heavenly +harmony<br /></span> <span>This universal frame began.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Dryden.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become <i>from</i> +the night of that fearful dream<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Motive</i>, <i>cause</i>, or <i>reason</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was <i>from</i> no fault of Nolan's.<span class= +"smcap">—Hale.</span></p> +<p>The young cavaliers, <i>from</i> a desire of seeming valiant, +ceased to be merciful.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three meanings of +<i>from</i>.</p> +<h3>Of.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>323.</b></span> The original meaning of +<b>of</b> was separation or source, like <i>from</i>. The various +uses are shown in the following examples:—</p> +<h3>I. The <i>From</i> Relation.</h3> +<p>(1) <i>Origin or source.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The king holds his authority <i>of</i> the people.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +<p>Thomas à Becket was born <i>of</i> reputable parents in +the city of London.<span class="smcap">—Hume.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Separation</i>: (<i>a</i>) After certain verbs, such as +<i>ease</i>, <i>demand</i>, <i>rob</i>, <i>divest</i>, <i>free</i>, +<i>clear</i>, <i>purge</i>, <i>disarm</i>, <i>deprive</i>, +<i>relieve</i>, <i>cure</i>, <i>rid</i>, <i>beg</i>, <i>ask</i>, +etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Two old Indians cleared the spot <i>of</i> brambles, weeds, and +grass.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>Asked no odds <i>of</i>, acquitted them <i>of,</i> +etc.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) After some adjectives,—<i>clear of</i>, <i>free +of</i>, <a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a><i>wide of</i>, +<i>bare of</i>, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of +direction, as <i>north of</i>, <i>south of</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The hills were bare <i>of</i> trees.<span class= +"smcap">—Bayard Taylor.</span></p> +<p>Back <i>of</i> that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. +<span class="smcap">—Gavarre.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A singular want <i>of</i> all human relation.<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>(d)</i> With words expressing distance.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Until he had come within a staff's length <i>of</i> the old +dame. <span class="smcap">—Hawthorne</span></p> +<p>Within a few yards <i>of</i> the young man's hiding +place.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>With expressions of material</i>, especially <i>out +of</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin <i>of</i> native +gold.<span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p>Sandals, bound with thongs <i>of</i> boar's hide.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +<p>Who formed, <i>out of</i> the most unpromising materials, the +finest army that Europe had yet seen.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Expressing cause, reason, motive.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The author died <i>of</i> a fit of apoplexy.<span class= +"smcap">—Boswell.</span></p> +<p>More than one altar was richer <i>of</i> his vows.<span class= +"smcap">—Lew Wallace.</span></p> +<p>"Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad <i>of</i> +that."—<span class="smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Expressing agency.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>You cannot make a boy know, <i>of</i> his own knowledge, that +Cromwell once ruled England.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +<p>He is away <i>of</i> his own free will.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>II. Other Relations expressed by <i>Of</i></b>.</p> +<p>(6) <i>Partitive</i>, expressing a part of a number or +quantity.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Of</i> the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. +<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +<p>He washed out some <i>of</i> the dirt, separating thereby as +much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a><i>See +also Sec. 309.</i></div> +<p>(7) <i>Possessive</i>, standing, with its object, for the +possessive, or being used with the possessive case to form the +double possessive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not even woman's love, and the dignity <i>of</i> a queen, could +give shelter from his contumely.—<span class="smcap">W. E. +Channing</span>.</p> +<p>And the mighty secret <i>of</i> the Sierra stood +revealed.<span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(8) <i>Appositional</i>, which may be in the case of—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Nouns.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Such a book as that <i>of</i> Job.<span class= +"smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>The fair city <i>of</i> Mexico.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +<p>The nation <i>of</i> Lilliput.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an +infinitive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the vain hope <i>of</i> appeasing the savages.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>Few people take the trouble <i>of</i> finding out what democracy +really is.<span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the +second.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This crampfish <i>of</i> a Socrates has so bewitched +him.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>A sorry antediluvian makeshift <i>of</i> a building you may +think it.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>An inexhaustible bottle <i>of</i> a shop.<span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(9) <i>Of time.</i> Besides the phrases <i>of old</i>, <i>of +late</i>, <i>of a sudden</i>, etc., <i>of</i> is used in the sense +of <i>during</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I used often to linger <i>of</i> a morning by the high +gate.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich</span></p> +<p>I delighted to loll over the quarter railing <i>of</i> a calm +day. <span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(10) <i>Of reference</i>, equal to <i>about</i>, +<i>concerning</i>, <i>with regard to</i>.<a name="Page_216" id= +"Page_216"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The Turk lay dreaming <i>of</i> the hour.<span class= +"smcap">—Halleck.</span></p> +<p>Boasted <i>of</i> his prowess as a scalp hunter and +duelist.<span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p>Sank into reverie <i>of</i> home and boyhood +scenes.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Idiomatic use with verbs.</i></div> +<p><i>Of</i> is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as +<i>admit</i>, <i>accept</i>, <i>allow</i>, <i>approve</i>, +<i>disapprove</i>, <i>permit</i>, without adding to their meaning. +It also accompanies the verbs <i>tire</i>, <i>complain</i>, +<i>repent</i>, <i>consist</i>, <i>avail</i> (one's self), and +others.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with six uses of +<i>of</i>.</p> +<h3>On, Upon.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>324.</b></span> The general meaning of +<b>on</b> is position or direction. <i>On</i> and <i>upon</i> are +interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as shown by +the sentences below:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Place</i>: (<i>a</i>) Where.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Cannon were heard close <i>on</i> the left.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The Earl of Huntley ranged his +host<br /></span> <span><i>Upon</i> their native +strand.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Sigourney.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) With motion.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was the battery at Samos firing <i>on</i> the +boats.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>Thou didst look down <i>upon</i> the naked earth.<span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The demonstration of joy or sorrow <i>on</i> reading their +letters. <span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p><i>On</i> Monday evening he sent forward the +Indians.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Upon</b> is seldom used to express time.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Reference</i>, equal to <i>about</i>, <i>concerning</i>, +etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I think that one abstains from writing <i>on</i> the immortality +of the soul.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>He pronounced a very flattering opinion <i>upon</i> my brother's +promise of excellence.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>(4) <i>In +adjurations.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>On</i> my life, you are eighteen, and not a day +more.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p><i>Upon</i> my reputation and credit.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Idiomatic phrases</i>: <i>on fire</i>, <i>on board</i>, +<i>on high</i>, <i>on the wing</i>, <i>on the alert</i>, <i>on a +sudden</i>, <i>on view</i>, <i>on trial</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three uses of +<i>on</i> or <i>upon</i>.</p> +<h3>To.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>325.</b></span> Some uses of to are the +following:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Expressing motion</i>: (<i>a</i>) To a place.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Come <i>to</i> the bridal chamber, Death!<span class= +"smcap">—Halleck.</span></p> +<p>Rip had scrambled <i>to</i> one of the highest +peaks.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Referring to time.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Full of schemes and speculations <i>to</i> the last.<span class= +"smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +<p>Revolutions, whose influence is felt <i>to</i> this +hour.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Expressing result.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written +over,—often <i>to</i> the loss of vigor.<span class= +"smcap">—Benton</span></p> +<p><i>To</i> our great delight, Ben Lomond was +unshrouded.<span class="smcap">—B. Taylor</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Expressing comparison.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But when, unmasked, gay Comedy +appears,<br /></span> <span>'Tis ten <i>to</i> one you find the +girl in tears.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing <i>to</i> +them.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints <i>to</i> +him.<span class="smcap">—Webster</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Expressing concern, interest.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>To</i> the few, it may be genuine poetry.<span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></p> +<p>His brother had died, had ceased to be, <i>to</i> +him.<span class="smcap">—Hale.</span></p> +<p>Little mattered <i>to</i> them occasional privations<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>(5) <i>Equivalent to</i> +according to.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Nor, <i>to</i> my taste, does the mere music...of your style +fall far below the highest efforts of poetry.<span class= +"smcap">—Lang.</span></p> +<p>We cook the dish <i>to</i> our own appetite.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(6) <i>With the infinitive</i> (see Sec. 268).</p> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.—Find sentences containing three uses of +<i>to</i>.</p> +<h3>With.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>326.</b></span> <b>With</b> expresses the +idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of its applications vary from +this general signification.</p> +<p>In Old English, <i>mid</i> meant <i>in company with</i>, while +<i>wið</i> meant <i>against</i>: both meanings are included in +the modern <i>with</i>.</p> +<p>The following meanings are expressed by <i>with</i>:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Personal accompaniment.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The advance, <i>with</i> Heyward at its head, had already +reached the defile.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>For many weeks I had walked <i>with</i> this poor friendless +girl.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Instrumentality.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>With</i> my crossbow I shot the albatross.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>Either <i>with</i> the swingle-bar, or <i>with</i> the haunch of +our near leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little +gig.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Cause, reason, motive.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was wild <i>with</i> delight about Texas.<span class= +"smcap">—Hale.</span></p> +<p>She seemed pleased <i>with</i> the accident.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Estimation, opinion.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>How can a writer's verses be numerous if <i>with</i> him, as +<i>with</i> you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a +pleasure"?<span class="smcap">—Lang.</span></p> +<p>It seemed a supreme moment <i>with</i> him.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>(5) <i>Opposition</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>After battling <i>with</i> terrific hurricanes and typhoons on +every known sea.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p>The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not <i>with</i> life, but +<i>with</i> you.<span class="smcap">—Lang.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(6) <i>The equivalent of</i> notwithstanding, in spite of.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>With</i> all his sensibility, he gave millions to the +sword.<span class="smcap">—Channing.</span></p> +<p>Messala, <i>with</i> all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle +further.<span class="smcap">—Wallace</span></p> +</div> +<p>(7) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He expired <i>with</i> these words.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>With</i> each new mind a new secret of nature +transpires.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.—Find sentences with four uses of +<i>with</i>.</p> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>327.</b></span> Since a preposition +introduces a phrase and shows the relation between two things, it +is necessary, first of all, to find the object of the preposition, +and then to find what word the prepositional phrase limits. Take +this sentence:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man +without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the +beginning.—<span class="smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>The phrases are (1) <i>on board the ships</i>, (2) <i>on +which</i>, (3) <i>without a country</i>, (4) <i>from the +beginning</i>. The object of <i>on board</i> is <i>ships</i>; of +<i>on</i>, <i>which</i>; of <i>without</i>, <i>country</i>; of +<i>from</i>, <i>beginning</i>.</p> +<p>In (1), the phrase answers the question <i>where</i>, and has +the office of an adverb in telling <i>where</i> <a name="Page_220" +id="Page_220"></a>the rule is adopted; hence we say, <i>on +board</i> shows the relation between <i>ships</i> and the +participle <i>adopted</i>.</p> +<p>In (2), <i>on which</i> modifies the verb <i>have met</i> by +telling where: hence <i>on</i> shows the relation between +<i>which</i> (standing for <i>ships</i>) and the verb <i>have +met</i>.</p> +<p>In (3), <i>without a country</i> modifies <i>man</i>, telling +what man, or the verb <i>was</i> understood: hence <i>without</i> +shows the relation between <i>country</i> and <i>man</i>, or +<i>was</i>. And so on.</p> +<p>The <b>parsing</b> of prepositions means merely telling between +what words or word groups they show relation.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Parse the prepositions in these +paragraphs:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us +one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly +illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in their +language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious rogue, +watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of them, +shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, each of +them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling about my +ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to stoop, and +knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no other hurt, and +the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I had given the +provocation.<span class="smcap">—Swift</span></p> +<p>2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a +violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my box +for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very high in +the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. The first +jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I called out +several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards my windows, +and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I heard a noise +just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and then began to +perceive the woeful condition I <a name="Page_221" id= +"Page_221"></a>was in; that some eagle had got the ring of my box +in his beak, with an intent to let it fall on a rock: for the +sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry +at a great distance, though better concealed than I could be within +a two-inch board.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition +in the following sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The guns were cleared <i>of</i> their lumber.</p> +<p>2. They then left <i>for</i> a cruise up the Indian Ocean.</p> +<p>3. I speak these things <i>from</i> a love of justice.</p> +<p>4. <i>To</i> our general surprise, we met the defaulter +here.</p> +<p>5. There was no one except a little sunbeam <i>of</i> a +sister.</p> +<p>6. The great gathering in the main street was <i>on</i> Sundays, +when, after a restful morning, though unbroken <i>by</i> the peal +of church bells, the miners gathered <i>from</i> hills and ravines +<i>for</i> miles around <i>for</i> marketing.</p> +<p>7. The troops waited in their boats <i>by</i> the edge of a +strand.</p> +<p>8. His breeches were <i>of</i> black silk, and his hat was +garnished <i>with</i> white and sable plumes.</p> +<p>9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran +through the crowd <i>at</i> this generous proposition.</p> +<p>10. They were shriveled and colorless <i>with</i> the cold.</p> +<p>11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even +<i>to</i> the eclipsing of the involuntary object of the +ceremony.</p> +<p>12. <i>On</i> all subjects known to man, he favored the world +with his opinions.</p> +<p>13. Our horses ran <i>on</i> a sandy margin of the road.</p> +<p>14. The hero of the poem is <i>of</i> a strange land and a +strange parentage.</p> +<p>15. He locked his door <i>from</i> mere force of habit.</p> +<p>16. The lady was remarkable <i>for</i> energy and talent.</p> +<p>17. Roland was acknowledged <i>for</i> the successor and +heir.</p> +<p>18. <i>For</i> my part, I like to see the passing, in town.</p> +<p>19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered +<i>for</i> any service.</p> +<p>20. The mother sank and fell, grasping <i>at</i> the child.</p> +<p>21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed <i>for</i> +battle.</p> +<p><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>22. He had lived in Paris +<i>for</i> the last fifty years.</p> +<p>23. The hill stretched <i>for</i> an immeasurable distance.</p> +<p>24.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The baron of Smaylho'me rose <i>with</i> +day,<br /></span> <span class="i2">He spurred his courser +on,<br /></span> <span>Without stop or stay, down the rocky +way<br /></span> <span class="i2">That leads <i>to</i> +Brotherstone.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>25. <i>With</i> all his learning, Carteret was far from being a +pedant.</p> +<p>26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is +nothing, in this respect, <i>to</i> one dark and gloomy.</p> +<p>27. Wilt thou die <i>for</i> very weakness?</p> +<p>28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously <i>upon</i> the ear +of memory.</p> +<p>29. The shout I heard was <i>upon</i> the arrival of this +engine.</p> +<p>30. He will raise the price, not merely <i>by</i> the amount of +the tax.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="WORDS_THAT_NEED_WATCHING" id= +"WORDS_THAT_NEED_WATCHING"></a><b>WORDS THAT NEED +WATCHING.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>328.</b></span> If the student has now +learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to +their function or use, and not according to form, he will be able +to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech. A +few are discussed below,—a summary of their treatment in +various places as studied heretofore.</p> +<p><b>THAT</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>329.</b></span> <b>That</b> may be used as +follows:</p> +<p>(1) <i>As a demonstrative adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> night was a memorable one.<span class= +"smcap">—Stockton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>As an adjective pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> was a dreadful mistake.<span class= +"smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>(3) <i>As a relative +pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And now it is like an angel's +song,<br /></span> <span><i>That</i> makes the heavens be +mute.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>As an adverb of degree.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> far I hold that the Scriptures teach.<span class= +"smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>As a conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Of purpose.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, <i>that</i> you might +behold this joyous day.<span class= +"smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Of result.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Gates of iron so massy <i>that</i> no man could without the help +of engines open or shut them.<span class= +"smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Substantive conjunction.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We wish <i>that</i> labor may look up here, and be proud in the +midst of its toil.<span class="smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>WHAT.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>330.</b></span> (1) <i>Relative +pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>That is <i>what</i> I understand by scientific +education.<span class="smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Indefinite relative.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Those shadowy recollections,<br /></span> +<span>Which be they <i>what</i> they may,<br /></span> <span>Are +yet the fountain light of all our day.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Interrogative pronoun</i>: (<i>a</i>) Direct +question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> would be an English merchant's character after a few +such transactions?<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Indirect question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see +<i>what</i> might be hidden.<span class= +"smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Indefinite pronoun:</i> The saying, "I'll tell you +<i>what</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>(4) <i>Relative +adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But woe to <i>what</i> thing or person stood in the +way.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Indefinite relative adjective.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To say <i>what</i> good of fashion we can, it rests on +reality.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Interrogative adjective</i>: (<i>a</i>) Direct +question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> right have you to infer that this condition was +caused by the action of heat?<span class= +"smcap">—Agassiz.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Indirect question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>At <i>what</i> rate these materials would be distributed,...it +is impossible to determine.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(6) <i>Exclamatory adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Saint Mary! <i>what</i> a scene is here!<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(7) <i>Adverb of degree.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If he has [been in America], he knows <i>what</i> good people +are to be found there.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(8) <i>Conjunction</i>, nearly equivalent to <i>partly</i>... +<i>partly</i>, or <i>not only...but</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their +pasturage; <i>what</i> with the vocal seller of bread in the early +morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.—S.S. +Cox.</p> +</div> +<p>(9) <i>As an exclamation.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i>, silent still, and silent all!<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><i>What</i>, Adam Woodcock at court!<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>BUT.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>331.</b></span> (1) <i>Coördinate +conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Adversative.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, <i>but</i> +the result of calculation.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Copulative, after <i>not only</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Then arose not only tears, <i>but</i> piercing cries, on all +sides. <span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>(2) <i>Subordinate +conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Result, equivalent to <i>that</i> ... +<i>not</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Nor is Nature so hard <i>but</i> she gives me this joy several +times.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Substantive, meaning <i>otherwise</i> ... +<i>than</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Who knows <i>but</i>, like the dog, it will at length be no +longer traceable to its wild original<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Preposition</i>, meaning <i>except</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Now there was nothing to be seen <i>but</i> fires in every +direction.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Relative pronoun</i>, after a negative, stands for +<i>that</i> ... <i>not</i>, or <i>who</i> ... <i>not</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There is not a man in them <i>but</i> is impelled withal, at all +moments, towards order.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Adverb</i>, meaning <i>only</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The whole twenty years had been to him <i>but</i> as one +night.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>To lead <i>but</i> one measure.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>AS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>332.</b></span> (1) <i>Subordinate +conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Of time.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself <i>as</i> he went up +the mountain.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Of manner.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>As</i> orphans yearn on to their +mothers,<br /></span> <span>He yearned to our patriot +bands.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Mrs +Browning.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Of degree.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i6">His wan eyes<br /></span> +<span>Gaze on the empty scene <i>as</i> vacantly<br /></span> +<span><i>As</i> ocean's moon looks on the moon in +heaven.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>(<i>d</i>) Of reason.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I shall see but little of it, <i>as</i> I could neither bear +walking nor riding in a carriage.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>e</i>) Introducing an appositive word.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Reverenced <i>as</i> one of the patriarchs of the +village.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>Doing duty <i>as</i> a guard.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Relative pronoun</i>, after <i>such</i>, sometimes +<i>same</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And was there such a resemblance <i>as</i> the crowd had +testified?<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>LIKE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Modifier of a noun or pronoun.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>333.</b></span> (1) <i>An adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The aforesaid general had been exceedingly <i>like</i> the +majestic image.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>They look, indeed, <i>liker</i> a lion's mane than a Christian +man's locks.-SCOTT.</p> +<p>No Emperor, this, <i>like</i> him awhile ago.<span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p>There is no statue <i>like</i> this living man.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>That face, <i>like</i> summer ocean's.<span class= +"smcap">—Halleck.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In each case, <i>like</i> clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, +and is followed by a dative-objective.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Introduces a clause, but its verb is +omitted.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>A subordinate conjunction</i> of manner. This follows a +verb or a verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by +<i>like</i> is <i>regularly omitted</i>. Note the difference +between these two uses. In Old English <i>gelic</i> (like) was +followed by the dative, and was clearly an adjective. In this +second use, <i>like</i> introduces a shortened clause modifying a +verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring +<i>like</i> a bewildered man.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air +<i>like</i> Carlyle.<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<div><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They conducted themselves much <i>like</i> the crew of a +man-of-war. <span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>[The sound] rang in his ears <i>like</i> the iron hoofs of the +steeds of Time.<span class="smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +<p>Stirring it vigorously, <i>like</i> a cook beating +eggs.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +</div> +<p>If the verb is expressed, <i>like</i> drops out, and <i>as</i> +or <i>as if</i> takes its place.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper +<i>as</i> he pleases.<span class="smcap">—Cass.</span></p> +<p>Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, +just <i>as</i> they do in Abyssinia to this day.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>I do with my friends <i>as</i> I do with my books.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—Very rarely <i>like</i> is found with a verb +following, but this is not considered good usage: for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A timid, nervous child, <i>like</i> Martin +<i>was</i>.<span class="smcap">—Mayhew.</span></p> +<p>Through which they put their heads, <i>like</i> the Gauchos +<i>do</i> through their cloaks.<span class= +"smcap">—Darwin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i10"><i>Like</i> an arrow +shot<br /></span> <span>From a well-experienced archer <i>hits</i> +the mark.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INTERJECTIONS" id= +"INTERJECTIONS"></a><b>INTERJECTIONS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>334.</b></span> <b>Interjections</b> are +exclamations used to express emotion, and are not parts of speech +in the same sense as the words we have discussed; that is, entering +into the structure of a sentence.</p> +<p>Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc.</p> +<p><i>Humph</i>! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance +that no letters of our language can really spell.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not all exclamatory words are +interjections.</i></div> +<p>Other interjections are <i>oh</i>! <i>ah</i>! <i>alas</i>! +<i>pshaw</i>! <i>hurrah</i>! etc. But it is to be remembered that +almost any word may be used as an exclamation, <a name="Page_228" +id="Page_228"></a>but it still retains its identity as noun, +pronoun, verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the +sea of time [noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast +[verb]," "Up! for shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be +[adjective]."</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a><a name="Page_229" id= +"Page_229"></a><b>PART II.</b></h2> +<h2><a name="ANALYSIS_OF_SENTENCES" id= +"ANALYSIS_OF_SENTENCES"></a><i>ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.</i><a name= +"Page_230" id="Page_230"></a></h2> +<h2><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a><a name= +"CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_FORM" id= +"CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_FORM"></a><b>CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING +TO FORM.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What analysis is.</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>335.</b></span> All discourse is made up of +sentences: consequently the sentence is the unit with which we must +begin. And in order to get a clear and practical idea of the +structure of sentences, it is necessary to become expert in +<b>analysis</b>; that is, in separating them into their component +parts.</p> +<p>A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts +of speech,—in determining case, subject and predicate, +clauses introduced by conjunctions, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Value of analysis.</i></div> +<p>A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is +necessary for two reasons,—not only for a correct +understanding of the principles of syntax, but for the study of +punctuation and other topics treated in rhetoric.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>336.</b></span> A <b>sentence</b> is the +expression of a thought in words.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds of sentences as to form.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>337.</b></span> According to the way in +which a thought is put before a listener or reader, sentences may +be of three kinds:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Declarative</b>, which puts the thought in the form of a +declaration or assertion. This is the most common one.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Interrogative</b>, which puts the thought in a +question.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Imperative</b>, which expresses command, entreaty, or +request.</p> +<p><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>Any one of these may be put +in the form of an exclamation, but the sentence would still be +declarative, interrogative, or imperative; hence, <i>according to +form</i>, there are only the three kinds of sentences already +named.</p> +<p>Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you +must not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always +friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!"</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_NUMBER_OF_STATEMENTS" id= +"CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_NUMBER_OF_STATEMENTS"></a><b>CLASSIFICATION +ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS.</b></h2> +<h2><a name="SIMPLE_SENTENCES" id="SIMPLE_SENTENCES"></a><b>SIMPLE +SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Division according to number of +statements.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>338.</b></span> But the division of +sentences most necessary to analysis is the division, not according +to the form in which a thought is put, but according to how many +statements there are.</p> +<p>The one we shall consider first is the <b>simple +sentence.</b></p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>339.</b></span> A <b>simple sentence</b> is +one which contains a single statement, question, or command: for +example, "The quality of mercy is not strained;" "What wouldst thou +do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>340.</b></span> Every sentence must contain +two parts,—a <b>subject</b> and a <b>predicate</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition: Predicate.</i></div> +<p>The <b>predicate</b> of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase +which says something about the subject.</p> +<p><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>In order to get a correct +definition of the subject, let us examine two specimen +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. But now all is to be changed.</p> +<p>2. A rare old plant is the ivy green.</p> +</div> +<p>In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word +<i>what</i> before the predicate,—<i>What</i> is to be +changed? Answer, <i>all</i>. Consequently, we say <i>all</i> is the +subject of the sentence.</p> +<p>But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some +trouble,—<i>What</i> is the ivy green? Answer, <i>a rare old +plant</i>. But we cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not +of <i>a rare old plant</i>, but about <i>the ivy green</i>; and the +real subject is the latter. Sentences are frequently in this +inverted order, especially in poetry; and our definition must be +the following, to suit all cases:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject.</i></div> +<p>The <b>subject</b> is that which answers the question <i>who</i> +or <i>what</i> placed before the predicate, and which at the same +time names that of which the predicate says something.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The subject in interrogative and +imperative simple sentences.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>341.</b></span> In the interrogative +sentence, the subject is frequently after the verb. Either the verb +is the first word of the sentence, or an interrogative pronoun, +adjective, or adverb that asks about the subject. In analyzing such +sentences, <i>always reduce them to the order of a statement</i>. +Thus,—</p> +<p>(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?"</p> +<p>(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?"</p> +<p>(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?"</p> +<p><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>(4) "Thou wouldst have a +good great man obtain what?"</p> +<p>In the imperative sentence, the subject (<i>you</i>, +<i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>) is in most cases omitted, and is to be +supplied; as, "[You] behold her single in the field."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The shadow of the dome of +pleasure<br /></span> <span>Floated midway on the +waves.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial +distinctions.</p> +<p>3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like +this.</p> +<p>4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and +precious gift.</p> +<p>5. The last of all the Bards was he.</p> +<p>6. Slavery they can have anywhere.</p> +<p>7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man.</p> +<p>8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!</p> +<p>9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of +the general.</p> +<p>10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe +present to the Anglo-Saxon races!</p> +</div> +<h3>ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>342.</b></span> All the <b>elements</b> of +the simple sentence are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) The subject.</p> +<p>(2) The predicate.</p> +<p>(3) The object.</p> +<p>(4) The complements.</p> +<p>(5) Modifiers.</p> +<p>(6) Independent elements.</p> +<p>The subject and predicate have been discussed.</p> +<p><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>343.</b></span> The object may be of two kinds:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definitions. Direct Object</i>.</div> +<p>(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers +the question <i>who</i> or <i>what</i> placed after the verb; or +the direct object names that toward which the action of the +predicate is directed.</p> +<p>It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but +for the present we speak of the object of the verb, and by +<i>object</i> we mean the <i>direct</i> object.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indirect object</i>.</div> +<p>(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the +modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose +benefit an action is performed.</p> +<p>Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom +saw her <i>course</i> at a glance;" indirect, "I give <i>thee</i> +this to wear at the collar."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement</i>:</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>344.</b></span> A <b>complement</b> is a +word added to a verb of incomplete predication to complete its +meaning.</p> +<p>Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two +kinds,—transitive and intransitive.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Of a transitive verb</i>.</div> +<p>The <i>transitive verb</i> often requires, in addition to the +object, a word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the +object; for example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb <i>call</i> +has an object <i>me</i> (if we leave out <i>chief</i>), and means +summoned; but <i>chief</i> belongs to the verb, and <i>me</i> here +is not the object simply of <i>call</i>, but of <i>call chief</i>, +just as if to say, "Ye <i>honor me</i>." This word completing a +transitive verb is sometimes called a <i>factitive object</i>, or +<i>second object</i>, but it is a true complement.</p> +<p>The fact that this is a complement can be more <a name= +"Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>clearly seen when the verb is in the +passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. 364.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement of an intransitive +verb</i>.</div> +<p>An <i>intransitive verb</i>, especially the forms of <i>be</i>, +<i>seem</i>, <i>appear</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>feel</i>, +<i>become</i>, etc., must often have a word to complete the +meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were <i>round, and of +massive weight</i>;" "The good man, he was now getting <i>old</i>, +above sixty;" "Nothing could be <i>more copious</i> than his talk;" +"But in general he seemed <i>deficient in laughter</i>."</p> +<p>All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are +examples of complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh +the heart <i>sick</i>;" "He was termed <i>Thomas</i>, or, more +familiarly, <i>Thom of the Gills</i>;" "A plentiful fortune is +reckoned <i>necessary</i>, in the popular judgment, to the +completion of this man of the world."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>345.</b></span> The <b>modifiers</b> and +<b>independent elements</b> will be discussed in detail in Secs. +351, 352, 355.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Phrases</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>346.</b></span> A phrase is a group of +words, not containing a verb, but used as a single modifier.</p> +<p>As to <i>form</i>, phrases are of three kinds:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Three kinds</i>.</div> +<p>(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, +"Such a convulsion is the struggle <i>of gradual suffocation</i>, +as <i>in drowning</i>; and, <i>in the original Opium +Confessions</i>, I mentioned a case <i>of that nature</i>."</p> +<p>(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words +dependent on it. The following are examples: "Then <i>retreating +into the warm house</i>, and <i>barring the door</i>, she sat down +to undress the two youngest children."</p> +<p><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>(3) INFINITIVE, consisting +of an infinitive and the words dependent upon it; as in the +sentence, "She left her home forever in order <i>to present herself +at the Dauphin's court</i>."</p> +<h3>Things used as Subject.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>347.</b></span> The subject of a simple +sentence may be—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "There seems to be no <i>interval</i> between +greatness and meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A +cheery, '<i>Ay, ay, sir</i>!' rang out in response."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pronoun</i>: "We are fortified by every heroic +anecdote."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Infinitive phrase</i>: "<i>To enumerate and analyze these +relations</i> is to teach the science of method."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Gerund</i>: "There will be <i>sleeping</i> enough in the +grave;" "What signifies <i>wishing</i> and <i>hoping</i> for better +things?"</p> +<p>(5) <i>Adjective used as noun</i>: "<i>The good</i> are +befriended even by weakness and defect;" "<i>The dead</i> are +there."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Adverb</i>: "<i>Then</i> is the moment for the humming +bird to secure the insects."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>348.</b></span> The subject is often found +<i>after the verb</i>—</p> +<p>(1) <i>By simple inversion</i>: as, "Therein has been, and ever +will be, my <i>deficiency</i>,—the talent of starting the +game;" "Never, from their lips, was heard one <i>syllable</i> to +justify," etc.</p> +<p>(2) <i>In interrogative sentences</i>, for which see Sec. +341.</p> +<p><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>(3) <i>After</i> "it +<i>introductory</i>:" "It ought not to need <i>to print</i> in a +reading room a caution not to read aloud."</p> +<p>In this sentence, <i>it</i> stands in the position of a +grammatical subject; but the real or logical subject is <i>to +print</i>, etc. <i>It</i> merely serves to throw the subject after +a verb.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Disguised infinitive subject</i>.</div> +<p>There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, +though disguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard <i>for +honest men to separate</i> their country from their party, or their +religion from their sect."</p> +<p>The <i>for</i> did not belong there originally, but obscures the +real subject,—the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No +wonder is a lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common +man to rust).</p> +<p>(4) <i>After</i> "there <i>introductory</i>," which has the same +office as <i>it</i> in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There +was a <i>description</i> of the destructive operations of time;" +"There are <i>asking eyes</i>, <i>asserting eyes</i>, <i>prowling +eyes</i>."</p> +<h3>Things used as Direct Object.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>349.</b></span> The words used as direct +object are mainly the same as those used for subject, but they will +be given in detail here, for the sake of presenting +examples:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "Each man has his own <i>vocation</i>." Also +expressions used as nouns: for example, "'<i>By God, and by Saint +George!</i>' said the King."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pronoun</i>: "Memory greets <i>them</i> with the ghost of +a smile."</p> +<p><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>(3) <i>Infinitive</i>: "We +like <i>to see</i> everything do its office."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Gerund</i>: "She heard that <i>sobbing</i> of litanies, +or the <i>thundering</i> of organs."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Adjective used as a noun</i>: "For seventy leagues +through the mighty cathedral, I saw <i>the quick</i> and <i>the +dead</i>."</p> +<h3>Things used as Complement.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement: Of an intransitive +verb</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>350.</b></span> As complement of an +<i>intransitive</i> verb,—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "She had been an ardent <i>patriot</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pronoun</i>: "<i>Who</i> is she in bloody coronation +robes from Rheims?" "This is <i>she</i>, the shepherd girl."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Adjective</i>: "Innocence is ever <i>simple</i> and +<i>credulous</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Infinitive</i>: "To enumerate and analyze these relations +is <i>to teach</i> the science of method."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Gerund</i>: "Life is a <i>pitching</i> of this +penny,—heads or tails;" "Serving others is <i>serving</i> +us."</p> +<p>(6) <i>A prepositional phrase</i>: "His frame is <i>on a larger +scale</i>;" "The marks were <i>of a kind</i> not to be +mistaken."</p> +<p>It will be noticed that all these complements have a double +office,—completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying +the subject.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Of a transitive verb</i>.</div> +<p>As complement of a <i>transitive</i> verb,—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "I will not call you <i>cowards</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Adjective</i>: "Manners make beauty <i>superfluous</i> +and <i>ugly</i>;" "Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered +<i>pliant</i> and <i>malleable</i> in the fiery furnace of domestic +tribulation." In this last sentence, the object is made the subject +by being passive, and <a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>the +words italicized are still complements. Like all the complements in +this list, they are adjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, +complements of the predicate.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Infinitive</i>, or <i>infinitive phrase</i>: "That cry +which made me <i>look a thousand ways</i>;" "I hear the echoes +<i>throng</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Participle</i>, or <i>participial phrase</i>: "I can +imagine him <i>pushing firmly on, trusting the hearts of his +countrymen</i>."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Prepositional phrase:</i> "My antagonist would render my +poniard and my speed <i>of no use</i> to me."</p> +<h3>Modifiers.</h3> +<h3>I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>351.</b></span> Since the subject and object +are either nouns or some equivalent of a noun, the words modifying +them must be adjectives or some equivalent of an adjective; and +whenever the complement is a noun, or the equivalent of the noun, +it is modified by the same words and word groups that modify the +subject and the object.</p> +<p>These <b>modifiers</b> are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>A possessive</i>: "<i>My</i> memory assures me of this;" +"She asked her <i>father's</i> permission."</p> +<p>(2) <i>A word in apposition</i>: "Theodore Wieland, the +<i>prisoner</i> at the bar, was now called upon for his defense;" +"Him, this young <i>idolater</i>, I have seasoned for thee."</p> +<p>(3) <i>An adjective</i>: "<i>Great</i> geniuses have the +<i>shortest</i> biographies;" "Her father was a prince in +Lebanon,—<i>proud</i>, <i>unforgiving</i>, +<i>austere</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Prepositional phrase</i>: "Are the opinions <i>of +<a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>a man on right and wrong on +fate and causation</i>, at the mercy of a broken sleep or an +indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground <i>in popular tradition</i> +to work on."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Infinitive phrase</i>: "The way <i>to know him</i> is to +compare him, not with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new +and unattempted problem <i>to solve</i>;" "The simplest utterances +are worthiest <i>to be written</i>."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Participial phrase</i>: "Another reading, <i>given at the +request of a Dutch lady</i>, was the scene from King John;" "This +was the hour <i>already appointed for the baptism</i> of the new +Christian daughter."</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell +whether the subject, object, or complement is modified.</p> +<h3>II. Modifiers of the Predicate.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>352.</b></span> Since the predicate is +always a verb, the word modifying it must be an adverb or its +equivalent:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Adverb:</i> "<i>Slowly</i> and <i>sadly</i> we laid him +down."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Prepositional phrase</i>: "The little carriage is +creeping on <i>at one mile an hour</i>;" "<i>In the twinkling of an +eye</i>, our horses had carried us <i>to the termination of the +umbrageous isle</i>."</p> +<p>In such a sentence as, "He died like a God," the word group +<i>like a God</i> is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a +contracted clause, the verb being omitted.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Tells how.</i></div> +<p>(3) <i>Participial phrase:</i> "She comes down from heaven to +his help, <i>interpreting for him the most difficult truths</i>, +and <i>leading him from star to star</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>(4) <i>Infinitive +phrase:</i> "No imprudent, no sociable angel, ever dropped an early +syllable <i>to answer his longing</i>."</p> +<p>(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. +357-363.)</p> +<p>(5) <i>Indirect object:</i> "I gave <i>every man</i> a trumpet;" +"Give <i>them</i> not only noble teachings, but noble +teachers."</p> +<p>These are equivalent to the phrases <i>to every man</i> and +<i>to them</i>, and modify the predicate in the same way.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Retained with passive; or</i></div> +<p>When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect +object is retained, as in these sentences: "It is left <i>you</i> +to find out the reason why;" "All such knowledge should be given +<i>her</i>."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>subject of passive verb and direct object +retained.</i></div> +<p>Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the +subject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: for +example, "She is to be taught <i>to extend the limits of her +sympathy</i>;" "I was shown an immense <i>sarcophagus</i>."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Adverbial objective.</i> These answer the question +<i>when</i>, or <i>how long</i>, <i>how far</i>, etc., and are +consequently equivalent to adverbs in modifying a predicate: "We +were now running <i>thirteen miles an hour</i>;" "<i>One way</i> +lies hope;" "<i>Four hours</i> before midnight we approached a +mighty minster."</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) +object:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took.</p> +<p>2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final +cause, gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the +whole writing.</p> +<p><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>3. Why does the horizon +hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in this center?</p> +<p>4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to +the dead prosaic level.</p> +<p>5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on +three or four persons to support a proposition, and as many to +oppose it.</p> +<p>6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of +the great.</p> +<p>7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation.</p> +<p>8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement:</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the +making.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2. But anger drives a man to say anything.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in +regard to particulars, negative.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and +the slumbers light.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of +Spain.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, +the man of ideas appears out of his reason.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the +anxieties of a man, and a member of the world.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in +each:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. Not the less I owe thee justice.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>4. I promised her protection against all ghosts.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>d</i>) Pick out the words and phrases in +apposition:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2. A river formed the boundary,—the river Meuse.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz., in the +dramatic character of his mind and taste.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>4. This view was luminously +expounded by Archbishop Whately, the present Archbishop of +Dublin.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this +nun so martial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home +of her childhood.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>e</i>) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, +upwards, downwards, to the right and to the left.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2.</p> +</li> +<li> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And hark! like the roar of the billows on +the shore,<br /></span> <span>The cry of battle rises along their +changing line.<br /></span></div> +</div> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their +long confinement to a ship, at the chief hotel.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by +a peat fire, expecting the return of their parents.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<h3>Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not compound sentences.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>353.</b></span> Frequently in a simple +sentence the writer uses two or more predicates to the same +subject, two or more subjects of the same predicate, several +modifiers, complements, etc.; but it is to be noticed that, in all +such sentences as we quote below, the writers of them purposely +combined them <i>in single statements</i>, and they are not to be +expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence the object +is to make two or more full statements.</p> +<p>Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's <i>awe</i> +and <i>apprehension</i> subsided;" "The <i>name of the child</i>, +<i>the air of the mother</i>, the <i>tone of her +voice</i>,—all awakened a train of recollections in his +mind."</p> +<p>Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company <i>broke +up</i>, and <i>returned</i> to the more important concerns of the +election;" "He <i>shook</i> his head, <i>shouldered</i> the rusty +firelock, and, with a <a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>heart +full of trouble and anxiety, <i>turned</i> his steps homeward."</p> +<p>Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught +his <i>daughter</i> and her <i>child</i> in his arms;" +"<i>Voyages</i> and <i>travels</i> I would also have."</p> +<p>And so with complements, modifiers, etc.</p> +<h3>Logical Subject and Logical Predicate.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>354.</b></span> The <b>logical subject</b> +is the simple or grammatical subject, together with all its +modifiers.</p> +<p>The <b>logical predicate</b> is the simple or grammatical +predicate (that is, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its +object or complement.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Larger view of a sentence.</i></div> +<p>It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject +and predicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. +For example, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated +exposes a dreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human +nature," the logical subject is <i>the situation here +contemplated</i>, and the rest is the logical predicate. Of this, +the simple subject is <i>situation</i>; the predicate, +<i>exposes</i>; the object, <i>ulcer</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>Independent Elements of the Sentence.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>355.</b></span> The following words and +expressions are grammatically <b>independent</b> of the rest of the +sentence; that is, they are not a necessary part, do not enter into +its structure:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Person or thing addressed</i>: "But you know them, +<i>Bishop</i>;" "<i>Ye crags and peaks</i>, I'm with you once +again."</p> +<p><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>(2) <i>Exclamatory +expressions</i>: "But the <i>lady</i>—! Oh, <i>heavens</i>! +will that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?"</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing +addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, <i>young sir</i>! what +are you about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: +"Oh, <i>hurry, hurry</i>, my brave young man!"</p> +<p>(3) <i>Infinitive phrase</i> thrown in loosely: "<i>To make a +long story short</i>, the company broke up;" "<i>Truth to say</i>, +he was a conscientious man."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Prepositional phrase</i> not modifying: "Within the +railing sat, <i>to the best of my remembrance</i>, six +quill-driving gentlemen;" "<i>At all events</i>, the great man of +the prophecy had not yet appeared."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Participial phrase:</i> "But, <i>generally speaking</i>, +he closed his literary toils at dinner;" "<i>Considering the +burnish of her French tastes</i>, her noticing even this is +creditable."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Single words</i>: as, "Oh, <i>yes</i>! everybody knew +them;" "<i>No</i>, let him perish;" "<i>Well</i>, he somehow lived +along;" "<i>Why</i>, grandma, how you're winking!" "<i>Now</i>, +this story runs thus."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Another caution.</i></div> +<p>There are some adverbs, such as <i>perhaps</i>, <i>truly</i>, +<i>really</i>, <i>undoubtedly</i>, <i>besides</i>, etc., and some +conjunctions, such as <i>however</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>moreover</i>, +<i>therefore</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>, etc., that have an office in +the sentence, and should not be confused with the words spoken of +above. The words <i>well</i>, <i>now</i>, <i>why</i>, and so on, +are independent when they merely arrest the attention without being +necessary.</p> +<p><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a><b>PREPOSITIONAL +PHRASES.</b></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>356.</b></span> In their use, prepositional +phrases may be,</p> +<p>(1) <i>Adjectival</i>, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used +as a noun: for example, "He took the road <i>to King Richard's +pavilion</i>;" "I bring reports <i>on that subject</i> from +Ascalon."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Adverbial</i>, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: +as, "All nature around him slept <i>in calm moonshine</i> or <i>in +deep shadow</i>;" "Far <i>from the madding crowd's ignoble +strife</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Independent</i>, not dependent on any word in the +sentence (for examples, see Sec. 355, 4).</p> +<h3>PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>357.</b></span> It will be helpful to sum up +here the results of our study of participles and participial +phrases, and to set down all the uses which are of importance in +analysis:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>The adjectival use</i>, already noticed, as +follows:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>(<i>a</i>) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same +time a modifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, +4).</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>b</i>) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see +Sec. 351, 6).</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(2) <i>The adverbial use</i>, modifying the predicate, instances +of which were seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases +connect closely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing +that they modify.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>These need close watching.</i></div> +<p>There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, +but require somewhat closer <a name="Page_248" id= +"Page_248"></a>attention; thus, "The letter of introduction, +<i>containing no matters of business</i>, was speedily run +through."</p> +<p>In this sentence, the expression <i>containing no matters of +business</i> does not describe <i>letter</i>, but it is equivalent +to <i>because it contained no matters of business</i>, and hence is +adverbial, modifying <i>was speedily run through</i>.</p> +<p>Notice these additional examples:—</p> +<p><i>Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton</i> +[reason, "Because I was," etc.], I had naturally possessed myself +of Richardson the painter's thick octavo volumes.</p> +<p>Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, +<i>both having</i> [since they had] <i>a long warfare to accomplish +of contumely and ridicule</i>.</p> +<p>Wilt thou, therefore, <i>being now wiser</i> [as thou art] <i>in +thy thoughts</i>, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse?</p> +<p>(3) <i>Wholly independent</i> in meaning and grammar. See Sec. +355, (5), and these additional examples:—</p> +<p><i>Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of +water</i>, the entire mass of the sun would cool down to +15,000° Fahrenheit in five thousand years.</p> +<p><i>This case excepted</i>, the French have the keenest possible +sense of everything odious and ludicrous in posing.</p> +<h3>INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>358.</b></span> The various uses of the +infinitive give considerable trouble, and they will be presented +here in full, or as nearly so as the student will require.</p> +<p><b>I. The verbal use.</b> (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but +having no other office than a verbal one.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>(<i>a</i>) With <i>may +(might)</i>,<i>can +(could)</i>,<i>should</i>,<i>would</i>,<i>seem</i>, <i>ought</i>, +etc.: "My weekly bill used invariably <i>to be</i> about fifty +shillings;" "There, my dear, he should not <i>have known</i> them +at all;" "He would <i>instruct</i> her in the white man's religion, +and <i>teach</i> her how to be happy and good."</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>b</i>) With the forms of <i>be</i>, being equivalent to a +future with obligation, necessity, etc.: as in the sentences, +"Ingenuity and cleverness are <i>to be rewarded</i> by State +prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent' was <i>to be acted</i> that +evening."</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>c</i>) With the definite forms of <i>go</i>, equivalent to a +future: "I was going <i>to repeat</i> my remonstrances;" "I am not +going <i>to dissert</i> on Hood's humor."</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging +to a subject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the +complements of transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment +<i>to acknowledge</i> a higher origin for events" (retained with +passive); "Do they not cause the heart <i>to beat</i>, and the eyes +<i>to fill</i>?"</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>359.</b></span> <b>II. The substantive +use</b>, already examined; but see the following examples for +further illustration:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the subject: "To have</i> the wall there, was to have +the foe's life at their mercy;" "<i>To teach</i> is to learn."</p> +<p>(2) <i>As the object</i>: "I like <i>to hear</i> them tell their +old stories;" "I don't wish <i>to detract</i> from any gentleman's +reputation."</p> +<p>(3) <i>As complement:</i> See examples under (1), above.</p> +<p><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>(4) <i>In apposition</i>, +explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "She forwarded to the English +leaders a touching invitation <i>to unite</i> with the French;" "He +insisted on his right <i>to forget</i> her."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>360.</b></span> <b>III. The adjectival +use</b>, modifying a noun that may be a subject, object, +complement, etc.: for example, "But there was no time <i>to be +lost</i>;" "And now Amyas had time <i>to ask</i> Ayacanora the +meaning of this;" "I have such a desire <i>to be</i> well with my +public" (see also Sec. 351, 5).</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>361.</b></span> <b>IV. The adverbial +use</b>, which may be to express—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Purpose:</i> "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the +eastward only yesterday <i>to look</i> for you;" "Isn't it enough +to bring us to death, <i>to please</i> that poor young gentleman's +fancy?"</p> +<p>(2) <i>Result:</i> "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth <i>to +find</i> the ship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard +as <i>not to take</i> pity on the poor wild thing?"</p> +<p>(3) <i>Reason:</i> "I am quite sorry <i>to part</i> with them;" +"Are you mad, <i>to betray</i> yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, +hang the idiot, <i>to bring me</i> such stuff!"</p> +<p>(4) <i>Degree:</i> "We have won gold enough <i>to serve</i> us +the rest of our lives;" "But the poor lady was too sad <i>to +talk</i> except to the boys now and again."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Condition:</i> "You would fancy, <i>to hear</i> McOrator +after dinner, the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "<i>To say</i> +what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality" (the last is not +a simple <a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>sentence, but it +furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive).</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>362.</b></span> The fact that the +infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, is evident from the +meaning of the sentences.</p> +<p>Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the +meaning of purpose, result, etc., may be found out by turning the +infinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied under +subordinate conjunctions.</p> +<p>To test this, notice the following:—</p> +<p>In (1), <i>to look</i> means <i>that he might look</i>; <i>to +please</i> is equivalent to <i>that he may please</i>,—both +purpose clauses.</p> +<p>In (2), <i>to find</i> shows the result of the return; <i>not to +take pity</i> is equivalent to <i>that it would not take +pity</i>.</p> +<p>In (3), <i>to part</i> means <i>because I part</i>, etc.; and +<i>to betray</i> and <i>to bring</i> express the reason, equivalent +to <i>that you betray</i>, etc.</p> +<p>In (4), <i>to serve</i> and <i>to talk</i> are equivalent to +[<i>as much gold</i>] <i>as will serve us</i>; and "too sad <i>to +talk</i>" also shows degree.</p> +<p>In (5), <i>to hear</i> means <i>if you should hear</i>, and +<i>to say</i> is equivalent to <i>if we say</i>,—both +expressing condition.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>363.</b></span> <b>V. The independent +use</b>, which is of two kinds,—</p> +<p>(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3).</p> +<p>(2) <i>Exclamatory:</i> "I a philosopher! I <i>advance</i> +<a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>pretensions;" "'He <i>to +die</i>!' resumed the bishop." (See also Sec. 268, 4.)</p> +<h3>OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>364.</b></span> In analyzing simple +sentences, give—</p> +<p>(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the +complement (Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351).</p> +<p>(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349).</p> +<p>(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351).</p> +<p>(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352).</p> +<p>(5) The subject (Sec. 347).</p> +<p>(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351).</p> +<p>(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355).</p> +<p>This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence +usually have; but it is believed that the student will proceed more +easily by finding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc., +and then finding the subject by placing the question <i>who</i> or +<i>what</i> before it.</p> +<h4>Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences.</h4> +<p>Analyze the following according to the directions +given:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour.</p> +<p>2. I will try to keep the balance true.</p> +<p>3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution +of these, must be in a life, not in a book.</p> +<p>4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by any +misgiving of the value of these ballotings.</p> +<p>5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and +music of the English language.</p> +<p>6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, +through toys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency +irresistibly streams.</p> +<p><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>7. To be hurried away by +every event, is to have no political system at all.</p> +<p>8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy,—a +getting-out of their bodies to think.</p> +<p>9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, +nor money, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself.</p> +<p>10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the +edge of destruction, and only to be saved by invention and +courage.</p> +<p>11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose.</p> +<p>12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of +having been born to a private and humble fortune.</p> +<p>13.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The water, like a witch's +oils,<br /></span> <span>Burnt green and blue and +white.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a +distance.</p> +<p>15.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Old Adam, the carrion crow,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The old crow of Cairo;<br /></span> <span>He sat +in the shower, and let it flow<br /></span> <span class="i2">Under +his tail and over his crest.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to +other men.</p> +<p>17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet.</p> +<p>18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent +asunder by flashes of lightning.</p> +<p>19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might +be called flabby and irresolute.</p> +<p>20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two stricken +hours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual.</p> +<p>21. The word <i>conscience</i> has become almost confined, in +popular use, to the moral sphere.</p> +<p>22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment +discover something new.</p> +<p>23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court +a bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled +musician, an accomplished scholar.</p> +<p>24. Her aims were simple and obvious,—to preserve her +throne, to keep England out of war, to restore civil and religious +order.</p> +<p><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>25.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Fair name might he have handed +down,<br /></span> <span>Effacing many a stain of former +crime.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was +the patriotism of Peel in recent history.</p> +<p>27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, +time-honored, and, haply, time-shattered power—I owe thee +nothing!</p> +<p>28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to such +goodness.</p> +<p>29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to +bid you leave the place now and forever.</p> +<p>30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all +this mighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same +Condé Olivarez.</p> +<p>31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform +stretched within the bushes upon the ground.</p> +<p>32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and +no provisions but wild berries.</p> +<p>33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, +or perhaps one virtue, in this world.</p> +<p>34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike.</p> +<p>35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been +in the latitude of Boston, the present capital of New England.</p> +<p>36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" having +already flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar.</p> +<p>37.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But yield, proud foe, thy +fleet<br /></span> <span>With the crews at England's +feet.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away +through sickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness +and savage tribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic +winter,—their minds were filled with doleful forebodings.</p> +<p>39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of +the forest.</p> +<p>40.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>In the Acadian land, on the shores of the +Basin of Minas,<br /></span> <span>Distant, secluded, still, the +little village of Grand-Pré<br /></span> <span>Lay in the +fruitful valley.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the +wherefore?</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTRACTED_SENTENCES" id= +"CONTRACTED_SENTENCES"></a><a name="Page_255" id= +"Page_255"></a><b>CONTRACTED SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Words left out after</i> than <i>or</i> +as.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>365.</b></span> Some sentences look like +simple ones in form, but have an essential part omitted that is so +readily supplied by the mind as not to need expressing. Such are +the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is +worthy of our study]."</p> +<p>"The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as +[they are marked] in the cities."</p> +</div> +<p>To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them +the two following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior +orders than <i>they are</i> in any other country."</p> +<p>"This is not so universally the case at present as <i>it was</i> +formerly."</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sentences with</i> like.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>366.</b></span> As shown in Part I. (Sec. +333). the expressions <i>of manner</i> introduced by <i>like</i>, +though often treated as phrases, are really contracted clauses; +but, if they were expanded, <i>as</i> would be the connective +instead of <i>like</i>; thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] +a smile from the west [would shine].<br /></span> <span>From her +own loved island of sorrow."<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where +<i>like</i> is an adjective complement; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"She is <i>like</i> some tender tree, the pride and beauty of +the grove;" "The ruby seemed <i>like</i> a spark of fire burning +upon her white bosom."</p> +</div> +<p>Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our +study of simple and complex sentences.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="COMPLEX_SENTENCES" id="COMPLEX_SENTENCES"></a><a name= +"Page_256" id="Page_256"></a><b>COMPLEX SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The simple sentence the basis.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>367.</b></span> Our investigations have now +included all the machinery of the simple sentence, which is the +<i>unit of speech</i>.</p> +<p>Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of +simple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to +avoid the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous +similarity.</p> +<p>Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The +basis of it is two or more simple sentences, which are so united +that one member is the main one,—the backbone,—the +other members subordinate to it, or dependent on it; as in this +sentence,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware +how great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur."</p> +</div> +<p>The relation of the parts is as follows:—</p> +<pre> + + <b>we are aware</b> + _______ _____ + | | + __| <i>when such a spirit breaks</i> + | <i>forth into complaint</i>, + | + <i>how great must be the suffering</i> + | + that extorts the murmur. + +</pre> +<p>This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence +forms in the mind,—how the first clause is held in suspense +by the mind till the second, <b>we are aware</b>, is taken in; then +we recognize this as the main statement; and the next one, <i>how +great ... suffering</i>, drops into its place as subordinate to +<i>we are aware</i>; and the last, <i>that ... murmur</i>, +logically depends on <i>suffering</i>.</p> +<p>Hence the following definition:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_257" id= +"Page_257"></a><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>368.</b></span> A <b>complex sentence</b> is +one containing one main or independent clause (also called the +principal proposition or clause), and <i>one or more</i> +subordinate or dependent clauses.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>369.</b></span> The <b>elements</b> of a +complex sentence are the same as those of the simple sentence; that +is, each clause has its subject, predicate, object, complements, +modifiers, etc.</p> +<p>But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always +has a word or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and +modifier, the complex sentence has <i>statements</i> or +<i>clauses</i> for these places.</p> +<h3>CLAUSES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>370.</b></span> A clause is a division of a +sentence, containing a verb with its subject.</p> +<p>Hence the term <i>clause</i> may refer to the main division of +the complex sentence, or it may be applied to the others,—the +dependent or subordinate clauses.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Independent clause.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>371.</b></span> A <b>principal, main</b>, or +<b>independent clause</b> is one making a statement without the +help of any other clause.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Dependent clause.</i></div> +<p>A <b>subordinate</b> or <b>dependent clause</b> is one which +makes a statement depending upon or modifying some word in the +principal clause.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>372.</b></span> As to their office in the +sentence, clauses are divided into NOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB +clauses, according as they are equivalent in use to nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs.</p> +<p><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a><b>Noun Clauses.</b></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>373.</b></span> Noun clauses have the +following uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Subject</i>: "<i>That such men should give prejudiced +views of America</i> is not a matter of surprise."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Object of a verb</i>, <i>verbal</i>, <i>or the equivalent +of a verb</i>: (<i>a</i>) "I confess <i>these stories, for a time, +put an end to my fancies</i>;" (<i>b</i>) "I am aware [I know] +<i>that a skillful illustrator of the immortal bard would have +swelled the materials</i>."</p> +<p>Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc., is retained +after a passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is +retained, and should not be called an adjunct of the subject; for +example, "We are persuaded <i>that a thread runs through all +things</i>;" "I was told <i>that the house had not been shut, night +or day, for a hundred years</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Complement</i>: "The terms of admission to this spectacle +are, <i>that he have a certain solid and intelligible way of +living</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Apposition</i>. (<i>a</i>) Ordinary apposition, +explanatory of some noun or its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir +Walter Raleigh, '<i>I know that he can toil terribly</i>,' is an +electric touch."</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) After "it <i>introductory</i>" (logically this is a +subject clause, but it is often treated as in apposition with +<i>it</i>): "<i>It</i> was the opinion of some, <i>that this might +be the wild huntsman famous in German legend</i>."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Object of a preposition</i>: "At length he reached to +<i>where the ravine had opened through the cliffs</i>."</p> +<p>Notice that frequently only the introductory <a name="Page_259" +id="Page_259"></a>word is the object of the preposition, and the +whole clause is not; thus, "The rocks presented a high impenetrable +wall, <i>over which</i> the torrent came tumbling."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>374.</b></span> Here are to be noticed +certain sentences seemingly complex, with a noun clause in +apposition with <i>it</i>; but logically they are nothing but +simple sentences. But since they are <i>complex in form</i>, +attention is called to them here; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under +this avalanche of earthly impertinences."</p> +</div> +<p>To divide this into two clauses—(<i>a</i>) <i>It is we +ourselves</i>, (<i>b</i>) <i>that are ... +impertinences</i>—would be grammatical; but logically the +sentence is, <i>We ourselves are getting ... impertinences</i>, and +<i>it is ... that</i> is merely a framework used to effect +emphasis. The sentence shows how <i>it</i> may lose its pronominal +force.</p> +<p>Other examples of this construction are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"It is on the understanding, and not on the sentiment, of a +nation, that all safe legislation must be based."</p> +<p>"Then it is that deliberative Eloquence lays aside the plain +attire of her daily occupation."</p> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow.</p> +<p>2. But the fact is, I was napping.</p> +<p>3. Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I +scanned more narrowly the aspect of the building.</p> +<p>4. Except by what he could see for himself, he could know +nothing.</p> +<p><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>5. Whatever he looks upon +discloses a second sense.</p> +<p>6. It will not be pretended that a success in either of these +kinds is quite coincident with what is best and inmost in his +mind.</p> +<p>7. The reply of Socrates, to him who asked whether he should +choose a wife, still remains reasonable, that, whether he should +choose one or not, he would repent it.</p> +<p>8. What history it had, how it changed from shape to shape, no +man will ever know.</p> +<p>9. Such a man is what we call an original man.</p> +<p>10. Our current hypothesis about Mohammed, that he was a +scheming impostor, a falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a +mere mass of quackery and fatuity, begins really to be no longer +tenable to any one.</p> +</div> +<h3>Adjective Clauses.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>375.</b></span> As the office of an +adjective is to modify, the only use of an adjective clause is to +limit or describe some noun, or equivalent of a noun: consequently +the adjective may modify <i>any</i> noun, or equivalent of a noun, +in the sentence.</p> +<p>The adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns +<i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>as</i>; +sometimes by the conjunctions <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, +<i>whither</i>, <i>whence</i>, <i>wherein</i>, <i>whereby</i>, +etc.</p> +<p>Frequently there is no connecting word, a relative pronoun being +understood.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples of adjective clauses</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>376.</b></span> Adjective clauses may +modify—</p> +<p>(1) <i>The subject</i>: "The themes <i>it offers for +contemplation</i> are too vast for their capacities;" "Those <i>who +see the Englishman only in town</i>, are apt to form an unfavorable +opinion of his social character."</p> +<p>(2) <i>The object</i>: "From this piazza Ichabod en<a name= +"Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>tered the hall, <i>which formed the +center of the mansion</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>The complement</i>: "The animal he bestrode was a +broken-down plow-horse, <i>that had outlived almost everything but +his usefulness</i>;" "It was such an apparition <i>as is seldom to +be met with in broad daylight</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Other words</i>: "He rode with short stirrups, <i>which +brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle</i>;" "No +whit anticipating the oblivion <i>which awaited their names and +feats</i>, the champions advanced through the lists;" "Charity +covereth a multitude of sins, in another sense than that <i>in +which it is said to do so in Scripture</i>."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies; +i.e., whether subject, object, etc.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of +Massillon.</p> +<p>2. I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles +which I had avowed were just and noble.</p> +<p>3. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds.</p> +<p>4. In one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and +adorn each other, it seems a pity that we can only spend it +once.</p> +<p>5. One of the maidens presented a silver cup, containing a rich +mixture of wine and spice, which Rowena tasted.</p> +<p>6. No man is reason or illumination, or that essence we were +looking for.</p> +<p>7. In the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause, he begins +to help us more as an effect.</p> +<p>8. Socrates took away all ignominy from the place, which could +not be a prison whilst he was there.</p> +<p>9. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear <a name= +"Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>ghosts except in our long-established +Dutch settlements.</p> +<p>10. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, +all is vacancy.</p> +<p>11. Nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man +should arrive.</p> +</div> +<p><b>Adverbial Clauses</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>377.</b></span> The adverb clause takes the +place of an adverb in modifying a verb, a verbal, an adjective, or +an adverb. The student has met with many adverb clauses in his +study of the subjunctive mood and of subordinate conjunctions; but +they require careful study, and will be given in detail, with +examples.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>378.</b></span> Adverb clauses are of the +following kinds:</p> +<p>(1) TIME: "<i>As we go</i>, the milestones are grave-stones;" +"He had gone but a little way <i>before he espied a foul fiend +coming</i>;" "<i>When he was come up to Christian</i>, he beheld +him with a disdainful countenance."</p> +<p>(2) PLACE: "<i>Wherever the sentiment of right comes in</i>, it +takes precedence of everything else;" "He went several times to +England, <i>where he does not seem to have attracted any +attention</i>."</p> +<p>(3) REASON, or CAUSE: "His English editor lays no stress on his +discoveries, <i>since he was too great to care to be original</i>;" +"I give you joy <i>that truth is altogether wholesome</i>."</p> +<p>(4) MANNER: "The knowledge of the past is valuable only <i>as it +leads us to form just calculations with respect to the future</i>;" +"After leaving the whole party under the table, he goes away <i>as +if nothing had happened</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>(5) DEGREE, or COMPARISON: +"They all become wiser <i>than they were</i>;" "The right +conclusion is, that we should try, so far <i>as we can</i>, to make +up our shortcomings;" "Master Simon was in as chirping a humor +<i>as a grasshopper filled with dew</i> [is];" "<i>The broader +their education is</i>, the wider is the horizon of their thought." +The first clause in the last sentence is dependent, expressing the +degree in which the horizon, etc., is wider.</p> +<p>(6) PURPOSE: "Nature took us in hand, shaping our actions, <i>so +that we might not be ended untimely by too gross +disobedience</i>."</p> +<p>(7) RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: "He wrote on the scale of the mind +itself, <i>so that all things have symmetry in his tablet</i>;" +"The window was so far superior to every other in the church, +<i>that the vanquished artist killed himself from +mortification</i>."</p> +<p>(8) CONDITION: "<i>If we tire of the saints</i>, Shakespeare is +our city of refuge;" "Who cares for that, <i>so thou gain aught +wider and nobler</i>?" "You can die grandly, and as goddesses would +die <i>were goddesses mortal</i>."</p> +<p>(9) CONCESSION, introduced by indefinite relatives, adverbs, and +adverbial conjunctions,—<i>whoever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, +<i>however</i>, etc.: "But still, <i>however good she may be as a +witness</i>, Joanna is better;" "<i>Whatever there may remain of +illiberal in discussion</i>, there is always something illiberal in +the severer aspects of study."</p> +<p>These mean <i>no matter how good, no matter what remains</i>, +etc.</p> +<p><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a><b>Exercise.</b></p> +<p>Pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences; tell +what kind each is, and what it modifies:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. As I was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph, the +little sexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air, and +informed me in a low voice that once upon a time, on a dark wintry +night, when the wind was unruly, howling and whistling, banging +about doors and windows, and twirling weathercocks, so that the +living were frightened out of their beds, and even the dead could +not sleep quietly in their graves, the ghost of honest Preston was +attracted by the well-known call of "waiter," and made its sudden +appearance just as the parish clerk was singing a stave from the +"mirrie garland of Captain Death."</p> +<p>2. If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, +Pearl would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching +up stones to fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations, +that made her mother tremble because they had so much the sound of +a witch's anathemas.</p> +<p>3. The spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit, +and communicated itself to a thousand objects, as a torch kindles a +flame wherever it may be applied.</p> +</div> +<h3>ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>379.</b></span> These suggestions will be +found helpful:—</p> +<p>(1) See that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the +natural order of subject, predicate, object, and modifiers.</p> +<p>(2) First take the sentence <i>as a whole</i>; find the +principal subject and principal predicate; then treat noun clauses +as nouns, adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words, +and adverb clauses as single modifying adverbs.</p> +<p>(3) Analyze each clause as a simple sentence. For example, in +the sentence, "Cannot we conceive that Odin was a reality?" +<i>we</i> is the prin<a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>cipal +subject; <i>cannot conceive</i> is the principal predicate; its +object is <i>that Odin was a reality</i>, of which clause +<i>Odin</i> is the subject, etc.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>380.</b></span> It is sometimes of great +advantage to map out a sentence after analyzing it, so as to +picture the parts and their relations. To take a +sentence:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"I cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves, and +that if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving +away their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes +tourists, they might perhaps say of their visitors, 'Well, if you +are those men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little +disappointed, to tell the truth.'"</p> +</div> +<p>This may be represented as follows:—</p> +<pre> + <b>I cannot help thinking</b> + ____________________ + | + _______________________| + | + | (<i>a</i>) THAT THE FAULT IS IN THEMSELVES, AND + | + | (<i>b</i>) [THAT] THEY MIGHT (PERHAPS) SAY OF THEIR VISITORS + | ___________________ + | | + | _____________________________|_________________________________ + | | | + | | (<i>a</i>) We are (a little) disappointed | + | O| ___________________________ | + O| b| ________________________| | + b| j| M| | + j| e| o| (<i>b</i>) If you are those men | + e| c| d| ___ | + c| t| i| _________________________| | + t| | f| M| | + | | i| o| Of whom we have heard so much. | + | | e| d. | + | \ r\ \ | + | _____________________________________________________| + | M| + | o| (<i>a</i>) If the church and ... that rash generosity + | d| __________ + | i| | + | f| _______________________________________________| + | i| | + | e| | (<i>b</i>) Which characterizes tourists. + | r| | + \ \ \ +</pre> +<h3>OUTLINE</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>381.</b></span> (1) Find the principal +clause.</p> +<p>(2) Analyze it according to Sec. 364.</p> +<p>(3) Analyze the dependent clauses according <a name="Page_266" +id="Page_266"></a>to Sec. 364. This of course includes dependent +clauses that depend on other dependent clauses, as seen in the +"map" (Sec. 380).</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Analyze the following complex sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Take the place and attitude which belong to you.</p> +<p>2. That mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over +us.</p> +<p>3. True art is only possible on the condition that every talent +has its apotheosis somewhere.</p> +<p>4. The deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as of +inspiration.</p> +<p>5. She is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and +soul of man, that has clung to her faith in the imagination.</p> +<p>6. She has never lost sight of the truth that the product human +nature is composed of the sum of flesh and spirit.</p> +<p>7. But now that she has become an establishment, she begins to +perceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the +intellect alone.</p> +<p>8. Before long his talk would wander into all the universe, +where it was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether +any.</p> +<p>9. The night proved unusually dark, so that the two principals +had to tie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to +descry each other.</p> +<p>10. Whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an +accident.</p> +<p>11. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that +were few, as for armies that were too many by half.</p> +<p>12. It was haunted to that degree by fairies, that the parish +priest was obliged to read mass there once a year.</p> +<p>13. More than one military plan was entered upon which she did +not approve.</p> +<p>14. As surely as the wolf retires before cities, does the fairy +sequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer.</p> +<p>15. M. Michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop +was but an agent of the English.</p> +<p><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>16. Next came a wretched +Dominican, that pressed her with an objection, which, if applied to +the Bible, would tax every miracle with unsoundness.</p> +<p>17. The reader ought to be reminded that Joanna D'Arc was +subject to an unusually unfair trial.</p> +<p>18. Now, had she really testified this willingness on the +scaffold, it would have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a +genial nature.</p> +<p>19. And those will often pity that weakness most, who would +yield to it least.</p> +<p>20. Whether she said the word is uncertain.</p> +<p>21. This is she, the shepherd girl, counselor that had none for +herself, whom I choose, bishop, for yours.</p> +<p>22. Had <i>they</i> been better chemists, had <i>we</i> been +worse, the mixed result, namely, that, dying for <i>them</i>, the +flower should revive for <i>us</i>, could not have been +effected.</p> +<p>23. I like that representation they have of the tree.</p> +<p>24. He was what our country people call <i>an old one</i>.</p> +<p>25. He thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as +false opinion.</p> +<p>26. These things we are forced to say, if we must consider the +effort of Plato to dispose of Nature,—which will not be +disposed of.</p> +<p>27. He showed one who was afraid to go on foot to Olympia, that +it was no more than his daily walk, if continuously extended, would +easily reach.</p> +<p>28. What can we see or acquire but what we are?</p> +<p>29. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us +in the face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened.</p> +<p>30. There is good reason why we should prize this +liberation.</p> +</div> +<p><i>(b)</i> First analyze, then map out as in Sec. 380, the +following complex sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion, +is to speak and write sincerely.</p> +<p>2. The writer who takes his subject from his ear, and not from +his heart, should know that he has lost as much as he has +gained.</p> +<p>3. "No book," said Bentley, "was ever written down by any but +itself."</p> +<p><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>4. That which we do not +believe, we cannot adequately say, though we may repeat the words +never so often.</p> +<p>5. We say so because we feel that what we love is not in your +will, but above it.</p> +<p>6. It makes no difference how many friends I have, and what +content I can find in conversing with each, if there be one to whom +I am not equal.</p> +<p>7. In every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and +square, a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course +of a few days, and stamped with his right number, as if he had +undergone a formal trial of his strength, speed, and temper.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="COMPOUND_SENTENCES" id= +"COMPOUND_SENTENCES"></a><b>COMPOUND SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How formed.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>382.</b></span> The <b>compound sentence</b> +is a combination of two or more simple or complex sentences. While +the complex sentence has only <i>one</i> main clause, the compound +has <i>two or more</i> independent clauses making statements, +questions, or commands. Hence the definition,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>383.</b></span> A <b>compound sentence</b> +is one which contains two or more independent clauses.</p> +<p>This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a +compound sentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least +two independent clauses.</p> +<p>Examples of compound sentences:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples.</i></div> +<p>(1) <i>Simple sentences united:</i> "He is a palace of sweet +sounds and sights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with +arms akimbo; he soliloquizes."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Simple with complex:</i> "The trees of the forest, the +waving grass, and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and +he almost fears to trust them with the secret which they seem to +invite."</p> +<p><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>(3) <i>Complex with +complex:</i> "The power which resides in him is new in nature, and +none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know +until he has tried."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>384.</b></span> From this it is evident that +nothing new is added to the work of analysis already done.</p> +<p>The same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in (1) and (2) +above, and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in (2) +and (3).</p> +<p>The division into members will be easier, for the +coördinate independent statements are readily taken apart with +the subordinate clauses attached, if there are any.</p> +<p>Thus in (1), the semicolons cut apart the independent members, +which are simple statements; in (2), the semicolon separates the +first, a simple member, from the second, a complex member; in (3), +<i>and</i> connects the first and second complex members, and +<i>nor</i> the second and third complex members.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Connectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>385.</b></span> The coördinate +conjunctions <i>and</i>, <i>nor</i>, <i>or</i> <i>but</i>, etc., +introduce independent clauses (see Sec. 297).</p> +<p>But the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and +adversative clauses, as in Sec. 383 (1). Another example is, "Only +the star dazzles; the planet has a faint, moon-like ray" +(adversative).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Study the thought.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>386.</b></span> The one point that will give +trouble is the variable use of some connectives; as <i>but</i>, +<i>for</i>, <i>yet</i>, <i>while</i> (<i>whilst</i>), +<i>however</i>, <i>whereas</i>, etc. Some of these are now +conjunctions, now adverbs or prepo<a name="Page_270" id= +"Page_270"></a>sitions; others sometimes coördinate, sometimes +subordinate conjunctions.</p> +<p>The student must watch <i>the logical connection</i> of the +members of the sentence, and not the form of the connective.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Of the following illustrative sentences, tell which are +compound, and which complex:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal +sense; for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost.</p> +<p>2. I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, for example, +to find a pot of buried gold.</p> +<p>3. Your goodness must have some edge to it—else it is +none.</p> +<p>4. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor is his genius +admonished to stay at home, but it goes abroad to beg a cup of +water of the urns of other men.</p> +<p>5. A man cannot speak but he judges himself.</p> +<p>6. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, +yet when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart +and life.</p> +<p>7. I thought that it was a Sunday morning in May; that it was +Easter Sunday, and as yet very early in the morning.</p> +<p>8. We denote the primary wisdom as intuition, whilst all later +teachings are tuitions.</p> +<p>9. Whilst the world is thus dual, so is every one of its +parts.</p> +<p>10. They measure the esteem of each other by what each has, and +not by what each is.</p> +<p>11. For everything you have missed, you have gained something +else; and for everything you gain, you lose something.</p> +<p>12. I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred +years in one night; nay, I sometimes had feelings representative of +a millennium, passed in that time, or, however, of a duration far +beyond the limits of experience.</p> +<p><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>13. However some may think +him wanting in zeal, the most fanatical can find no taint of +apostasy in any measure of his.</p> +<p>14. In this manner, from a happy yet often pensive child, he +grew up to be a mild, quiet, unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with +labor in the fields, but with more intelligence than is seen in +many lads from the schools.</p> +</div> +<h3>OUTLINE FOR ANALYZING COMPOUND SENTENCES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>387.</b></span> (i) Separate it into its +main members. (2) Analyze each complex member as in Sec. 381. (3) +Analyze each simple member as in Sec. 364.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Analyze the following compound sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The gain is apparent; the tax is certain.</p> +<p>2. If I feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors, I can +yet love; I can still receive; and he that loveth maketh his own +the grandeur that he loves.</p> +<p>3. Love, and thou shalt be loved.</p> +<p>4. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to +the heart unhurt.</p> +<p>5. Place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and +wisdom which animates all whom it floats, and you are without +effort impelled to truth.</p> +<p>6. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.</p> +<p>7. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is +worth doing, that let him communicate, or men will never know and +honor him aright.</p> +<p>8. Stand aside; give those merits room; let them mount and +expand.</p> +<p>9. We see the noble afar off, and they repel us; why should we +intrude?</p> +<p>10. We go to Europe, or we pursue persons, or we read books, in +the instinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us to +ourselves.</p> +<p>11. A gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in +the mornings of June, yet what is more lonesome and sad than the +sound of a whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the +season to make hay?</p> +<p>12. "Strike," says the smith, "the iron is white;" "<a name= +"Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>keep the rake," says the haymaker, "as +nigh the scythe as you can, and the cart as nigh the rake."</p> +<p>13. Trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, +and they will show themselves great, though they make an exception +in your favor to all their rules of trade.</p> +<p>14. On the most profitable lie the course of events presently +lays a destructive tax; whilst frankness invites frankness, puts +the parties on a convenient footing, and makes their business a +friendship.</p> +<p>15. The sturdiest offender of your peace and of the +neighborhood, if you rip up his claims, is as thin and timid as +any; and the peace of society is often kept, because, as children, +one is afraid, and the other dares not.</p> +<p>16. They will shuffle and crow, crook and hide, feign to confess +here, only that they may brag and conquer there, and not a thought +has enriched either party, and not an emotion of bravery, modesty, +or hope.</p> +<p>17. The magic they used was the ideal tendencies, which always +make the Actual ridiculous; but the tough world had its revenge the +moment they put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow.</p> +<p>18. Come into port greatly, or sail with God the seas.</p> +<p>19. When you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not +weakly try to reconcile yourself with the world.</p> +<p>20. Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day +never shines in which this element may not work.</p> +<p>21. Life is a train of moods like a string of beads, and as we +pass through them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint +the world their own hue, and each shows only what lies at its +focus.</p> +<p>22. We see young men who owe us a new world, so readily and +lavishly they promise, but they never acquit the debt; they die +young, and dodge the account; or, if they live, they lose +themselves in the crowd.</p> +<p>23. So does culture with us; it ends in headache.</p> +<p>24. Do not craze yourself with thinking, but go about your +business anywhere.</p> +<p>25. Thus journeys the mighty Ideal before us; it never was known +to fall into the rear.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a><a name="Page_273" id= +"Page_273"></a><b>PART III.</b></h2> +<h3><i>SYNTAX</i>.<a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a></h3> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a><a name="Page_275" +id="Page_275"></a><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>By way of introduction.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>388.</b></span> Syntax is from a Greek word +meaning <i>order</i> or <i>arrangement</i>.</p> +<p>Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as +component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to +express clearly the intended meaning.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ground covered by syntax.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>380.</b></span> Following the Latin method, +writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two +general heads,—<b>agreement</b> and <b>government</b>.</p> +<p><b>Agreement</b> is concerned with the following relations of +words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and +antecedent, adjective and noun.</p> +<p><b>Government</b> has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of +which are said to govern words by having them in the objective +case.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>390.</b></span> Considering the scarcity of +inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the +Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. +But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few +forms; for there is an important and marked difference between +Latin and English syntax. It is this:—</p> +<p>Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of +inflected forms: hence the <i>position</i> of words in a sentence +is of little grammatical importance.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_276" id= +"Page_276"></a><i>Essential point in English syntax.</i></div> +<p>English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its +leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon +<i>the meaning</i> and <i>the logical connection</i> of words +rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary +to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of +words, as to study inflected forms.</p> +<p>For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," +is ambiguous. <i>Savage</i> may be the subject, following the +regular order of subject; or <i>settler</i> may be the subject, the +order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and +it would not matter which one stood first.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Why study syntax?</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>391.</b></span> There is, then, a double +reason for not omitting syntax as a department of +grammar,—</p> +<p><i>First</i>, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected +forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are +idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).</p> +<p><i>Second</i>, To find out the <i>logical methods</i> which +control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the +grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, +or when they exist side by side in good usage.</p> +<p>As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, +"Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a +copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, +and added to it the preposition <i>of</i>, also expressing a +possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with +the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good +English.</p> +<p><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a>Also in the sentence, "None +remained but he," grammatical rules would require <i>him</i> +instead of <i>he</i> after the preposition; yet the expression is +sustained by good authority.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Some rules not rigid.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>392.</b></span> In some cases, +authorities—that is, standard writers—differ as to +which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will +use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the +pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes +verb and subject, etc.</p> +<p>When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be +given in the following pages.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The basis of syntax.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>393.</b></span> Our treatment of syntax will +be an endeavor to record the best usage of the present time on +important points; and nothing but important points will be +considered, for it is easy to confuse a student with too many +obtrusive <i>don'ts</i>.</p> +<p>The constructions presented as general will be justified by +quotations from <i>modern writers of English</i> who are regarded +as "standard;" that is, writers whose style is generally +acknowledged as superior, and whose judgment, therefore, will be +accepted by those in quest of authoritative opinion.</p> +<p>Reference will also be made to spoken English when its +constructions differ from those of the literary language, and to +vulgar English when it preserves forms which were once, but are not +now, good English.</p> +<p>It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire +correctness is to watch good usage <i>everywhere</i>, and imitate +it.<a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="NOUNSIII" id="NOUNSIII"></a><b>NOUNS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>394.</b></span> Nouns have no distinct forms +for the nominative and objective cases: hence no mistake can be +made in using them. But some remarks are required concerning the +use of the possessive case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the possessive. Joint +possession.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>395.</b></span> When two or more possessives +modify the same noun, or indicate joint ownership or possession, +the possessive sign is added to the last noun only; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Live your <i>king and country's</i> best support.<span class= +"smcap">—Rowe.</span></p> +<p>Woman, <i>sense and nature's</i> easy fool.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><i>Oliver and Boyd's</i> printing office.<span class= +"smcap">—Mcculloch.</span></p> +<p><i>Adam and Eve's</i> morning hymn.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +<p>In <i>Beaumont and Fletcher's</i> "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Separate possession.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>396.</b></span> When two or more possessives +stand before the same noun, but imply separate possession or +ownership, the possessive sign is used with each noun; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the <i>storm's</i> and +<i>prelate's</i> rage.<span class="smcap">—Marvell</span></p> +<p>Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in +<i>Anne's</i> and <i>George's</i> time?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>Levi's</i> station in life was the receipt of custom; and +<i>Peter's</i>, the shore of Galilee; and <i>Paul's</i>, the +antechamber of the High Priest.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Swift did not keep <i>Stella's</i> letters. He kept +<i>Bolingbroke's,</i> and <i>Pope's</i>, and <i>Harley's</i>, and +<i>Peterborough's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>An actor in one of <i>Morton's</i> or <i>Kotzebue's</i> +plays.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Putting <i>Mr. Mill's</i> and <i>Mr. Bentham's</i> principles +together. —<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>397.</b></span> The possessive preceding the gerund will be +considered under the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408).</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PRONOUNSIII" id= +"PRONOUNSIII"></a><b>PRONOUNS.</b></h2> +<h3>PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<h3>I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>398.</b></span> Since most of the personal +pronouns, together with the relative <i>who</i>, have separate +forms for nominative and objective use, there are two general rules +that require attention.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>General rules.</i></div> +<p>(1) The <i>nominative use</i> is usually marked by the +nominative form of the pronoun.</p> +<p>(2) The <i>objective use</i> is usually marked by the objective +form of the pronoun.</p> +<p>These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in +literary English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; +others are generally, if not universally, sanctioned.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Objective for the nominative.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>399.</b></span> The objective is sometimes +found instead of the nominative in the following +instances:—</p> +<p>(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no +notice is taken of the proper form to be used as subject; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He and <i>me</i> once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss +shay out to Boonville.<span class="smcap">—Whitcher,</span> +<i>Bedott Papers.</i></p> +<p>It seems strange to me that <i>them</i> that preach up the +doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Josiah Allens Wife.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the +words is misunderstood; for exam<a name="Page_280" id= +"Page_280"></a>ple, "<i>Whom</i> think ye that I am?" (In this, +<i>whom</i> is the complement after the verb <i>am</i>, and should +be the nominative form, <i>who</i>.) "The young Harper, <i>whom</i> +they agree was rather nice-looking" (<i>whom</i> is the subject of +the verb <i>was</i>).</p> +<p>Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with +<i>than</i> or <i>as</i>, the real thought being forgotten; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with +such a one as <i>her</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This should be "as <i>she</i>," because the full expression +would be "such a one as <i>she is</i>."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>400.</b></span> Still, the last expression +has the support of many good writers, as shown in the following +examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or +<i>me</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>No mightier than thyself or <i>me</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>Lin'd with Giants deadlier than <i>'em</i> all.<span class= +"smcap">—Pope.</span></p> +<p>But he must be a stronger than <i>thee</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Southey.</span></p> +<p>Not to render up my soul to such as <i>thee</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>I shall not learn my duty from such as <i>thee</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A safe rule.</i></div> +<p>It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as +illustrated in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If so, they are yet holier than <i>we</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Who would suppose it is the game of such as +<i>he</i>?<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Do we see<br /></span> <span>The robber +and the murd'rer weak as <i>we</i>?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have no other saint than <i>thou</i> to pray to.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Than</i> whom."</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>401.</b></span> One exception is to be +noted. The expression <b>than whom</b> seems to be used universally +instead of "than <i>who</i>." There is no special reason for this, +but such is the fact; for example,—<a name="Page_281" id= +"Page_281"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>One I remember especially,—one <i>than whom</i> I never +met a bandit more gallant.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The camp of Richard of England, <i>than whom</i> none knows +better how to do honor to a noble foe.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate +a steward <i>than whom</i> no one living was supposed to be more +competent.<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>It was</i> he" <i>or</i> "<i>It was</i> +him"?</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>402.</b></span> And there is one question +about which grammarians are not agreed, namely, whether the +nominative or the objective form should be used in the predicate +after <i>was</i>, <i>is</i>, <i>are</i>, and the other forms of the +verb <i>be</i>.</p> +<p>It may be stated with assurance that the literary language +<i>prefers the nominative</i> in this instance, as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>For there was little doubt that it was <i>he</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>But still it is not <i>she</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And it was <i>he</i><br /></span> +<span>That made the ship to go.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<p>In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and +America, the objective form is regularly found, unless a special, +careful effort is made to adopt the standard usage. The following +are examples of spoken English from conversations:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"—"That's +<i>her</i>."<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>"Who's there?"—"<i>Me</i>, Patrick the +Porter."<span class="smcap">—Winthrop.</span></p> +<p>"If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be +<i>me</i>."<span class="smcap">—Wm. Black.</span></p> +</div> +<p>The usage is too common to need further examples.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, +giving reasons from the analysis of the sentence:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>1. <i>Whom</i> they were I +really cannot specify.</p> +<p>2. Truth is mightier than <i>us</i> all.</p> +<p>3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is <i>me</i>.</p> +<p>4. They were the very two individuals <i>whom</i> we thought +were far away.</p> +<p>5. "Seems to me as if <i>them</i> as writes must hev a kinder +gift fur it, now."</p> +<p>6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of +<i>whomsoever</i> opens to the stranger.</p> +<p>7. It is not <i>me</i> you are in love with.</p> +<p>8. You know <i>whom</i> it is that you thus charge.</p> +<p>9. The same affinity will exert its influence on +<i>whomsoever</i> is as noble as these men and women.</p> +<p>10. It was <i>him</i> that Horace Walpole called a man who never +made a bad figure but as an author.</p> +<p>11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you +or <i>me</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Me <i>in exclamations</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>403.</b></span> It is to be remembered that +the objective form is used in exclamations which turn the attention +upon a person; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Unhappy <i>me!</i> That I cannot risk my own worthless +life.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley</span></p> +<p>Alas! miserable <i>me</i>! Alas! unhappy +Señors!—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Ay <i>me</i>! I fondly dream—had ye been +there.<span class="smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Nominative for the objective.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>404.</b></span> The rule for the objective +form is wrongly departed from—</p> +<p>(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or +preposition which governs it; as, "<i>He</i> that can doubt whether +he be anything or no, I speak not to" (<i>he</i> should be +<i>him</i>, the object of <i>to</i>); "I saw men very like him at +each of the places mentioned, but not <i>he</i>" (<i>he</i> should +be <i>him</i>, object of <i>saw</i>).</p> +<p>(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, +verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are +cleared be<a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>tween you and I" +(for <i>you</i> and <i>me</i>); or this, "Let <i>thou</i> and +<i>I</i> the battle try" (for <i>thee</i> and <i>me</i>, or +<i>us</i>).</p> +<p>(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in +apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, <i>he</i> who +has steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of +"<i>him</i> who," the word being in apposition with +<i>murderer</i>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exception 1</i>, who +<i>interrogative</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>405.</b></span> The interrogative pronoun +<b>who</b> may be said to have no objective form in spoken English. +We regularly say, "<i>Who</i> did you see?" or, "<i>Who</i> were +they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To <i>whom</i> were they +talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is usually +avoided.</p> +<p>In literary English the objective form <i>whom</i> is +<i>preferred</i> for objective use; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Knows he now to <i>whom</i> he lies under +obligation?<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>What doth she look on? <i>Whom</i> doth she behold?<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the +work of the objective use; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>My son is going to be married to I don't know +<i>who</i>.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> have we here?—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> should I meet the other day but my old +friend.<span class="smcap">—Steele.</span></p> +<p>He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows +<i>who</i>.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> have we got here?<span class= +"smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> should we find there but Eustache?<span class= +"smcap">—Marrvat.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> the devil is he talking to?<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exception 2, but</i> he, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>406.</b></span> It is a well-established +usage to put the nominative form, as well as the objective, after +the preposition <i>but</i> (sometimes <i>save</i>); as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All were knocked down but <i>us</i> two.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span><a name="Page_284" id= +"Page_284"></a></p> +<p>Thy shores are empires, changed in all save +<i>thee.</i><span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>Rich are the sea gods:—who gives gifts but +<i>they?</i><span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">The Chieftains +then<br /></span> <span>Returned rejoicing, all but +<i>he</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Southey<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>No man strikes him but <i>I</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>None, save <i>thou</i> and thine, I've +sworn,<br /></span> <span>Shall be left upon the morn.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons +from the analysis of the quotation:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. <i>Thou</i>, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign.</p> +<p>2. Let you and <i>I</i> look at these, for they say there are +none such in the world.</p> +<p>3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in +half an hour, and they know that as well as <i>me</i>."</p> +<p>4. Markland, <i>who</i>, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls +three contemporaries of great eminence.</p> +<p>5. They are coming for a visit to <i>she</i> and <i>I</i>.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i2">They crowned him long +ago;<br /></span> <span>But <i>who</i> they got to put it +on<br /></span> <span class="i2">Nobody seems to +know.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the +pedestrians <i>they</i> who had business with St. Bartholomew.</p> +<p>8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to +Yorkshire and <i>he</i> who moves to Canada.</p> +<p>9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock—<i>he</i> of the +silver plates.</p> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Ye</i> against whose familiar names +not yet<br /></span> <span>The fatal asterisk of death is +set,<br /></span> <span><i>Ye</i> I salute.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>11. It can't be worth much to <i>they</i> that hasn't +larning.</p> +<p>12. To send me away for a whole year—<i>I</i> who had +never crept from under the parental wing—was a startling +idea.<a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a></p> +</div> +<h3>II. POSSESSIVE FORMS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>As antecedent of a relative.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>407.</b></span> The possessive forms of +personal pronouns and also of nouns are sometimes found as +antecedents of relatives. This usage is not frequent. The +antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the use of the +possessive is less likely to be clear.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We should augur ill of any <i>gentleman's</i> property to whom +this happened every other day in his drawing room.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>For <i>their</i> sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing +me.—<span class="smcap">C. B. Brown</span>.</p> +<p>Now by <i>His</i> name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by +<i>hers</i> whom I most worship on earth.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He saw her smile and slip money into the <i>man's</i> hand who +was ordered to ride behind the coach.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He doubted whether <i>his</i> signature whose expectations were +so much more bounded would avail.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>For boys with hearts as bold<br /></span> +<span>As <i>his</i> who kept the bridge so well.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Preceding a gerund,—possessive, or +objective?</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>408.</b></span> Another point on which there +is some variance in usage is such a construction as this: "We heard +of <i>Brown</i> studying law," or "We heard of <i>Brown's</i> +studying law."</p> +<p>That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always +be used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely +scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference +between them: saying that in the first one <i>studying</i> is a +participle, and the meaning is, <i>We heard of Brown</i>, [who was] +<i>studying law</i>; and that in the second, <i>studying</i> is a +gerund, object of <i>heard of</i>, and modified by the possessive +case as any other substantive would be.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a><i>Why +both are found.</i></div> +<p>But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of +sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the +possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use +of the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of +regarding the <i>person</i> as the chief object before the mind: +the possessive use is more modern, in keeping with the disposition +to proceed from the material thing to the <i>abstract idea</i>, and +to make the action substantive the chief idea before the mind.</p> +<p>In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive +of the pronoun is more common than that of the noun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Objective</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy +<i>patron</i> falling from a chair.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He spoke of <i>some one</i> coming to drink tea with him, and +asked why it was not made.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to <i>Shakespeare</i> +having been born in her house.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>The fact of the <i>Romans</i> not burying their dead within the +city walls proper is a strong reason, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Brewer.</span></p> +<p>I remember <i>Wordsworth</i> once laughingly reporting to me a +little personal anecdote.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the <i>reader</i> +casting about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>We think with far less pleasure of <i>Cato</i> tearing out his +entrails than of <i>Russell</i> saying, as he turned away from his +wife, that the bitterness of death was past.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a +<i>man</i> being sent into this earth.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Possessive</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There is no use for any <i>man's</i> taking up his abode in a +house built of glass.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>As to <i>his</i> having good grounds on which to rest an action +for life.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>The case was made known to +me by a <i>man's</i> holding out the little creature +dead.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>There may be reason for a <i>savage's</i> preferring many kinds +of food which the civilized man rejects.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>It informs me of the previous circumstances of <i>my</i> laying +aside my clothes.—<span class="smcap">C. Brockden +Brown</span>.</p> +<p>The two strangers gave me an account of <i>their</i> once having +been themselves in a somewhat similar condition.<span class= +"smcap">—Audubon.</span></p> +<p>There was a chance of <i>their</i> being sent to a new school, +where there were examinations.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin</span></p> +<p>This can only be by <i>his</i> preferring truth to his past +apprehension of truth.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>409.</b></span> The pronouns of the third +person usually refer back to some preceding noun or pronoun, and +ought to agree with them in person, number, and gender.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Watch for the real antecedent.</i></div> +<p>There are two constructions in which the student will need to +watch the pronoun,—when the antecedent, in one person, is +followed by a phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; +and when the antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun +following cannot indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these +constructions are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Those</i> of us who can only maintain <i>themselves</i> by +continuing in some business or salaried office.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Suppose the life and fortune of <i>every one</i> of us would +depend on <i>his</i> winning or losing a game of chess.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +<p>If <i>any one</i> did not know it, it was <i>his</i> own +fault.<span class="smcap">—Cable.</span></p> +<p><i>Everybody</i> had <i>his</i> own life to think +of.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>410.</b></span> In such a case as the last +three sentences,—when the antecedent includes both masculine +and feminine, or is a distributive word, taking in each of many +persons,—the preferred method is to put <a name="Page_288" +id="Page_288"></a>the pronoun following in the masculine singular; +if the antecedent is neuter, preceded by a distributive, the +pronoun will be neuter singular.</p> +<p>The following are additional examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The next <i>correspondent</i> wants you to mark out a whole +course of life for <i>him</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Every <i>city</i> threw open <i>its</i> gates.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Every <i>person</i> who turns this page has <i>his</i> own +little diary.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The pale realms of shade, where +<i>each</i> shall take<br /></span> <span><i>His</i> chamber in the +silent halls of death.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Avoided: By using both pronouns.</i></div> +<p>Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the +feminine pronoun; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not the feeblest <i>grandame</i>, not a mowing <i>idiot</i>, but +uses what spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and +triumph in <i>his or her</i> opinion.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every +<i>man</i> and <i>woman</i> of us being one of the two players in a +game of <i>his or her</i> own.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>By using the plural pronoun.</i></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>411.</b></span> Another way of referring to +an antecedent which is a distributive pronoun or a noun modified by +a distributive adjective, is to use the plural of the pronoun +following. This is not considered the best usage, the logical +analysis requiring the singular pronoun in each case; but the +construction is frequently found <i>when the antecedent includes or +implies both genders</i>. The masculine does not really represent a +feminine antecedent, and the expression <i>his or her</i> is +avoided as being cumbrous.</p> +<p>Notice the following examples of the plural:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Neither</i> of the sisters <i>were</i> very much +deceived.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>Every one</i> must judge of <i>their</i> own +feelings.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>Had the doctor been +contented to take my dining tables, as <i>anybody</i> in +<i>their</i> senses would have done.<span class= +"smcap">—Austen.</span></p> +<p>If the part deserve any comment, every considering +<i>Christian</i> will make it <i>themselves</i> as they +go.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +<p><i>Every person's</i> happiness depends in part upon the respect +<i>they</i> meet in the world.<span class= +"smcap">—Paley.</span></p> +<p><i>Every nation</i> have <i>their</i> refinements<span class= +"smcap">—Sterne.</span></p> +<p><i>Neither</i> gave vent to <i>their</i> feelings in +words.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>Each</i> of the nations acted according to <i>their</i> +national custom.<span class="smcap">—Palgrave.</span></p> +<p>The sun, which pleases <i>everybody</i> with it and with +<i>themselves</i>.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Urging <i>every one</i> within reach of your influence to be +neat, and giving <i>them</i> means of being so.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Everybody</i> will become of use in <i>their</i> own fittest +way.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Everybody</i> said <i>they</i> thought it was the newest +thing there.<span class="smcap">—Wendell Phillips.</span></p> +<p>Struggling for life, <i>each</i> almost bursting <i>their</i> +sinews to force the other off.<span class= +"smcap">—Paulding.</span></p> +<p><i>Whosoever</i> hath any gold, let <i>them</i> break it +off.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Nobody</i> knows what it is to lose a friend, till +<i>they</i> have lost him.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>Where she was gone, or what was become of her, <i>no one</i> +could take upon <i>them</i> to say.<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan.</span></p> +<p>I do not mean that I think <i>any one</i> to blame for taking +due care of <i>their</i> health.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—In the above sentences, <i>unless both +genders are implied</i>, change the pronoun to agree with its +antecedent.</p> +<h3>RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<h3>I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What these terms mean.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>412.</b></span> As to their conjunctive use, +the definite relatives <b>who</b>, <b>which</b>, and <b>that</b> +may be <b>coördinating</b> or <b>restrictive</b>.</p> +<p>A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is +equivalent to a conjunction (<i>and</i>, <i>but</i>, +<i>because</i>, <a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>etc.) and a +personal pronoun. It adds a new statement to what precedes, that +being considered already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, +<i>who</i> went away." This means, "I gave it to the beggar [we +know which one], <i>and he</i> went away."</p> +<p>A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and +make clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the +antecedent, and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a +thought necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a +beggar <i>who</i> stood at the gate." It defines <i>beggar</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>413.</b></span> It is sometimes contended +that <b>who</b> and <b>which</b> should always be +coördinating, and <b>that</b> always restrictive; but, +according to the practice of every modern writer, the usage must be +stated as follows:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A loose rule the only one to be +formulated.</i></div> +<p><b>Who</b> and <b>which</b> are either coördinating or +restrictive, the taste of the writer and regard for euphony being +the guide.</p> +<p><b>That</b> is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating +use not being often found among careful writers.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following examples, tell whether <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, and <i>that</i> are restrictive or not, in each +instance:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near +Ernest.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who +were comparing the features with the face on the mountain +side.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to +understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>4. Yet how many are there +who up, down, and over England are saying, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—H. W. Beecher</span></p> +<p>5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or +seventy years old.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as +much English history as Dutch.<span class= +"smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +<p>7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, +she agreed to join the party.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately +occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the universal +prostration of mind.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, +which Mr. Hare has printed.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in +hand, and it is called logic.<span class= +"smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, +that were often vicious.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose +everywhere about him in the greatest variety.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew +stronger and sweeter in proportion as he +advanced.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that +dangled a mile out of his sleeves.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The rule.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>414.</b></span> The general rule is, that +the relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person and +number.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>In what sense true.</i></div> +<p>This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does +not vary for person or number. We say <i>I</i>, <i>you</i>, +<i>he</i>, <i>they</i>, etc., <i>who</i>; <i>these</i> or +<i>that</i> <i>which</i>, etc. However, the relative <i>carries +over</i> the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb +following, so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with +a substantive. For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to +himself writes to an eternal public," <i>that</i> is invariable as +to person <a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>and number, but, +because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person +singular.</p> +<p>Notice the agreement in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There is not <i>one</i> of the company, but <i>myself</i>, who +rarely <i>speak</i> at all, but <i>speaks</i> of him as that sort, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>O <i>Time!</i> who <i>know'st</i> a lenient hand to lay Softest +on sorrow's wound.<span class="smcap">—Bowles.</span></p> +<p>Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes +hardest to bear are <i>those</i> which never +<i>come.</i><span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A disputed point.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>415.</b></span> This prepares the way for +the consideration of one of the vexed questions,—whether we +should say, "one of the finest books that <i>has</i> been +published," or, "one of the finest books that <i>have</i> been +published."</p> +<div class="sidenote">One of ... [<i>plural</i>] that who, +<i>or</i> which ... [<i>singular or plural</i>.]</div> +<p>Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a +difference of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be +<i>one</i> [book] <i>of the finest books</i>, with <i>one</i> as +the principal word, the true antecedent; others regard <i>books</i> +as the antecedent, and write the verb in the plural. The latter is +rather more frequent, but the former has good authority.</p> +<p>The following quotations show both sides:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was one of the very few commanders who <i>appear</i> to have +shown equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and +in improving a victory.<span class="smcap">—Lecky.</span></p> +<p>He was one of the most distinguished scientists who <i>have</i> +ever lived.<span class="smcap">—J. T. Morse, Jr</span>., +<i>Franklin.</i></p> +<p>It is one of those periods which <i>shine</i> with an unnatural +and delusive splendor.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows +which <i>make</i> one more ashamed, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span><a name="Page_293" id= +"Page_293"></a></p> +<p>I am one of those who <i>believe</i> that the real will never +find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most +powerful agencies that <i>have</i> ever existed.—<span class= +"smcap">M. Arnold</span>.</p> +<p>What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those +tornadoes that <i>send</i> us out of our course?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He is one of those that <i>deserve</i> very well.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singular.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who <i>was</i> +pressing hardest.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever +<i>was</i>, when he derided the shams of society.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +<p>A rare Roundabout performance,—one of the very best that +<i>has</i> ever appeared in this series.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which +ever <i>was</i> published in this country.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>It is one of the errors which <i>has</i> been diligently +propagated by designing writers.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>"I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who <i>is</i> +at the Piazza Hotel."<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which +<i>is</i> an honor to the human race.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of +any that <i>has</i> fallen under my observation.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls +that ever gave <i>itself</i> to the arts.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>416.</b></span> Although the omission of the +relative is common when it would be the object of the verb or +preposition <i>expressed</i>, there is an omission which is not +frequently found in careful writers; that is, when the relative +word is a pronoun, object of a preposition <i>understood</i>, or is +equivalent to the conjunction <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, +<i>whence</i>, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route +[by which] he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he +died." Notice these sentences:—<a name="Page_294" id= +"Page_294"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the +sky.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>This is he that should marshal us the way we were +going.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But I by backward steps would +move;<br /></span> <span>And, when this dust falls to the +urn,<br /></span> <span>In that same state I came, +return.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Vaughan.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>Welcome the hour my aged +limbs<br /></span> <span>Are laid with thee to rest.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Burns.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The night was concluded in the manner we began the +morning.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The same day I went aboard we set sail.<span class= +"smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +<p>The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had +determined on being Protector of England, at the time he was +plowing the marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required +time and attention.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—In the above sentences, insert the +omitted conjunction or phrase, and see if the sentence is made +clearer.</p> +<h3>IV. THE RELATIVE <i>AS</i> AFTER <i>SAME</i>.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>417.</b></span> It is very rarely that we +find such sentences as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected +the same service from me <i>as</i> he would from +another.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>This has the same effect in natural faults <i>as</i> maiming and +mutilation produce from accidents.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The regular construction</i>.</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution</i>.</div> +<p>The usual way is to use the relative <i>as</i> after <i>same</i> +if no verb follows <i>as;</i> but, if <i>same</i> is followed by a +complete clause, <i>as</i> is not used, but we find the relative +<i>who, which,</i> or <i>that</i>. Remember this applies only to +<i>as</i> when used as a relative.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of <i>as</i> in a contracted +clause:—<a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Looking to the same end <i>as</i> Turner, and working in the +same spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, +etc.—<span class="smcap">R. W. Church</span>.</p> +<p>They believe the same of all the works of art, <i>as</i> of +knives, boats, looking-glasses.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Examples of relatives following <i>same</i> in full +clauses:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This is the very same rogue <i>who</i> sold us the spectacles. +<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The same person <i>who</i> had clapped his thrilling hands at +the first representation of the Tempest.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I rubbed on some of the same ointment <i>that</i> was given me +at my first arrival.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which.</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>For the same sound is in my +ears<br /></span> <span><i>Which</i> in those days I +heard.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>With the same minuteness <i>which</i> her predecessor had +exhibited, she passed the lamp over her face and +person.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Anacoluthic use of</i> which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>418.</b></span> There is now and then found +in the pages of literature a construction which imitates the Latin, +but which is usually carefully avoided. It is a use of the relative +<i>which</i> so as to make an anacoluthon, or lack of proper +connection between the clauses; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Which</i>, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well +have staid at home.<span class="smcap">—Defoe</span></p> +<p><i>Which</i> if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he +would follow him to Jerusalem.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake +them;—<i>which</i> if they once heard, they would start up to +meet us in the power of long ago.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>He delivered the letter, <i>which</i> when Mr. Thornhill had +read, he said that all submission was now too late.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But still the house affairs would draw +her thence;<br /></span> <span><i>Which</i> ever as she could with +haste dispatch,<br /></span> <span>She'd come again.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>As the sentences stand, +<i>which</i> really has no office in the sentence: it should be +changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and this be +placed in the proper clause.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Rewrite the above five sentences so as to +make the proper grammatical connection in each.</p> +<div class="sidenote">And who, and which, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>419.</b></span> There is another kind of +expression which slips into the lines of even standard authors, but +which is always regarded as an oversight and a blemish.</p> +<p>The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now +engaged in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, <i>and +who</i> are now thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that +such conjunctions as <i>and</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>or</i>, etc., +should connect expressions of the same kind: <i>and who</i> makes +us look for a preceding <i>who</i>, but none is expressed. There +are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, (1) "Among +those <i>who</i> are poor, <i>and who</i> are now," etc.; (2) +"Among the poorer sort, <i>who</i> are now thrown," etc.; (3) +"Among the poorer sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That +is,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direction for rewriting.</i></div> +<p>Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out +both connective and relative.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just +given:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">And who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than +herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed +them.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and <a name= +"Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>who might be introduced to the +congregation as the immediate organ of his conversion.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of +what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the lowest +walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble +figure.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, +and in whom I myself was not a little interested.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">But who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English +by name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, +but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Or who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous +Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the +stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a thousand +times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his +love?"<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">And which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, +and which may even be heard a mile off.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like +that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in +the western counties.<span class="smcap">—Pearson.</span></p> +<p>10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and +which has never been described.<span class= +"smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">But which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with +itself!"<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the +power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Or which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had +learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the +French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and +reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That ... and which, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>420.</b></span> Akin to the above is another +fault, which is likewise a variation from the best usage. Two +different relatives are sometimes found referring <a name= +"Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>back to the same antecedent in one +sentence; whereas the better practice is to choose one relative, +and repeat this for any further reference.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative +instead of using two for the same antecedent:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">That ... who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear +every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is +closed.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, +and whose examples and principles we inherit.<span class= +"smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +<p>3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms of +Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest +heaven!<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That ... which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of +God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love +of his brethren.—<span class="smcap">W. E. +Channing</span>.</p> +<p>5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first +organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will +remain as long as the Prometheus.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did +not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most +important difficulties to be surmounted.<span class= +"smcap">—Hallam.</span></p> +<p>7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be +acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from you +than from others.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may +say old civilization has established in place of goodness of heart, +but which is perhaps not so different from it.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +<p>9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a +century ago, was a bustling wharf,—but which is now burdened +with decayed wooden warehouses.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme +presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high +in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his pres<a name="Page_299" +id="Page_299"></a>ent condition, appeared an insult sufficient to +drive the fiery monarch into a frenzy of passion.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That which ... what.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from +the sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular +crevices, was hung in air.—<span class="smcap">W. G. +Simms</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Such as ... which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had +always dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first +interpreted itself to my ear.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have +very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a +chance of becoming President.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Such as ... whom.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men +as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which ... that ... that.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my +father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested notion +of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so forcibly +upon me.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">Each other, one another.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>421.</b></span> The student is sometimes +troubled whether to use <b>each other</b> or <b>one another</b> in +expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether either one refers +to a certain number of persons or objects, whether or not the two +are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the following +sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They [Ernest and the poet] led <i>one another</i>, as it were, +into the high pavilion of their thoughts.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Men take <i>each other's</i> measure when they meet for the +first time.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of <i>each +other</i>?<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war +with <i>one another</i>, carrying off <i>each other's</i> cattle +and wives.<span class="smcap">—Brewer</span></p> +<p>The topics follow <i>each other</i> in the happiest +order.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>The Peers at a conference begin to pommel <i>each +other</i>.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span><a name= +"Page_300" id="Page_300"></a></p> +<p>We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish +enough to thumb <i>each other's</i> books out of circulating +libraries.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us +not increase them by dissension among <i>each +other</i>.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>In a moment we were all shaking hands with <i>one +another</i>.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against <i>each +other.</i><span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Distributives</i> either <i>and</i> +neither.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>422.</b></span> By their original meaning, +<b>either</b> and <b>neither</b> refer to only two persons or +objects; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold—or his +corn. Assume that no one is in want of <i>either</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin</span></p> +<p>Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, +and made delightful music which <i>neither</i> could have claimed +as all his own.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> any.</div> +<p>Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which +case any should be used instead; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? +was it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that +<i>neither</i> of these causes, that not all combined, were able to +blast this bud of hope?<span class= +"smcap">—Everett.</span></p> +<p>Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in +Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in +Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the +pages of <i>either</i> of them languidly, whilst I still cherish +their genius.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Any <i>usually plural</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>423.</b></span> The adjective pronoun +<b>any</b> is nearly always regarded as plural, as shown in the +following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If <i>any</i> of you <i>have</i> been accustomed to look upon +these hours as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Beecher</span></p> +<p>Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, <i>any</i> of his friends +had <a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>died, he had been punctual +in doing honor to <i>their</i> memory.<span class= +"smcap">—Stirling.</span></p> +<p>But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, +when <i>any</i> of them <i>are</i> so good as to visit +me.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's +children, I mean that <i>any</i> of them <i>are</i> +dead?<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In earlier Modern English, <i>any</i> was often singular; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If <i>any</i>, speak; for <i>him</i> have I +offended.<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>If <i>any</i> of you lack wisdom, let <i>him</i> ask of +God.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own +descriptions as <i>any</i> that <i>reads</i> them can +be.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution</i>.</div> +<p>The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective +<i>any</i>, which is plural as often as singular.</p> +<div class="sidenote">None <i>usually plural</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>424.</b></span> The adjective pronoun +<b>none</b> is, in the prose of the present day, usually plural, +although it is historically a contraction of <i>ne ān</i> (not +one). Examples of its use are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In earnest, if ever man was; as <i>none</i> of the French +philosophers <i>were</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p><i>None</i> of Nature's powers <i>do</i> better +service.<span class="smcap">—Prof. Dana</span></p> +<p>One man answers some question which <i>none</i> of his +contemporaries <i>put</i>, and is isolated.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>None obey</i> the command of duty so well as those who are +free from the observance of slavish bondage.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's +children, I mean that any of them are dead? <i>None are</i>, that I +know of.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I +think <i>none</i> of them <i>are</i> so good to eat as some to +smell.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>The singular use of +<i>none</i> is often found in the Bible; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>None</i> of them <i>was</i> cleansed, saving Naaman the +Syrian.<span class="smcap">—Luke iv 27</span></p> +</div> +<p>Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in +prose, and less rarely in poetry; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Perhaps <i>none</i> of our Presidents since Washington +<i>has</i> stood so firm in the confidence of the +people.<span class="smcap">—Lowell</span></p> +<p>In signal <i>none his</i> steed should spare.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<p>Like the use of <i>any</i>, the pronoun <i>none</i> should be +distinguished from the adjective <i>none</i>, which is used +absolutely, and hence is more likely to confuse the student.</p> +<p>Compare with the above the following sentences having the +adjective <i>none</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though <i>none</i> +[no sky] was visible overhead.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau</span></p> +<p>The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and +<i>none</i> [no fires] were lighted in their own +dwellings.<span class="smcap">—Prescott</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">All <i>singular and plural</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>425.</b></span> The pronoun <b>all</b> has +the singular construction when it means <i>everything</i>; the +plural, when it means <i>all persons</i>: for example,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singular</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The light troops thought ... that <i>all was</i> +lost.<span class="smcap">—Palgrave</span></p> +<p><i>All was</i> won on the one side, and <i>all was</i> lost on +the other.<span class="smcap">—Bayne</span></p> +<p>Having done <i>all</i> that <i>was</i> just toward +others.<span class="smcap">—Napier</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged +leniently by <i>all</i> who <i>remember</i>, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Pearson.</span></p> +<p>When <i>all were</i> gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Lingard</span></p> +<p><i>All</i> who did not understand French <i>were</i> compelled, +etc.—Mc<span class="smcap">master.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_303" id= +"Page_303"></a>Somebody's else, <i>or</i> somebody else's?</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>426.</b></span> The compounds <b>somebody +else, any one else, nobody else</b>, etc., are treated as units, +and the apostrophe is regularly added to the final word <i>else</i> +instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression <i>somebody's +else</i>, and Ford has <i>nobody's else</i>, but the regular usage +is shown in the following selections:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A boy who is fond of <i>somebody else's</i> pencil +case.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>A suit of clothes like <i>somebody else's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as +benevolently as if they were <i>somebody else's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>Certainly not! nor <i>any one else's</i> ropes.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Again, my pronunciation—like <i>everyone +else's</i>—is in some cases more archaic.<span class= +"smcap">—Sweet.</span></p> +<p>Then everybody wanted some of <i>somebody +else's</i>.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike +<i>anybody else's</i> in the world.—<span class="smcap">N. P. +Willis</span>.</p> +<p>"Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like <i>somebody +else's</i> wantin' what you've got."<span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Stowe.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADJECTIVESIII" id= +"ADJECTIVESIII"></a><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></h2> +<h3>AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">These sort, all manner of, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>427.</b></span> The statement that +adjectives agree with their nouns in number is restricted to the +words <b>this</b> and <b>that</b> (with <b>these</b> and +<b>those</b>), as these are the only adjectives that have separate +forms for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of +expressions that the concord seems to be violated,—in such as +"<i>these sort</i> of books," "<i>those kind</i> of trees," "<i>all +manner</i> of men;" the nouns being singular, the adjectives +plural. These expressions are all but universal in spoken English, +<a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>and may be found not +infrequently in literary English; for example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>These kind</i> of knaves I know, which +in this plainness<br /></span> <span>Harbor more craft, +etc.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All <i>these sort</i> of things.<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan.</span></p> +<p>I hoped we had done with <i>those sort</i> of +things.<span class="smcap">—Muloch.</span></p> +<p>You have been so used to <i>those sort</i> of +impertinences.<span class="smcap">Sydney Smith.</span></p> +<p>Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, +or <i>those sort</i> of people.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>I always delight in overthrowing <i>those kind</i> of +schemes.<span class="smcap">—Austen.</span></p> +<p>There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy <i>those +sort</i> of romantic spots.—<i>Saturday Review</i>, +London.</p> +<p>The library was open, with <i>all manner</i> of amusing +books.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of +the above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or +the nouns to the plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>History of this construction.</i></div> +<p>The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be +sought in the history of the language: it cannot be found in the +statement that the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a +noun following.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>At the source.</i></div> +<p>In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking +at things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not +"all <i>kinds</i> of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" +(wild animals of-every-kind). This the modern expression +reverses.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Later form.</i></div> +<p>But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such +expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The result.</i></div> +<p>Consequently we have a confused expression. <a name="Page_305" +id="Page_305"></a>We keep the form of logical agreement in standard +English, such as, "<i>This sort</i> of trees should be planted;" +but at the same time the noun following <i>kind of</i> is felt to +be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken English, made +to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, "<i>These +kind of</i> trees are best."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A question.</i></div> +<p>The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we +wish to use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This +kind of rules <i>are</i> the best," or "This kind of rules +<i>is</i> the best?" <i>Kind</i> or <i>sort</i> may be treated as a +collective noun, and in this way may take a plural verb; for +example, Burke's sentence, "A <i>sort</i> of uncertain sounds +<i>are</i>, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming +than a total silence."</p> +<h3>COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the comparative degree.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>428.</b></span> The comparative degree of +the adjective (or adverb) is used when we wish to compare two +objects or sets of objects, or one object with a class of objects, +to express a higher degree of quality; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Which is <i>the better</i> able to defend himself,—a +strong man with nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple +encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift?<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Of two such lessons, why +forget<br /></span> <span class="i2">The <i>nobler</i> and the +<i>manlier</i> one?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We may well doubt which has the <i>stronger</i> claim to +civilization, the victor or the vanquished.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +<p>A <i>braver</i> ne'er to battle rode.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He is <i>taller,</i> by almost the breadth of my nail, than any +of his court.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>Other +<i>after the comparative form.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>429.</b></span> When an object is compared +with the class to which it belongs, it is regularly excluded from +that class by the word <i>other</i>; if not, the object would +really be compared with itself: thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in +its manipulation than perhaps any <i>other</i> which Thackeray has +drawn.<span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier +curiosity than any <i>other</i> form of humanity.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>See if the word <i>other</i> should be inserted in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. +Henry.<span class="smcap">—Wirt.</span></p> +<p>2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more +than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its +obligations as our own.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any +mythology I know.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any +novel I remember to have read.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of +Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in +"Scott's lot."—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the superlative degree.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>430.</b></span> The <b>superlative +degree</b> of the adjective (or adverb) is used regularly in +comparing more than two things, but is also frequently used in +comparing only two things.</p> +<p>Examples of superlative with several objects:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It is a case of which the <i>simplest</i> statement is the +<i>strongest</i>.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Even Dodd himself, who was one of the <i>greatest</i> humbugs +who ever lived, would not have had the face.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>To the man who plays well, the <i>highest</i> stakes are +paid.<span class="smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_307" id= +"Page_307"></a><i>Superlative with two objects.</i></div> +<p>Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the +following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Which do you love <i>best</i> to behold, the lamb or the lion? +<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Which of these methods has the <i>best</i> effect? Both of them +are the same to the sense, and differ only in form.<span class= +"smcap">—Dr Blair.</span></p> +<p>Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever +can be got <i>easiest</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly +contributed <i>most</i> to the amusement of the party.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The +<i>eldest</i>, Mary, was like the Stuarts—the <i>younger</i> +was a fair English child.<span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Oliphant.</span></p> +<p>Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the +nation between them, I should say that one has the <i>best</i> +cause, and the other contains the <i>best</i> men.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>In all disputes between States, though the <i>strongest</i> is +nearly always mainly in the wrong, the <i>weaker</i> is often so in +a minor degree.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid +both to stand up to see which was the <i>tallest</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly +the <i>last</i> of them.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>"Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. +"Let us see which will laugh <i>loudest</i>."<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Double comparative and +superlative.</i></div> +<p>431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double +comparative and superlative by using <i>more</i> or <i>most</i> +before the word already having <i>-er</i> or <i>-est</i>. Examples +from Shakespeare are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>How much <i>more elder</i> art thou than thy +looks!—<i>Merchant of Venice.</i></p> +<p>Nor that I am <i>more better</i> than +Prospero.—<span class="smcap"><i>Tempest.</i></span></p> +<p>Come you <i>more nearer</i>.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Hamlet.</i></span></p> +<p>With the <i>most boldest</i> and best hearts of +Rome.—<span class="smcap"><i>J. Cæsar.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>Also from the same +period,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Imitating the manner of the <i>most ancientest</i> and +<i>finest</i> Grecians.<span class="smcap">—Ben +Jonson.</span></p> +<p>After the <i>most straitest</i> sect of our +religion.—<i>Bible</i>, 1611.</p> +</div> +<p>Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The +following examples are used purposely, to represent the characters +as ignorant persons:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the +<i>most convenientest</i> and <i>handsomest</i> saddle that ever +was seen."<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>"There's nothing comes out but the <i>most lowest</i> stuff in +nature; not a bit of high life among them."<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>THREE FIRST</i> <b>OR</b> <i>FIRST THREE</i>?</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>432.</b></span> As to these two expressions, +over which a little war has so long been buzzing, we think it not +necessary to say more than that both are in good use; not only so +in popular speech, but in literary English. Instances of both are +given below.</p> +<p>The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same +idea from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the +use of either or both.</p> +<div class="sidenote">First three, <i>etc.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping +them heart and soul for the <i>last two</i> years.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The delay in the <i>first three</i> lines, and conceit in the +last, jar upon us constantly.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>The <i>last dozen</i> miles before you reach the +suburbs.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Mankind for the <i>first seventy thousand</i> ages ate their +meat raw.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>The <i>first twenty</i> numbers were expressed by a +corresponding number of dots. The <i>first five</i> had specific +names.<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Three first, <i>etc.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>These are the <i>three first</i> needs of civilized +life.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span><a name="Page_309" +id="Page_309"></a></p> +<p>He has already finished the <i>three first</i> sticks of +it.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>In my <i>two last</i> you had so much of Lismahago that I +suppose you are glad he is gone.<span class= +"smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +<p>I have not numbered the lines except of the <i>four first</i> +books. <span class="smcap">—Cowper.</span></p> +<p>The <i>seven first</i> centuries were filled with a succession +of triumphs.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLESIII" id= +"ARTICLESIII"></a><b>ARTICLES</b>.</h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definite article</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>433.</b></span> The <b>definite article</b> +is repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun, when the +purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one +understood. In such a case two or more separate objects are usually +indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this +construction are,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With a singular noun</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The merit of <i>the Barb</i>, <i>the Spanish</i>, and <i>the +English</i> breed is derived from a mixture of Arabian +blood.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p><i>The righteous</i> man is distinguished from <i>the +unrighteous</i> by his desire and hope of justice.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either +on <i>the sunny</i> or <i>the stormy</i> side.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between +<i>the first</i> and <i>the second</i> part of the +volume.—<i><span class="smcap">The Nation</span></i>, No. +1508.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With a plural noun</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether +the earliest cleavage was between <i>the Northern</i> and <i>the +Southern</i> languages.<span class="smcap">—Taylor,</span> +<i>Origin of the Aryans</i>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>434.</b></span> The same repetition of the +article is sometimes found before nouns alone, to distinguish +clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In every line of <i>the Philip</i> and <i>the Saul</i>, the +greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span><a name="Page_310" id= +"Page_310"></a></p> +<p>He is master of the two-fold Logos, <i>the thought</i> and +<i>the word</i>, distinct, but inseparable from each +other.<span class="smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +<p><i>The flowers</i>, and <i>the presents</i>, and <i>the trunks +and bonnet boxes</i> ... having been arranged, the hour of parting +came.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">The <i>not repeated. One object and several +modifiers, with a singular noun</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>435.</b></span> Frequently, however, the +article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives, as +in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Or fanciest thou <i>the red and yellow</i> Clothes-screen yonder +is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p><i>The lofty</i>, <i>melodious</i>, <i>and flexible</i> +language.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>The fairest and most loving</i> wife in Greece.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural +noun</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between <i>the +ancient and modern</i> general views of the town.<span class= +"smcap">—Halliwell-phillipps.</span></p> +<p>At Talavera <i>the English and French</i> troops for a moment +suspended their conflict.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of <i>the +Adriatic and Tyrrhene</i> seas a large increase of +wealth.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Here the youth of both sexes, of <i>the higher and middling</i> +orders, were placed at a very tender age.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indefinite article</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>436.</b></span> The <b>indefinite +article</b> is used, like the definite article, to limit two or +more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The article is +repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified +nouns. Examples of this use are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We shall live <i>a better</i> and <i>a higher</i> and <i>a +nobler</i> life.<span class="smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +<p>The difference between the products of <i>a well-disciplined</i> +and those of <i>an uncultivated</i> understanding is often and +admirably exhibited by our great dramatist.—<span class= +"smcap">S. T. Coleridge</span>.</p> +<p>Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, <i>a +round</i> and <i>a square</i> one alternately.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>As if the difference between <i>an accurate</i> and <i>an +inaccurate</i> <a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>statement was +not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of +reference.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>To every room there was <i>an open</i> and <i>a secret</i> +passage.<span class="smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun +expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One article with several +adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>437.</b></span> Usually the article is not +repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and +the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is +expressed; yet the same word understood with the other adjectives +has a different meaning (except in the first sentence of Sec. 436). +But in the following sentences, as in the first three of Sec. 435, +the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun. It is +easy to see the difference between the expressions "<i>a +red-and-white</i> geranium," and "<i>a red and a white</i> +geranium."</p> +<p>Examples of several adjectives describing the same +object:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To inspire us with <i>a free and quiet</i> +mind.—<span class="smcap">B. Jonson</span>.</p> +<p>Here and there <i>a desolate and uninhabited</i> +house.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>James was declared <i>a mortal and bloody</i> enemy.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So wert thou born into a tuneful +strain,<br /></span> <span><i>An early, rich, and inexhausted</i> +vein.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Dryden.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>For rhetorical effect.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>438.</b></span> The indefinite article +(compare Sec. 434) is used to lend special emphasis, interest, or +clearness to each of several nouns; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>James was declared <i>a</i> mortal and bloody <i>enemy, a +tyrant, a murderer</i>, and <i>a usurper</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Thou hast spoken as <i>a patriot</i> and <i>a +Christian</i>.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>He saw him in his mind's eye, <i>a collegian, a parliament +man—a Baronet</i> perhaps.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a><a name="VERBSIII" id= +"VERBSIII"></a>VERBS.</h2> +<h3>CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A broad and loose rule.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>439.</b></span> In English, the +<b>number</b> of the verb follows the meaning rather than the form +of its subject.</p> +<p>It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees +with its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part +I., Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it.</p> +<p>The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs +as have separate forms for singular and plural number.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singular verb.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>440.</b></span> The <b>singular form</b> of +the verb is used—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject of singular form.</i></div> +<p>(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular +meaning.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Such, then, <i>was</i> the earliest American +<i>land</i>.<span class="smcap">—Agassiz.</span></p> +<p><i>He was</i> certainly a happy fellow at this +time.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p><i>He sees</i> that it is better to live in peace.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Collective noun of singular +meaning.</i></div> +<p>(2) When the subject is a <i>collective noun</i> which +represents a number of persons or things <i>taken as one unit</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The larger <i>breed</i> [of camels] <i>is</i> capable of +transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.<span class= +"smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>Another <i>school professes</i> entirely opposite +principles.—<i>The Nation.</i></p> +<p>In this work there <i>was</i> grouped around him <i>a score</i> +of men.<span class="smcap">—W. Phillips</span></p> +<p>A <i>number</i> of jeweled paternosters <i>was</i> attached to +her girdle.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p><i>Something like a horse load</i> of books <i>has</i> been +written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the +booby.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +</div> +<p>This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on +the writer's own judgment. <a name="Page_313" id= +"Page_313"></a>Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural +verb after <i>number</i> in Froude's sentence above.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singulars connected by</i> or <i>or</i> +nor.</div> +<p>(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns +connected by <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It is by no means sure that either our <i>literature</i>, or the +great intellectual <i>life</i> of our nation, <i>has</i> got +already, without academies, all that academies can +give.—<span class="smcap">M. Arnold</span>.</p> +<p><i>Jesus is</i> not dead, nor <i>John</i>, nor <i>Paul</i>, nor +<i>Mahomet</i>. <span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural form and singular +meaning.</i></div> +<p>(4) When the subject is <i>plural in form</i>, but represents a +number of things to be taken together as <i>forming one unit</i>; +for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Thirty-four years <i>affects</i> one's remembrance of some +circumstances.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence +<i>is</i> no bad day's work.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>Every twenty paces <i>gives</i> you the prospect of some villa; +and every four hours, that of a large town.<span class= +"smcap">—Montague</span></p> +<p>Two thirds of this <i>is</i> mine by right.<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan</span></p> +<p>The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, +and other singulars of plural form; as,—</p> +<p>Politics <i>is</i> the only field now open for me.<span class= +"smcap">—Whittier.</span></p> +<p>"Sesame and Lilies" <i>is</i> Ruskin's creed for young +girls.—<i><span class="smcap">Critic</span></i>, No. 674</p> +<p>The Three Pigeons <i>expects</i> me down every +moment.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Several singular subjects to one singular +verb.</i></div> +<p>(5) With <i>several singular subjects not</i> disjoined by +<i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>, in the following cases:—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Joined by <i>and</i>, but considered as meaning about +the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In a word, all his conversation and knowledge <i>has been</i> in +the female world<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>The strength and glare of +each [color] <i>is</i> considerably abated.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke</span></p> +<p>To imagine that debating and logic <i>is</i> the +triumph.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly +<i>is</i> not the least of accomplishments.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey</span></p> +<p>The genius and merit of a rising poet <i>was</i> +celebrated.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>When the cause of ages and the fate of nations <i>hangs</i> upon +the thread of a debate.—<span class="smcap">J. Q. +Adams</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, +or considered as appositional; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the +nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, <i>is</i> +gone.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, +a loss of friends, <i>seems</i> at the moment unpaid +loss.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, +<i>does</i> not take the place of the man.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any +way with a suitor, <i>was</i> punished, in a judge, with +death.<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subjects after the verb.</i></div> +<p>This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially +frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There <i>is</i> a right and a wrong in them.<span class= +"smcap">—M Arnold.</span></p> +<p>There <i>is</i> a moving tone of voice, an impassioned +countenance, an agitated gesture.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke</span></p> +<p>There <i>was</i> a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and +greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging +beneath.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Then <i>comes</i> the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and +the "No, sir!"<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>For wide <i>is</i> heard the thundering +fray,<br /></span> <span>The rout, the ruin, the +dismay.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—SCOTT.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>(<i>c</i>) Joined by <i>as +well as</i> (in this case the verb agrees with the first of the +two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Asia, as well as Europe, <i>was</i> dazzled.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The oldest, as well as the newest, +wine<br /></span> <span><i>Begins</i> to stir itself.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—LONGFELLOW.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Her back, as well as sides, <i>was</i> like to +crack.<span class="smcap">—Butler.</span></p> +<p>The Epic, as well as the Drama, <i>is</i> divided into tragedy +and Comedy.<span class="smcap">—Fielding</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>d</i>) When each of two or more singular subjects is +preceded by <i>every</i>, <i>each</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>many a</i>, +and such like adjectives.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Every fop, every boor, every valet, <i>is</i> a man of +wit.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Every sound, every echo, <i>was</i> listened to for five +hours.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey</span></p> +<p>Every dome and hollow <i>has</i> the figure of +Christ.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Each particular hue and tint <i>stands</i> by +itself.<span class="smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +<p>Every law and usage <i>was</i> a man's expedient.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Here <i>is</i> no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent +ball.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Every week, nay, almost every day, <i>was</i> set down in their +calendar for some appropriate celebration.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural verb.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>441.</b></span> The <b>plural form</b> of +the verb is used—</p> +<p>(1) When the subject is plural <i>in form and in meaning</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>These <i>bits</i> of wood <i>were</i> covered on every +square.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>Far, far away thy children <i>leave</i> the land.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The Arabian poets <i>were</i> the historians and +moralists.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) When the subject is a <i>collective noun</i> in which <i>the +individuals</i> of the collection are thought of; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A multitude <i>go</i> mad about it.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>A great number of people <i>were</i> collected at a +vendue.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>All our household +<i>are</i> at rest.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>A party of workmen <i>were</i> removing the horses.<span class= +"smcap">—Lew Wallace</span></p> +<p>The fraternity <i>were</i> inclined to claim for him the honors +of canonization.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>The travelers, of whom there <i>were</i> a +number.—<span class="smcap">B. Taylor</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(3) When the subject consists of <i>several singulars connected +by and</i>, making up a plural subject, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Only Vice and Misery <i>are</i> abroad.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>But its authorship, its date, and its history <i>are</i> alike a +mystery to us.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>His clothes, shirt, and skin <i>were</i> all of the same +color<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>Aristotle and Longinus <i>are</i> better understood by him than +Littleton or Coke.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Conjunction omitted.</i></div> +<p>The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, <i>b</i>), +but the verb is plural, as with a subject of plural form.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, +<i>are</i> sufficient to attract a colony.<span class= +"smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, <i>were</i> men +of insignificant characters.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive +word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>One or two of these perhaps <i>survive</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>One or two persons in the crowd <i>were</i> +insolent.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>One or two of the ladies <i>were</i> going to leave.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison</span></p> +<p>One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers <i>were</i> still +alive in the village.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>One or two of whom <i>were</i> more entertaining.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>But notice the construction of this,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A ray or two <i>wanders</i> into the darkness.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<h3><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>AGREEMENT OF VERB AND +SUBJECT IN PERSON.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>General usage</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>442.</b></span> If there is only one person +in the subject, the ending of the verb indicates the person of its +subject; that is, in those few cases where there are forms for +different persons: as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Never once <i>didst</i> thou revel in the vision.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Romanism wisely <i>provides</i> for the childish in +men.<span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>It <i>hath</i> been said my Lord would never take the +oath.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Second or third and first person in the +subject</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>443.</b></span> If the subject is made up of +the first person joined with the second or third by <i>and</i>, the +verb takes the construction of the first person, the subject being +really equivalent to <i>we</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I flatter myself you and I <i>shall</i> meet again.<span class= +"smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +<p>You and I <i>are</i> farmers; we never talk +politics.<span class="smcap">—D. Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Ah, brother! only I and thou<br /></span> +<span><i>Are</i> left of all that circle now.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Whittier.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>You and I <i>are</i> tolerably modest people.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Cocke and I <i>have</i> felt it in our bones—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With adversative or disjunctive +connectives</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>444.</b></span> When the subjects, of +different persons, are connected by adversative or disjunctive +conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to +it; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Neither you nor I <i>should</i> be a bit the better or +wiser.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>If she or you <i>are</i> resolved to be miserable.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I <i>have</i> +said.—<span class="smcap">M. Arnold</span>.</p> +<p>Not Altamont, but thou, <i>hadst</i> been my lord.<span class= +"smcap">—Rowe.</span></p> +<p>Not I, but thou, his blood <i>dost</i> shed.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided +either by using a verb which has no <a name="Page_318" id= +"Page_318"></a>forms for person (as, "He or I <i>can</i> go," "She +or you <i>may</i> be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the sentence +so as to throw each subject before its proper person form (as, "You +<i>would</i> not be wiser, nor <i>should</i> I;" or, "I <i>have</i> +never said so, nor <i>has</i> she").</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exceptional examples</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>445.</b></span> The following illustrate +exceptional usage, which it is proper to mention; but the student +is cautioned to follow the regular usage rather than the unusual +and irregular.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard +usage, as illustrated above (Secs. +<b>440</b>-<b>444</b>):—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;">1. +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And sharp Adversity will teach at +last<br /></span> <span>Man,—and, as we would +hope,—perhaps the devil,<br /></span> <span>That neither of +their intellects are vast.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of +the man as a statuette in bronze.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>3. How each of these professions are crowded.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>4. Neither of their counselors were to be +present.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they +are significant.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and +glaring.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or +murder.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +9. +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are +there,<br /></span> <span>Her course to intercept.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<p>10. Both death and I am found eternal.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +<p>11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often <a name= +"Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>obliged to wade through morasses; at +last they came upon the district of Little +Prairie.—<span class="smcap">G. Bancroft</span>.</p> +<p>12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their +wits.<span class="smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>SEQUENCE OF TENSES</b> (<b>VERBS AND VERBALS</b>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Lack of logical sequence in +verbs</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>446.</b></span> If one or more verbs depend +on some leading verb, each should be in the tense that will convey +the meaning intended by the writer.</p> +<p>In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have +swallowed us up," the verb <i>expected</i> looks forward to +something in the future, while <i>would have swallowed</i> +represents something completed in past time: hence the meaning +intended was, "I expected every wave <i>would swallow</i>" etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Also in verbals</i>.</div> +<p>In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express +the exact thought:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<p>The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; <i>to have +seen</i> should be changed to <i>to see</i>, for exact connection. +Of course, if the purpose were to represent a prior fact or +completed action, the perfect infinitive would be the very +thing.</p> +<p>It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those +just quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the +sentence. The present rule is recent.</p> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.</p> +<p>Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following +sentences convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better +form:—<a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have +divided with her whatever might remain.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey</span></p> +<p>2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be +thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find +their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed +paradoxes.—<span class="smcap">R. W. Church</span>.</p> +<p>4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a +proposition for a compromise.<span class= +"smcap">—Palgrave</span></p> +<p>5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I +should have acquired before that time.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin</span></p> +<p>6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet +Ducking's head.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDIRECT_DISCOURSE" id= +"INDIRECT_DISCOURSE"></a><b>INDIRECT DISCOURSE</b>.</h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definitions</i>.</div> +<p><i>447</i>. <b>Direct discourse</b>—that is, a direct +quotation or a direct question—means the identical words the +writer or speaker used; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Indirect discourse</b> means reported speech,—the +thoughts of a writer or speaker put in the words of the one +reporting them.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two samples of indirect +discourse</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>448.</b></span> Indirect discourse may be of +two kinds:—</p> +<p>(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as +consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs.</p> +<p>(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not +attempting to follow the entire quotation.</p> +<p>The following examples of both are from De Quincey:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_321" id= +"Page_321"></a><i>Indirect</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the +clerk as to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his +throat.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct</i>.</div> +<p>His exact words were, "I <i>cannot</i> oblige <i>you</i> ..., +but I <i>can</i> oblige <i>you</i> by cutting <i>your</i> +throat."</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indirect</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for +her until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. +Sebastian's.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>She thought to herself, "Safety there <i>is</i> none for +<i>me</i> until <i>I</i> have laid," etc.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Summary of the expressions</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a +step. Oh, the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! +Oh, the untold sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy +speculation!</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct synopsis</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure +<i>has</i> been spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money <i>have +I</i> sunk," etc.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>449.</b></span> From these illustrations +will be readily seen the grammatical changes made in transferring +from direct to indirect discourse. Remember the following +facts:—</p> +<p>(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past +tense.</p> +<p>(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by <i>that</i>, +and the indirect question by <i>whether</i> or <i>if</i>, or +regular interrogatives.</p> +<p>(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the +past-tense form. This includes the auxiliaries <i>be</i>, +<i>have</i>, <i>will</i>, etc. The past tense is sometimes changed +to the past perfect.</p> +<p>(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed +to the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the +antecedent of the pronoun instead.</p> +<p>Other examples of indirect discourse have been <a name= +"Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>given in Part I., under interrogative +pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the subjunctive mood of +verbs.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and +change it to a direct quotation:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his +ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been +haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great +Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, +kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the +Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his +enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great +city called by his name; that his father had once seen them in +their old Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the +mountain; and that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the +sound of their balls, like distant peals of thunder.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VERBALSIII" id="VERBALSIII"></a><b>VERBALS</b>.</h2> +<p><b>PARTICIPLES</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Careless use of the participial +phrase.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>450.</b></span> The following sentences +illustrate a misuse of the participial phrase:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was +of John Bunyan's works.—<span class="smcap">B. +Franklin</span>.</p> +<p>My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, +having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's +goodwill.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so +suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more +easy.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first +observation will be found nearly true.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke</span></p> +<p>He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, +being the course which his confessor had enjoined.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>Compare with these the +following:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A correct example.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the +misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Notice this.</i></div> +<p>The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main +subject of the sentence is not the same word that would be the +subject of the participle, if this were expanded into a verb.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Correction.</i></div> +<p>Consequently one of two courses must be taken,—either +change the participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, +leaving the principal statement as it is; or change the principal +proposition so it shall make logical connection with the +participial phrase.</p> +<p>For example, the first sentence would be, either "<i>As I +was</i> pleased, ... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased +with the 'Pilgrim's Progress,' I made my first collection John +Bunyan's works."</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Rewrite the other four sentences so as to +correct the careless use of the participial phrase.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INFINITIVES" id= +"INFINITIVES"></a><b>INFINITIVES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adverb between</i> to <i>and the +infinitive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>451.</b></span> There is a construction +which is becoming more and more common among good +writers,—the placing an adverb between <i>to</i> of the +infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by +many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard +writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it.</p> +<p>The following two examples show the adverb before the +infinitive:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The more common usage.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently <i>to +show</i> that he fully understood the business.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>It is a solemn, universal +assertion, deeply <i>to be kept</i> in mind by all +sects.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire +seems to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to +modify it as closely and clearly as possible.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed +before or after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as +they now do:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There are, then, many things <i>to be</i> carefully +<i>considered</i>, if a strike is to succeed.<span class= +"smcap">—Laughlin.</span></p> +<p>2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in +order <i>to</i> rightly <i>connect</i> them.<span class= +"smcap">—Herbert Spencer.</span></p> +<p>3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an +idea ... than <i>to</i> first imperfectly <i>conceive</i> such +idea.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in +multitude, is <i>to be</i> very cautiously +<i>admitted</i>.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>5. That virtue which requires <i>to be</i> ever <i>guarded</i> +is scarcely worth the sentinel.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not <i>to +be</i> wholly <i>condemned</i>.—<i>The Nation</i>, No. +1533.</p> +<p>7. I wish the reader <i>to</i> clearly +<i>understand</i>.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>8. Transactions which seem <i>to be</i> most widely +<i>separated</i> from one another.<span class="smcap">—Dr. +Blair.</span></p> +<p>9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this +paper <i>to be</i> punctually <i>served up</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed +<i>to have</i> just <i>carried off</i> the head of an +aide-de-camp.<span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>11. The ladies seem <i>to have been</i> expressly <i>created</i> +to form helps meet for such gentlemen.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning +<i>to be</i> strongly <i>tinctured</i> with +austerity.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed +<i>to be</i> considerably <i>damped</i> by their continued +success.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADVERBSIII" id="ADVERBSIII"></a><a name="Page_325" id= +"Page_325"></a><b>ADVERBS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Position of</i> only, even, +<i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>452.</b></span>A very careful writer will so +place the modifiers of a verb that the reader will not mistake the +meaning.</p> +<p>The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in +such a position that the reader not only can understand the meaning +intended, but <i>cannot misunderstand</i> the thought. Now, when +such adverbs as <i>only</i>, <i>even</i>, etc., are used, they are +usually placed in a strictly correct position, if they modify +single words; but they are often removed from the exact position, +if they modify phrases or clauses: for example, from Irving, "The +site is <i>only</i> to be traced by fragments of bricks, china, and +earthenware." Here <i>only</i> modifies the phrase <i>by fragments +of bricks</i>, etc., but it is placed before the infinitive. This +misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by analysis of the +sentence.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it +is placed in the proper position:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed +for us in the verses of his rival.<span class= +"smcap">—Palgrave.</span></p> +<p>2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on +going home for holidays.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford to +keep one old horse.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted for +by supposing the motive power to have been +steam.—<span class="smcap">Wendell Phillips.</span></p> +<p>5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most +likely to interest an American reader.—<span class="smcap">N. +P. Willis</span>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>7. The silence of the first +night at the farmhouse,—stillness broken only by two +whippoorwills.<span class="smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +<p>8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people +at a time to see me.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be +understood to mean the original institutions.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only +consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of +happy and useful years.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we +can only spend it once.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face +or behavior seemed to upbraid him.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even +heard among the roaring of the cannon.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of +Gérard.<span class="smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +<p>15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely +befriended a single man of genius.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his +death.<span class="smcap">—Sydney Smith.</span></p> +<p>17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to +return.<span class="smcap">—Mrs. Grote.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The old usage.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>453.</b></span> In Old and Middle English, +two negatives strengthened a negative idea; for example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He <i>nevere</i> yet <i>no</i> vileineye +<i>ne</i> sayde,<br /></span> <span>In al his lyf unto <i>no</i> +maner wight.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Chaucer.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>No</i> sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might +<i>not</i> marry. <span class="smcap">—Ascham.</span></p> +</div> +<p>The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no +villainy in all his life to no manner of man,"—four +negatives.</p> +<p>This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and +is still kept in vulgar English; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I tell you she <i>ain'</i> been <i>nowhar</i> ef she don' know +we all.<a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a> —<span class= +"smcap">Page,</span> in <i>Ole Virginia</i>.</p> +<p>There <i>weren't no</i> pies to equal hers.<span class= +"smcap">—Mrs. Stowe.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exceptional use.</i></div> +<p>There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a +negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, +however, is not common.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I never did see him again, <i>nor never</i> shall.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>However, I did <i>not</i> act so hastily, +<i>neither</i>.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +<p>The prosperity of no empire, <i>nor</i> the grandeur of +<i>no</i> king, can so agreeably affect, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Regular law of negative in modern +English.</i></div> +<p>But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of +regarding the question now is, that <i>two negatives are equivalent +to an affirmative</i>, denying each other.</p> +<p>Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of +ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative +effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; +as <i>in</i>frequent, <i>un</i>common.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each +of the following sentences, and why:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English +settlements.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the +doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."<span class= +"smcap">—Mrs. Stowe.</span></p> +<p>3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to +school for nothing.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most +cautious circumspection.<span class= +"smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought +not to labor after it.<span class="smcap">—Grote.</span></p> +<p>6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider +a war with England the greatest of calamities.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>7. In the execution of this +task, there is no man who would not find it an arduous +effort.<span class="smcap">—Hamilton.</span></p> +<p>8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor +has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONJUNCTIONSIII" id= +"CONJUNCTIONSIII"></a><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote">And who, and which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>454.</b></span> The sentences given in Secs. +419 and 420 on the connecting of pronouns with different +expressions may again be referred to here, as the use of the +conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be scrutinized.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Choice and proper position of +correlatives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>455.</b></span> The most frequent mistakes +in using conjunctions are in handling correlatives, especially +<i>both</i> ... <i>and, neither</i> ... <i>nor, either</i> ... +<i>or, not</i> <i>only</i> ... <i>but, not merely</i> ... +<i>but</i> (<i>also</i>).</p> +<p>The following examples illustrate the correct use of +correlatives as to both choice of words and position:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Whether</i> at war <i>or</i> at peace, there we were, a +standing menace to all earthly paradises of that kind.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>These idols of wood can <i>neither</i> hear <i>nor</i> +feel.<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +<p><i>Both</i> the common soldiery <i>and</i> their leaders and +commanders lowered on each other as if their union had not been +more essential than ever, <i>not only</i> to the success of their +common cause, <i>but</i> to their own safety.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Things to be watched.</i></div> +<p>In these examples it will be noticed that <i>nor</i>, not +<i>or</i> is the proper correlative of <i>neither</i>; and that all +correlatives in a sentence ought to have corresponding positions: +that is, if the last precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed +before a verb; if the second precedes a phrase, the first should +also. <a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>This is necessary to +make the sentence clear and symmetrical.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Correction.</i></div> +<p>In the sentence, "I am <i>neither</i> in spirits to enjoy it, +<i>or</i> to reply to it," both of the above requirements are +violated. The word <i>neither</i> in such a case had better be +changed to <i>not</i> ... <i>either</i>,—"I am not in spirits +<i>either</i> to enjoy it, <i>or</i> to reply to it."</p> +<p>Besides <i>neither ... or</i>, even <i>neither ... nor</i> is +often changed to <i>not</i>—<i>either ... or</i> with +advantage, as the negation is sometimes too far from the verb to +which it belongs.</p> +<p>A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an +equivalent pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and +inaccurate manner of speaking has misled us <i>both</i> in the +theory of taste <i>and</i> of morals," may be changed to "This +loose ... misled us <i>both</i> in the theory of taste <i>and</i> +in <i>that</i> of morals."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Correct the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of +succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but +they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with +that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) +the youth found himself, etc.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over +its pebbled streets.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, +render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is +superfluous.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up +persons.—<span class="smcap"><i>Westminster +Review.</i></span></p> +<p><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>7. I had even the +satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks upon my unfortunate +son, which the other could neither extort by his fortune nor +assiduity.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of +his name or family.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Try and <i>for</i> try to.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>456.</b></span> Occasionally there is found +the expression <i>try and</i> instead of the better authorized +<i>try to</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We will try <i>and</i> avoid personalities +altogether.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Did any of you ever try <i>and</i> read "Blackmore's +Poems"?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Try <i>and</i> avoid the pronoun.<span class= +"smcap">—Bain.</span></p> +<p>We will try <i>and</i> get a clearer notion of them.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">But what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>457.</b></span> Instead of the subordinate +conjunction <i>that</i>, <i>but</i>, or <i>but that</i>, or the +negative relative <i>but</i>, we sometimes find the bulky and +needless <i>but what</i>. Now, it is possible to use <i>but +what</i> when <i>what</i> is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had +any money <i>but what</i> he absolutely needed;" but in the +following sentences <i>what</i> usurps the place of a +conjunction.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following sentences, substitute <i>that</i>, <i>but</i>, +or <i>but that</i> for the words <i>but what</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't +know <i>but what</i> he was right.—<span class="smcap">S. O. +Jewett</span>.</p> +<p>2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one <i>but +what</i> you are taken up for a trespass.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>3. There are few persons of distinction <i>but what</i> can hold +conversation in both languages.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>4. Who knows <i>but what</i> there might be English among those +sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him <i>but what</i> +he disclosed it at once.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin <i>but +what</i> they might be in a moment surprised.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a><a name="PREPOSITIONSIII" +id="PREPOSITIONSIII"></a><b>PREPOSITIONS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>458.</b></span> As to the placing of a +preposition after its object in certain cases, see Sec. 305.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Between <i>and</i> among.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>459.</b></span> In the primary meaning of +<b>between</b> and <b>among</b> there is a sharp distinction, as +already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English the difference is +not so marked.</p> +<p><b>Between</b> is used most often with two things only, but +still it is frequently used in speaking of several objects, some +relation or connection between two at a time being implied.</p> +<p><b>Among</b> is used in the same way as <i>amid</i> (though not +with exactly the same meaning), several objects being spoken of in +the aggregate, no separation or division by twos being implied.</p> +<p>Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two things.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The contentions that arise <i>between</i> the parson and the +squire.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>We reckoned the improvements of the art of war <i>among</i> the +triumphs of science.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Examples of the looser use of <i>between</i>:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A number of things.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which +Providence has established <i>between</i> certain motions of +bodies.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>Hence the differences <i>between</i> men in natural endowment +are insignificant in comparison with their common +wealth.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>They maintain a good correspondence <i>between</i> those wealthy +societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and +oceans.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places +<i>between</i> their pillars where there were statues +once.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin</span><a name="Page_332" id= +"Page_332"></a></p> +<p>What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of +war <i>betwixt</i> Christian nations?<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two groups or one and a group.</i></div> +<p>Also <i>between</i> may express relation or connection in +speaking of two groups of objects, or one object and a group; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, +<i>between</i> the three adventurers and the faithful +Yeo.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The great distinction <i>between</i> teachers sacred or +literary,—<i>between</i> poets like Herbert and poets like +Pope,—<i>between</i> philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and +Coleridge, and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and +Stewart, etc. <span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>460.</b></span> Certain words are followed +by particular prepositions.</p> +<p>Some of these words show by their composition what preposition +should follow. Such are <i>absolve</i>, <i>involve</i>, +<i>different</i>.</p> +<p>Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in +keeping with the original meaning of the words. Such are +<i>derogatory</i>, <i>averse</i>.</p> +<p>Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and +another to convey a different meaning; as, <i>correspond</i>, +<i>confer</i>.</p> +<p>And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to +express the same meaning.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List I</i>.: <i>Words with particular +prepositions</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>461.</b></span></p> +<h3>LIST I.</h3> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>Absolve <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Abhorrent <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Accord <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Acquit <i>of</i>.</li> +<li>Affinity <i>between</i>.</li> +<li>Averse <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Bestow <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>).</li> +<li>Conform <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Comply <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Conversant <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Dependent <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>).</li> +<li>Different <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Dissent <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Derogatory <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Deprive <i>of</i>.</li> +<li>Independent <i>of</i>.</li> +<li>Involve <i>in</i>.</li> +</ul> +<p>"<a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>Different <i>to</i>" is +frequently heard in spoken English in England, and sometimes creeps +into standard books, but it is not good usage.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List II</i>.: <i>Words taking different +prepositions for different meanings.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>462.</b></span></p> +<h3>LIST II.</h3> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>Agree <i>with</i> (a person).</li> +<li>Agree <i>to</i> (a proposal).</li> +<li>Change <i>for</i> (a thing).</li> +<li>Change <i>with</i> (a person).</li> +<li>Change <i>to</i> (become).</li> +<li>Confer <i>with</i> (talk with).</li> +<li>Confer <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>) (give to).</li> +<li>Confide <i>in</i> (trust in).</li> +<li>Confide <i>to</i> (intrust to).</li> +<li>Correspond <i>with</i> (write to).</li> +<li>Correspond <i>to</i> (a thing).</li> +<li>Differ <i>from</i> (note below).</li> +<li>Differ <i>with</i> (note below).</li> +<li>Disappointed <i>in</i> (a thing obtained).</li> +<li>Disappointed <i>of</i> (a thing not obtained).</li> +<li>Reconcile <i>to</i> (note below).</li> +<li>Reconcile <i>with</i> (note below).</li> +<li>A taste <i>of</i> (food).</li> +<li>A taste <i>for</i> (art, etc.).</li> +</ul> +<p>"Correspond <i>with</i>" is sometimes used of things, as meaning +<i>to be in keeping with</i>.</p> +<p>"Differ <i>from</i>" is used in speaking of unlikeness between +things or persons; "differ <i>from</i>" and "differ <i>with</i>" +are both used in speaking of persons disagreeing as to +opinions.</p> +<p>"Reconcile <i>to</i>" is used with the meaning of <i>resigned +to</i>, as, "The exile became reconciled <i>to</i> his fate;" also +of persons, in the sense of making friends with, as, "The king is +reconciled <i>to</i> his minister." "Reconcile <i>with</i>" is used +with the meaning of <i>make to agree with</i>, as, "The statement +must be reconciled <i>with</i> his previous conduct."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List III</i>.: <i>Words taking anyone of +several prepositions for the same meaning</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>463.</b></span></p> +<h3>LIST III.</h3> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>Die <i>by</i>, die <i>for</i>, die <i>from</i>, die <i>of</i>, +die <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Expect <i>of</i>, expect <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Part <i>from</i>, part <i>with</i>.</li> +</ul> +<p><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>Illustrations of "die +<i>of</i>," "die <i>from</i>," etc.:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> of."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The author died <i>of</i> a fit of apoplexy.<span class= +"smcap">—Boswell.</span></p> +<p>People do not die <i>of</i> trifling little colds.<span class= +"smcap">—Austen</span></p> +<p>Fifteen officers died <i>of</i> fever in a day.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>It would take me long to die <i>of</i> +hunger.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>She died <i>of</i> hard work, privation, and ill +treatment.<span class="smcap">—Burnett.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> from."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She saw her husband at last literally die <i>from</i> +hunger.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>He died at last without disease, simply <i>from</i> old age. +—<span class="smcap"><i>Athenæum.</i></span></p> +<p>No one <i>died from</i> want at Longfeld.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Chambers' Journal.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> with."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She would have been ready to die <i>with</i> +shame.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>I am positively dying <i>with</i> hunger.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died <i>with</i> +laughing.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>I wish that the happiest here may not die <i>with</i> +envy.<span class="smcap">—Pope.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> for." (<i>in behalf +of</i>).</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Take thought and die <i>for</i> Cæsar.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>One of them said he would die <i>for</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>It is a man of quality who dies <i>for</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> for." (<i>because of</i>).</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Who, as Cervantes informs us, died <i>for</i> love of the fair +Marcella.<span class="smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>Some officers had died <i>for</i> want of a morsel of +bread.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> by." (<i>material cause, +instrument</i>).</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die <i>by</i> this hand. +<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal +or die <i>by</i> fire.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>He died <i>by</i> suicide before he completed his eighteenth +year.<span class="smcap">—Shaw.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>464.</b></span> Illustrations of "expect +<i>of</i>," "expect <i>from:</i>"—</p> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Expect</i> of."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What do I expect <i>of</i> Dublin?—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Punch.</i></span></p> +<p>That is more than I expected <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>Of</i> Doctor P. nothing better was to be +expected.<span class="smcap">—Poe.</span></p> +<p>Not knowing what might be expected <i>of</i> men in +general.—G. ELIOT.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Expect</i> from."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She will expect more attention <i>from</i> you, as my +friend.<span class="smcap">—Walpole.</span><a name="Page_335" +id="Page_335"></a></p> +<p>There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected +<i>from</i> a man.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>I have long expected something remarkable <i>from</i> +you.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>465.</b></span> "Part <i>with</i>" is used +with both persons and things, but "part <i>from</i>" is less often +found in speaking of things.</p> +<p>Illustrations of "part <i>with</i>," "part +<i>from</i>:"—</p> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Part</i> with."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part +<i>with</i> them.<span class="smcap">—Austen.</span></p> +<p>Cleveland was sorry to part <i>with</i> him.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>I can part <i>with</i> my children for their good.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>I part <i>with</i> all that grew so near my heart.<span class= +"smcap">—Waller.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Part</i> from."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To part <i>from</i> you would be misery.<span class= +"smcap">—Marryat.</span></p> +<p>I have just seen her, just parted <i>from</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>Burke parted <i>from</i> him with deep emotion.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>His precious bag, which he would by no means part +<i>from</i>.—G. ELIOT.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kind</i> in <i>you</i>, <i>kind</i> of +<i>you</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>466.</b></span> With words implying behavior +or disposition, either <i>of</i> or <i>in</i> is used +indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Of.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was a little bad <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>How cruel <i>of</i> me!<span class= +"smcap">—Collins.</span></p> +<p>He did not think it handsome <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>But this is idle <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">In.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Very natural <i>in</i> Mr. Hampden.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>It will be anything but shrewd <i>in</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>That is very unreasonable <i>in</i> a person so +young.<span class="smcap">—Beaconsfield.</span></p> +<p>I am wasting your whole morning—too bad <i>in</i> +me.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Miscellaneous Examples for Correction.</h4> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on +a work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red +seas?</p> +<p>2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is +commonly said that his profits are high.</p> +<p><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a>3. None of them are in any +wise willing to give his life for the life of his chief.</p> +<p>4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without +loss, is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which +we are most imperatively required to do.</p> +<p>5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor +explained by accuracy of speaking.</p> +<p>6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame.</p> +<p>7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the +waters into a northern and southern ocean.</p> +<p>8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss.</p> +<p>9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over +Amyas's head, and ran up the alley.</p> +<p>10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders +necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt +the lovers.</p> +<p>11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn +back from the plow on which he hath laid his hand!</p> +<p>12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or +artillery, awake a great and awful sensation in the mind.</p> +<p>13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor +green, nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red.</p> +<p>14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the +same thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other.</p> +<p>15.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And were I anything but what I +am,<br /></span> <span>I would wish me only he.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a +just and unjust act.</p> +<p>17. You have seen Cassio and she together.</p> +<p>18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, +you or me.</p> +<p>19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an +enemy, and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled.</p> +<p>20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and +proud.</p> +<p>21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does +not lie in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to +them.</p> +<p><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a>22. The effect of +proportion and fitness, so far at least as they proceed from a mere +consideration of the work itself, produce approbation, the +acquiescence of the understanding.</p> +<p>23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is +sometimes softened in the passage.</p> +<p>24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom.</p> +<p>25. Every one of these letters are in my name.</p> +<p>26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision.</p> +<p>27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither +beautiful to the sight nor feeling.</p> +<p>28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that +cares to think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or +what kind of life they are to lead in it.</p> +<p>29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion.</p> +<p>30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once.</p> +<p>31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were +enough to turn our stomach.</p> +<p>32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and +ambitious man are admirably drawn.</p> +<p>33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know +some man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will +about with them. (Sec. 411.)</p> +<p>34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and +almost as good as a pony.</p> +<p>35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were +down with raging fever.</p> +<p>36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history +with little bits of detail which give human interest to it.</p> +<p>37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant.</p> +<p>38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred +miles, in conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which +are accepted without complaint by the inhabitants themselves.</p> +<p>39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket.</p> +<p>40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that +they would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> More for +convenience than for absolute accuracy, the stages of our language +have been roughly divided into three:—</p> +<p>(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth +century.</p> +<p>(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the +sixteenth century.</p> +<p>(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><a name="Page_338" id= +"Page_338"></a><b>INDEX.</b></h2> +<p>THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES.</p> +<p>A, origin of, <a href="#Page_119">119.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_310">310.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Absolute, nominative, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br /> +<br /> +Abstract nouns, <a href="#Page_20">20.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with article, <a href= +"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Active voice, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a><br /> +<br /> +Address, nominative of, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adjective clauses, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from adjectives, +<a href="#Page_89">89.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distributive, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numeral, <a href= +"#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adjectives, adverbs used as, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as complements, <a href= +"#Page_239">239.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparison of, <a href= +"#Page_107">107.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_98">98.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demonstrative, <a href= +"#Page_102">102.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from nouns, used as nouns, <a href= +"#Page_27">27.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">function of, <a href= +"#Page_97">97.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in predicate, <a href= +"#Page_239">239.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not compared, <a href= +"#Page_109">109.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of quality, <a href= +"#Page_99">99.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of quantity, <a href= +"#Page_101">101.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ordinal, <a href= +"#Page_103">103.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural of, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronominal, <a href= +"#Page_104">104.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adverbial clauses, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adverbial objective, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adverbs, between <i>to</i> and infinitive, <a href= +"#Page_323">323.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classes of, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_184">184.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from adjectives, +<a href="#Page_190">190.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_191">191.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, in sentence, <a href= +"#Page_325">325.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">same form as adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_190">190.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_325">325.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_116">116.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as nouns, <a href= +"#Page_27">27.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what they modify, <a href= +"#Page_183">183.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adversative conjunction, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>After</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Against</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br /> +<br /> +Agreement, kinds of, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjective with noun, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronoun with +antecedent, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relative pronoun with +antecedent, <a href="#Page_291">291.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verb with subject, <a href= +"#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>All</i>, syntax of, <a href="#Page_302">302.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Alms</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<br /> +Alternative conjunctions, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Among, between</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href= +"#Page_331">331.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>An</i>. See <i>A</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Anacoluthon with <i>which</i>, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a><br /> +<br /> +Analysis, definition of, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of complex sentences, <a href= +"#Page_264">264.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of compound sentences, <a href= +"#Page_271">271.</a></span><br /> +<a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a> <span style= +"margin-left: 1em;">of simple sentences, <a href= +"#Page_252">252.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>And who</i>, <i>and which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_296">296.</a><br /> +<br /> +Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See <i>Agreement</i>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>it</i>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_79">79.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Any</i>, as adjective, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_90">90.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Apostrophe in possessive, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<br /> +Apposition, words in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= +"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= +"#Page_240">240.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Are</i>, derivation of, <a href="#Page_150">150.</a><br /> +<br /> +Arrangement in syntax, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<br /> +Articles, definite, <a href="#Page_120">120.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_120">120.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_127">127.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href= +"#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_309">309.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>As</i>, after <i>same</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, +<a href="#Page_225">225.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>As if</i>, <i>as though</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>At</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_208">208.</a><br /> +<br /> +Auxiliary verbs, <a href="#Page_148">148.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Bad</i>, comparison of, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Be</i>, conjugation of, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_150">150.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Better</i>, <i>best</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_111">111.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Between.</i> See <i>Among</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Brethren</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bridegroom</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>But</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href= +"#Page_224">224.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with nominative of pronoun, +<a href="#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>But what</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>By</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_210">210.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Can</i>, <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a><br /> +<br /> +Case, definition of, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a><br /> +<br /> +Case, double possessive, of nouns, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms, number of, in Old and Modern +English, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_47">47.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_63">63.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cause, clauses of, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cherub</i>, plurals of, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Children</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<br /> +Clause, adjective, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverb, <a href= +"#Page_262">262.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href= +"#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cleave</i>, forms of, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Clomb</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cloths</i>, <i>clothes</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Collective nouns, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, and verb, <a href= +"#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colloquial English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +Common nouns, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">derived from material, <a href= +"#Page_24">24.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">derived from proper, <a href= +"#Page_23">23.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Comparative and superlative, double, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#Page_307">307.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_307">307.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Comparison, defective, <a href="#Page_111">111.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_108">108.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">degrees of, <a href= +"#Page_108">108.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular, <a href= +"#Page_110">110.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_107">107.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_189">189.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_305">305.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Complement of predicate, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a><br /> +<br /> +Complementary infinitive, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a> Complex sentence, analysis +of, <a href="#Page_264">264.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Compound nouns, plural of, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive of, <a href= +"#Page_53">53.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Compound predicate and subject, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a><br /> +<br /> +Compound sentence, <a href="#Page_268">268.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href= +"#Page_271">271.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Concessive clause, in analysis, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with subjunctive, <a href= +"#Page_143">143.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Concord. See <i>Agreement</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Conditional clause, in analysis, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with subjunctive, <a href= +"#Page_138">138.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conditional conjunctions, <a href="#Page_196">196.</a><br /> +<br /> +Conditional sentences, <a href="#Page_139">139.</a><br /> +<br /> +Conjugation, definition of, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be</i>, <a href= +"#Page_149">149.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of other verbs, <a href= +"#Page_151">151.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coördinate, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correlative, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_193">193.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_199">199.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subordinate, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctive pronoun. See <i>Relative pronoun</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Contracted sentences, analysis of, <a href= +"#Page_255">255.</a><br /> +<br /> +Coördinate clauses, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a><br /> +<br /> +Coördinate conjunctions. See <i>Conjunctions</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Coördinating <i>vs.</i> restrictive use of relative pronouns, +<a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br /> +<br /> +Copulative conjunction, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Could.</i> See <i>Can</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, <a href= +"#Page_66">66.</a><br /> +<br /> +Declarative sentence, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<br /> +Declension of interrogative pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_73">73.</a><br /> +<br /> +Declension, of nouns, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relative pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Defective verbs, <a href="#Page_160">160.</a><br /> +<br /> +Definite article. See <i>Articles</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Definite tenses, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a><br /> +<br /> +Degree, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185.</a><br /> +<br /> +Degrees. See <i>Comparison</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Demonstrative adjectives, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Demonstrative pronouns, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a><br /> +<br /> +Dependent clause. See <i>Subordinate clause</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Descriptive adjectives, <a href="#Page_99">99.</a><br /> +<br /> +Descriptive use of nouns, <a href="#Page_26">26.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dice</i>, <i>dies</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Die by</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>with</i>, +<a href="#Page_333">333.</a><br /> +<br /> +Direct discourse, <a href="#Page_320">320.</a><br /> +<br /> +Direct object, <i>vs.</i> indirect, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained with passive verb, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Distributive adjectives, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Distributive pronouns, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Double comparative. See <i>Comparative</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Double possessive. See <i>Case</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Drake</i>, <i>duck</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Drank</i>, <i>drunk</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Each</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Each other</i>, <i>one another</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Eat</i> (ĕt), <a href="#Page_158">158.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Eaves</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Either</i>, as adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as conjunction, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a> <i>Elder</i>, <i>older</i>, +<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +Elements of the sentence, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a><br /> +<br /> +Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_280">280.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in complex sentence, <a href= +"#Page_255">255.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>'Em</i>, origin of, <a href="#Page_62">62.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Empress</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>-En</i>, added to plural, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feminine suffix, <a href= +"#Page_32">32.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural suffix, original, <a href= +"#Page_38">38.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +English, literary, spoken, vulgar, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">periods of, <a href= +"#Page_33">33.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Enlargement of predicate, <a href="#Page_241">241.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of subject, object, complement, +<a href="#Page_240">240.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Es</i> original of possessive ending, <a href= +"#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural suffix, <a href= +"#Page_40">40.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Ess</i>, feminine suffix, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Every</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Expect of</i>, <i>expect from</i>, <a href= +"#Page_334">334.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Expected to have gone</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_319">319.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Factitive object, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_235">235.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Farther, further</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +Feminine, <a href="#Page_30">30.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Few, a few</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>First</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>First two</i>, <i>two first</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_308">308.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Fish</i>, <i>fishes</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>For</i>, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_211">211.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Foreign plurals, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Former, the</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>From</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Further.</i> See <i>Farther</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Future tense, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a><br /> +<br /> +Future perfect, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Gander</i>, <i>goose</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Gender</i>, "common gender," <a href="#Page_31">31.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from sex, <a href= +"#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in English, as compared with other +languages, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modes of marking, in nouns, +<a href="#Page_32">32.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relative pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Genii</i>, <i>geniuses</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, <a href= +"#Page_177">177.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms of, <a href= +"#Page_176">176.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in syntax, possessive case with, +<a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Girl</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Got</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +Government, definition of, kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<br /> +Grammar, basis of, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_12">12.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">divisions of, <a href= +"#Page_13">13.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinions on, <a href= +"#Page_9">9.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">province of, <a href= +"#Page_10">10.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +H, <i>an</i> before, <a href="#Page_120">120.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Had better</i>, <i>had rather</i>, <a href= +"#Page_175">175.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Hanged</i>, <i>hung</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>He</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>His</i> for <i>its</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Husband</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>I</i>, personal pronoun, <a href="#Page_60">60.</a><br /> +<br /> +Imperative mood, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of first person, <a href= +"#Page_145">145.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Imperative sentence, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<br /> +Imperfect participle, <a href="#Page_173">173.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite adjective, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite article. See <i>Articles</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Indefinite pronoun, <a href="#Page_93">93.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite use of <i>you</i>, <i>your</i>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67.</a><br /> +<br /> +Independent clause, <a href="#Page_257">257.</a><br /> +<br /> +Independent elements, <a href="#Page_245">245.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Indexes</i>, <i>indices</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indicative mood, uses of, <a href="#Page_136">136.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a> Indirect discourse, <a href= +"#Page_320">320.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indirect object. See <i>Direct object</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Indirect questions. See <i>Questions</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, <a href= +"#Page_176">176.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a mood, <a href= +"#Page_153">153.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_248">248.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Ing</i> words, summary of, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interjections, <a href="#Page_227">227.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative adjectives, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative adverbs, <a href="#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative pronouns, <a href="#Page_72">72.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declension of, <a href= +"#Page_73">73.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect questions, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative sentence, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href= +"#Page_233">233.</a><br /> +<br /> +Intransitive verbs, <a href="#Page_131">131.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made transitive, <a href= +"#Page_131">131.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Irregularities in syntax, <a href="#Page_276">276.</a><br /> +<br /> +Irregularly compared adjectives, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_189">189.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>It</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_67">67.</a><br /> +<br /> +"It was <i>me</i>," etc., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Its</i>, history of, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Kind</i>, <i>these kind</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Kine</i>, double plural, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>King</i>, <i>queen</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Lady</i>, <i>lord</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Last</i>, <i>latest</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_113">113.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Latter, the</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, +<a href="#Page_113">113.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lay</i>, <i>lie</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Less</i>, <i>lesser</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lie</i>. See <i>Lay</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Like</i>, syntax of, <a href="#Page_227">227.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_226">226.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Literary English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Little</i>, <i>a little</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Logic <i>vs.</i> form, in syntax, <a href= +"#Page_276">276.</a><br /> +<br /> +Logical subject and predicate, <a href="#Page_245">245.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lord.</i> See <i>Lady</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>-Ly</i>, words in, <a href="#Page_190">190.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Madam</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +Manner, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Many</i>, comparison of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Many a</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Mapping out sentences, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href= +"#Page_265">265.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mare</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Master</i>, <i>mistress</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>May</i>, <i>might</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Means</i>, construction of, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mighty</i> as adverb, <a href="#Page_187">187.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mine</i>, of <i>mine</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a><br /> +<br /> +Modifier, adverb, position of, <a href="#Page_325">325.</a><br /> +<br /> +Modifiers. See <i>Enlargement</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mood</i>, definition of, <a href="#Page_135">135.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imperative, <a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indicative, <a href= +"#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjunctive, 137-<a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Most</i>, in superlatives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Much</i>, comparison of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Must</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Near</i>, <i>nearer</i>, <i>nigh</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +Negative, double, <a href="#Page_326">326.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Neither</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunction, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Neuter nouns, definition of, <a href="#Page_30">30.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">or gender nouns, according to use, +<a href="#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_32">32.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>News</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>No</i> in analysis, <a href="#Page_246">246.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a> Nominative. See +<i>Case</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>None</i>, syntax of, <a href="#Page_301">301.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Nor</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Not a</i>, etc. <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Noun clause, <a href="#Page_258">258.</a><br /> +<br /> +Nouns, <a href="#Page_17">17.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abstract, <a href= +"#Page_20">20.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become half abstract, <a href= +"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become proper, <a href= +"#Page_25">25.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">formation of, <a href= +"#Page_21">21.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">case of, <a href= +"#Page_46">46.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collective, <a href= +"#Page_19">19.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href= +"#Page_18">18.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_17">17.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptive, <a href= +"#Page_26">26.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gender of, <a href= +"#Page_29">29.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, 17</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">material, <a href= +"#Page_19">19.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become class nouns, <a href= +"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neuter, used as gender nouns, +<a href="#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number in, <a href= +"#Page_38">38.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">once singular, now plural, <a href= +"#Page_42">42.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">other words used as, <a href= +"#Page_27">27.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural, how formed, 38-<a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of abstract, 41</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of compound, etc. <a href= +"#Page_43">43.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of foreign, <a href= +"#Page_45">45.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of letters and figures, <a href= +"#Page_46">46.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of material, <a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of proper, <a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">same as singular, <a href= +"#Page_39">39.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two forms of, 42</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">with titles, <a href= +"#Page_44">44.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proper, <a href= +"#Page_18">18.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become common, <a href= +"#Page_23">23.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of possessive form of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with definite article, <a href= +"#Page_121">121.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with different meaning in plural, +<a href="#Page_42">42.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with indefinite article, <a href= +"#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Nouns, with no singular, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with one plural, two meanings, +<a href="#Page_43">43.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with plural form, singular meaning, +<a href="#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with singular or plural +construction, plural form, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Now</i> as conjunction, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Number</i>, definition of, etc., in nouns.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">See <i>Nouns</i>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in pronouns, personal, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in verbs, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Numeral adjectives, definite, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distributive, <a href= +"#Page_102">102.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href= +"#Page_101">101.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Numeral pronouns, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Object, adverbial, <a href="#Page_48">48.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">direct and indirect, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_235">235.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of preposition. See +<i>Preposition</i>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers of, <a href= +"#Page_240">240.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained with passive verb, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Objective case, adverbial, dative, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in spoken English, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instead of nominative, <a href= +"#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative instead of, <a href= +"#Page_282">282.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_66">66.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Of</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_213">213.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Older.</i> See <i>Elder</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Omission of relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#Page_293">293.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>On</i>, <i>upon</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_216">216.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>One</i>, definite numeral adjective, <a href= +"#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_94">94.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive of, 93</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>One another.</i> See <i>Each other</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>One</i> (<i>the</i>), the other, as adjective, <a href= +"#Page_103">103.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a> <i>Only</i>, as conjunction, +<a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, as adverb, +325</span><br /> +<br /> +Order, a part of syntax, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inverted, in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, <a href= +"#Page_103">103.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Other</i> with comparatives, <a href="#Page_306">306.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ought</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Our</i>, <i>ours</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ourself</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Oxen</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Pains</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +Parsing, models for, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= +"#Page_117">117.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_191">191.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of articles, <a href= +"#Page_127">127.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of conjunctions, <a href= +"#Page_199">199.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of prepositions, <a href= +"#Page_219">219.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_95">95.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relatives, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verb phrases, <a href= +"#Page_180">180.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbals, <a href= +"#Page_181">181.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbs, <a href= +"#Page_179">179.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some idioms not parsed, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what it is, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Part from</i>, <i>part with</i>, <a href= +"#Page_335">335.</a><br /> +<br /> +Participial adjective, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br /> +<br /> +Participial phrase, <a href="#Page_247">247.</a><br /> +<br /> +Participle, definition of, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from other +<i>-ing</i> words, <a href="#Page_177">177.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms of, <a href= +"#Page_174">174.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_173">173.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_322">322.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Parts of speech, article included in, <a href= +"#Page_119">119.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">words used as various, <a href= +"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Passive voice, <a href="#Page_134">134.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Peas</i>, <i>pease</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pence</i>, <i>pennies</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Person, agreement of verb and subject in, <a href= +"#Page_317">317.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbs, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Personal pronoun, absolute use of, <a href="#Page_63">63.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agreement of, with antecedent, +<a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as predicate nominative, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">case of, <a href= +"#Page_62">62.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, or reflexive, <a href= +"#Page_69">69.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_70">70.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double possessive of, <a href= +"#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>'em</i> and <i>them</i>, +<a href="#Page_62">62.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href= +"#Page_61">61.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective of, for nominative in +spoken English, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">table of, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">triple possessive of, <a href= +"#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of <i>it</i>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Personification, of abstract nouns, <a href= +"#Page_25">25.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of other nouns, <a href= +"#Page_37">37.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Phrase, definition of, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_236">236.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">infinitive, <a href= +"#Page_248">248.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">participial, <a href= +"#Page_247">247.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositional, <a href= +"#Page_247">247.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Place, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositions of, <a href= +"#Page_206">206.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plural, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_106">106.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns. See +<i>Nouns</i>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Politics</i>, singular or plural, <a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +Positive degree. See <i>Comparison</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Possessive, appositional, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_49">49.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as antecedent of relative, <a href= +"#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_54">54.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, of pronouns. See +<i>Personal pronoun</i>.</span><br /> +<a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a> <span style= +"margin-left: 1em;">objective and subjective, <a href= +"#Page_50">50.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of compound nouns, <a href= +"#Page_53">53.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of indefinite pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of <i>s</i> in singular, +<a href="#Page_52">52.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of <i>'s</i>, <a href= +"#Page_51">51.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with modified noun omitted, +<a href="#Page_53">53.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with two objects, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Predicate, complement of, <a href="#Page_235">235.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complete, <a href= +"#Page_245">245.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_232">232.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">logical <i>vs.</i> simple, <a href= +"#Page_245">245.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers of, <a href= +"#Page_241">241.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Prefixes, gender shown by, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a><br /> +<br /> +Prepositions, certain, with certain words, <a href= +"#Page_332">332.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of, <a href= +"#Page_206">206.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_203">203.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed by possessive case, +<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by nominative case, <a href= +"#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_219">219.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objects of, <a href= +"#Page_203">203.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, <a href= +"#Page_202">202.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations expressed by certain, +<a href="#Page_208">208.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">same words as other parts of +speech, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, +<a href="#Page_207">207.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_331">331.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various, with same meaning, +<a href="#Page_333">333.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Present tense used as future, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pretty</i> as adverb, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a><br /> +<br /> +Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, <a href= +"#Page_105">105.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, <a href= +"#Page_104">104.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>what</i>, exclamatory, <a href= +"#Page_105">105.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pronouns, <a href="#Page_58">58.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href= +"#Page_89">89.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>all</i>, singular and plural, +<a href="#Page_302">302.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>any</i>, usually plural, +<a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>each other</i>, <i>one +another</i>, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, with +verbs, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>none</i>, usually plural, +<a href="#Page_301">301.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>somebody else's</i>, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_58">58.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_95">95.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href= +"#Page_93">93.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative, <a href= +"#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>who</i> as objective, <a href= +"#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">after <i>than</i>, <i>as</i>, +<a href="#Page_280">280.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">antecedents of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nominative and objective, forms of, +<a href="#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nominative form of, after +<i>but</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">objective form of, for predicate +nominative, <a href="#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">objective form of, in exclamations, +<a href="#Page_282">282.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">possessive form of, as antecedent +of relative, <a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">possessive form of, with gerund, +<a href="#Page_286">286.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">agreement of, with antecedent, +<a href="#Page_291">291.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">anacoluthon with <i>which</i>, +<a href="#Page_295">295.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>and who</i>, <i>and which</i>, +<a href="#Page_296">296.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>as</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>who</i>, +and <i>which</i> after <i>same</i>, <a href= +"#Page_295">295.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">omission of, <a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">restrictive and unrestrictive, +<a href="#Page_289">289.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two relatives, same antecedent, +<a href="#Page_297">297.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">usefulness of, <a href= +"#Page_58">58.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Proper nouns. See <i>Nouns</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Purpose, clauses of, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a> Quality, adjectives of, +<a href="#Page_99">99.</a><br /> +<br /> +Quantity, adjectives of, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<br /> +Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pronominal adjectives in, <a href= +"#Page_105">105.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pronouns in, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect, subjunctive in, <a href= +"#Page_142">142.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quotations. See <i>Direct discourse</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Rank, adjectives of same and different, <a href= +"#Page_115">115.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Rather</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +Reflexive pronouns, history of, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how formed, <a href= +"#Page_69">69.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Reflexive use of personal pronoun, <a href="#Page_68">68.</a><br /> +<br /> +Relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_74">74.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>but</i> and <i>as</i>, <a href= +"#Page_84">84.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from interrogative, +in indirect questions, <a href="#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">function of, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite or compound, <a href= +"#Page_83">83.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of, <a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive use of, <a href= +"#Page_289">289.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_289">289.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Result, clauses of, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_196">196.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Retained object, <a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Riches</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>S</i>, plural suffix, <a href="#Page_40">40.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>'S</i>, possessive ending, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Same as</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_294">294.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sat</i>, <i>sate</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Seeing</i>, conjunction, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Self</i> in reflexive pronoun, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br /> +<br /> +Sentences, analysis of complex, 26<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of compound, <a href= +"#Page_271">271.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of elliptical, <a href= +"#Page_255">255.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of simple, <a href= +"#Page_252">252.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complex in form, simple in effect, +<a href="#Page_259">259.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sentences, definition of, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_231">231.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sequence of tenses, <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Set</i>, <i>sit</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170.</a><br /> +<br /> +Sex and gender, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Shall</i>, <i>should</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>would</i>, <a href= +"#Page_162">162.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Shear</i>, forms of, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Shot</i>, <i>shots</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Simple sentence. See <i>Sentences</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Singular number, <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sir</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Somebody else's</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sort</i>, <i>these sort</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br /> +<br /> +Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, <a href= +"#Page_169">169.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Spinster</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +Split infinitive, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a><br /> +<br /> +Spoken English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +-Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, <a href= +"#Page_32">32.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Modern English, <a href= +"#Page_33">33.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Subject, complete, <a href="#Page_245">245.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_233">233.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grammatical <i>vs.</i> logical, +<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers of, <a href= +"#Page_240">240.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">things used as, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Subjunctive mood, definition of, <a href="#Page_137">137.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gradual disuse of, <a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, in literary English, +<a href="#Page_138">138.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in spoken English, <a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Subordinate clause, <a href="#Page_257">257.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href= +"#Page_260">260.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverb, <a href= +"#Page_262">262.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to distinguish, <a href= +"#Page_270">270.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href= +"#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">other names for, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Such</i> as adverb, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Such a</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Suffix <i>-en</i>. See <i>-En</i>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>-s</i>, <i>-es</i>, <a href= +"#Page_38">38.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a> Suffixes, foreign, <a href= +"#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +Superlative degree, double, <a href="#Page_307">307.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in meaning, not in form, <a href= +"#Page_107">107.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not suggesting comparison, <a href= +"#Page_109">109.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_108">108.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_189">189.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_306">306.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with two objects, <a href= +"#Page_306">306.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Syntax, basis of, <a href="#Page_277">277.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_275">275.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in English not same as in classical +languages, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tense, definition of, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a><br /> +<br /> +Tenses, definite, meaning of, <a href="#Page_148">148.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Modern English, made up of +auxiliaries, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, in Old English, <a href= +"#Page_147">147.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sequence of, <a href= +"#Page_319">319.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">table of, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Than me</i>, <i>than whom</i>, <a href= +"#Page_280">280.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>That</i>, omission of, when subject, <a href= +"#Page_88">88.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">when object, <a href= +"#Page_87">87.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, restrictive, and +coördinating, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href= +"#Page_290">290.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>that ... and which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_297">297.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_222">222.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>That</i>, <i>this</i>, as adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_186">186.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of plural of, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>The</i>, as article, <a href="#Page_120">120.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adverb, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href= +"#Page_119">119.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_309">309.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Their</i>, <i>they</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Then</i>, "the <i>then</i> king," etc., <a href= +"#Page_116">116.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>There</i> introductory, <a href="#Page_191">191.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>These kind</i>, syntax of. See <i>Kind</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>These</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>those</i>. See <i>That</i>, history +of.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Thou</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thee</i>, uses of, <a href= +"#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Time</i>, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositions of, <a href= +"#Page_207">207.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>To</i>, before infinitive, <a href="#Page_175">175.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in exclamations, <a href= +"#Page_175">175.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omitted with certain verbs, +<a href="#Page_175">175.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, as preposition, <a href= +"#Page_217">217.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>T'other</i>, <i>the tother</i>, <a href= +"#Page_119">119.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Trix</i>, feminine suffix, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Try and</i>, <i>try to</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Two first</i>, <i>first two</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_308">308.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Under</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Upon</i>, uses of. See <i>On</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Upper</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Utter</i>, <i>uttermost</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, +<a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br /> +<br /> +Verb phrases, <a href="#Page_128">128.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parsing of, <a href= +"#Page_180">180.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verbal noun, <a href="#Page_20">20.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from other +<i>-ing</i> words, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href= +"#Page_173">173.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verbals, cleft infinitive, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gerund, <a href= +"#Page_176">176.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_181">181.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">infinitive, <a href= +"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_172">172.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">participle, <a href= +"#Page_172">172.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">carelessly used, <a href= +"#Page_322">322.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">uses of, in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_247">247.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_322">322.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-<a href= +"#Page_316">316.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in person, <a href= +"#Page_317">317.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">auxiliary, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of, <a href= +"#Page_149">149.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defective, <a href= +"#Page_160">160.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_129">129.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_179">179.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect discourse, <a href= +"#Page_320">320.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intransitive, made transitive, +<a href="#Page_131">131.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mood of, <a href= +"#Page_135">135.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of incomplete predication, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a></span><br /> +<a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a> <span style= +"margin-left: 1em;">passive form, active meaning, <a href= +"#Page_151">151.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">person and number of, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained object with passive, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strong, definition of, <a href= +"#Page_154">154.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">remarks on certain, <a href= +"#Page_157">157.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">table of, <a href= +"#Page_155">155.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_312">312.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tense of, <a href= +"#Page_147">147.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sequence of, <a href= +"#Page_319">319.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transitive and intransitive, +<a href="#Page_130">130.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voice of, <a href= +"#Page_133">133.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weak, definition of, <a href= +"#Page_154">154.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">spelling of, <a href= +"#Page_169">169.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">table of irregular, <a href= +"#Page_167">167.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Vixen</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +Vocative nominative, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_245">245.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Voice, active, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">passive, <a href= +"#Page_134">134.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, <a href= +"#Page_154">154.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural formed by, <a href= +"#Page_39">39.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vulgar English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Weak verbs, regular, irregular, +<a href="#Page_167">167.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spelling of, becoming phonetic, +<a href="#Page_169">169.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Went</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>What</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_223">223.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>but what</i>, <a href= +"#Page_330">330.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>what a</i>, 105. <a href= +"#Page_126">126.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Whereby</i>, <i>whereto</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Whether</i>, conjunction, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Which</i>, antecedent of, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adjective, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as relative pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_75">75.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect questions, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite relative, <a href= +"#Page_83">83.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative pronoun in direct +questions, <a href="#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, 295-<a href= +"#Page_299">299.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>whose</i>, possessive of, +<a href="#Page_78">78.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Who</i>, as relative, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in direct questions, <a href= +"#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect questions, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite relative, <a href= +"#Page_83">83.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective, in spoken English, +<a href="#Page_73">73.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">referring to animals, <a href= +"#Page_77">77.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Widower</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Wife</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Will</i>, <i>would</i>. See <i>Shall</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Witch</i>, <i>wizard</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>With</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_218">218.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Woman</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a><br /> +<br /> +Words in <i>-ing</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in <i>-ly</i>, <a href= +"#Page_190">190.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Worse</i>, <i>worser</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Y</i>, plural of nouns ending in. <a href= +"#Page_40">40.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yes</i> in analysis, <a href="#Page_246">246.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yon</i>, <i>yonder</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>You</i>, singular and plural, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yours</i>, <i>of yours</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yourself</i>, <i>yourselves</i>, <a href= +"#Page_70">70.</a><br /></p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14006 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |