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diff --git a/old/14003-8.txt b/old/14003-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..684cbf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14003-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7382 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Disputed Handwriting, by Jerome B. Lavay + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Disputed Handwriting + +Author: Jerome B. Lavay + +Release Date: November 10, 2004 [eBook #14003] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DISPUTED HANDWRITING*** + + +E-text prepared by Ted Garvin and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed +Proofreading Team + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 14003-h.htm or 14003-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/0/14003/14003-h/14003-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/0/14003/14003-h.zip) + + + + + +DISPUTED HANDWRITING + +An Exhaustive, Valuable, and Comprehensive Work upon One of the Most +Important Subjects of To-day. With Illustrations and Expositions for +the Detection and Study of Forgery by Handwriting of All Kinds + +by + +JEROME B. LAVAY + +The first work of the kind ever published in the United States. +For the Protection of America's Banks and Business Houses. + +1909 + + + + + + + +"Handwriting is a gesture of the mind" + + + + +TO THE AMERICAN BANKERS' ASSOCIATION + + +THAT POWERFUL AGENCY WHICH HAS +ELEVATED THE STANDARD OF BANKING IN THE UNITED STATES +AND AN INSTITUTION THAT FOLLOWS ALL WRONGDOERS +AGAINST MEMBERS OF THE FRATERNITY +RELENTLESSLY AND SUCCESSFULLY +THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I + +HOW TO STUDY FORGED AND DISPUTED SIGNATURES + +All Titles Depend Upon the Genuineness of Signatures--Comparing +Genuine with Disputed Signatures--A Word about Fac-simile +Signatures--Process of Evolving a Signature--Evidence of +Experience in Handling or Mishandling a Pen--Signature Most +Difficult to Read--Simulation of Signature by Expert Penman--Hard +to Imitate an Untrained Hand--A Well-Known Banker Presents Some +Valuable Points--Perfectly Imitated Writings and Signatures--Bunglingly +Executed Forgeries--The Application of Chemical Tests--Rules of +Courts on Disputed Signatures--Forgers Giving Appearance of Age +to Paper and Ink--Proving the Falsity of Testimony--Determining +the Genuineness or Falsity by Anatomy or Skeleton--Making a +Magnified Copy of a Signature--Effectiveness of the Photograph +Process--Deception the Eye Will Not Detect--When Pen Strokes +Cross Each Other--Experimenting With Crossed Lines--Signatures +Written With Different Inks--Deciding Order of Sequence in +Writing--An Important and Interesting Subject for Bankers--Determining +the Genuineness of a Written Document--Ingenuity of Rogues Constantly +Takes New Forms--A Systematic Analysis Will Detect Disputed Signatures + + +CHAPTER II + +FORGERY BY TRACING + +Forgeries Perpetrated by the Aid of Tracing a Common and Dangerous +Method--Using Transparent Tracing Paper--How the Movements are +Directed--Formal, Broken and Nervous Lines--Retouched Lines +and Shades--Tracing Usually Presents a Close Resemblance to the +Genuine--Traced Forgeries Not Exact Duplicates of Their Originals--The +Danger of an Exact Duplication--Forgers Usually Unable to Exactly +Reproduce Tracing--Using Pencil or Carbon-Guided Lines--Retouching +Revealed under the Microscope--Tracing with Pen and Ink Over a +Transparency--Making a Practice and Study of Signatures--Forgeries +and Tracings Made by Skillful Imitators Most Difficult of +Detection--Free-Hand Forgery and Tracing--A Few Important Matters to +Observe in Detecting Forgery by Tracing--Photographs a Great Aid in +Detecting Tracing--How to Compare Imitated and Traced +Writing--Furrows Traced by Pen Nibs--Tracing Made by an Untrained +Hand--Tracing with Pen and Ink Over a Transparency--Internal +Evidence of Forgery by Tracing--Forgeries Made by Skillful +Imitators--How to Determine Evidences of Forgery by Tracing--Remains +of Tracings--Examining Paper in Transmitted Light--Freely Written +Tracings--A Dangerous Method of Forgery + + +CHAPTER III + +HOW FORGERS REPRODUCE SIGNATURES + +Characteristics Appearing in Forged Signatures--Conclusions Reached +by Careful Examinations--Signatures Written with Little Effort to +Imitate--What a Clever Forger Can Do--Most Common Forgeries of +Signatures--Reproducing a Signature over a Plate of Glass--A Window +Frame Scheme for Reproducing Signatures--How the Paper is Held +and the Ink Applied--How a Genuine Signature is Placed and Used--A +Forger's Process of Tracing a Signature--How to Detect Earmarks +of Fraud in a Reproduced Signature--Prominent Features of Signatures +Reproduced--Method Resorted to by Novices in Forging +Signatures--Conditions Appearing in All Traced Signatures--Reproduction +of Signatures Adopted by Expert Forgers--Making a Lead-Pencil Copy of +a Signature--Erasing Pencil Signatures Always Discoverable by the Aid +of a Microscope--Appearances and Conditions in Traced Signatures--How +to Tell a Traced Signature--All the Details Employed to Reproduce a +Signature Given--Features in Which Forgers are Careless--Handling +of the Pen Often Leads to Detection--A Noted Characteristic of +Reproduced Signatures--Want of Proportion in Writing Names Should Be +Studied--Rules to Be Followed in Examining Signatures--System Employed +by Experts in Studying Proof of Reproduced Signatures--Bankers and +Business Men Should Avoid Careless Signatures + + +CHAPTER IV + +ERASURES, ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS + +What Erasure Means--The English Law--What a Fraudulent Alteration +Means--Altered or Erased Parts Considered--Memoranda of Alterations +Should Always Accompany Paper Changed--How Added Words Should +be Treated--How to Erase Words and Lines Without Creating +Suspicion--Writing Over an Erasure--How to Determine Whether or +Not Erasures or Alterations Have Been Made--Additions and +Interlineations--What to Apply to the Suspected Document--The +Alcohol Test Absolute--How to Tell which of Crossing Ink Lines +Were Made First--Ink and Pencil Alterations and Erasures--Treating +Paper to Determine Erasures, Alterations and Additions--Appearance of +Paper Treated as Directed--Paper That Does Not Reveal Tampering--How +Removal of Characters From a Paper is Affected--Easy Means of +Detecting Erasures--Washing with Chemical Reagents--Restoration +of Original Marks--What Erasure on Paper Exhibits--Erasure in +Parchments--Identifying Typewritten Matter--Immaterial +Alterations--Altering Words in an Instrument--Alterations and +Additions Are Immaterial When Interests of Parties Are Not Changed +or Affected--Erasure of Words in an Instrument + + +CHAPTER V + +HOW TO WRITE A CHECK TO PREVENT FORGING + +How a Paying Teller Determines the Amount of a Check--Written Amount +and Amount in Figures Conflict--Depositor Protected by Paying +Teller--Chief Concern of Drawer of a Check--Transposing +Figures--Writing a Check That Cannot Be Raised--Writers who Are +Easy Marks for Forgers--Safeguards for Those who Write Checks--An +Example of Raised Checks--Payable "To Bearer" Is Always a +Menace--Paying Teller and An Endorsement System Must Be Observed in +Writing Checks--How a Check Must Be Written to Be Absolutely Safe--A +Signature that Cannot Be Tampered with Without Detection--Paying +Tellers Always Vigilant + + +CHAPTER VI + +METHODS OF FORGERS, CHECK AND DRAFT RAISERS + +Professional Forgers and Their Methods--Using Engravers and +Lithographers--Their Knowledge of Chemicals--Patching Perforated +Paper--Difficult Matter to Detect Alterations and Forgeries--Selecting +Men for the Work--The Middle Man, Presenter, and Shadow--Methods for +Detecting Forgery--Detailed Explanation of How Forgers +Work--Altering and Raising Checks and Drafts--A Favorite Trick of +Forgers--Opening a Bank Account for a Blind--Private Marks on +Checks no Safeguard--How a Genuine Signature Is Secured--Bankers Can +Protect Themselves--A Forger the Most Dangerous Criminal--Bankers +Should Scrutinize Signatures--Sending Photograph with Letter of +Advice--How to Secure Protection Against Forgers--Manner in Which +Many Banks Have Been Swindled--Points About Raising Checks and +Drafts That Should Be Carefully Noted + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE HANDWRITING EXPERT + +No Law Regulating Experience and Skill Necessary to Constitute an +Expert--Expert Held Competent to Testify in Court--Bank Officials +and Employees Favored--An Expert On Signatures--Methods Experts +Employ to Identify the Work of the Pen--Where and When an Expert's +Services Are Needed--Large Field and Growing Demand for +Experts--Qualifications of a Handwriting Expert--How the Work is +Done--A Good Expert Continously Employed--The Expert and the +Charlatan--Qualifying as An Expert--A System Which Produces +Results--Principal Tests Applied by Handwriting Experts to +Determine Genuineness--Identification of Individual by His +Handwriting--How to Tell Kind of Ink and Process Used to Forge a +Writing--Rules Followed by Experts in Determining Cases--The Testimony +of a Handwriting Expert--Explaining Methods Employed to Detect +Forged Handwriting--The Courts and Experts--What an Expert May +Testify to--Trapping a Witness--Proving Handwriting by Experts--General +Laws Regulating Experts--The Basework of a HandwritingExpert--Important +Facts an Expert Begins Examination With--A Few Words of Advice and +Suggestion About "Pen Scope"--Detection of Forgery Easy--Rules +Herewith Suggested Should Be Observed--Expert Witnesses, Courts, and +Jurors + + +CHAPTER VIII + +HOW TO DETECT FORGED HANDWRITING + +Frequency of Litigation Arising over Disputed Handwriting--Forged and +Fictitious Claims Against the Estates of Deceased People--Forgery +Certain to Be Detected When Subjected to Skilled Expert Examination--A +Forger's Tracks Cannot Be Successfully Covered--With Modern Devices +Fraudulent, Forged and Simulated Writing Can Be Determined Beyond +the Possibility of a Mistake--Bank Officials and Disputed +Handwriting--How to Test and Determine Genuine and Forged +Signatures--Useful Information About Signature Writing--Guard +Against an Illegible Signature--Avoid Gyrations, Whirls and +Flourishes--Write Plain, Distinct and Legible--The Signature to +Adopt--The People Forgers Pass By--How Many Imitate Successfully--How +an Expert Detects Forged Handwriting--Examples of Signatures Forgers +Desire to Imitate--Examining and Determining a Forgery--Comparisons +of Disputed Handwriting--Microscopic Examinations a Great Help in +Detecting Forged Handwriting--Comparison of Forged Handwriting + + +CHAPTER IX + +GREATEST DANGER TO BANKS + +Check-Raising Always a Danger--A Scheme Almost Impossible to +Prevent--The American Banker's Association the Greatest Foe to +Forgers--It Follows Them Relentlessly and Successfully--Chemically +Prepared Paper and Watermarks Not Always a Safeguard--Perforating +Machines and Check Raisers--How Check Perforations Are +Overcome--How an Ordinary Check Is Raised--How an Expert Alters +Checks--How Perforations Are Filled--Hasty Examination by Paying +Tellers Encourages Forgers--The Way Bogus Checks Creep Through a +Bank Unnoticed--A Celebrated Forgery Case--Forgers Successful for +a Time Always Caught--Where Forgers Usually Go That Have Made a +Big Haul--A Professional Crook Is a Person of Large Acquaintance + + +CHAPTER X + +THUMB PRINTS NEVER FORGED + +Thumb-Print Method of Identification Absolute--Now Brought to a High +State of Perfection--Will Eventually Be Used in all Banks--Certified +Checks and Also Drafts with Thumb-Print Signatures--Absolute Accuracy +of a Thumb-Print Identification Assured--A Thumb-Print in Wax on Sealed +Packages--Its Use an Advantage on Bankable Paper of All Kinds--How +Strangers Are Easily Identified--Bankers, Merchants and Business Men +Protected by This System--Full Particulars as to How Thumb-Prints Are +Made--Can be Printed by Anyone in a Few Minutes--How and When to Place +Your Thumb-Print on Bankable Paper--Finger-Prints as Reliable as +Thumb-Prints--Use to Which This System Could Be Put--Thumb and Finger +Tips Do Not Change From Birth to Death--Department of Justice at +Washington Has Established a Bureau of Criminal Registry Using the +Thumb-Print System--Thumb-Print System Said to Be a Chinese +Invention--Its Use Spreading Rapidly--How to Secure Thumb-Print +Impression Without Knowledge of Party--An Interesting and Valuable +Study + + +CHAPTER XI + +DETECTING FORGERY WITH THE MICROSCOPE + +Determining Questionable Signatures By the Aid of a Microscope--A +Magnifying Glass Not Powerful Enough--Character of Ink Easily +Told--The Microscope and a Knowledge of Its Use--Experience and +Education of an Examiner of Great Assistance--An Expert's Opinion--The +Use of the Microscope Recommended--Illustrating a Method of +Forgery--What a Microscopic Examination Reveals--How to Examine +Forged Handwriting with a Microscope--Experts and a Jury--What +the Best Authorities Recommend + + +CHAPTER XII + +SIGNATURE EXPERTS THE SAFETY OF THE MODERN BANK + +A New Departure in Banks--Examining All Signatures a Sure +Preventive Against Forgery--The "Filling in" Process--How One +Forger Operated--Marvelous Accuracy of a Paying Teller--How He +Attained Perfection--How Signature Clerks Work--A Common Dodge +of Forgers--Post Dated Checks--A System That Prevents Forged and +Raised Checks--Not a Forged or Raised Check Paid in Years + + +CHAPTER XIII + +HOW TO DETERMINE AGE OF ANY WRITING + +The Different Kinds of Ink Met With--Inks That Darken by Exposure +to Sunlight and Air--Introduction of Aniline Colors to Determine +the Age of Writings--An Almost Infallible Rule to Follow--Determining +Age of Writing By Ink Used--The Ammonia System a Sure One--A +Question of Great Interest to Bankers and Bank Employes--Thick and +Thin Inks--So-Called Safety Inks That Are Not Safe--How to Restore +Faded Inks--An Infallible Rule--Restoring Faded Writing--Restored +By the Silk and Cotton System That Anyone Can Arrange--Danger of +Exposing Restored Writing to the Sun + + +CHAPTER XIV + +DETECTING FRAUD AND FORGERY IN PAPERS AND DOCUMENTS + +Infallible Rules for the Detection of Same--New Methods of +Research--Changing Wills and Books of Accounts--Judgment of the +Naked Eye--Using a Microscope or Magnifying Glass--Changeable +Effects of Ink--How to Detect the Use of Different Inks--Sized +Papers Not Easily Altered--Inks That Produce Chemical Effects--Inks +That Destroy Fiber of Paper--How to Test Tampered or Altered +Documents--Treating Papers Suspected of Forgery--Using Water to +Detect Fraud--Discovering Scratched Paper--Means Forgers Use to +Mask Fraudulent Operations--How to Prepare and Handle Test +Papers--Detecting Paper That Has Been Washed--Various Other +Valuable Tests to Determine Forgery--A Simple Operation That +Anyone Can Apply--Iodine Used on Papers and Documents--An Alcohol +Test That Is Certain--Bringing Out Telltale Spots--Double +Advantage of Certain Tests--Reappearance of Former Letters or +Figures--What Genuine Writing Reveals--When an Entire Paper or +Document is Forged + + +CHAPTER XV + +GUIDED HANDWRITING AND METHOD USED + +The Most Frequent and Dangerous Method of Forgery--How to Detect +a Guided Signature--What Guided Handwriting Is and How It Is +Done--Character of Such Writing--Writing by a Guided Hand--Difficulty +in Writing--Force Exercised by Joint Hands--A Hand More or Less +Passive--Work of the Controlling Hand--How Guided Writing +Appears--Two Writers Acting in Opposition--Distorted Writing--How +a Legitimate Guided Hand is Directed and Supported--Pen Motion +Necessary to Produce Same--Influence in Guiding a Stronger +Hand--Avoiding an Unnatural and Cramped Position--Effect of the +Brain on Guided Hand--Separating Characteristics from Guided Joint +Signature--Detecting Writing by a System of Measurement + + +CHAPTER XVI + +TALES TOLD BY HANDWRITING + +Telling the Nationality, Sex and Age of Anyone Who Executes +Handwriting--Americans and Their Style of Writing--How English, German, +and French Write--Gobert, the French Expert, and How He Saved +Dreyfus--Miser Paine and His Millions Saved by an Expert--Writing +with Invisible Ink--Professor Braylant's Secret Writing Without +Ink--Professor Gross Discovers a Simple Secret Writing Method With a +Piece of Pointed Hardwood--A System Extensively Used--Studying the +Handwriting of Authors--How to Determine a Person's Character and +Disposition by Handwriting + + +CHAPTER XVII + +WORKINGS OF THE GOVERNMENT SECRET SERVICE + +Officials of This Department Talk About Their Work--How Criminals +Are Traced, Caught and Punished--Its Work Extending to All +Departments--Secret Service Districts--Reports Made to the Treasury +Department--Good Money and Bad--How to Detect the False--System of +Numbering United States Notes Explained--Counterfeiting on the +Decrease--Counterfeiting Gold Certificates--Bank Tellers and +Counterfeits--The Best Secret Service in the World + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CHARACTER AND TEMPERAMENT INDICATED BY HANDWRITING + +A Man's Handwriting a Part of Himself--Handwriting and +Personality--Cheap Postage and Typewriters Playing Havoc with +Writing by Hand--Old Time Correspondence Vanishing--Two Divisions +of Handwriting--Fashion Has Changed Even Writing--Characteristic +Writing of Different Professions--One's Handwriting a Sure Index to +Character and Temperament--Personality of Handwriting--Handwriting +a Voiceless Speaking--A Neglected Science--Interest in Disputed +Handwriting Rapidly Coming to the Front--Set Writing Copies no +Longer the Rule--Formal Handwriting--Education's Effect on +Writing--Handwriting and Personality--The Character and +Temperament of Writers Easily Told--Honest, Eccentric, and Weak +People--How to Determine Character by Writing--The Marks of Truth +and Straightforwardness--How Perseverance and Patience Are +Indicated in Writing--Economy, Generosity and Liberality Easily +Shown in Writing--The Character and Temperament of Any Writer +Easily Shown--Studying Character from Handwriting a Fascinating +Work--Rules for Its Study--Links in a Chain That Cannot be +Hidden--A Person's Writing a Surer Index to Character Than His Face + + +CHAPTER XIX + +HANDWRITING EXPERTS AS WITNESSES + +Who May Testify As An Expert--Bank Officials and Bank Employes Always +Desired--Definition of Expert and Opinion Evidence--Both Witness +and Advocate--Witness in Cross Examination--Men Who Have Made the +Science of Disputed Handwriting a Study--Objections to Appear in +Court--Experts Contradicting Each Other--The Truth or Falsity of +Handwriting--Sometimes a Mass of Doubtful Speculations--Paid Experts +and Veracity--Present Method of Dealing with Disputed Handwriting +Experts--How the Bench and Bar Regard the System--Remedies +Proposed--Should an Expert Be an Adviser of the Court?--Free +from Cross-Examination--Opinions of Eminent Judges on Expert +Testimony--Experts Who Testify Without Experience--What a Bank +Cashier or Teller Bases His Opinions on--Actions and Deductions of +the Trained Handwriting Expert--Admitting Evidence of Handwriting +Experts--Occupation and Theories That Make an Expert--Difference +Between an Expert and a Witness--Experts and Test Writing--What +Constitutes An Expert in Handwriting--Present Practice Regarding +Experts--Assuming to Be a Competent Expert--Testing a Witness with +Prepared Forged Signatures--Care in Giving Answers--A Writing +Teacher As an Expert--Familiarity with Signatures--What a Dash, +Blot, or Distortion of a Letter Shows--What a Handwriting Expert +Should Confine Himself to--Parts of Writing Which Demand the +Closest Attention--American and English Laws on Experts in +Handwriting--Examination of Disputed Handwriting + + +CHAPTER XX + +TAMPERED, ERASED AND MANIPULATED PAPER + +Sure Rules for the Detection of Forged and Fraudulent Writing of Any +Kind--European Professor Gives Rules for Detecting Fraud--How to Tell +Alterations Made on Checks, Drafts, and Business Paper--An Infallible +System Discovered--Results Always Satisfactory--Can Be Used by +Anyone--Vapor of Iodine a Valuable Agent--Paper That Has Been Wet or +Moistened--Colors That Tampered Paper Assumes--Tracing Written +Characters with Water--Making Writing Legible--How to Tell Paper +That Has Been Erased or Rubbed--What a Light Will Disclose--Erasing +with Bread Crumbs--Hard to Detect--How to Discover Traces of +Manipulation--Erased Surface Made Legible--Treating Partially +Erased Paper--Detecting Nature of Substance Used for Erasing--Use +of Bread Crumbs Colors Papers--Tracing Writing with a Glass +Rod--Tracing Writing Under Paper--Writing With Glass Tubes Instead +of Pens--What Physical Examination Reveals--Erasing Substance of +Paper--Reproducing Pencil Writing in a Letter Press--Kind of Paper +to Use in Making Experiments--Detecting Fraud in Old Papers--The +Rubbing and Writing Method + + +CHAPTER XXI + +FORGERY AS A PROFESSION + +How Professional Forgers Work--Valuable Points for Bankers and Business +Men--Personnel of a Professional Forgery Gang--The Scratcher, +Layer-down, Presenter and Middleman--How Banks Are Defrauded by +Raised and Forged Paper--Detailed Method of the Work--Dividing the +Spoils--Action in Case of Arrest--Employing Attorneys--What "Fall" +Money Is--Fixing a Jury--Politicians with a Pull--Protecting +Criminals--Full Description of How Checks and Drafts Are +Altered--Alterations, Erasures and Chemicals--Raising Any Paper--Alert +Cashiers and Tellers--Different Methods of Protection + + +CHAPTER XXII + +A FAMOUS FORGERY + +The Morey-Garfield Letter--Attempt to Defeat Mr. Garfield for the +Presidency--A Clumsy Forgery--Both Letters Reproduced--Evidences of +Forgery Pointed Out--The Work of an Illiterate Man--Crude Imitations +Apparent--Undoubtedly the Greatest Forgery of the Age--General +Garfield's Quick Disclaimer Kills Effect of the Forgery--The Letters +Compared and Evidences of Forgery Made Complete + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +A WARNING TO BANKS AND BUSINESS HOUSES + +Information for Those Who Handle Commercial and Legal +Documents--Peculiarity of Handwriting--Methods Employed in +Forgery--Means Employed for Erasing Writing--Care to Be Used in +Writing--Specimens of Originals and Alterations--Means of Discovering +and Demonstrating Forgery--Disputed Signatures--Free Hand or Composite +Signatures--Important Facts for the Banking and Business Public--How +to Use the Microscope and Photography to Detect Forgery--Applying +Chemical Tests--How to Handle Documents and Papers to Be +Preserved--The Value of Expert Testimony--Using Chemical, +Mechanical and Clerical Preventatives + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +HOW FORGERS ALTER BANK NOTES + +Bankers Easily Deceived--How Ten One Hundred Dollar Bills Are Made out +of Nine--How to Detect Altered Bank Notes--Making a Ten-Dollar Bill +out of a Five--A Ten Raised to Fifty--How Two-Dollar Bills are Raised +to a Higher Denomination--Bogus Money in Commercial Colleges--Action +of the United States Treasury Department--Engraving a Greenback--How +They Are Printed--Making a Vignette--Beyond the Reach of Rascals--How +Bank Notes Are Printed, Signed and Issued by the Government--Safeguards +to Foil Forgers, Counterfeiters and Alterers of Bank Notes--Devices to +Raise Genuine Bank Notes--Split Notes--Altering Silver Certificates + + +APPENDIX + +This follows with many pages of Illustrations and Descriptions of +Various Kinds of Genuine, Traced, Forged and Simulated Writings and +Autograph Signatures of Bankers, Statesmen, Jurists, Authors, Writers +and the Leading Public Characters of the World; Individual Autographs +of Every President of the United States; Freak Signatures and Curious +and Complicated Writing; and Scores of Other Interesting and +Instructive Autographs and Writings of Various Kinds That Will Prove +of Great Worth and Value + + + + + +PREFACE + + +But few writers in the United States have expended their genius in the +field of disputed, forged, or fraudulent handwriting. In France and +Germany the subject has been more studied, and in both languages +several valuable books have appeared, while in this country it is only +recently that disputed handwriting has been looked upon as one of the +sciences. + +Up to the time of the publication of this work nothing has appeared in +the United States on the subject of disputed handwriting, short +magazine and newspaper articles sufficing. + +Interest in disputed handwriting and writing of all kinds is being +rapidly developed, and is a study and research with which the banker +and business man of the future must and will be perfectly familiar. A +place will be made for the science among the permanent, necessary, and +most helpful studies of the day. + +No effort has been spared by the author of this work to make every +feature of handwriting accurate. This work is the result of years of +practical study in the field of disputed handwriting, and personal +application has demonstrated that the facts and suggestions given will +be found absolutely correct. The aim has been to make this the +standard work on this subject. + +In conclusion, the author wishes to acknowledge a debt to the leading +handwriting experts of the United States and Europe for many +suggestions that have materially assisted him in the preparation of +this work. We trust it will prove a material aid to the bankers, +business men and professional men of the United States. + +THE AUTHOR. + + + + +DISPUTED HANDWRITING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +HOW TO STUDY FORGED AND DISPUTED SIGNATURES + +All Titles Depend Upon the Genuineness of Signatures--Comparing Genuine +With Disputed Signatures--A Word About Fac-simile Signatures--Conditions +Affecting Production of Signatures--Process of Evolving a +Signature--Evidence of Experience in Handling or Mishandling a +Pen--Signatures Most Difficult to Read--Simulation of Signature by +Expert Penman--Hard to Imitate an Untrained Hand--A Well-known +Banker Presents Some Valuable Points--Perfectly Imitated Writings +and Signatures--Bunglingly Executed Forgeries--The Application of +Chemical Tests--Rules of Courts on Disputed Signatures--Forgers +Giving Appearance of Age to Paper and Ink--Proving the Falsity of +Testimony--Determining the Genuineness or Falsity by Anatomy or +Skeleton--Making a Magnified Copy of a Signature--Effectiveness of +the Photograph Process--Deception the Eye Will Not Detect--When Pen +Strokes Cross Each Other--Experimenting With Crossed Lines--Signatures +Written With Different Inks--Deciding Order of Sequence in +Writing--An Important and Interesting Subject for Bankers--Determining +the Genuineness of a Written Document--Ingenuity of Rogues Constantly +Takes New Forms--A Systematic Analysis Will Detect Disputed +Signatures.[1] + + [1] Note illustrations of various kinds of forged, simulated, and + genuine handwriting in Appendix, with careful descriptions of same. + + +The title to money and property of all kinds depends so lately upon +the genuineness of signatures that no study or inquiry can be more +interesting than one relating to the degree of certainty with which +genuine writings can be distinguished from those which are +counterfeited. + +When comparing a disputed signature with a series of admittedly +genuine signatures of the same person whose signature is being +disputed, the general appearance and pictorial effect of the writing +will suggest, as the measure of resemblances or differences +predominates, an impression upon the mind of the examiner as to the +genuine or forged character of the signature in question. When it is +understood that to make a forgery available for the purposes of its +production it must resemble in general appearance the writing of the +person whose signature it purports to represent, it follows as a +reasonable conclusion that resemblances in general appearances alone +must be secondary factors in establishing the genuineness of a +signature by comparison--and the fact that two signatures look alike +is not always evidence that they were written by the same person. + +As an illustration of the uncertainty of an impression produced by the +general appearances and close resemblance of signatures, even to an +expert observer, is manifested when the fac-simile signatures of the +signers of the Declaration of American Independence, as executed by +different engravers, are examined. On comparing each individual +fac-simile made by one engraver, with the fac-simile of the same +signature made by another engraver, they will be found to exactly +coincide in general appearance as to form and pictorial effect, and so +much so, that the fac-similes of the same signature made by different +engravers cannot be told one from the other. On examining them by the +use of the microscope they may be easily determined as the work of +different persons. While this is likewise true of the resemblances in +general appearance which a disputed signature may have when compared +with a genuine signature of the same person, it is also true that the +measure of difference occurring in the general appearance of a +disputed signature, when compared with genuine ones of the same +person, are not always evidence of forgery. + +There are many conditions affecting the production of signatures, +habitually and uniformly apart from the causes which prevent a person +from writing signatures twice precisely alike, under the influence of +normal conditions of execution. The effect of fatigue, excitement, +haste, or the use of a different pen from that with which the +standards were written, are well known conditions operating to +materially affect the general appearance of the writing, and may have +been, in one form or another, an attendant cause when the questioned +signature was produced, and thus have given to the latter some +variation from the signatures of the same person, executed under the +influence of normal surroundings. + +In the process of evolving a signature, which must be again and again +repeated from an early age till death, new ideas occur from time to +time, are tried, modified, improved, and finally embodied in the +design. The idea finally worked out may be merely a short method of +writing the necessary sequence of characters, or it may present some +novelty to the eye. Signatures consisting almost exclusively of +straight up-and-down strokes, looking at a short distance like a row +of needles with very light hair-lines to indicate the separate +letters; signatures begun at the beginning or the end and written +without removing the pen from the paper; signatures which are entirely +illegible and whose component parts convey only the mutilated +rudiments of letters, are not uncommon. All such signatures strike the +eye and arrest the attention, and thus accomplish the object of their +authors. The French signature frequently runs upward from left to +right, ending with a strong down nourish in the opposite direction. +All these, even the most illegible examples, give evidence of +experience in handling or mishandling the pen. The signature most +difficult to read is frequently the production of the hand which +writes most frequently, and it is very much harder to decipher than +the worst specimens of an untrained hand. The characteristics of the +latter are usually an evident painstaking desire to imitate faulty +ideals of the letters one after the other, without any attempt to +attain a particular effect by the signature as a whole. In very +extreme cases, the separate letters of the words constituting the +signature are not even joined together. + +A simulation of such a signature by an expert penman will usually +leave enough traces of his ability in handling the pen to pierce his +disguise. Even a short, straight stroke, into which he is likely to +relapse against his will, gives evidence against the pretended +difficulties of the act which he intends to convey. It is nearly as +difficult for a master of the pen to imitate an untrained hand as for +the untrained hand to write like an expert penman. The difference +between an untrained signature and the trembling tracing of his +signature by an experienced writer who is ill or feeble, is that in +the former may be seen abundant instances of ill-directed strength, +and in the latter equally abundant instances of well-conceived design, +with a failure of the power to execute it. + +Observations such as the preceding are frequently of great value in +aiding the expert to understand the phenomena which he meets, and they +belong to a class which does not require the application of standards +of measure, but only experience and memory of other similar instances +of which the history was known, and a sound judgment to discern the +significance of what is seen. + +No general rules other than those referred to above can be given to +guide the student of handwriting in such cases, but the differences +will become sufficiently apparent with sufficient practice. + +A well-known banker, writing to the author of this work, makes some +points on the subject which are rather disturbing. His fundamental +proposition is that the judgment of experts is of no value when based +as it ordinarily is, only upon an inspection of an alleged fraudulent +signature, either with the naked eye or with the eye aided by +magnifying glasses, and upon a comparison of its appearance with that +of a writing or signature, admitted or known to the expert, to be +genuine, of the same party. + +He alleges, in fact, that writing and signatures can be so perfectly +imitated that ocular inspection cannot determine which is true and +which is false, and that the persons whose signatures are in +controversy are quite as unable as anybody to decide that question. +Nevertheless, the law permits experts to give their opinions to +juries, who often have nothing except those opinions to control their +decisions, and who naturally give them in favor of the side which is +supported by the greatest number of experts, or by experts of the +highest repute. + +Decisions upon such testimony this banker regards as no better than, +if quite as good as, the result of drawing lots. Of course he cannot +mean to include under these observations, that class of forgeries +which are so bunglingly executed as to be readily detected by the eye, +even of persons not specially expert. He can only mean to say that +imitations are possible and even common, which are so exact that their +counterfeit character is not determinable by inspection, even when +aided by glasses. + +At first blush this contention of the banker is extremely a most +unsatisfactory view of the case, and the more correct it looks likely +to be, the more unsatisfactory. Courts may go beyond inspection and +apply chemical on the tests, but such tests cannot be resorted to in +the innumerable cases of checks and orders for money and property +which are passed upon every day in the business world, and either +accepted as genuine or rejected as counterfeit. But the real truth is, +in fully ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, that no check or order is +paid merely upon confidence in the genuineness of the signature, and +without knowledge of the party to whom the payment is made, or some +accompanying circumstance or circumstances tending to inspire +confidence in the good faith of the transaction. In that aspect, the +danger of deception as to the genuineness of signatures loses most of +its terrors. + +It is one of the recognized rules of court to admit as admissible +testimony, the opinions of experts, whether the whole or any specified +portion of an instrument was, or was not written by the same hand, +with the same ink, and at the same time, which question arises when an +addition to, or alteration of, an instrument is charged. It must be +recollected that at this time It is a very easy matter for experienced +forgers and rascals to so prepare ink that it may appear to the eye to +be of the age required, and it is next to impossible for any expert to +give any information in regard to the age of a certain writing. In +many instances experts have easily detected the kind of ink employed, +and have also successfully shown the falsity of testimony that the +whole of a writing in controversy was executed at the same time, and +with the same ink. + +James D. Peacock, a London barrister, who has given considerable time +and study to disputed handwritings, lays great stress upon the ability +of determining the genuineness or falsity of a writing by what he +calls its "anatomy" or "skeleton." He says that some persons in making +successive strokes, make the turn from one to another sharply angular, +while others make it rounded or looping. Writings produced in both +ways appear the same to the eye, but under a magnifying glass the +difference in the mode of executing is shown. As illustrating that +point, he makes the following statement in respect to a case involving +the genuineness of the alleged signature of an old man whose +handwriting was fine and tremulous: + +"On making a magnified copy of the signature, I found that the +tremulous appearance of the letters was due to the fact that they were +made up of a series of dashes, standing at varying angles with each +other, and further, that these strokes, thus enlarged, were precisely +like these constituting the letters in the body of the note, which +were acknowledged to have been written by the alleged forger of the +note. Upon the introduction of this testimony the criminal withdrew +the plea of not guilty and implored the mercy of the court." + +As one means of determining whether the whole of a writing was +executed at the same time, and with the same ink, or at different +times, and with different inks, Mr. Peacock further says that the +photographic process is very effective because it not only copies the +forms of letters but takes notice of differences in the color of two +inks which are inappreciable by the eye. He states that: + +"Where there is the least particle of yellow present in a color, the +photograph will take notice of the fact by making the picture blacker, +just in proportion as the yellow predominates, so that a very light +yellow will take a deep black. So any shade of green, or blue, or red, +where there is an imperceptible amount of yellow, will pink by the +photographic process more or less black, while either a red or blue +varying to a purple, will show more or less paint as the case may be." + +As to deception which the eye will not detect, in regard to the age of +paper, he says: + +"I have repeatedly examined papers which have been made to appear old +by various methods, such as washing with coffee, with tobacco, and by +being carried in the pocket, near the person, by being smoked or +partially burned, and in various other ways. I have in my possession a +paper which has passed the ordeal of many examinations by experts and +others, which purports to be two hundred years old, and to have been +saved from the Boston fire. The handwriting is a perfect fac-simile of +that of Thomas Addington, the town clerk of Boston, two hundred years +ago, and yet the paper is not over two years old." + +The most remarkable case of deception to the eye, even when aided by +magnifying glasses, is in determining when two pen strokes cross each +other, which stroke was made first. Mr. Peacock does not explain how +the deception is possible, but that it occurs as matter of fact, he +shows by an account of a very decisive experiment. Taking ten +different kinds of ink, most commonly on sale, he drew lines on a +piece of paper in such a way as to produce a hundred points of +crossing and so that a line drawn with each of ink passed both over +and under all the lines drawn with the other inks. He, of course, +knew, in respect to each point of crossing, which ink was first +applied, but the appearance to the eye corresponded with the fact in +only forty-three cases. In thirty-seven cases the appearance was +contrary to the fact, and in the remaining cases the eye was unable to +come to any decision. + +By wetting another piece of paper with a liquid compound acting as a +solvent of ink, and pressing it upon the paper marked with lines, a +thin layer of ink was transferred to the wet paper, and that shown +correctly which was the superposed ink at every one of the one hundred +points of crossing. + +Many cases have occurred, in signatures written with different inks, +where some letters in one cross, some letters in another, in which it +becomes important to decide the order of sequence in writing. It is +also frequently important to decide the order of sequence in writing. +It is also frequently important when the genuineness of an addition, +as of a date, is the thing in dispute. + +No subject can be more important or interesting to the business public +or especially to bankers than that of the reliability of the lists of +the genuineness of written papers. While it is true that in most cases +there is some ear-mark beside the appearance of a signature, whereby +to determine the genuineness of a document, it is also true that in +many cases, and frequently in cases of great magnitude, payments are +made on no other basis than the appearance of a writing. The most +common class of these last cases is where "A" has been long known to +be an endorser for "B," and where the connection between the two, +which leads to the endorsements, is well known. There is nothing in +the appearance in the market of a note of "B" endorsed by "A," that +is, in any degree calculated to excite suspicion or to put a +prospective purchaser upon his inquiry. If the endorsement of "A" +resembles his usual handwriting, it is almost always accepted as +genuine and if losses result from its proving to be counterfeit, they +are set down to the score, not of imprudence, but of unavoidable +misfortune. + +Thus, as the ingenuity of rogues constantly takes new forms, the ways +and means by which they can be baffled in these enterprises are +constantly being multiplied. The telegraph and telephone give +facilities for promptly verifying a signature where one is in doubt. + +It happens not infrequently that the desire to get a given number of +words into a definite space leads to an entirely unusual and foreign +style of writing, in which the accustomed characteristics are so +obscured or changed that only a systematic analysis can detect them. +If there be no apparent reason for this appearance in lack of space, +the cause may be the physical state of the writer or an attempt at +simulation. If a sufficient number of genuine signatures are +available, it can generally be determined which of these two +explanations is the right one. + +Note illustrations of various kinds of handwriting in Appendix at end +of this book. Particular attention is directed to the descriptions and +analysis. They should be studied carefully. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +FORGERY BY TRACING + +Forgeries Perpetrated by the Aid of Tracing a Common and Dangerous +Method--Using Transparent Tracing Paper--How the Movements are +Directed--Formal, Broken and Nervous Lines--Retouched Lines and +Shades--Tracing Usually Presents a Close Resemblance to the +Genuine--Traced Forgeries Not Exact Duplicates of Their +Originals--The Danger of an Exact Duplication--Forgers Usually +Unable to Exactly Reproduce Tracing--Using Pencil or Carbon-Guided +Lines--Retouching Revealed under the Microscope--Tracing with Pen +and Ink Over a Transparency--Making a Practice and Study of +Signatures--Forgeries and Tracings Made by Skilful Imitators Most +Difficult of Detection--Free-Hand Forgery and Tracing--A Few +Important Matters to Observe in Detecting Forgery by +Tracing--Photographs a Great Aid in Detecting Tracing--How to +Compare Imitated and Traced Writing--Furrows Traced by Pen Nibs--Tracing +Made by an Untrained Hand--Tracing with Pen and Ink Over a +Transparency--Internal Evidence of Forgery by Tracing--Forgeries +Made by Skilful Imitators--How to Determine Evidences of Forgery by +Tracing--Remains of Tracings--Examining Paper in Transmitted +Light--Freely Written Tracings--A Dangerous Method of Forgery. + + +Forgery by tracing is one of the most common and most dangerous +methods of forgery. + +There are two general methods of perpetrating forgeries, one by the +aid of tracing, the other by free-hand writing. These methods differ +widely in details, according to the circumstances of each case. + +Tracing can only be employed when a signature or writing is present in +the exact or approximate form of the desired reproduction. It may then +be done by placing the writing to be forged upon a transparency over a +strong light, and then superimposing the paper upon which the forgery +is to be made. The outline of the writing underneath will then appear +sufficiently plain to enable it to be traced with pen or pencil, so as +to produce a very accurate copy upon the superimposed paper. If the +outline is with a pencil, it is afterward marked over with ink. + +Again, tracings are made by placing transparent tracing-paper over the +writing to be copied and then tracing the lines over with a pencil. +This tracing is then penciled or blackened upon the obverse side. When +it is placed upon the paper on which the forgery is made, the lines +upon the tracing are retraced with a stylus or other smooth hard +point, which impresses upon the paper underneath a faint outline, +which serves as a guide to the forged imitation. + +In forgeries perpetrated by the aid of tracing, the internal evidence +is more or less conclusive according to the skill of the forger. In +the perpetration of a forgery the mind, instead of being occupied in +the usual function of supplying matter to be recorded, devotes its +special attention to superintendence of the hand, directing its +movements, so that the hand no longer glides naturally and +automatically over the paper, but moves slowly with a halting, +vacillating motion, as the eye passes to and from the copy to the pen, +moving under the specific control of the will. Evidence of such a +forgery is manifest in the formal, broken, nervous lines, the uneven +flow of the ink, and the often retouched lines and shades. These +evidences are unmistakable when studied with the aid of a microscope. +Also, further evidence is adduced by a careful comparison of the +disputed writing, noting the pen-pressure or absence of any of the +delicate unconscious forms, relations, shades, etc., characteristic of +the standard writing. + +Forgeries by tracings usually present a close resemblance in general +form to the genuine, and are therefore most sure to deceive the +unfamiliar or casual observer. It sometimes happens that the original +writing from which the tracings were made is discovered, in which case +the closely duplicated forms will be positive evidence of forgery. The +degree to which one signature of writing duplicates another may be +readily seen by placing one over the other, and holding them to a +window or other strong light, or by close comparative measurements. + +Traced forgeries, however, are not, as is usually supposed, +necessarily exact duplicates of their originals, since it is very easy +to move the paper by accident or design while the tracing is being +made, or while making the transfer copy from it; so that while it +serves as a guide to the general features of the original, it will +not, when tested, be an exact duplication. The danger of an exact +duplication is quite generally understood by persons having any +knowledge of forgery, and is therefore avoided. Another difficulty is +that the very delicate features of the original writing are more or +less obscured by the opaqueness of two sheets of paper, and are +therefore changed or omitted from the forged simulation, and their +absence is usually supplied, through force of habit, by equally +delicate unconscious characteristics from the writing of the forger. +Again, the forger rarely possesses the requisite skill to exactly +reproduce his tracing. Much of the minutiae of the original writing is +more or less microscopic, and from that reason passes unobserved by +the forger. Outlines of writing to be forged are sometimes simply +drawn with a pencil, and then worked up in ink. Such outlines will not +usually furnish so good an imitation as to form, since they depend +wholly upon the imitative skill of the forger. + +Besides the forementioned evidences of forgery by tracing, where +pencil or carbon guide-lines are used which must necessarily be +removed by rubber, there are liable to remain some slight fragments of +the tracing lines, while the mill finish of the paper will be impaired +and its fiber more or less torn out, so as to lie loose upon the +surface. Also the ink will be more or less ground off from the paper, +thus giving the lines a gray and lifeless appearance. And as +retouchings are usually made after the guide-lines have been removed, +the ink, wherever they occur, will have a more black and fresh +appearance than elsewhere. All these phenomena are plainly manifest +under the microscope. Where the tracing is made directly with pen and +ink over a transparency, as is often done, no rubbing is necessary, +and of course, the phenomena from rubbering does not appear. + +Where signatures or other writings have been forged by previously +making a study and practice of the writing, to be copied until it has +been to a greater or less degree idealized, the hand must be trained +to its imitation so that it can be written with a more or less +approximation as to form and natural freedom. + +Forgeries and tracings made by skilful imitators are the most +difficult of detection, as the internal evidence of forgery by tracing +is mostly absent. The evidence of free-hand forgery and tracing is +chiefly in the greater liability of the forger to inject into the +writing his own unconscious habit and to fail to reproduce with +sufficient accuracy that of the original writing, so that when +subjected to rigid analysis and microscopic inspection, the +spuriousness is made manifest and demonstrable. Specific attention +should be given to any hesitancy in form or movement in tracing which +is manifest in angularity or change of direction of lines, changed +relations and proportions of letters, slant of the writing, its +mechanical arrangement, disconnected lines, retouched shades, etc. + +Photographs, greatly enlarged, of both the signatures in question and +the exemplars placed side by side for comparison will greatly aid in +making plain any evidence of forgery. + +If practicable, use for comparison as standards both the imitated +writing and that of the imitator's traced writing. These methods, +employed by skilled and experienced examiners, will rarely fail of +establishing the true relationship between any two disputed +handwritings and more especially where the question of a forged or +traced signature is under discussion. + +Under the microscope tracing by the pen-nibs are usually easily +visible, and they differ with every variety of pen employed. A stiff, +fine-pointed pen makes two comparatively deep lines a short distance +apart, which appear blacker in the writing than the space between +them, because they fill with ink, which afterwards dries and produces +a thicker layer of black sediment than those elsewhere. The variations +of pressure upon the pen can be easily noticed by the alternate +widening and narrowing of the band between these two furrows. The +tracing appears knotty and uneven when made by an untrained hand, +while it appears uniformly thin, and generally tremulous or in zigzags +when made by a weak but trained hand. + +Where the tracing is made directly with pen and ink over a +transparency, as is often done, no rubbing is necessary, and of course +the phenomena from rubbering do not appear. + +Where signatures or other writings have been forged by previously +making a study and practice of the writing to be copied until it has +been to a greater or less degree idealized, the hand must be trained +to its imitation so that it can be written with a more or less +approximation as to form and with natural freedom. + +Forgeries thus made by skilful imitators are the most difficult of +detection, as the internal evidence of forgery by tracing is mostly +absent. The evidence of free-hand forgery is chiefly in the greater +liability of the forger to inject into the writing his own unconscious +habit, and to fail to reproduce with sufficient accuracy that of the +original writing, so that when subjected to rigid analysis and +microscopic inspection, the spuriousness is made manifest and +demonstrable. Specific attention should be given to any hesitancy in +form or movement, manifest in angularity or change of direction of +lines, changed relations and proportions of letters, slant of the +writing, its mechanical arrangement, disconnected lines, retouched +shades, etc. + +Photographs, greatly enlarged, of both the signatures in question and +the exemplars placed side by side for comparison will greatly aid in +making plain any evidences of forgery by tracing. + +It sometimes occurs that the forger, fearful that his attempt to +imitate another's writing would be too easily detected if made with a +free hand, sketches in pencil the characters he intends to make in ink +on the document, or traces them by means of blackened paper at the +appropriate place. The evidences of this are very likely to appear +when the document is examined in transmitted light. + +It is often asserted in trials that tracings of a genuine signature +invariably show hesitation and painting. This is not always the fact. +Tracings proven and subsequently admitted to have been such have shown +an apparent absence of all constraint, and a careful examination of +the result revealed no pause of the pen. But, on the other hand, these +freely written tracings have invariably shown either a deviation from +some habitual practice of the writer, or, if the model was followed +with skill, two or three such tracings, when photographed on a +transparent film and superposed, have shown such exact resemblances as +to proclaim their character at once. + +The natural tendency of man is to introduce some elements of symbolism +in what he is attempting to trace and to seek some sort of geometrical +symmetry in what he designs. Wherever he is not restricted by certain +forms which he must introduce, and which may render a balance of parts +about a median line unattainable, he tends to evolve symmetrical +designs, as in the highest and simplest forms of ancient architecture. +When the parts of the design are prescribed, as in the representation +of objects in nature, he soon tires of mere mechanical repetition of +the same things in a given sequence, and strives to convey some +ulterior idea by the manner of joining these parts. This gives life +and language to sculpture and painting, and gives character to +handwriting. Tracing signatures is one of the most common and +dangerous methods of forgery. Some specimens of traced signatures are +illustrated and explained in an Appendix at the end of this book. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HOW FORGERS REPRODUCE SIGNATURES + +Characteristics Appearing in Forged Signatures--Conclusions Reached by +Careful Examinations--Signatures Written with Little Effort to +Imitate--What a Clever Forger Can Do--Most Common Forgeries of +Signatures--Reproducing a Signature over a Plate of Glass--A Window +Frame Scheme for Reproducing Signatures--How the Paper is Held and +the Ink Applied--How a Genuine Signature is Placed and Used--A +Forger's Process of Tracing a Signature--How to Detect Ear Marks +of Fraud in a Reproduced Signature--Prominent Features of +Signatures Reproduced--Method Resorted to by Novices in Forging +Signatures--Conditions Appearing in All Traced Signatures--Reproduction +of Signatures Adopted by Expert Forgers--Making a Lead-Pencil Copy of a +Signature--Erasing Pencil Signatures Always Discoverable by the Aid of +a Microscope--Appearances and Conditions in Traced Signatures--How to +Tell a Traced Signature--All the Details Employed to Reproduce a +Signature Given--Features in Which Forgers are Careless--Handling of +the Pen Often Leads to Detection--A Noted Characteristic of Reproduced +Signatures--Want of Proportion in Writing Names Should Be +Studied--Rules to Be Followed in Examining Signatures--System Employed +by Experts in Studying Proof of Reproduced Signatures--Bankers and +Business Men Should Avoid Careless Signatures. + + +In detailing matters which experience suggests as importantly +connected with the examination of disputed signatures, there are none +more essential to a proper consideration of the subject than an +understanding of those characteristics often appearing in forged +signatures, and by which they are distinguished as such. When the +features occurring as a concomitant of most forgeries are understood, +their appearance may suggest a short and easy route to reach a +conclusion: yet the careful and conscientious examiner will, even with +these indications present in a disputed signature, institute a very +careful and detailed study of the latter by comparison with the +standard writings; and with as much effort as if the indications of +forgery were not present. To make these features positive evidence, +each other developed detail must also tend to the same deduction, and +each detail must be compatible with every other feature, and all point +to the same conclusion. + +As forgers differ in their capability as to accuracy in simulation, +all grades of its proficiency come up in the experience of those who, +as experts, are called upon to make such matters a study. At one +extreme will be found to occur signatures written with but little +effort to imitate the genuine signature they purport to represent; +with all the intermediate grades of imitation extending to the other +extreme, wherein a skilful forger will, by practice, so simulate the +signature of a person and with such close resemblance that the very +individual whose name is imitated cannot, independently of attending +circumstances, tell the forgery from the signature which he knows he +has written. + +Among the most common forgeries of signatures are those which have +been traced from genuine ones, and these are produced in various ways; +the most common method being to place the genuine signature over a +plate of glass horizontally arranged, with a strong light behind it, +or against the window frame, and then to place over the signature so +positioned the paper on which the forgery is to be made. When this has +been done the papers are held in contact firmly, the pen is dipped-in +ink and moved over the paper, guided by the lines of the genuine +signature beneath, which show through the superimposed paper, and by +means of which the form of the signature is transferred to the paper, +which is exteriorly placed. + +While the process of tracing produces very nearly the proper form of +the matter thus copied, and if well done by the forger the copy will +in general appearance and to a certain extent resemble in outline the +signature thus traced, there are usually apparent in all reproduced +signatures thus made, peculiarities and ear marks indicating the +manner in which they were produced and by which they can be identified +as such. + +One of the most prominent features of reproduced signatures is the +general sameness of the writing as appearing in the uniform width of +the lines, and the omission of the usual shading emphasis. The cause +of this appearance is the absence of habitual pen pressure, and the +necessitated slow movement of the pen held closely in contact with the +paper and by which a uniform and steady flow of ink is deposited +thereon; thus making what should be the heavier and lighter lines of +one width and density as to shading. This method of tracing and +reproducing signatures is that usually resorted to by novices but is +seldom employed by expert forgers. + +Another condition appearing in all traced signatures is the absence of +all evidence of pen pressure when examined as a transparency; this +deficiency occurring as consequent upon the manner of moving the pen +over the paper. While signatures thus made may resemble the one from +which they are copied, the only likeness they have is that of +pictorial resemblance and it will be found to be destitute of all the +appearances and indications of habitual writing in other respects. + +Another method of tracing signatures is frequently resorted to by +persons adept in the art, and this consists in making a lead-pencil +copy of the genuine signature holding the paper on which the forgery +is to be produced; tracing the outline of the signature by means of a +pencil, and then with ink to write over the pencil copy. But as the +method necessitates the use of an india rubber to remove the surplus +black lead where not covered by the ink, evidences of the use of the +rubber will be found to occur, and traces of the black lead can be +found by the microscope. While the appearances and conditions are +common to traced signatures, there are in addition to their presence +generally found evidences of pauses made in the writing, the effect of +which will appear not as shading of the lines, but as irregularities +or excrescences produced thereon by resting the hand in its movement, +and by which at intervals more ink flowed from the pen than would +occur when the latter was being moved habitually over the paper. Where +the signatures of the same person exactly coincide when one is laid +over the other in parallel arrangement with a strong light behind +them, this condition of their appearance is very positive evidence +that one of them was traced from the other and is a forgery, as it is +a circumstance which cannot possibly occur in the writing of two +signatures produced habitually. + +In considering reproduced signatures and forged writing and in +detailing some of the most common features which are found to occur in +it, it must not be understood that all the phenomena attending the +production of forged signatures can be given. Inasmuch as each person +has a peculiar muscular co-ordination that is manifested in the +production of habitually written signatures, so each forger from the +same cause has an individual habit that must be used when simulating; +hence there will be as many styles of writing manifested in production +of forgeries as there are forgers to produce them. No positive rule +can be laid down for the classification of their peculiarities +excepting the manner of accuracy with which the simulation appearing +in them is done. Each case of disputed writing must be examined by +itself, and while there are certain process steps to be followed which +experience suggests as facilitating the analysis, yet the examiner +must wholly depend upon what is seen in the disputed signature that +is, or is not, found in the admittedly genuine writing of the person +whose signature is questioned, and the comparison of the one with the +other. + +Reproduced signatures often show a copying effort that is manifested in +the details of their production. These evidences generally appear, in +some instances, as pauses made in the lines connecting the letters of +the signature, where the pen rested while the eye of the forger was +directed from the writing being done to the copy, that the writer could +fix in the mind the form of a succeeding letter. These pauses appear in +different measure of prominence in different forgeries, and there is no +rule as to their measure or appearance. With some forgers the pen rests +with considerable emphasis and with others it is lifted from the paper +and returned to the paper while the eye of the writer goes back to the +copy. With others there will appear but little hesitancy. Some forgers, +well skilled in the art, will, by practicing the simulation until they +have the form of the genuine signature well fixed in the mind, become +enabled to produce a forged copy of a genuine signature that will show +no pauses--hence the absence of pauses is not proof of the genuine +character of a signature. Another common characteristic of forged and +reproduced signatures and particularly such of them as are not traced +and are produced by persons not skilled in the art is found in the +studied appearance which they have, as if written under restraint, and +without the apparent freedom consequent upon habitual writing. Another +characteristic of forged signatures that are not traced from a genuine +signature is that they are written with greater length in proportion +to the width and height of the letters, than occurs in the genuine +signature from which they are copied in imitation. This want of +proportion occurs generally from making the lines connecting the +letters of the signature longer than those of the copy. + +At the same time, while these characteristics are common to forged +writing, to make them available in formulating an opinion from an +analysis they must be substantiated by every other occurring in the +writing. It must be clearly kept in view that general impressions +derived from a cursory examination of a disputed or reproduced +signature should have no weight in the mind of the examiner before +proceeding with the analysis, as such an impression is apt to lead the +investigation into a particular line of research and it should be +understood that the work of the examiner must relate to the comparison +of the details in each of the writings as to their correspondence or +difference. + +As before stated in this chapter, and a fact that should be remembered +in studying fraudulent signatures, that one of the commonest and +easiest means of reproducing a signature is to put the genuine +signature on a piece of glass, lay another piece of glass on top of it +and fasten the piece of paper that is to receive the forgery on top of +that. Then by holding the glass strips to a bright light, the original +signature casts a shadow through, which may be traced in pencil. From +this tracing the ink forgery is completed. + +But when a forgery done in this way is put under a strong magnifying +lens it will not bear scrutiny. If the original has a strong down +stroke on the capital letters the movement will be free and will leave +the pen lines with smooth edges. The man who is tracing such letters +cannot trust himself to the same free movement of the pen and the +result under the glass shows hesitancy and uncertainty. Also if other +lines in the signature be lighter than the forger naturally uses the +same hesitancy will be shown. When the lines have passed scrutiny, too, +there is another "line" test which will show that the impossibility of +one's writing two signatures alike has been accomplished. + +From dotted points made above the genuine signature straight lines are +drawn radiating from it to certain portions of certain letters in the +signature that is forged. When the forged signature is replaced in the +glass and the other on top, as is done in the tracing, these radiating +lines will fall one upon the other with the exactness of the lines in +the signatures. + +These radiating lines, too, may be used in the few cases where the +forger is an expert penman depending upon an offhand duplication of a +signature. This penman will have his inevitable natural slant to his +letters. This characteristic slant never is the same in two individuals. +In his free and easy forgery of a name written by another person this +"Jim, the penman" exposes his acquired slant which disputes the original. + +This slant of individual writing shows especially in any attempt to +write a forged letter or document. When the pen scope of the original +has been lined out, proving the characteristic common lengths between +the lifting of the pen from the paper, the lines radiating from the +points to individual letters in words or groups of words in authentic +and bogus specimens, these radiations point at once to the fact that +the same person did not write the matter. + +These are some of the things upon which the handwriting expert works +upon and brings to bear in proof of reproduced signatures and +handwriting in general. How the more or less inexpert person discovers +questionable showing in these duplications are many. His intuitions +may suggest his doubts. Material evidences may have come to bear upon +him. Likelihood of some one person's having self-interests in the +matter may induce him to make sure. + +In the case of a banker or business man, having large interests and +required to affix his signature to many papers of moment, he ordinarily +makes it certain that through adapted whorls and freehand sweeps of the +pen, the signature will be least careless and inviting to the +adventurous forger. In much of his personal correspondence with +strangers, however, this adapted and unusual signature frequently +becomes a source of loss to himself and irritation to his correspondents. +In the case of hundreds of such individuals, the writing to a stranger +in expectation of a reply becomes an absurdity for the reason that +the person addressed is hopelessly barred from reading the name +attached to the letter. A plain signature is always the best. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ERASURES, ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS + +What Erasure Means--The English Law--What a Fraudulent Alteration +Means--Altered or Erased Parts Considered--Memoranda of Alterations +Should Always Accompany Paper Changed--How Added Words Should +be Treated--How to Erase Words and Lines Without Creating +Suspicion--Writing Over an Erasure--How to Determine Whether or +Not Erasures or Alterations Have Been Made--Additions and +Interlineations--What to Apply to the Suspected Document--The +Alcohol Test Absolute--How to Tell which of Crossing Ink Lines were +Made First--Ink and Pencil Alterations and Erasures--Treating Paper +to Determine Erasures, Alterations and Additions--Appearance of +Paper Treated as Directed--Paper That Does Not Reveal Tampering--How +Removal of Characters From a Paper is Effected--Easy Means of +Detecting Erasures--Washing With Chemical Reagents--Restoration of +Original Marks--What Erasure on Paper Exhibits--Erasure in +Parchments--Identifying Typewritten Matter--Immaterial +Alterations--Altering Words in an Instrument--Alterations and +Additions Are Immaterial When Interests of Parties Are Not Changed +or Affected--Erasure of Words in an Instrument. + + +Erasure or erazuer, as it is more commonly called in England, from the +Latin word "scrape or shave" is the scraping or shaving of a deed, +note, signature, amount or of any formal writing. In England, except +in the case of a will, the presumption, in the absence of rebutting +testimony, is that the erasure was made at or before the execution +thereof. If an alteration or erasure has been made in any instrument +subsequent to its execution, that fact ought to be mentioned (in the +abstract or epitome of the evidence of ownership) together with the +circumstances under which it is done. + +A fraudulent alteration, if made by the person himself, taking under +it would vitiate his interest altogether. It was formerly considered +that an alteration, erasure or interlineation would void the +instrument entirely, even in those cases where it was made by a +stranger; but the law is now otherwise, as it is clearly settled that +no alterations made by a stranger will prevent the contents of an +instrument from retaining its original effect and operation, where it +can be plainly shown what that effect and operation actually was. To +accomplish this the mutilated instrument may be given in evidence as +far as its contents appear and evidence will be admitted to show what +portions have been altered or erased, and also the words contained in +such altered or erased parts; but if, for want of such evidence or any +deficiency or uncertainty arising out of it the original contents of +the instruments cannot be ascertained, then the old rule would become +applicable or more correctly speaking, the mutilated instrument would +become void for uncertainty. If a will contains any alterations or +erasures, the attention of the witnesses ought to be directed to the +particular parts in which such alterations occur, and they ought to +place their initials in the margin opposite, before the will is +executed, etc., notice this having been done by a memorandum added to +the attestation clause at the end of the will. + +In Scotland the rule as to erasure is somewhat stricter than in +England and the United States, the legal inferences being that such +alterations were made after execution. As to necessary or bona-fide +alterations which may be desired by the parties, corrections or +clerical errors and the like after a paper is written out but before +signature, the rule usually followed is that the deed must show that +they have been advisedly adopted by the party; and this will be +effected by mentioning them in the body of the writing. Thus if some +words are erased and others superinduced, you mention that the +superinduced words were written over an erasure; if words are simply +delite that fact is noticed, if words are added it ought to be on the +margin and such additions signed by the party with his Christian name +on one side and his surname on the other; and such marginal addition +must be noticed in the body of the work so as to specify the page on +which it occurs, the writer of it and that it is subscribed by the +attesting witness. + +The Roman rule was that the alterations should be made by the party +himself and a formal clause was introduced with their deeds to that +effect. + +As a general rule alterations with the pen are in all cases to be +preferred to erasure; and suspicion will be most effectually removed +by not obliterating the words altered so completely as to conceal the +nature of the correction. + +The law of the United States follows that of England and Scotland in +regard to alterations and erasures. + +If any one will try the experiment of erasing an ink-mark on ordinary +writing paper, and then writing over the erasure, he will notice a +striking difference between the letters on the unaltered surface. The +latter are broader, and in most cases, to the unaided eye, darker in +color, while the erased spot, if not further treated to some substitute +for sizing, may be noticed either when the paper is held between a +light and the eye, or when viewed obliquely at a certain angle, or in +both cases. + +Very frequently it happens that so much of the size and the +superficial layer of fibres must be removed that the mark of the ink +can be distinctly seen on the reverse side of the paper, and the lines +have a distinct border which makes them broader than in the same +writing under normal conditions. If a sharp pen be used there is great +likelihood that a hole will be made in the paper, or a sputter thrown +over the parts adjacent to the erasure. + +The latter effect is produced by the entanglement of the point of the +pen among the disturbed fibres of the paper and its sudden release +when sufficient force is used to carry it along in the direction of +the writing. + +It is often of importance to know, in case of a blot, whether the +erasure it may partially mark was there before the blot, or whether it +was made with the object of removing the latter. + +Inasmuch as an attempt to correct such a disfigurement would in all +probability not be made until the ink had dried, an inspection of the +reverse side of the paper will usually furnish satisfactory evidence +on the point. If the color of the ink be not more distinct on the +under side of the paper than the color of other writing where there +was no erasure, it is probable that the erasure was subsequent to the +blot. + +If the reverse be the case, the opposite conclusion may be drawn. +Blots are sometimes used by ignorant persons to conceal the improper +manipulation of the paper, but they are not adapted to aid this kind +of fraud, and least of all to conceal erasures. + +The decision as to whether they have been made legitimately and before +a paper was executed, or subsequently to its execution, and with +fraudulent intent, must be arrived at by a comparison of the +handwriting in which the words appear, the ink with which they were +written, and the local features of each special case which usually are +not wanting. + +To determine whether or not papers contain erasures the suspected +document should be examined by reflected and transmitted light. +Examine the surface for rough spots. Forgers after erasures frequently +endeavor to hide the scratched and roughened surface by applying a +sizing of alum, sandarach powder, etc., rubbing it to restore the +finish to the paper. + +Distilled water applied to the suspected document at the particular +points under examination will dissolve the sizing applied by the +forger. If held to the light the thinning will show. The water may be +applied with a small brush or a medicine dropper. Water slightly +warmed may be used with good results at times. + +Alcohol, if applied as described for water, will act more promptly and +show the scratched places. It may be well to use water first and then +alcohol. + +To discover whether or not acids were used to erase, if moistened +litmus-paper be applied to the writing, the litmus-paper will become +slightly red if there is any acid remaining on the suspected document. +If the suspected spots be treated with distilled water, or alcohol, as +already described, the doctored place will show, when examined in +strong light. + +Which of two inklines crossing each other was made first, is not +always easy of demonstration. To the inexperienced observer the +blackest line will always appear to be on top, and unless the examiner +has given much intelligent observation to the phenomenon and the +proper methods of observing it mistakes are very liable to be made. +Owing to the well-known fact that an inked surface presents a stronger +chemical affinity for ink than does a paper surface, when one ink-line +crosses another, the ink will flow out from the crossing line upon the +surface of the line crossed, slightly beyond where it flows upon the +paper surface on each side, thus causing the crossing line to appear +broadened upon the line crossed. Also an excess of ink will remain in +the pen furrows of the crossing line, intensifying them and causing +them to appear stronger and blacker than the furrows of the line +crossed. + +It is probable that ink and pencil alterations and erasures are more +frequently made with a sharp steel scraper and ink-erasing sand rubber +than otherwise. By these methods the evidence--first, the removal of +the luster or mill-finish from the surface of the paper; second, the +disturbance of the fibre of the paper, manifest under a microscope; +third, if written over, the ink will run or spread more or less in the +paper, presenting a heavier appearance, and the edges of the lines will +be less sharply defined; fourth, if erasure is made on ruled paper, the +base line will be broken or destroyed over the scraped or rubbed +surface; fifth, the paper, since it has been more or less reduced in +thickness where the erasure has been made, when held to the light will +show more or less transparency. When erasures have been thus made the +surface of the paper may be resized and polished, by applying white +glue, and rubbing it over with a burnisher. When thus treated it may be +again written over without difficulty. When erasures have been made +with acids, there is a removal of the gloss, or mill-finish; and there +is also more or less discoloration of the paper, which will vary +according to the kind of paper, ink, and acid used, and the skill with +which it has been applied. If the acid-treated surface is again written +over, the writing will present a more or less ragged and heavy +appearance, if the paper has not been first skillfully resized and +burnished. It is very seldom that writing can be changed by erasure so +as not to leave sufficient traces to lead to detection and +demonstration through a skillful examination. + +Upon hard uncalendered paper erasures by acid when skillfully made are +not conspicuously manifest, nor when made upon any hard paper which +has been "wet down" for printing, since the luster upon the paper +would be thereby removed, and, so far as the surface of the paper is +concerned, there would be no further change from the application of +the acid. This applies to a wide range of printed blank business and +professional forms. + +A forgery consists either in erasing from a document certain marks +which existed upon it, or in adding others not there originally, or in +both operations, of which the first mentioned is necessarily +antecedent to the last; as where one character or series of characters +is substituted for another. + +The removal of characters from a paper is effected either by erasure +(seldom by pasting some opaque objects over the characters, painting +over them, or affixing a seal, wafer, etc., to the spot where they +existed) or by the use of chemical agents with the object of +dissolving the writing fluid and affecting the underlying paper or +parchment as little as possible. + +If the erasure be effected by scratching or rubbing, this removes also +the surface of the paper, which consists of some sort of "size" or +paste with resin soap, which is pressed into the upper pores to give +the paper a smooth appearance, and to prevent the writing fluid from +"running," or entering the pores and blurring the edges of the lines. + +If the paper were left as it exists when the scratching or rubbing is +completed, it would be very easy to see that it had been tampered +with, for not only would the parts thus abrased show the running of +any fluid which was subsequently laid upon them, but the surface would +appear rough to the eye in comparison with adjacent parts of the +paper, and the place would appear thinner by transmitted light. Even +to the touch the surface would reveal differences from the ordinary +condition of other parts of the paper. + +But the forger usually endeavors to overcome these difficulties by +applying to the scratched area sandarach, resin, alum, paste, or two +or three of these together, the effect being to prevent an unusually +large flow of ink from the pen and its abnormal absorption by the +paper. + +The paper should be placed between the observer and a strong light, by +which means, either with or without a magnifying-glass, a distinct +increase in the brightness of the suspected area may be noticed, +indicating a thinning, and even traces of letters, or marks which have +escaped the erasing-tool, may be seen. + +A close scrutiny may show places where the surface has been partially +torn, and the fibres of the paper united together into little knobs, +and almost invariably a magnifying-glass will clearly show the +disturbance of the superficial fibres, as compared with other and +normal parts of the paper. If the latter be tinted, the change of +appearance may extend to color. The color of the paper should always +be attentively observed. + +A change of color over the part which is the subject of investigation +may indicate the mechanical removal of the paper itself, or a washing +either with water or with acids, alkalies, or saline solutions. A +certain spotted character which follows this latter treatment differs +from the changes of color due to age or soiling. + +When the heavier strokes--usually the down strokes--of a writing are +thicker and more blurred than usual a removal of sizing is indicated, +or an original imperfect sizing of the paper. + +On the contrary, where the strokes are thinner and closer together +than usual, the cause is generally the application of resin, which has +been added, in all probability, to conceal a previous scratching of +the surface. + +The spots produced by washing are more like penumbra, or blurred marks +bordering the tracings of the character, and are generally colored. + +In order to bring out any traces of ink-marks which have been so far +removed as not to be observable by the naked eye, Coulier recommended +the placing of the document between sheets of white filter paper and +passing a hot flatiron over it, allowing the latter to remain on the +spotted parts for a short time. Another method is to wet the suspected +paper or document with alcohol, wrapped in another piece of paper also +saturated with alcohol, for the purpose of bringing out as yellow +rusty marks all the pen strokes which had not been entirely removed by +erasure. + +This treatment fixes the appearance of the spread lines and colored +spots in the space that has been washed and renders more noticeable +the stain caused by a partial sizing. In this manner apparently white +paper on which at first no traces of characters could be found showed +a yellow tinge, denoting the presence of previous writing, and on the +application of gallic acid and an infusion of nut-galls became +sufficiently distinct to permit the erasure and forgery to be +detected. + +When an erasure is made on the surface of such a paper, the mineral +and organic materials of the sizing and loading are removed, and the +fibres of the paper which they unite are deranged in form and +position. Such a surface exhibits invariably the teased-up ends of the +fibres, and generally shows by the agreement in their direction in +what way the scratching was done. + +Even in cases where a substitute for the sizing has been so +successfully added that no change in color or surface is observable, +the fibres will show by their unusual positions that they have been +disturbed. When an attempt has been made to write over the place +without sufficiently restoring the sizing, the effects can be seen in +the running of the ink between the fibres and the staining of the body +of the paper to a considerable depth from the surface and to a +considerable distance from the spot. + +Erasures in parchments produce prominences on the opposite side of the +sheet. The ink placed upon such erasures has a peculiar bluish tinge. +It happens at times that a whole page is taken out, either by +scratching or rubbing with pumice (which was the practice in the +eleventh century, when a parchment became so valuable that it was +common to keep up the supply by erasing the writing on old parchments) +or by washing. + +When the latter method was used, the writing as in palimpsests can be +made to reappear by warming. The parchment can be either laid on a hot +plate or pressed with a hot flatiron between two sheets of paper. + +Where the supposed writer of a document was a bad or careless penman +the interlineations or additions are generally distinguished from his +handwriting, which they simulate, by greater clearness and precision, +as has been said above; for when a man will risk being sent to jail +for forgery it is not likely that he is willing to lose any +prospective advantage which his felony will bring him by lack of +distinctness in the characters by means of which it is perpetrated. + +Considering the number of fraudulent additions or interlineations +which are constantly made, the number of mistakes in spelling or in +following the method employed by the supposed writer in forming the +same words is surprisingly great. Several instances are recalled where +the name of the supposed writer was not only mispelled but spelled in +two different ways in the same instrument. It occasionally seems as if +the forger's attention is so earnestly directed to overcoming the +difficult parts of his task that he neglects the simpler and more +obvious parts. A forger generally leaves some telltale marks to make +his detection certain. + +Since typewriting has come so generally into use, the question often +arises as to the identity of typewriting by different operators as +well as that done on different machines. This may usually be done with +considerable degree of certainty. Different operators have their own +peculiar methods, which differ widely in many respects,--in the +mechanical arrangement, as to location of date, address, margins, +punctuation, spacing, signing, as well as impression from touch, etc. + +The distinctive character of the writing done on different machines is +usually determined with absolute certainty. With most machines there +are accidental variations in alignment. Certain letters from use +become more or less imperfect, or become filled or fouled with ink. It +is highly improbable that any one even of these accidents should occur +in precisely the same way upon two machines, and that any two or more +should do so is well nigh impossible. It is equally certain that all +the habits and mannerisms of the operators would not be precisely the +same. A careful comparison of different typewritings in these respects +cannot fail to determine whether they are written by the same operator +or upon the same machine. It should be remembered that writing upon +the same machine will differ in all the respects mentioned at +different stages of its use and condition. + +An immaterial alteration is one which does not change the legal effect +or significance of an instrument. If what has been written upon or +erased from the instrument has no tendency to mislead any person to +the instrument, it will not be an alteration; it is immaterial also +where the meaning is in no manner varied or changed. + +The courts uniformly hold that an immaterial alteration should be +treated as no alteration and therefore does not avoid the instrument. + +Altering words in the instrument without changing the legal sense or +altering immaterial words is an immaterial alteration. + +Retracing a faded name with ink, or tracing a word with ink written +with pencil, is immaterial. + +Alterations and additions in deeds are immaterial where neither the +rights or duties, interests or obligations, of either of the parties +to the instrument are in any manner changed or affected. + +A promissory note made payable to a partnership under a certain name +was altered by the maker and the payee without the knowledge of the +surety so as to be payable to the same parties under another name and +the court held it to be immaterial. + +But the effect of the correction must be that it makes the instrument +conform to the intention of the parties concerned, nor must they alter +the legal sense of the instrument. Memoranda made on the margin of the +note for the convenience of the holder and merely explanatory of some +circumstances connected with the note are immaterial. The erasure of +words immaterial to the legal sense of the instrument or inserted by +mistake, is also immaterial. + +Where an alteration is in itself immaterial it will not void an +instrument even though made with fraudulent intent. + +In Missouri it has been held that any alteration material or +immaterial, made fraudulently or innocently, avoids a note in the +hands of one who made the alteration. But in a later Missouri case, it +is held, that the addition of the signature of a married woman without +a separate estate to a note already issued was a nullity and without +legal effect and therefore to be considered as no alteration and not +to discharge the original parties. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +HOW TO WRITE A CHECK TO PREVENT FORGING + +How a Paying Teller Determines the Amount of a Check--Written Amount +and Amount in Figures Conflict--Depositor Protected by Paying +Teller--Chief Concern of Drawer of a Check--Transposing +Figures--Writing a Check That Cannot Be Raised--Writers Who Are +Easy Marks for Forgers--Safeguards for Those Who Write Checks--An +Example of Raised Checks--Payable "To Bearer" is Always a +Menace--Paying Teller and an Endorsement System Must Be Observed in +Writing Checks--How a Check Must Be Written to Be Absolutely Safe--A +Signature that Cannot Be Tampered with Without Detection--Paying +Tellers Always Vigilant. + + +Among the casual patrons of the average bank there is a superstition +that in presenting a check at a teller's window the amount of the +check shall be determined by the amount spelled out in the body of the +check, without regard to the figures written at the top or bottom of +the slip. + +Nothing could be farther from the facts as they are accepted at the +bank window. As a matter of fact, when a check made out in this +erroneous way comes to a teller's window he is most likely to refuse +to pay either amount. There is no law, written or unwritten, to +justify the paying of the amount spelled out in the body of the check, +regardless of the group of figures on its face. This figure group is +designed merely to check and justify the written amount, but if there +is a discrepancy between the two amounts there is nothing to indicate +that it is not the written amount that is wrong and the figure group +that is right. + +Under such circumstances the chief duty of the teller is to protect +the depositor who has drawn the check on his bank. The person who +presents the check for payment manifestly has been a party to the +mistake in not having read over the check carefully before receiving +it. If the payee is unknown to the teller and if the discrepancy is at +all material, the teller turns the check back with the advice that the +payee look up the drawer and have the error corrected. + +In many cases of discrepancy between the two amounts on the face of a +check the sum involved is the fractional part of the dollar at the end +of the chief figures. This comes about through the drawer's concern +over the main figures in the check. He is likely to write the amount +in letters on the center line of the body of the check, affixing the +fractional part of a dollar in the form of 100th parts of that unit. +In writing the checking group in figures at the upper or lower corner +of the slip, his chief concern is with the dollars and in his care he +is likely to overlook the odd cents first entered on the face of the +paper. Or if he attempts to write the figures "74" cents in repetition +it is likely that they may be transposed to "47" cents in the +operation. + +How to write this check in order that it may not be tampered with and +"raised" is something that has held the attentions and invited the +inventive talents of many people, in and out of business. Even when +the best of the chemical papers are used in the bank check the drawer +of the paper may have not the slightest protection from "raising" at +the hands of an expert. The manner in which the written and figure +amounts on the face of the check are placed makes the material +alteration of the amount easy beyond question. + +For instance, the man who writes with a free, flowing, rounded hand +and leaves roomy spaces everywhere between words and figures becomes +an easy mark for a forger. This man is called upon to draw his check +for $4, even. He takes his check book and in the dollar line writes +the word "four" in his rounded hand, simply filling the rest of the +lined space with the plain flourish of his pen. Then in the upper +corner of the check he writes the attesting figure $4, with a dash +after it. That makes it a cinch for an expert check raiser to make it +$40 or $400 or $4,000. + +Manifestly the only safeguard for such a check as this, even if it be +drawn upon chemical paper, is for the drawer to follow close upon the +written "four" with the blocking "No-100th" dollars, using the same +fraction as closely after the figure "4" in the corner of the check. +To leave no possible room after a final written or figure amount on a +check is the best possible precaution against raising it. For with +many checks the printed warning "Not good if drawn for more than one +hundred dollars," is a worthless precaution. In the above example it +is so, for the reason that raised as it is the amount still is within +the limit. Had the check been drawn in the same style for "six" +dollars, it would have been more easily and profitably raised to +"sixty." In the same general manner a slovenly "two" may be raised to +"twenty," "three" may be "thirty," "five" is made "fifty," "seven" +becomes "seventy," "eight" becomes "eighty," and "nine" is transformed +into "ninety"--all without erasures and without leaving telltale marks +upon a chemical paper. + +In this way the average check which is made payable "to bearer" may be +a potential menace in a slow course through a dozen hands. While a +bank may require the holder of a "bearer" check to indorse his name +upon the back, that indorsement means nothing to him. The check is +payable to the bearer and the teller must pay it if it appears all +right and he is certain of the signature at the bottom. + +For the average man who may write his checks at a desk, and who may be +willing to observe some system in the writing, perhaps the safest and +cheapest protection for his paper is to repeat in red-ink figures the +amount for which the check is drawn, placing those figures on the +signature line at the bottom in such a manner that the black-ink +signature will be woven through the red-ink group. Virtually there is +no way of getting around this form of duplicated amount. The red +figures show plainly through the signature and cannot be changed +without affecting the form and character of the signature itself. To +affect a signature in this way is to call attention to the fraud +instantly. A man may make a shaky mismove of the pen somewhere in the +body of the check, and if it is not too prominent a teller may take a +chance and pass it; but he will shy at a signature which isn't what it +ought to be--that subtle sixth sense of the old teller prompts him to +it before he knows why, and a paying teller is always vigilant. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +METHODS OF FORGERS, CHECK AND DRAFT RAISERS + +Professional Forgers and Their Methods--Using Engravers and +Lithographers--Their Knowledge of Chemicals--Patching Perforated +Paper--Difficult Matter to Detect Alterations and Forgeries--Selecting +Men for the Work--The Middle Man, Presenter, and Shadow--Methods +for Detecting Forgery--Detail Explanation of How Forgers +Work--Altering and Raising Checks and Drafts--A Favorite Trick of +Forgers--Opening a Bank Account for a Blind--Private Marks on Checks +no Safeguard--How a Genuine Signature Is Secured--Bankers Can +Protect Themselves--A Forger the Most Dangerous Criminal--Bankers +Should Scrutinize Signatures--Sending Photograph with Letter of +Advice--How to Secure Protection Against Forgers--Manner in Which +Many Banks Have Been Swindled--Points About Raising Checks and +Drafts That Should Be Carefully Noted. + + +A professional forgery band consists of first, a capitalist or backer; +second, the actual forger, known among his associates as the +"scratcher"; third, the man who acts as confidential agent for the +forger, known as the "middle man"; fourth, the man who presents the +forged paper at the bank for payment, known as the "layer down" or +presenter. + +When it is necessary to have a capitalist or backer connected with a +band he furnishes the funds for the organization, frequently lays out +the plans for work and obtains the genuine paper from which forgeries +are made. He will, when necessary, find the engraver, the lithographer +and most important of all, the "professional forger," who will do the +actual forgery work. + +The professional forger has, as a rule, considerable knowledge of +chemicals, which enables him to alter checks, drafts, bills of +exchange, letters of credit, or to change the names on registered +bonds. He is something of an artist, too, for with a fine camel's hair +brush he can restore the most delicate tints in bank safety paper, +which tints have been destroyed by the use of acids. In fact no bank +safety paper is a protection against him. + +When the amount of the genuine draft or check is perforated in the +paper, certain forgers have reached such perfection in their work as +to enable them to cut out the perforation, put in a patch about the +same as a shoemaker does with a shoe and then skilfully color the +patch to agree with the original, so that it becomes a very difficult +matter to detect the alterations even with the use of a microscope. +This done and the writing cleaned off the face of the draft, check, +letter of credit, or bill of exchange, with only the genuine signature +left and the tints on the paper restored, the forger is prepared to +fill up the paper for any amount decided upon. + +The backer or capitalist is rarely known to any member of the band +outside the "go-between," whom he makes use of to find the forger. He +very rarely allows himself to become known to the men who "present" +the forged paper at the banks. If the forgery scheme is successful, +the backer receives back the money paid out for the preparation of the +work as well as any amount he may have lent the "band" to enable them +to open accounts at banks where they propose placing the forged paper. +He is also allowed a certain percentage on all successful forgeries, +this percentage running from 20 to 30 per cent; but where the backer +and forger are working together, their joint percentage is never less +than 50 per cent. + +It is an invariable rule followed by the backer and forger that in +selecting a middle man they select one who not only has the reputation +of being a "stanch" man, but he must also be a man who has at least +one record of conviction standing against him. This is for the +additional protection of the backer and forger, as they know that in +law the testimony of an accomplice who is also a former convict must +be strongly corroborated to be believed. + +Out of their first successful forgeries a certain sum from each man's +share is held by the middle man to be used in the defense of any +member of the band who may be arrested on the trip. This money is +called "fall money" and is used to employ counsel for the men under +arrest or to do anything for them that may be for their interest. + +When a "middle man" is exceedingly cautious and not entirely satisfied +with the "presenters" he will sometimes have an assistant. This is +where the "shadow" comes in. This shadow will under the direction of +the "middle man" follow the "presenter" into the bank and report fully +on his actions. He sometimes catches the "presenter" in an attempt to +swindle his companions by claiming that he did not get the money, but +had to get out of the bank in a hurry and leave the check or draft, as +the paying teller was suspicious. + +A "presenter" caught at this trick is sometimes sent into a bank to +present a forged check where the bank has been previously warned of +his coming by an anonymous letter. This is done as a punishment for +his dishonesty and as a warning to others against treachery. + +That the professional forger eventually profits but little by his +ill-gotten gains is well illustrated by the fate of the most of them, +who end their days in prison. + +In the case of a forgery there are a dozen methods for detecting +it--in the quality of the ink, in the quality of paper, in microscopic +examination of the irregularities in penmanship, in "labored" tracings +that show exaggerated tracings, in composite photography, and by a +dozen little common-sense observations that scarcely can be +controverted. + +Some forgeries have been detected by the mere water-mark in the paper. +Sittl of Munich is quoted as having had referred to him a possible +forgery of a document dated 1868. Holding the paper to the light, he +found as a water-mark in it the figure of the eagle of the German +Empire--a symbol which had not been adopted at all until after the +French war of 1870. + +The magnifying glass is depended upon for many disclosures of +forgeries. The unduly serrated edges of the ink lines are quickly +marked in a forgery, though under certain circumstances a situation +may be such as to force a person into this laborious writing; he may +be cramped up in bed, writing on a book held in his lap, or he may be +in a mental strain that produces it. + +There are minds so easily impressed with a sense of responsibility +that the writing or signing of any paper important in its bearing on +the writer or his property will cause him to disguise his hand to some +extent involuntarily, as many persons disguise their features +involuntarily when being photographed. + +As to signatures especially, attention is called to the "tremor of +fraud," which is to be detected by the microscope, and stress is laid +upon the necessity of observing just where this tremor falls. If it is +in a difficult flourish of the signature and not elsewhere it indicates +fraud; or if it be tremulous to the eye, in imitation of the signature +of an aged person, a smooth, curved line may be the index of "the +difficulty experienced by a good penman in feigning to be a bad one." + +The microscope is useful and valuable in determining whether erasures +have been made on paper. Also it will discover which of two crossed +lines was last written. It may determine whether the ragged edges of +the ink lines are those of fraud, illiteracy, or old age. + +The practice of forging the names of depositors in banks to checks, +drafts, notes, and in fact to all papers representing a money value, +has been practiced, probably, since the creation of man. Of course the +law recognizes forgery as a serious crime, and everywhere the +punishment is severe. In the seventeenth century it was a capital +offense in England, and there were more persons executed for that +crime than there were for murder. Notwithstanding the rigorous penalty +prescribed in every state in the Union, forgery is carried on to an +alarming extent, sometimes by trusted employees, as well as +professionals. + +The raising of checks and drafts is the principal method employed by +the men who make a business of defrauding the unwary. The simplest way +of explaining the operation of raising a draft or check is as follows: + +Two men are necessary for success at any given point, and hence they +are not so liable to detection as if a number of confederates were +engaged. It is the business of one of these men to enter a bank, and +purchase a draft on New York City, for a certain amount of money, +usually about fifteen hundred dollars, and a short time after this +another draft would be procured from the same bank for a small amount, +seldom over ten dollars. These drafts procured, they are handed to the +"raiser," or the man who is to alter the paper for their dishonest +purposes. In a short time the small draft is raised to be a perfect +duplicate of the large one, in every sense of the word, both as +regards number, amount, place of presentation, etc. + +This work of alteration being fully completed, one of the men would +then remove to another city, and forward the "raised" draft to New +York, by express, for collection, or else would go to that city +himself, and have it cashed through some respectable person. +Immediately on receiving the money he would telegraph his companion, +in words previously agreed upon, informing him of the successful +result of the first move. The other confederate, upon the receipt of +this information, would at once go to the bank where the drafts had +been procured, and presenting the genuine draft for the large amount +of money, would request that the money be refunded, giving as an +excuse for not using it, either that he could not be identified in the +New York bank, and for that reason could not collect it, or that the +business he had procured it for had not been consummated. The bank +officials would recognize him as the person who purchased the draft, +and would unhesitatingly hand him back the money which he had paid. Of +course he would quickly disappear from the locality, never to be seen +in it again--and the forgery would not be discovered until, in the +due course of ordinary business, when the other draft for the same +amount would be returned for payment. + +A favorite trick of forgers, and check and draft raisers, who operate +on an extensive scale, is for one of them to open an office in a city, +and represent himself as a cattle dealer, lumber merchant, or one +looking about for favorable real-estate investments. His first move is +to open a bank account, and then works to get on friendly terms with +the cashier. He always keeps a good balance--sometimes way up in the +thousands--and deports himself in such a manner as to lead to the +belief that he is a highly honorable gentleman, and the bank officials +are led to the belief that he will eventually become a very profitable +customer. + +Occasionally he has a note, for a small amount to begin with, always +first-class, two-name paper, and he never objects--usually insists--in +paying a trifle more than the regular discount. At first the bank +officials closely examine the paper offered, and of course find that +the endorsers are men of high standing, and then their confidence in +the "cattle king" is unbounded. Gradually the notes increase in amount, +from a thousand to fifteen hundred dollars, and from fifteen hundred to +two or three thousand. The notes are promptly paid at maturity. After +the confidence of the bank people has been completely gained, the +swindler makes a strike for his greatest effort. He comes in the bank +in a hurry, presents a sixty-day note, endorsed by first-class men, for +a larger amount than he has ever before requested, and it generally +happens that he gets the money without the slightest difficulty. Then +he has a sudden call to attend to important business elsewhere. When +the note or notes mature, it is discovered to be a clever forgery. This +has been done time and again, and it is rare that the forger has been +apprehended. + +The forgery of checks is a common offense. It takes more than one man +to successfully perform this operation. The forger himself is known as +the "scratcher," or the expert penman of the party. The "middle man" +is the fellow who conducts the business negotiations, ostensibly as a +merchant, and the "layer-down" is the man who presents the check to +the bank and secures the cash. The middle man must have a pleasing +address, and be thoroughly posted on the commercial news of the day, +and it is requisite that the layer-down be well dressed, quick witted, +and possessed of an unlimited amount of polite assurance, a cheek that +never pales and an eye that never droops. In selecting a person to +fill this important position, the forger prefers to have a man who +has, at some time or other, been convicted of crime, so that in case +of discovery, and the turning of state's evidence by the layer-down +(who is always the man caught) his evidence will not have weight with +a jury. The latest mode is for the forger to imitate a private check +by the photo-lithographic method, after having obtained a signed +check. + +The signature, after being photographed, is carefully traced over with +ink, and the body of the check is filled up for whatever amount is +desired. The maker of the check is requested to identify the person +who holds it, and as a general thing he does not wait to see the money +paid. The moment his back is turned, the layer-down palms the small +check and presents the large one. This way of obtaining money is +without the assistance of a middle man. Private marks on a check are +no safeguards at all, although a great many merchants believe they can +prevent forgery by making certain dots, or seeming slips of the pen, +which are known only to the paying teller and themselves. This +precaution becomes useless when the forger uses the camera. Safe +breakers are often called upon by forgers and asked to secure a sheet +of checks out of a checkbook. When this is accomplished a few canceled +checks are taken at the same time. These are given to the forger and +he fills them up for large amounts, after tracing or copying the +signature. The safe burglars receive a percentage on the amount +realized. If your safe vault or desk is broken open, where your +check-book is kept, carefully count the leaves in your check-book, +also your canceled checks. If any are missing, notify the banks, and +begin using a different style of check immediately. The sneak thief, +while plying his trade, often secures unsigned bonds of some +corporation which has put the signed bonds in circulation, leaving the +rest unsigned until the next meeting of the directors. + +Frequently unsigned bonds are left in the bank vault for safe keeping. +These are stolen and sent to the penman or "scratcher." Then a genuine +signed bond is purchased, from which the signatures are copied and +then forged. The same trick has been played on unsigned bank notes, +but on the bank notes almost any name will do, as no person looks at +the signature, as long as the note appears genuine. + +The ingenuity of a countless army of sharpers is constantly at work in +this country, devising plans to obtain funds dishonestly, without +work, but, in fact, they often expend more time, skill, and labor in +carrying out their nefarious schemes than would serve to earn the sum +they finally secure, by honest labor. Every banker must, therefore, be +on his guard, and should acquaint himself with the most approved means +of detecting and avoiding the most common swindlers. This is just as +necessary as it is to lock his books and cash in his safe before going +home. + +Next to the counterfeiter, the forger is the most dangerous criminal +in business life. Transactions involving the largest sums of money are +completed on the faith in the genuineness of a signature. Hence every +effort should be made to acquire the art of detecting an imitation at +a glance. This can be done only by considerable practice. It is +asserted that every signature has character about it which cannot be +perfectly copied, and which can always be detected by an experienced +eye. This is problematical, but certainly a skilful bank teller can +hardly be deceived by the forgery of a name of a well-known depositor. + +A banker should accustom himself to scrutinize closely the signatures +of those with whom he deals. He should cut off their names from the +backs of checks and notes, and paste them in alphabetical order in an +autograph book devoted to that purpose, and compare any suspicious +signature with the genuine one. + +In consequence of the numerous frauds committed by forged checks, some +of the European bankers have adopted the custom of sending with their +letter of advice a photograph of the person in whose favor the credit +has been issued, and to stop the payment when the person who presents +himself at the bank does not resemble the picture. If this practice +were to become universal, the object of preventing frauds could be +well attained. + +Instead of the signature being forged, the amount of a check, etc., +may be altered. This is done either by changing the letters and +figures, or by the use of an erasive fluid. The perfection with which +the latter alteration can be performed is so complete that the most +skilful eye cannot detect the imposture. A person may deposit a +hundred dollars with a house in New York, and obtain their draft for +that amount on Philadelphia; he then alters the one hundred to one +thousand by erasing a portion of the letters and figures and cashes +the draft at a broker's. The latter recognizes the signature, and has +no suspicion of the fraud until too late. + +The means to secure entire protection against this is by using an ink +which cannot be erased by chemicals, or at least such chemicals as are +familiarly known to the class of criminals who make this a specialty. +Every well-regulated bank now uses a machine for punching or +perforating a series of small holes in the check, so that any increase +or decrease of the number of letters written is immediately detected. + +Many banks have been swindled in the following manner: A check, say +for ten dollars, is obtained from a depositor of a bank, and a blank +check exactly like the filled-in check is secured. The two checks are +laid one upon the other, so that the edges are exactly even. Both +checks are then torn irregularly across, and in such a way that the +signature on the filled check appears on one piece and the amount and +name of the payee on the other. The checks having been held together +while being torn, of course one piece of blank check will exactly fit +the other piece of the filled check. The swindler then fills in one +piece of the blank check with the name of the payee and an amount to +suit himself, takes it with the piece of the genuine check containing +the signature to the bank, and explains that the check was accidently +torn. The teller can put the pieces together, and as they will fit +exactly, the chances are that he will think that the pieces are parts +of the same check, and becomes a victim of the swindle. The trick, of +course, suggests its own remedy. + +It is a well-known fact that there are banks in the country that have +paid thousands of dollars on raised checks, and decided that it was +cheaper for them to pocket the loss than to have the facts become +known. + +The New York Court of Appeals holds that the maker of a check is +obliged to use all due diligence in protecting it, and the omission to +use the most effectual protection against alterations is regarded as +an evidence of neglect. + +Here are a few points about raising checks and drafts that should be +carefully noted: To successfully raise a check or draft requires so +much less skill or art than to accomplish a forgery that it has of +late become alarmingly prevalent. Often where a check or draft is +printed on ordinary paper the original figures are removed by some +chemical process so skilfully that no alteration can be detected, even +with a strong magnifying glass. + +It is not uncommon, when filling up checks or drafts, to take another +pen, and with red ink write the amount across the face of the paper, +and again make the figures in and through the signature. All these +precautions may make tampering with the amount more difficult for a +clumsy novice, but it only imposes a few moments' more work upon the +accomplished manipulator. He takes his strong solution of chloride of +lime and rain water, or other prepared chemicals, and with a pen +suited to the purpose, by neutralizing and abstracting the coloring +properties of the ink, he carefully obliterates such portions of the +lines in the figures and written amounts as suits his purpose, then +easily makes the alteration he desires, the red ink coming out as +readily as black. And if the tint or coloring of the paper should have +been affected by his cautious touch, he takes the proper shade of +crayon or water-color, and carefully replaces the original shade. + +Now, the signature not being touched, but remaining genuine, and the +payer not being supposed to know who wrote the check, but only who +signed it, he pays the amount specified, and the law holds the "maker +of the check responsible when there is nothing in its appearance to +excite suspicion, and the signature is proven genuine." + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE HANDWRITING EXPERT + +No Law Regulating Experience and Skill Necessary to Constitute An +Expert--Experts Held Competent to Testify in Court--Bank Officials +and Employes Favored--An Expert On Signatures--Methods Experts Employ +to Identify the Work of the Pen--Where and When an Expert's Services +Are Needed--Large Field and Growing Demand for Experts--Qualifications +of a Handwriting Expert--How the Work Is Done--A Good Expert +Continuously Employed--The Expert and the Charlatan--Qualifying as +an Expert--A System Which Produces Results--Principal Tests Applied +by Handwriting Experts to Determine Genuineness--Identification of +Individual by His Handwriting--How to Tell Kind of Ink and Process +Used to Forge a Writing--Rules Followed by Experts in Determining +Cases--The Testimony of a Handwriting Expert--Explaining Methods +Employed to Detect Forged Handwriting--The Courts and Experts--What +an Expert May Testify to--Trapping a Witness--Proving Handwriting +by Experts--General Laws Regulating Experts--The Base Work of a +Handwriting Expert--Important Facts an Expert Begins Examination +With--A Few Words of Advice and Suggestion About "Pen Scope"--Detection +of Forgery Easy If Rules Suggested Are Observed--Expert Witnesses, +Courts, and Jurors. + + +There is no rule of law fixing the precise amount of experience or +degree of skill necessary to constitute a handwriting expert. The +witness need not be engaged in any particular business or claim to be +a professional expert. He must, however, claim to have experience. +With that limitation, cashiers, paying tellers, other bank officers, +attorneys, bookkeepers, business men, conveyancers, county officials, +photographers, treasurers and clerks of railroads, etc., and writing +teachers have in various cases been held competent to testify as an +expert. And it has been held that experience with handwriting +generally or specially will enable the witness to testify specially or +generally thereto. Bank officials, and especially cashiers, tellers, +and book-keepers, are usually regarded as competent by most courts to +pass authoritatively upon handwriting. + +Generally speaking, the witness must claim to be an expert, or at +least show that he had the means of gaining experience. He need not +claim to be an expert, but he must claim to have had such experience +as will make him feel competent to express an opinion. + +He may always give the reasons for his opinion, but he must confine +his testimony to his opinion based on the handwriting itself, and not +as affected by the facts of the case. He cannot state any inferences +deduced from the facts. He must also testify himself. Evidence of what +an expert has said with reference to a writing is inadmissible for the +purpose of bringing that opinion before the court. + +An expert may be tested with other papers in the case, but not with +irrelevant papers, and the whole of the test paper must be shown him. +He is entitled to see it all. + +Letter-press copies and duplicates made by writing machines are not +originals and therefore cannot be used as a standard of comparison. + +An expert cannot give an opinion as to the genuineness of a signature +based upon a comparison thereof with signatures not before the court. + +The standard of comparison used by the expert must be produced in +court. Photographic copies are admissible when accompanied by the +originals. When original writings are in evidence and the genuineness +thereof disputed, magnified photographic copies of the writing and of +admitted genuine writings are admissible in evidence, for comparison +by jury or expert when accompanied by competent preliminary proof that +the copies are accurate in all respects except as to size and color. + +The services of the expert are required in a wide range of civil and +criminal cases. Where handwriting is questioned on notes, checks, +drafts, receipts, wills, deeds, mortgages, bonds, anonymous letters, +money orders, registered letter receipts, letters, pension papers, and +in smuggling, and in short, on any kind of document where it becomes +necessary to establish the identity of the writer, the expert is +called in. Life, liberty, honor, and property are frequently balanced +on a pen point--a few marks of the pen being the determining feature +of many a case. + +The handwriting of the schoolboy and schoolgirl, though crude, is +conventional and idealized. It has but few characteristics so long as +the school model or copy-book hand is the goal. The pupil gives +constant attention to the handwriting as well as to the thought. A +number of students of about the same grade, under the same teacher, +will write much alike. Fifteen or twenty of these students could each +write a line on a page and it might baffle a layman, and perhaps +puzzle an expert, to tell whether or not more than one person wrote +the page. This constant striving after one ideal, and putting thought +on the handwriting, had drawn them all toward that ideal and away from +individuality. + +The employment of professional handwriting experts as witnesses in +court cases that often involve enormous sums of money, or the liberty +or even the lives of suspected malefactors, has awakened widespread +interest in the methods of this class of experts, their resources and +capabilities in conserving the ends of justice. + +Many uninformed people appear to look on the handwriting expert as one +who, by intuition or the possession of some mysterious occult power, +is enabled to distinguish at a glance the true and the spurious in any +questioned handwriting. Nothing could be further from the fact. + +The secret of his power--as in any other line of scientific +research--lies wholly in his intimate familiarity with the innumerable +physical details which comprise the written line or word or +letter--sometimes so slight a matter as the dotting of an _i_ or the +placing of a comma. It is precisely the same specialized sense, born +of acute observation and minute scrutiny that enables an expert +chemist to take two powders of like weight and color, identical in +appearance to the common eye and perhaps in taste to the common +palate, and say: This drug is harmless, wholesome; that is a deadly +poison--and to specify not only their various individual constituents +but the exact proportion of each. The trained eye of the handwriting +expert (as in another case could that of the expert chemist) can often +detect at a glance certain distinguishing earmarks of submitted +writing that enable him to fix the identity of the writer almost +off-hand. In the the great majority of cases, however, the cunning of +the forger calls for deliberate, painstaking study and investigation +before the conscientious expert is willing to announce with absolute +surety an opinion so often fraught with tremendous possibilities for +good or for evil. + +Nothing else that a person does is so characteristic as the +handwriting, and the identification of the individual can be +established by it better than by portraits or almost any other means. +As lawyers and laymen and courts are finding this out, the handwriting +expert is more and more called upon to untangle snarled questions and +to right wrongs. + +It is only when attention is directed to this interesting science by +the wide publicity given to some great case in which handwriting plays +an important part that the notice of the general public is drawn to +it. The average person would be surprised to know of the great number +of cases that find their way to the office of the handwriting expert. +The man who has made a success in this line is constantly in demand, +and makes frequent trips to distant points to appear as witness in +courts. + +Though nearly every large town has some one who devotes some attention +to handwriting, there are but five or six men in this country who give +to it practically all of their time, and who have gone very deeply +into the subject. + +To allow any person to qualify as an "expert" and to testify as such +is a matter wholly within the discretion of the court. Unfortunately, +courts frequently are lax in determining this question. Almost any one +who can write is permitted to give alleged "expert" testimony +regarding handwriting. In one well-known case, a case, too, involving +life and death--the court unwittingly accepted the "expert" testimony +of a witness who, it was afterward proven, was unable to write even so +much as his own name. In the litigation attending the disposal of +large mining interests held at Butte, Montana, the court permitted +testimony in regard to the handwriting of the testator from a witness +who admitted that he had seen the testator write but once, and that in +lead pencil over twenty years before. + +Any one accustomed to writing is usually allowed to qualify as an +"expert." To the lay mind it is natural to confound experts who have +studied the subject deeply in all its various phases with those who +have had occasion to examine it casually, or who may possess uncommon +facility with the pen without ever having had occasion to investigate +scientifically just those little illusive points upon which the +professional expert places his reliance. + +Hence, when we read of "experts" being mistaken, or of an equal number +of them appearing on opposite sides of the same case, it will nearly +always be found upon investigation that they are of the class +described above, whose lack of thorough special training and +specialized experience really should have disqualified them from +giving testimony. Though any one may call himself an "expert," or a +"professional expert," for that matter, thus opening the door to +charlatanism in exactly the same manner that it is opened more or less +in all vocations, yet, as a matter of fact, it is very rare that +professional handwriting experts testify to a contrary state of facts, +and the cases in which they have been proven mistaken are remarkably +few. + +Experts who have a natural aptitude coupled with experience that +produces skill are able, by a system which they have reduced to a +science, to detect the spurious from the genuine handwriting with +almost unvarying success. But their conclusions are not reached by +second sight or sleight-of-hand methods, but rather by painstaking, +scientific investigation. + +Some of the principal tests applied to determine the genuineness of +handwriting are these: The actual and relative slant of the letters or +the angles between their stems and the base; the constancy and +accuracy with which a straight line is followed as a base; the amount +of pressure used on the pen and the part of the stroke where it is +applied, and the positions of the line as a whole relative to the +edges of the paper. The simplest punctuation mark under the microscope +has its own individuality. It would be difficult to find two writers +whose semicolons and quotation marks cannot be distinguished at a +glance. The dotting of the _i_ and crossing of the _t_ afford an +infinite number of relations between points and lines, and in both of +these the time element and the freedom of muscular movement play +important parts. Even the health and self-control of the penman, as +well as the physical circumstances, show their influence on these +little strokes. + +The identification of the individual by means of his handwriting is of +great value in legal trials and outside of courts. Its use cannot be +dispensed with any more than can the knowledge obtained in any other +line of science. + +One often hears a man boast of his ability to successfully duplicate +another person's signature or handwriting, and to the casual observer +the counterfeit really will bear a striking resemblance to the +original. However, let the two be placed in the hands of an expert on +disputed handwriting and he will pretty quickly determine which is the +original and which the forgery. Furthermore, he will tell you what +process was used to make the duplicate, for there are several methods +in use among forgers, and can even tell the composition of the ink. + +In the determination of any handwriting there is no actual rule to +guide an expert, as each case must be a law unto itself. The time of +day that the signature was made and the condition for the moment of +the individual have considerable bearing on the case, as has also the +writer's general physical condition. Whether he was standing or +sitting when the signature was made is a matter of importance. The +quality of the paper and the make of the pen also have to be taken +into consideration. In the case of forgery, where the forger has +employed a finger movement writing with the muscles and apparently +without education, there is scarcely any difficulty in arriving at a +conclusion. The long flowing hand is easy to detect. When, however, +the writing is finical a large mass of material has to be examined +before a decision can be reached. + +The testimony of an expert is without doubt the most dangerous kind of +evidence when not supported by additional testimony; but, on the other +hand, if the known facts fit in well, it is the strongest kind of +testimony that can be submitted, and is usually known as "opinioned +evidence." There probably is no class of professional witnesses which +is subjected to such severe cross-examination as experts in +handwriting, and, considering the great importance of their testimony, +they should be ever ready and willing to explain the methods employed +by them in arriving at their decision, which, of course, is the result +of a comparison of the analyses of several pieces of writing, taking +account of all exaggerations, idiosyncrasies and unusual +peculiarities. + +All evidence of handwriting, except where the witness has seen the +writing in question written, is derived from four sources: First, from +comparison; second, from the internal evidence of the writing itself; +third, from the knowledge of the writing, from having frequently seen +a person write; fourth, where one has received letters whose +authorship has been subsequently verified by admission, or acted upon +in such manner as to receive the approval of the writer. Comparison is +made between the writing in question and other writing admitted by the +writer to be genuine, or otherwise proved to be so to the satisfaction +of the court. + +The evidence adduced from comparison is more or less certain according +to the skill of the expert and the circumstances of the case. Internal +evidence is such as is presented by the peculiar quality of lines when +drawn or worked up by slowly following traced lines, retouched shades, +rubbered surface of the paper, and every indication of an artificial +or mechanical process of producing writing. + +Testimony based upon a knowledge of writing gained from having at some +time seen a person write is the most fallacious of all testimony +respecting handwriting; it can be only a mental comparison of writing +in question with such a vague idea or mental picture as may remain +from a casual view of the writing at some time more or less remote; +and besides, one may perceive another in the act of writing and yet +have little or no opportunity of forming any mental conception of it, +even at the time of writing. + +In some cases where the courts will permit it the expert witness may +fully explain upon what he bases his opinion but it oftener occurs that +the trial judge will limit the evidence down to the very narrow scope +and the mere relation of such facts as the jury can see. Where a +forgery is well executed the difference in general appearance between +it and the genuine writing of the person whose signature is questioned, +when compared, is very small. The limit put upon expert evidence by the +trial judge takes from the effect of the testimony all the benefit of +an explanation of the facts upon which the opinion is founded. + +Juries are generally allowed to examine enlarged photographs of the +writing, and sometimes to see it under the microscope, but even when +so doing what they see unexplained cannot be appreciated intelligently +and unless taken for granted as meaning something which the experience +of the expert who gives the opinion understands, and which they +without such an education, could not be expected to understand that +which the photographs show and the microscope makes visible is just as +likely to be misleading as otherwise. + +An expert may testify as to the characteristics of the handwriting in +question; as to whether the writing is natural or feigned, or was or +was not written at the same time, with the same pen and ink, and by +the same person, and as to alterations or erasures therein; and as to +the age of the writing and obscurities therein; the result of his +examination of the writing under a magnifying glass; and to prove in +some cases the standard of comparison. + +In the United States a witness may be asked to write on cross-examination, +but not in direct. + +Before a paper can be accepted as a standard of comparison it must be +proved to be genuine to the satisfaction of the judge. His decision on +this question is final if supported by proper evidence. In some states +the question of genuineness is for the jury. + +A party denying his handwriting may be asked on cross-examination, if +his signature to another instrument is genuine. This is the test which +may be successfully applied to ascertain if the signature is genuine. +A plaintiff, on one occasion, denied most positively that a receipt +produced was in his handwriting. It was thus worded, "Received the +Hole of the above." On being asked to write a sentence in which the +word "whole" was introduced, he took evident pains to disguise his +handwriting, but he adopted the phonetic style of spelling, and also +persisted in using the capital _H_. + +The practice of thus testing a witness is vindicated by one of the +most sagacious of German jurists, Mittermaier, on grounds not only of +expediency, but of authority. + +Comparison of handwriting, either by jury or witness, is uniformly +allowed to prove writings which are not old enough to prove +themselves, but are too old to admit of direct proof of their +genuineness. + +Handwriting, considered under the law of evidence, includes not only +the ordinary writing of one able to write, but also writing done in a +disguised hand, or in cipher, and a mark made by one able or unable to +write. + +The principles regulating the proof of handwriting apply equally to +civil and criminal cases. + +The paper the handwriting of which is sought to be proved by experts +must ordinarily be produced in court, but such production will be +excused when the paper has been lost or destroyed and when it is a +public record, which cannot be brought into court. + +Genuineness may be proved in all cases, except where paper is required +to be identified by an official seal, and except as controlled by law +applicable to attested instruments. + +It may be proved by his own admissions; by witnesses who saw the party +write; by witnesses who corresponded with the party; by witnesses who +had seen papers acknowledged by the party; by witnesses having +personal relations with the party. + +Comparison of handwriting, technically called _presumptio ex scripto +nunv viso_, is where a paper or papers are proved or admitted to be in +a party's handwriting, and a witness entirely unacquainted with the +party's handwriting, or the jury, is allowed to make a comparison by +juxtaposition of the writing so proved or admitted, and the writing +disputed. + +All evidence of handwriting, except where the witness sees the +documents written, is in its nature comparison. It is the belief which +a witness entertains upon comparing the writing in question with an +exemplar in his mind derived from some previous writing. + +In all the states of the Union the laws are uniform on the proposition +that experts may testify as to comparisons made and the results based +on such comparisons, except that the paper admitted to be genuine +shall not contain matter of a frivolous nature, etc. + +In a broad, general way the element of common sense is the basework of +an expert's success in the business. He cannot depend upon anything +suggesting intuition. Where two signatures or two specimens of writing +are in question and one exhibit is a forgery and the other is genuine, +or where both are genuine, yet in question, the expert is in the +position of making his proofs and demonstrations convincing to the +layman--the hard headed citizen who insists that "you show me." +Frequently this citizen is on a jury where he has had to admit that he +is not particularly intelligent before he would be accepted for the +place. + +As a first proposition to such a man, however, the expert in +chirography may put him to the proof that out of a dozen signatures of +his own name no two will be alike in general form. Then he may turn to +the authentic and forged signatures in almost any case and show to the +layman that the first question of forgery arose from the fact that +these two signatures at a first glance are identically alike to almost +the minutest detail. With all the skill which the forger has put into +his crooked work, he keeps to the old principle of copying the +authentic signature which he has in hand, and the more nearly he can +reproduce this signature in every proportion the more readily the +forgery can be proved. + +One of the most important facts from which the expert may begin his +investigations of possible forgery is that every man using a pen in +writing has his "pen scope." This technical term describes the average +stretch of paper which a man may cover without lifting the pen from +the paper and shifting his hand to continue the line. In even the +freest, swinging movements of a pen where the hand follows the pen +fingers, there are occasional breaks in the lettering or undue stretch +of space between the words which will indicate a characteristic scope +of the pen if the specimens under investigation cover an ordinary +paragraph in length. + +As applied to the signatures of the ordinary individual, this pen +scope will appear in some form in the signature. The writer may lift +his pen before he has spelled out a long Christian or surname, he may +indicate it in the placing of a middle initial or in the space which +lies between the initial and the last name. In the case of the +signature of one's name, too, it should be one of the easiest and +lest-studied group of words which he is called on to put upon paper. +In writing a letter, for example, the pen scope through it may show an +average stretch of one inch for the text of the letter, while in the +signature the whole length of the signature twice as long, may be +covered. But if the writer covers this full stretch of his name in +this way the expert may prove by the necessary short pen scope of the +copyist that the studied copy is a forgery on its face. For however +free of pen stroke the forger may be naturally, his attempts to +produce a facsimile of the signature shortens it beyond the scope of +the original signer. + +If a search be made through a series of undisputedly genuine +signatures, it will be found that one characteristic fails in one and +another in another. Here is where the handwriting expert makes his +service valuable. He studies all these important points, and is not +long in arriving at a successful conclusion. + +The introduction of the experimental method into all modern +investigation has led to the hope that in this difficult subject means +will be found to introduce simpler forms of determining regular or +irregular handwriting. + +As long as the steps by which experts reach their conclusions are so +intricate or recondite that only the results may be stated to the +jury, just so long will the character of expert testimony suffer in +the opinion of the public, and the insulting charge against it be +repeated that any side can hire an expert to support its case. + +If a single competent expert could be selected by the court to take up +questions of this kind and lay his results before it, the present +system would be less objectionable than it is. Nevertheless, this +solution is probably not the best, because no man is capable of always +observing and judging correctly, and the most careful man may be led +astray by elements in the problem before him of which he does not +suspect the existence. It would seem, therefore, to be fairer and less +open to objection if a plan of investigation were followed which can +be clearly explained to those who are to decide a case and the +resulting data left in their hands to assist them in their decision. + +In such a manner of presentation, if any important data have been +omitted, or if the premises do not warrant the conclusion, the errors +can be detected without accusing the expert of lack of good faith or +ignorance of his subject. The fact that he has testified in hundreds +of cases and in every court in the world should not be allowed to +influence the jury against a logical conclusion drawn from +uncontroverted facts. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +HOW TO DETECT FORGED HANDWRITING + +Frequency of Litigation Arising Over Disputed Handwriting--Forged and +Fictitious Claims Against the Estates of Deceased People--Forgery +Certain to Be Detected When Subjected to Skilled Expert Examination--A +Forger's Tracks Cannot Be Successfully Covered--With Modern Devices +Fraudulent, Forged and Simulated Writing Can Be Determined beyond +the Possibility of a Mistake--Bank Officials and Disputed +Handwriting--How to Test and Determine Genuine and Forged +Signatures--Useful Information About Signature Writing--Guard +Against An Illegible Signature--Avoid Gyrations, Whirls and +Flourishes--Write Plain, Distinct and Legible--The Signature to +Adopt--The People Forgers Pass By--How to Imitate Successfully--How an +Expert Detects Forged Handwriting--Examples of Signatures Forgers +Desire to Imitate--Examining and Determining a Forgery--Comparisons +of Disputed Handwriting--Microscopic Examinations a Great Help in +Detecting Forged Handwriting--Comparison of Forged Handwriting. + + +Few persons outside of the banking and legal fraternity are aware of +the frequency with which litigations arise from one or another of the +many phases of disputed handwriting; doubtless most frequently from +that of signatures to the various forms of commercial obligations or +other instruments conveying title to property, such as notes, checks, +drafts, deeds, wills, etc. To a less extent the disputed portions +involve alterations of books of account and other writings, by erasure, +addition, interlineation, etc., while sometimes the trouble comes in +the form of disguised or simulated writings. A disproportionately large +number of these cases arise from forged and fictitious claims against +the estates of deceased people. This results, first, from the fact that +such claims are more easily established, as there is usually no one by +whom they can be directly contradicted; and, secondly, for the reason +that administrators are less liable to exercise the highest degree of +caution than are persons who pay out their own money. + +In all instances where a forgery extends to the manufacturing of any +considerable piece of writing, it is certain of being detected and +demonstrated when subjected to a skilled expert examination; but where +forgery is confined to a single signature, and that perhaps of such a +character as to be easily simulated, detection is ofttimes difficult, +and expert demonstrations less certain or convincing. Yet instances +are rare in which the forger of even a signature does not leave some +unconscious traces that will betray him to the ordinary expert, while +in most instances forgery will be at once so apparent to an expert as +to admit of a demonstration more trustworthy and convincing to court +and jury than is the testimony of witnesses to alleged facts, who may +be deceived, or even lie. The unconscious tracks of the forger, +however, cannot be bribed or made to lie, and they often speak in a +language so unmistakable as to utterly defy controversion. + +Note illustrations of forged handwriting in Appendix at end of this +book. + +With the present-day knowledge of writing in its various phases, the +identity of forged, fraudulent or simulated writing can be determined +beyond the possibility of a mistake. Every year sees an increase in +the number of important civil and criminal cases that turn on +questions of disputed handwriting. + +There is not a day in the year but what bank officials are at sea over +a disputed signature and a knowledge of how to test and determine +genuine and forged signatures will prove of inestimable value to the +banking and business world. + +Forgery is easy. Detection is difficult. As the rewards for the +successful forgers are great, thousands upon thousands of forged +checks, notes, drafts, wills, deeds, receipts and all kinds of +commercial papers are produced in the United States every year. Many +are litigated, but many more are never discovered. + +Practical and useful information about signature writing and how to +safeguard one's signature against forgery is something that will be +welcomed by those who are constantly attaching their names to valuable +papers. + +Every man should guard against an illegible signature--for example, a +series of meaningless pen tracks with outlandish flourishes, such as +are assumed by many people with the feeling that because no one can +read them, they cannot be successfully imitated. Experience has +demonstrated that the easiest signatures to successfully forge are +those that are illegible, either from design or accident. The banker +or business man who sends his pen through a series of gyrations, +whirls, flourishes and twists and calls it a signature is making it +easy for a forger to reproduce his signature, for it is a jumble of +letters and ink absolutely illegible and easy of simulation. Every man +should learn to write plain, distinct and legible. + +The only signature to adopt is one that is perfectly legible, clear +and written rapidly with the forearm or muscular movement. One of the +best preventatives of forgery is to write the initials of the +name--that is, write them in combination--without lifting the pen. It +will help if the small letters are all connected with each other and +with the capitals. Select a style of capital letters and always use +them; study out a plain combination of them; practice writing until it +can be written easily and rapidly and stick to it. Don't confuse your +banker by changing the form of a letter or adding flourishes. +Countless repetitions will give a facility in writing it that will +lend a grace and charm and will stamp it with your peculiar +characteristics in such a way that the forger will pass you by when +looking for an "easy mark." Plain signatures of the character noted +above are not the ones usually selected by forgers for simulation. +Forgers are always hunting for the illegible as in it they can best +hide their identity. + +It is said to be an utter impossibility for one person to imitate +successfully a page of writing of another. The person attempting the +forgery should be able to accomplish the following: First, he must +know all the characteristics of his own hand; second, he must be able +to kill all the characteristics of his own hand; third, he must know +all of the characteristics in the hand he is imitating; fourth, he +must be able to assume characteristics of the other's hand at will. +These four points are insuperable obstacles, and the forger does not +live who has surmounted or can surmount them. + +To understand the principles on which an expert in handwriting bases +his work, consider for a moment how a person's style of writing is +developed. He begins by copying the forms set for him by a teacher. He +approximates more or less closely to these forms. His handwriting is +set, formal, and without character. As soon as he leaves off following +the copy book, however, his writing begins to take on individual +characteristics. These are for the most part unconscious. He thinks of +what he is writing, not how. In time these peculiarities, which creep +gradually into a man's writing, become fixed habits. By the time he +is, say, twenty-five years old, his writing is settled. After that it +may vary, may grow better or worse, but is certain to retain those +distinguishing marks which, in the man himself, we call personality. +This personality remains. He cannot disguise it, except in a +superficial way, any more than he can change his own character. + +It follows that no two persons write exactly the same hands. It is +easy to illustrate this. Suppose, for example, that among 10,000 +persons there is one hunchback, one minus his right leg, one with an +eye missing, one bereft of a left arm, one with a broken nose. To find +a person with two of these would require, probably, 100,000 people; +three of them, 1,000,000; four of them, 100,000,000. One possessing +all of them might not be found in the entire 14,000,000,000 people on +earth. Precisely the same with different handwritings--the peculiar +and distinguishing characteristics of one would no more be present in +others than would the personal counterparts of the authors be found in +other individuals. + +It is more surprising, at first thought, to be told that no person +ever signs his name even twice alike. Of course, theoretically, it +cannot be said that it is impossible for a person to write his name +twice in exactly the same manner. A person casting dice might throw +double aces a hundred times consecutively. But who would not act on +the practical certainty that the dice were loaded long before the +hundredth throw was reached in such a case? The same reasoning applies +to the matter of handwriting with added force, because the chance of +two signatures being exactly alike is incomparably less than the +chance of the supposed throws of the dice. + +Probably many persons will not believe that it is impossible for them +to write their own name twice alike. For them it will be an interesting +experiment to repeat their signatures, say, a hundred times, writing +them on various occasions and under different circumstances, and then +to compare the result. It is safe to say that they will hardly find two +of these which do not present some differences, even to their eyes, and +under the examination of a trained observer aided by the microscope, +these divergencies stand out tenfold more plainly. + +Many cases of forgery hinge on this point, the forger having copied +another person's signature by tracing one in his possession, but such +attempts are always more easy to detect than those in which the forger +carefully imitates another's hand. The latter is the usual procedure. +The forger secures examples of the signature or writing which he +desires to imitate. Then he practices on it, trying to reproduce all +its striking peculiarities. In this way he sometimes arrives at a +resemblance so close as to deceive even his victim. Still there is +always present some internal evidence to prove that the writing is not +the work of the person to whom it is attributed. Likewise it will +reveal the identity of the person who actully wrote it, if specimens +of his natural hand are to be had for comparison. + +It is impossible for a man to carry in his mind and to reproduce on +paper all the peculiar characteristics of another man's writing and at +the same time to conceal all his own. At some point there is certain +to come a slip when the habit of years asserts itself and gives the +testimony which may fix the whole production on the forger beyond the +shadow of a doubt. + +The little things are the ones that count most in making examination +and determining a forgery for the reason that they are no less +characteristic than the more prominent peculiarities and are more +likely to be overlooked by the person who tries to disguise his hand. +The crossing of _t's_ and the dotting of _i's_ become matters of large +moment in making comparisons of disputed handwritings. There is +probably no matter in conjunction with a man's ordinary writing to +which he gives less thought than the way he makes these crosses and +dots. For that reason they are in the highest degree characteristic. +And it is precisely because of their apparently slight importance that +the person who sets out to imitate another's handwriting or to +disguise his own is likely to be careless about these little marks and +to make slips which will be sufficient to prove his identity. + +Imitations of signatures are usually written in a laborious and +painstaking manner. They are, therefore, decidedly unlike a man's +natural signature, which is usually written in an easy fashion. The +imitations show frequent pauses, irregularities in pen pressure and in +the distribution of ink, and contain other evidences of hesitation. +Not infrequently the forger tries to improve on his work by retouching +some of the letters after he has completed a word. Microscopic +examination brings out all of these things and makes them tell-tale +witnesses. + +Comparison of handwriting is competent but is not itself conclusive +evidence of forgery. Identification of handwriting is, if possible, +more difficult than identification of the person which so often forms +the chief difficulty in criminal trials. As illness, strange dress, +unusual attitude, and the like, cause mistakes in identifying the +individual, so a bad pen or rough paper, a shaky hand and many other +things change the appearance of a person's handwriting. + +This kind of evidence ought never, therefore, to be regarded as full +proof in trials where a handwriting is in dispute. Generally the best +witness in a handwriting case is one who often sees the party write, +through whose hands his writing has been continually passing, and +whose opinion is not the result of an inspection made on a particular +occasion for a special purpose. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +GREATEST DANGER TO BANKS + +Check-Raising Always a Danger--A Scheme Almost Impossible to +Prevent--The American Bankers' Association the Greatest Foe to +Forgers--It Follows Them Relentlessly and Successfully--Chemically +Prepared Paper and Watermarks Not Always a Safeguard--Perforating +Machines and Check Raisers--How Check Perforations Are Overcome--How an +Ordinary Check Is Raised--How an Expert Alters Checks--How Perforations +Are Filled--Hasty Examination by Paying Tellers Encourages +Forgers--The Way Bogus Checks Creep Through a Bank Unnoticed--A +Celebrated Forgery Case--Forgers Successful for a Time Always +Caught--Where Forgers Usually Go That Have Made a Big Haul--A +Professional Crook Is a Person of Large Acquaintance. + + +Raising checks has become the greatest danger to the banks. There is +no comparison between raising checks with a genuine signature and +forging the signature itself, so far as ease of execution is +concerned. After many years of arduous work and after great +expenditures of money the banks have to admit sorrowfully that if a +man wants to raise a check he can do it; and the detection, while, of +course, inevitable when the paid check returns to the depositor, is +not immediate enough to prevent the swindler from getting away with +the money. + +That is why the most implacable enemy of the men who dare raise or +falsify a check is the American Bankers' Association. This great +concern in reality is a protective association, and it relentlessly +hunts down all forgers first, last, and all the time. It never lets +up, absolutely never, no matter time, money, or trouble. It bitterly +pursues defaulters for the sake of justice, but it has still another +object in its deadly trailing of forgers and check tampereus. That is +because the whole banking structure hangs on signed paper. When it can +be altered with impunity, away goes the financial system of to-day. +Hence the unrelenting hunting-down of forgers who trifle with men's +names. On the books of more than one large detective agency of the +country are cases more than ten years old. The forgers never have been +found, but the hunt still goes on. Reports of the chase come in +regularly and the books will not be closed until the hunt stops at +prison doors or beside a grave. + +Yet with all this remorseless hunting, check-raising flourishes so +well all over the United States that the banks fear to give even a +hint as to the sums of which they or their depositors are robbed each +year. The magnitude of the amount would frighten too many persons. + +For a time it was thought that the use of chemically prepared paper +would prove a safeguard, because any erasure or alteration would show +immediately. The chemicals used in its composition would make the ink +run if acids were used to change the figures. But among the +check-raisers there were chemists just as clever as the chemists who +devised the prepared paper. + +Then paper with watermarks woven through it was used. But it, too, +became an easy mark for the chemists who had gone wrong. + +Finally, and until recently, the banking world thought that it had +struck the absolute safeguard by using a machine to stamp on the check +the exact amount for which it was drawn, the machine perforating the +paper as it stamped it. Certainly it does seem that when the paper is +cut right out of the check, leaving nothing but holes, no change is +humanly possible. But the completeness of this supposed safeguard has +offered a tempting field for the check-raiser. + +A special detective in the employ of the American Bankers' +Association, who has spent half the years of his mature life in +running down forgers and check-raisers, said that it was "too easy" to +raise checks, and that a good many more men than try it now would do +it were it not for the well-known relentlessness of the association in +running down offenders against any single one of its constituent +members. + +"Write me a check for any sum you want," said the sleuth, "and I'll +show you." + +A check for $200 was written and passed over to him. In less than two +minutes, without an erasure of any kind, the check called for $500, +and the work was done so well even in that short time that the writer +would have been tempted to believe that he had made an error and +really drawn the check for that amount had he not been sure to the +contrary. + +"That kind of raising is easy," said the expert. "You see it demands +no interlining or extending of words. The check-raiser simply knows +how well certain characters lend themselves to changes that cannot be +detected. The capital _T_ in almost every man's handwriting can be +changed to a capital _F_ without any trouble by even an unskilled +crook." + +A check for $2,000 was raised to $50,000 almost in the wink of an eye. +"This is the easy and safer part of the business," said he. "But when +a check is to be raised from a sum like $10 to, say, $10,000, and the +drawer has written it so that there is no room between the word 'ten' +and 'dollars,' chemicals must be used. There is always more danger of +detection in that. In the mere alteration of a check there is little. +Look here. I'll change your checks as fast as you can write them, and +I bet a lot of my alterations will pass muster." + +A pad was hauled out and the writer filled the sheets out with +carefully written amounts. The expert was as good as his word. He +altered them almost as fast as they were written. Some, to be sure, +were crude and would have betrayed the fact of alteration to the eye +of any careful banker. But many were almost perfect, and all were +wonderfully deceptive and showed what could be done by a crook who had +plenty of time. + +"But how about the perforations?" he was asked. "How could a crook +change them?" + +"Nothing easier," was the reply. "The fact that checks stamped with +the amount in perforated characters are considered safe aids the +swindler. Really, to beat the perforations is so easy that it will +make you smile. All the outfit that is needed is a common little punch +with assorted small cutting tubes and a bottle of an invisible glue +that every crook can make or that he can buy in certain places that +every crook knows. Now, here is a check stamped in perforated +characters $300$. I take my little punch and fit into it a cutter that +will punch holes of the same size as the holes in the perforations. + +"Now I punch out of the edge of the check a few tiny disks. I moisten +the tip of a needle and press them carefully into the holes that make +the upper part of the figure 3. See, even in my haste and without +glue, they fill the perforations completely and I can shake and pull +the check without disturbing them." + +It was true. The little plugs fitted perfectly, and even with the +knowledge that they were there it was almost impossible to see where +they had been inserted. + +"Now," continued the expert, "I merely take my punch and carefully +punch enough holes to the right of the upper part of the figure 3 to +make it a 5. And there you are. If I wanted to pass this check through +the bank I would only have to complete the job by smearing a drop of +the invisible glue over the back where I have plugged the original +holes. This glue is wonderfully tenacious and will actually hold the +edges of paper together. It needs only the smallest surface in order +to get hold. After it is on not even the microscope could detect it +readily. And no amount of pulling or shaking of the check will disturb +it. + +"You may suppose that a check that is stamped this way, for +instance--$600$--would be hard to change into one of four figures. But +it is almost equally easy. The crook simply punches out enough disks +from the edge to fill up the last dollar mark completely, and after he +has plugged it and the glue is dry he punches a cipher into the place +and then punches a dollar mark after it. Of course, after punching the +little disks out of the edge of the check it is necessary to trim that +part of the paper, but that is done readily, for checks always have +ample margin. + +"The check-raiser does not depend on the fact that the scrutiny of +checks in a large bank is bound to be hasty, but he knows that he need +not fear if his work is at all well done, for the paying teller simply +cannot spend much time in examining the many checks that are passed +in. + +"One New York City bank sends through the clearing-house daily an +average of 3,100 checks, and as there are about sixty-five such banks +in the clearinghouse the total number of checks handled in the few +hours of business in a day is something enormous. + +"It is this haste--which, by the way, is absolutely necessary in order +to keep the books posted to date--that is responsible for the passing +of one of the most peculiar checks that ever came under the notice of +the detectives of America. In this case the check was neither +falsified nor was the signature forged, but it was bogus just the +same. + +"It was a check made up of the parts of two checks, and all the +implements necessary for falsification were a pair of scissors and +that invisible glue. The clever swindler had got hold of two genuine +checks from the same bank. One was for $1,000 and the other for $70. +Placing these two checks together, one on top of the other, he cut +them through neatly with the scissors. Then he pasted that portion +bearing the word 'seventy' on the one check to that part bearing the +word 'thousand' on the other. So the composite check read to pay to +the holder 'seventy thousand' dollars. As the cutting was made through +both checks in exactly the same place, the edges fitted perfectly. +They were glued together and the check readily passed the bank +cashier. The man was caught and made restitution without publicity, +but the case gave bankers a shock. Other somewhat similar cases are +known, but none involving such a large amount. + +"A famous case was the celebrated Seaver fraud. He bought a draft for +$12 from the Bank of Woodland (Cal.), and, although it was written on +chemical 'safety' paper and perforated in two places with a check +punch, he raised it to $12,000, and it was passed successfully and +paid. + +"But however successful they may be for a time, it is the fatal hoodoo +of this 'most gentlemanly' way of making a living without earning it +that a forgery is always discovered and the forger generally caught. +That is because the forged check remains in existence and must be paid +by some one, and sooner or later there will be an outcry. The best the +raiser can hope for is to escape before the crime is discovered. + +"Once the false check is passed and he has the money, his first idea +is as to where he shall hide. Another fatality attaching to his +peculiar business is that the same place that he thinks of flying to +is the place that suggests itself to the mind of the thief-chaser. In +other words, knowing their man, the man-hunters can guess well where +to find him. + +"If a forger wants to bury himself, he thinks of South America, +because it is easy to get there, and apparently out of the world. +Then, of South America, he probably only thinks of Venezuela, or +closer home--of Guatemala or Panama. So the South American hunt is +simplicity itself, as there are not so many large ports that strange +Americans can pass through unnoticed. + +"If a forger wants to continue in his crooked business he thinks of +London, Paris, Berlin, and maybe Vienna. We guess at his calibre and +whether he wants more money, and know where he probably will go to get +it, for the professional crook has an international acquaintance, and +he only goes among friends. So we follow him. + +"If a forger is an adventurous spirit and committed the crime on +impulse, and we could learn absolutely nothing more about him, we +would look in that Mecca of adventurers, South Africa, for him. In +fact, our first business is to learn what kind of a man he is, then +shut our eyes and guess which one of a few places he will fly to. The +guess often is so good that our men await him when the steamer lands +there. If not, we don't forget the sailing vessels." + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THUMB-PRINTS NEVER FORGED + +Thumb-Print Method of Identification Absolute--Now Brought to a High +State of Perfection--Will Eventually Be Used in All Banks--Certified +Checks and Also Drafts with Thumb-Print Signatures--Absolute Accuracy +of a Thumb-Print Identification Assured--A Thumb-Print in Wax on +Sealed Packages--Its Use an Advantage on Bankable Paper of All +Kinds--How Strangers Are Easily Identified--Bankers, Merchants and +Business Men Protected by This System--Full Particulars as to How +Thumb-Prints Are Made--Can be Printed by Anyone in a Few Minutes--How +and When to Place Your Thumb-Print on Bankable Paper--Finger-Prints as +Reliable as Thumb-Prints--Use to Which This System Could Be Put--Thumb +and Finger Tips Do Not Change From Birth to Death--Department of +Justice at Washington Has Established a Bureau of Criminal Registry +Using the Thumb-Print System--Thumb-Print System Said to Be a Chinese +Invention--Its Use Spreading Rapidly--How to Secure Thumb-Print +Impression Without Knowledge of Party--An Interesting and Valuable +Study. + + +How to detect the forger as one of the cleverest of operating criminals +has been solved by the "thumb-print" method of identification, now +spreading throughout the banks, business houses and public offices of +the world. + +It is quite as interesting as the suggestion that through the same +thumb-print method in commercial and banking houses the forger is +likely to become a creature without occupation and chirographical means +of support. R.W. McClaughry, chief of the bureau of identification in +the federal prison at Leavenworth, Kan., is one of the most expert in +the thumb-print method of identification in this country, having been +schooled at Scotland Yards in London, where the method first was +brought to its present state of perfection. Mr. McClaughry sees for the +system not only a great aid in preventing the forgeries of commercial +brigands but the easiest of all means for a person in a strange city to +identify himself as the lawful possessor of check, or note, or bank +draft which he may wish to turn into cash at a banker's window. + +Thumb-print signatures will eventually be used in all banks as a means +of identification. It will be a sure preventative of forgery. For +instance: A maker of a check desiring to take a trip around the world +shall draw a check for the needed sum and, in the presence of the +cashier of his bank, place one thumb-print in ink somewhere in one +spot on the check--perhaps over the amount of the check as written in +figures. Thereupon the cashier of the bank will accept the check as +certified by his institution. With this paper in his possession the +drawer of the check may go from his home in New York to San Francisco, +a stranger to every person in the city. But at the window of any bank +in that city, presenting his certified check to a teller who has a +reading glass at his hand, the stranger may satisfy the most careful +of banks by a mere imprint of his thumb somewhere else upon the face +of the check. + +With the ink thumb-print of the cashier of a bank placed on a bank +draft over his signature and over the written amount of the draft, +chemical papers and the dangers of "raising" or counterfeiting the +draft would have no further consideration. The thumb-print of the +secretary of the United States treasury, reproduced on the face of +greenback, silver certificate and bank note of any series would +discourage counterfeiting as nothing else ever has done. + +But this thumb-print possibility in commercial papers has its greatest +future in the positive identification which either thumb or finger +print carries with it. Criminologists all over the world have +satisfied themselves of the absolute accuracy of the fingerprint +identification. + +At the present time traveling salesmen, who spend much money and who +wish to carry as little as possible of cash with them, have an +organized system by which their bankable paper may be cashed at hotels +and business houses over the country. But with the thumb-print in use, +as it might be, such an organization would be unnecessary. + +As between bank and bank, this use of the fingerprint in bank papers +of large face value is especially applicable. A draft for $100,000 or +$1,000,000 may be worth more consideration of the banks concerned than +the penmanship of signer and countersigner of the paper. + +In the shipment of currency where there may be question of either +honesty or correctness in the persons sealing the package, a +thumb-print in wax will determine absolutely whether the wax has been +unbroken in transit, as well as establishing the identity of the +person putting on the first seal. As to the protective value of such a +thumb-seal, a case has been cited in which train robbers, discovering +a chance seal of the kind in wax of such a package, left that package +untouched when the express safe had been blown open; it was too +suggestive of danger to be risked. + +In the ordinary usage of the thumb-print on bankable paper the city +bank having its country correspondents everywhere often is called upon +to cash a draft drawn by the country bank in favor of that bank's +customer, who may be a stranger in the city. The city bank desires to +accommodate the country correspondent as a first proposition. The +unidentified bearer of the draft in the city may have no acquaintance +able to identify him. If he presents the draft at the windows of the +big bank, hoping to satisfy the institution, and is turned away, he +feels hurt. By the thumb-print method he might have his money in a +moment. + +In the first place, even the signature of the cashier of the country +bank will be enough to satisfy its correspondent in the city of the +genuineness of the draft. Before the country purchaser of the draft +has left the bank issuing the paper he will be required to make the +ink thumb-print in a space for that purpose. Without this imprint the +draft will have no value. If the system should be in use, the cashier +signing the draft will not affix his signature to the paper until this +imprint has been made in his presence. + +Then, with his attested finger-print on the face of the draft, the +stranger in the city may go to the city bank, appearing at the window +of the newest teller, if need be. This teller will have at hand his +inked pad, faced with a sheet of smooth tin. He never may have seen +the customer before. He never may see him again. But under the +magnifying influences of an ordinary reading glass he may know past +the possibility of doubt that in the hands of the proper person named +in the draft the imprint which is made before him has been made by the +first purchaser of the draft. + +In the more important and complicated transactions in bank paper one +bank may forward from the bank itself the finger-print proofs of +identity. The whole field of such necessities is open to adapted uses +of the method. Notes given by one bank to another in high figures may +be protected in every way by these imprints. Stock issues and +institution bonds would be worthy of the thumb-print precautions, as +would be every other form of paper which might tempt either the forger +or the counterfeiter. In any case where the authenticity of the paper +might be questioned, the finger-print would serve as absolute +guarantee. In stenographic correspondence, where there might be +inducements to write unauthorized letters on the part of some person +with wrong intent, the imprint of finger or thumb would make the +possibility of fraud too remote for fears. For, in addition to the +security of signatures in real documents, the danger in attempting +frauds of this kind is increased. + +As to the physical necessaries in registering fingerprints, they are +simple and inexpensive. A block of wood faced with smooth tin or zinc +the size of an octavo volume, a small ink roller, and a tube of black +ink are all that are required. For removing the ink on thumb or finger +a towel and alcohol cleanser are sufficient. A tip impression or a +"rolled" finger signature may be used. Only a few seconds are required +for the operation. + +In giving big checks merchants and bankers would be protected by the +thumb-print system. A merchant could place the print of his right +index finger to the left of his signature on a check. The bank would +have a print, together with the merchant's signature on file. Only a +few seconds would be necessary to convince the paying teller as to its +genuineness. The merchant, also, if necessary, could place a light +print of the index finger over the amount of the check where written +in figures. Any attempt to erase the figures would destroy the +finger-print. If the figures were raised, the one doing so would be +unable to place a finger-print in the same space that would correspond +with the one at the bottom of the check beside the signature, and the +raising of the check would immediately be discovered in the bank where +the check was presented. + +The finger-prints could be used also in all manner of documents filed +for record, such as deeds to lands, mortgages, leases, and the like. +Railroads could use it to prevent men once employed and discharged for +incompetency obtaining employment on another division, thus doing away +with inspectors. Each new employee's finger-prints could be kept in a +central office and classified. Any man attempting to obtain employment +again with the same railway, who had once been discharged for cause, +would immediately be detected, and a high standard of personnel thus +obtained. + +Congress recently passed a law whereby the Bureau of Immigration is +permitted to tax each immigrant four dollars; this sum to be used in +detecting foreign criminals who come to this country; also to aid in +ascertaining whether foreigners who come here commit crimes and get +into prisons. If such are found they are to be deported. By the +finger-print system the prints of each foreigner could be taken at all +ports of entry. These could be kept on file in Washington, and from +time to time compared with those sent to the Bureau of Criminal +Registry in the Department of Justice building. Any foreigner located +in a prison could be ascertained, and upon the termination of his +sentence taken to some port and placed on board ship. + +It has been demonstrated by experts that the ridges of finger tips do +not change from birth until death and decomposition. Scars made on the +finger tips remain throughout life, and are valuable for identification +purposes. Criminals try to evade identification by the system by +burning the tips of their digits with acid; but these are classified +under the head of disfigured fingers, and a lawbreaker cannot escape +detection. Even the removal of two, three, or four fingers or an entire +hand does not prevent a criminal being traced if his prints were taken +before he lost the five digits. In the case of one hand being +amputated, the missing fingers are classified as they appear on the +other hand. If a search fails to locate the person, then the missing +fingers are classified first as whorls and then as loops, search being +made after each classification. In this manner the search may be a +little more tedious than it would be if all the fingers were there, but +in time he would be identified. + +The Department of Justice thinks so well of the system that it has +recently established in Washington a Bureau of Criminal Registry. There +the finger-print sheets, and for the time being Bertillon cards, of +all criminals who have been convicted of violating federal laws are to +be kept. The prints and Bertillon measurements of new arrivals at +government prisons and jails will also be sent there for classification, +none of this work being done at prisons as heretofore. The men held +in federal jails, charged with crimes, are also to have their +finger-prints taken, and these sent to the central bureau. If the +expert in charge of this bureau ascertains that a man indicted for +crime has served a previous term in prison, this fact is to be +communicated to the United States judge and district attorney, and if +convicted the criminal is to be given the full limit of sentence. + +Although the system of identification by fingerprints has been in use +in Europe for a number of years, it is not a European invention. As a +matter of fact, it is one of those cherished western institutions that +the Chinese have calmly claimed for their own, and those who doubt +this may be convinced by actual history showing it to have been +employed in the police courts of British India for a generation or so +back. Just who was responsible for its adoption there is not certain, +but Sir John Herschel, at one time connected with the India civil +service, is usually mentioned in this regard. The British police +experienced a great deal of trouble in keeping track of even the most +notorious native criminals and it was a great deal more difficult to +arrest a first offender, for the reason that all the natives looked so +much alike and were such apt liars. + +Ordinary methods, even the Bertillon system, were fruitless and +finally the finger-print scheme was tried. It worked like a charm. +Where more arrests had been the exception, they now became the rule +and the power of the law began to merit respect. In case after case +the police were enabled to track the crime solely by the chance print +of a man's finger or thumb on an odd piece of paper, on the dusty +lintel of a doorway or a dirty window pane. Some of the stories told +of their accomplishments in this line rival the most thrilling +detective stories. + +In one case, that of the murder of a manager of a tea garden on the +Bhupal frontier, half a dozen or more persons were at first suspected, +among them the real murderer, who was, however, later regarded as +innocent because he was supposed to have been away from the district +at the time the crime was committed. Investigations and questionings +did no good, and at last the local inspector decided to take the +thumb-prints of all concerned and refer them to the central office of +the province. After the records had been searched a messenger came +with orders to arrest the discharged servant of the manager who had +been first suspected and then exonerated, for his finger-prints +tallied exactly with those of a bad character just discharged from +prison. He was later convicted of burglary by a court of appeal, to +which the case was carried, the court refusing to condemn a man for +murder on such slight basis when the actual crime had not been +observed. + +At the present time in India the papers taken in the civil-service +examinations must be certified to by the thumb-print of the competitor +and wills must likewise be sealed in the same way, and all checks and +drafts must be certified by a thumb-print in addition to a signature. + +In India, also deeds of transfer, and records of sale of land in +connection with illiterate natives are executed by the impression of a +thumb-mark instead of an "X, his mark"; and recently this very +superior system of signature has been applied to all kinds of +transactions with the natives, such as post-office savings banks, +pension certificates, mortgages, etc. + +The success the plan met with in India led to its trial and speedy +adoption by the French and English police. In Paris it is used as an +adjunct to the measurement system of M. Bertillon, but at Scotland +Yard the Bertillon system has been entirely done away with and full +reliance is had on the prints. M. Bertillon claims to have 500,000 +prints in his collection, although this is said by the authorities +to be an exaggeration, and Inspector McNaughton of the convict +supervision office has at least 100,000 criminals' hands catalogued +in his office. + +Finger marks do not change in any way through life, and any injury +only temporarily affects the pattern. The pattern becomes larger as +the youth develops into a man, but the arrangement of the lines +remains absolutely the same. + +Thumb-marks may be generally classified as loops, arches and ovals, or +whorls; the ovals irresistibly remind one of whirlpools as well as the +volutions of shells, while the majority of loops or arches resemble in +their convolutions the rapid movement of rushing water. + +Thumb-print identifications have been extended to commercial uses by +the postal savings bank on the Philippines at Manila. This bank has +recently issued a series of stamp deposit cards, on which are spaces +for stamps of different values to be affixed. When the depositor has +stamps to the value of 1 peso (50 cents) on the card it is exchanged +at the bank for a deposit book, showing the amount to his credit. +Opposite the lines for the owner's signature and address is a square +ruled off for the reception of his thumb-print, so that even if +illiterate, depositors may readily be identified. + +If any one wishes to get a thumb-print impression without the +suspect's knowledge, simply hand him a piece of paper, asking him to +identify it or examine it for one reason or another, afterwards +sprinkling some special black powder over it which brings out the +impressions as clear as life. Another sort of white powder is used for +bringing out impressions on glassware. + +Once the impression is secured, the fingers are classified according +to a regular plan. The lines on them are divided into loops, whorls, +arches, and composites, the latter class made up of a collection of +the first three. Each pair of fingers as the index, little and ring +fingers has a special valuation which is used to identify them and +facilitate classification. One pair will be classified according to +the number of little ridges between the delta, or point where all +bifurcate, and the outer ring. If there are more than nine on one +finger, it is classed as an over-nine. + +It is seldom that two similar fingers are alike and the other finger +usually would be an under-nine finger, say six. So there is the first +pair classified thus, 9-6. The next two fingers may have rotary lines +and are merely classified as R, the next two may not have many lines +at all that will count, so are marked 0, while perhaps the last pair +is unmatched, a point being allowed to one and nothing to the other. + +Thumb or finger-prints are absolutely serviceable and certain in the +detection of crime or in establishing a person's identity. + +That this system may be most effectively employed as an adjunct to the +rogue's gallery for fixing the identity of criminals there can be no +doubt, since, from various experiments made it has been demonstrated +that impressions made from the dermal furrows of the thumb or finger +of no two persons can be sufficiently identical, when inspected under +a microscope, to be mistaken one for the other; and that it is a +powerful agency for the detection of criminals. + +Very often, on the scene of a crime, finger marks are found on glossy +surfaces (bottles, glasses, window panes, door plates, painted and +varnished walls, etc.). By a comparison of such impressions, +photographed by a special process, it is easy either to discover the +maker of the finger marks observed at the scene of the crime, or to +establish the innocence of a suspected person whose digital +impressions have nothing in common with those marks. + +Note and study fac-simile impressions of thumb-prints and finger-prints +in Appendix at end of this book. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +DETECTING FORGERY WITH THE MICROSCOPE + +Determining Questionable Signatures By the Aid of a Microscope--A +Magnifying Glass Not Powerful Enough--Character of Ink Easily +Told--The Microscope and a Knowledge of Its Use--Experience and +Education of an Examiner of Great Assistance--An Expert's Opinion--The +Use of the Microscope Recommended--Illustrating a Method of +Forgery--What a Microscopic Examination Reveals--How to Examine Forged +Handwriting with a Microscope--Experts and a Jury--What the Best +Authorities Recommend. + + +In all examinations of questioned signatures to determine the +individual habit of the writer the use of the compound microscope is a +necessity to obtain the best field for study and analysis for the +reason that the most important details are often so minute that they +cannot be seen with the naked eye in sufficient size to determine +their individual character and accuracy. A magnifying glass has but a +limited field in this class of work, for it is not easily held in +position steadily for continued observation and study, besides it has +not the requisite power for the work. The lower powers of the compound +microscope are but available for the examination of signatures for the +reason that when the higher powers are used but little of the +signature is in the field of vision, although the power of the lens +may be increased when some particular point or feature in the writing +requires greater enlargement for more perfect definition. The higher +powers of the microscope are sometimes used to ascertain the character +of inks with which the writing is done, and also to determine the +character of the paper on which a signature is written, which at times +becomes important. For all practical uses of the microscope in the +examination of signatures the range of object enlargement occurring +between a three-inch and an inch objective will be found to answer the +purpose, as the various powers of the lenses become important in +making the analysis. + +While it is a fact that the microscope and a knowledge of its uses is +of the greatest importance in ascertaining the character of the +signatures, when the question of their being forged or genuine is the +object of the examination, it does not follow that because a person is +learned in the use of the microscope in other fields of research that +he is therefore qualified to become an expert in handwriting. A +peculiar education made practically applicable by experience in this +latter field of study is absolutely necessary to determine with +accuracy what the microscope reveals, and its importance to give value +to any conclusions reached by its use. The connection of effect with +cause, and the determination of the latter as a matter of individualism +cannot be accomplished merely from what is seen under the microscope. +The examiner must by experience and education be fitted to ascertain +from personal characteristics manifested in the writing of a signature +necessitated their appearance as a matter of individuality. + +From one of the best-known European experts on handwriting and who has +figured conspicuously in important cases some interesting facts +relative to this subject recently were learned. To the question, "What +is the primary requisite for a conscientious opinion on the +genuineness of any submitted handwriting?" this expert unhesitatingly +replied, "An utter and entire absence of either feeling or prejudice. +In other words, one should be perfectly dispassionate when engaged in +such a work and use a first-class compound microscope." + +To make his analysis the expert uses a microscope of great power, and +by a strict and close attention to the subject-matter he can determine +the exact means or methods employed in making the individual letters +and the formation of the words and also the several inks that were +used. Handwriting as defined by this expert is a mechanical operation +pure and simple. Its general excellence or the reverse is largely +dependent on the education which the hand has received. When a man +sits down to write he mechanically reproduces on paper what is in his +mind, and this may be said to be his natural handwriting. Should he +stop to think even for a moment, not of what he is transferring to the +paper but of the writing itself, he instantly ceases to write his +natural hand, the transcription becoming only a copy or drawing from +memory. + +In the opinion of the expert, emphatically expressed, a person never +writes twice exactly alike. This is stated to be the point around +which all his subsequent developments revolve when examining a +manuscript. Let several examples of the natural handwriting of an +individual be compared. It is true that there will be a general +similarity, but, as has been asserted, when placed in juxtaposition or +subjected to a careful comparison under a microscope no two words or +letters will be found to be alike. Thus it is not the similarity +between two pieces of writing that would arouse suspicion with some +experts, but rather the natural dissimilarity. Based on this point +such experts occupy a distinct position by themselves, since other +experts take what is called the positive side. With the first-named +class, however, handwriting is a science of negatives. A good +microscope will always be found a good detective in determining the +genuineness of handwriting. + +By way of illustrating one method of forgery interesting material +which had played an important part in a court case was carefully +examined. It consisted of five or six graded photographic enlargements +of the duplicate signature which were carefully examined with the aid +of a microscope. The original had been made by an elderly person and +the forger had used the tracing process. To the naked eye it appeared +to be a capital copy; in fact, it seemed to bear every semblance of +being genuine. In the first enlargement of several diameters certain +inaccuracies of tracing could be discerned, only, however, after +attention had been called to them by an expert. In the next +enlargement these same errors were more apparent, and so on through +the series. The largest photograph was magnified several hundred +diameters greater than the original and stretched across quite an area +of paper. From an examination of this largest one with a microscope it +was evident that the forger first had traced his copy with pencil, +afterward going over it with ink, but so irregularly had his pen +followed the pencil lines that in certain portions of this enlargement +there was room for a man's fist between the first tracing and its inky +covering. + +In trying to detect forged handwriting every letter of the alphabet, +wherever written, may be examined with a microscope for the following +characteristics: Size, shading, position relative to the horizontal +line, inclination relative to the vertical line, sharpness of the +curves and angles, proportion and relative position of the different +parts, and elaboration or extension of the extremities. In scarcely +one of these particulars can a man make two letters so much alike that +they cannot be distinguished by microscopical examination. + +Although a great deal can be determined in a general way by close +observation with the naked eye, it is always best to employ some +magnifying power--usually an ordinary hand lens or pocket magnifier +will suffice--but the writer has found it better to use a microscope +objective of low power (four or five diameters), which is provided +with an easily slipping sleeve, terminating in a diaphragm which cuts +out the light entering the outside rim of the lens. This sleeve may be +pushed out for one or two centimeters, and the particular spot under +examination isolated from the adjacent parts without undue +magnification. It is one of the popular fallacies that a high +magnifying power is desirable in all cases of difficulty, but usually +the reverse is the case in questions of handwriting. + +Experts have sometimes impressed the jury with the fact that they had +employed on some thick and opaque document, powers of several hundred +diameters without the lately applied illumination from the side, +reflected by a glass plate, introduced obliquely into the tube of +the microscope. Without such aid no microscopist need be told that +the light would be wanting to illuminate the field under these +circumstances. The best authorities prescribe a magnifying power of +not more than ten diameters for ordinary observation. For special +purposes higher powers are sometimes useful. An ocular examination of +the ink in the various parts of a written paper, document or +instrument of any kind will generally decide whether it is the same. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +SIGNATURE EXPERTS THE SAFETY OF THE MODERN BANK + +A New Departure in Banks--Examining All Signatures a Sure +Preventive Against Forgery--The "Filling-in" Process--How One Forger +Operated--Marvelous Accuracy of a Paying Teller--How He Attained +Perfection--How Signature Clerks Work--A Common Dodge of Forgers--Post +Dated Checks--A System That Prevents Forged and Raised Checks--Not a +Forged or Raised Check Paid in Years. + + +[The following article has been kindly contributed by the manager of +one of the largest English banks, located in London.] + +One of the most trying positions in our business, is that of signature +expert--the man who has to examine daily every draft that comes in +through the clearing house and vouch for its genuineness. Our bank, +one of the largest in London, employs six clerks who do nothing all +day long but examine checks, and when I tell you that it is no +uncommon thing for 10,000 drafts to come in during a single day you +will understand that the job is not altogether the sinecure it is +popularly supposed to be. + +These clerks have not only to scrutinize the signatures both of drawer +and drawee, but also examine the "filling-in," the latter being just +as important, perhaps more so from a monetary point of view, as the +signatures. As a matter of fact, the commonest forgery with which we +have to deal is the "raising" of checks, and a forger of this nature +generally chooses a check bearing a genuine signature but having very +little "filling-in." + +For instance, he knows that it would not be difficult to raise a check +from £3 to £3000, for all he has to do is to erase the word "pounds," +insert the word "thousand," and then add the erased word again. I have +seen plenty of this kind of work during the time I have been examining +checks. + +One of the most impudent pieces of forgery, however, that I ever came +across was a check raised from £5 to £500. The forger had evidently +relied on colossal impudence carrying him through, for he had simply +added a couple of ciphers and then between the words "five" and +"pounds" had placed an omission mark and written the word "hundred" +above, adding the initials of the drawer of the check just to give the +thing a look of careless genuineness. + +It was so astounding a piece of cool audacity that we had bets on the +check, two of my assistants declaring it to be O.K., while the other +three and myself declared it to be a forgery. Further inquiries, of +course, proved that the opinion of the majority was the correct one. + +It is marvelous what a vast number of signatures some paying tellers +will carry in their mind's eye, as it were, and thus be able to pass +checks by the thousand without once having to refer to the signature +books. We had a paying teller here a few years ago who was little less +than a wonder. He knew perfectly the signatures of at least 5000 +customers, and could detect the alteration of a stroke in any one of +them in an instant. + +More remarkable still was the fact that he recognized with equal +facility the signatures of those customers whose checks only came in +once or twice a year. But he made an art of his work, and I afterward +discovered that most of his evenings were spent in studying and +learning the signatures of the customers, for he was a wonderful hand +at copying writing, and whenever a new signature would come in, one +with which he was not acquainted, he would at once facsimile it in his +pocket-book, and by the next morning would be able to recognize it +among 10,000. + +Signature clerks are not, as a rule, supposed to make copies of +customers' autographs, but many of them do, and some men are clever +enough at the work to even deceive themselves. + +Of course, it is understood that when the signature clerks are not +examining checks they are studying the autograph books in order to +familiarize themselves with the calligraphy of every customer. Each +check, you must understand, passes through the hands of each clerk in +turn, so that if one should pass a forgery or a "raised" draft it is +very unlikely that the entire staff would do so. All these checks, of +course, come through the clearing house, and if we should pass a +forged draft and not find out our mistake before three o 'clock in the +afternoon our bank would be held responsible. One of the commonest +dodges adopted by the modern check-forger is to get a customer of some +small country bank to introduce him to that institution as a likely +depositor. On the recommendation of the friend (who is probably quite +unaware that the acquaintance he made some few months ago is a +"wrong'un") there is no difficulty in accepting their new client's +check for £2000, and the following day, when the same customer calls +and withdraws £100 to £500, as the case may be, he is politely handed +the cash, and then, of course, loses no time in skipping the town. +After the bogus customer's check has passed through the clearing house +it is returned to the bank on which it has been drawn and the fraud is +at once discovered. + +Another part of a signature clerk's duties is to see that no checks +are post-dated, as of course no drafts must be paid until they fall +due. On occasions a careless man will post-date a check, but as a rule +the mistake is purposely made. This spotting of post-dated checks, +however, is the easiest part of a signature clerk's work, and it is +very seldom that a check so dated escapes him. Then, again, we are +often notified that payment on certain checks has been stopped, and +the clerks have to be on the lookout for these, and it must be a very +careless staff indeed that lets them slip by. We are held responsible +for all checks passed after we have received notice to stop payment. + +But it is very seldom now, owing to the cleverness of the experts, +that any forged checks, "raised" checks, post-dated checks, or stopped +checks pass the vigilant eyes of our staff without being detected, but +when one does--well, although the signature clerks are not held +monetarily responsible for the loss, it means a bad mark against them +in the future, and they feel its effects next time promotions or +"rises" are being handed out. + +Altogether, though the work is interesting, and even fascinating in a +way, the responsibilities are so great that the effect on the nerves +is often very trying at times. One thing we are particular about, and +that is to take no chances. If we have the slightest doubt about the +genuineness of a check we at once communicate, either by telegraph, +special messenger, or telephone, with the supposed drawer of the +check, and in this way turn doubt into certainty. During the last +three years not a single wrong check has passed our vigilant optics, +and, though I say it who should not, I do not believe there is a +cleverer set of experts any where than those who compose my staff. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +HOW TO DETERMINE AGE OF ANY WRITING + +The Different Kinds of Ink Met With--Inks That Darken by Exposure to +Sunlight and Air--Introduction of Aniline Colors to Determine the Age +of Writings--An Almost Infallible Rule to Follow--To Determine +Approximate Age of Ink Possible--The Ammonia System a Sure One--A +Question of Great Interest to Bankers and Bank Employes--Thick Inks and +Thin Inks--So-called Safety Inks That Are Not Safe--How to Restore +Faded Inks--An Infallible Rule--Restoring Faded Writing--Restored by +the Silk and Cotton System That Anyone Can Arrange--Danger of Exposing +Restored Writing to the Sun. + + +The inks in common use over the United States at the present time, +and for some years past, are not as numerous as one might be led +to conclude. They are probably fifteen or at most twenty in all, +including the most popular blue, red, magenta, and green inks. But +among these there is a notable difference in character. Some are +thick, heavy, and glossy, in character, and flow sluggishly from the +pen. Few of these become much darker by standing. In this class will +be found the copying inks and those in which a large quantity of gums +or similar thickening agents are used. + +Other inks are pale, limpid, and flow easily from the pen, and this +class usually shows a notable darkening by exposure to sunlight and +air. It will be unnecessary here to refer more particularly to the +intermediate varieties or to discuss their various composition. + +It should be, remembered here that in the last twenty years, or since +the introduction into general commerce of aniline colors, which +Hofmann discovered in 1856, these latter have been employed more and +more in writing fluids; not only in mixtures of which they are the +principal ingredients, but to a greater or less degree in all inks. +Their presence, even in small quantity, in the gallo-tannate of iron +and logwood inks can be generally detected by an iridescent and +semi-metallic luster. + +To assist in determining the ages of writings by one and the same ink, +it is to be observed that the older the writing the less soluble it is +in dilute ammonia. If the writing be lightly touched with a brush +dipped in ten-per-cent ammonia, the later writing will always give up +more or less soluble matter to the ammonia before the earlier. In case +of inks of different kinds this test is not serviceable, for +characters written in logwood ink, for instance, will always give up +their soluble material sooner than nutgall inks, even if the last +named be later applied. To estimate the age of writing from the amount +of bleaching in a given time by hydrochloric or oxalic acid is very +precarious, because the thickness of the ink film in a written +character is not always the same, and the acid bleaches the thinner +layer sooner than the thicker. + +The determination of the age of a written paper is a problem difficult +of solution. According to F. Carré the age can be approximately +determined if the characters written in iron ink are pressed in a +copying press and a commercial hydrochloric acid diluted with eleven +parts of water is substituted for water; or, if the written characters +are treated for some time with this diluted acid. + +The explanation is that the ink changes in time, its organic substance +disappears little by little, and leaves behind an iron compound, which +in part is not attacked even by acids. + +An unsized paper is impregnated with the described diluted acid, +copied with the press, and a copy from writing eight or ten years old +can be obtained as easily as one by means of water from a writing one +day old. + +A writing thirty years old gives, by this method, a copy hardly +legible, and one over sixty years old, a copy hardly visible. In order +to protect the paper against the action of the acid, it should be +drawn through ammoniacal water. + +To determine the exact age of writings by the ink is not easy. The +approximate age may be determined with some degree of certainty. If +ink-writings are but a few days old, it is easy to distinguish them +from other writing years old. But to tell by the ink which of two +writings is the older, when one is but two months and the other two +years, is, as a rule, impossible. + +Where during the progress of a trial a document purporting to be years +old is introduced in evidence, and it can be shown that it is but a +few days old, having been prepared for the occasion, ordinarily the +age of the writing will be comparatively easy of demonstration by the +expert. Oxidization will not have set in to any extent, if the ink is +very fresh, and this, with a careful watching of the color for any +darkening, will determine whether or not the ink is fresh. This ink +study should be a question of the utmost interest to bankers and bank +employes. + +A ten-per-cent solution of ammonia applied to two inks in question +will show which is the fresher. The older ink will resist the action +of the ammonia longer and give up less soluble matter than the newer +writing. Nutgall, and logwood inks, of course, should not be tested +comparatively by this method, as the logwood ink will respond to the +ammonia sooner than the nutgall ink. + +F. Carré also gives another method for determining, approximately, the +age of ink-writings. If the writing is in iron ink, and is moistened +with a solution of one part of hydrochloric acid to eleven parts of +water and put in letter-copying press and copy transferred to copy +paper it should give a strong copy, if but ten years old; a hardly +legible copy, if thirty years old; and if sixty years old, a few marks +will be copied, but they will not be legible. + +If the same solution be used in place of water, as in the ordinary +letter-copying process and the copying paper be saturated with it, the +result will be the same. + +To determine the age of writing by applying bleaching acids and +watching results and counting the seconds is a dangerous method. Thick +inks will respond to the acids slower than thin, and the time +comparisons are misleading. + +Safety inks, so-called, designed to resist the action of acids and +alkalies have been repeatedly put upon the market, but no such ink has +ever successfully challenged the world and proved its title of safety. + +Many chemicals are recommended as restorations for faded writing, but +these should be avoided as far as possible, as they are liable to +stain, disfigure the paper, and in the end make matters materially +worse. Familiarity with particular handwritings after some practice +will enable the reader to make out otherwise unintelligible words +without any other assistant than a powerful magnifying glass. + +If the ink is very faint, the simplest and most harmless restorative +is sulphate of ammonia, but its loathsome smell once encountered is +not easily forgotten. The experiment in consequence is very seldom +repeated for the result is scarcely good enough to risk a repetition +of so horrible a smell. + +The writing on old and faded documents may be restored, by chemical +treatment, turning the iron salt still remaining into ferrous sulphate. +A process which will restore the writing temporarily is as follows: A +box four or five inches deep and long and broad enough to hold the +document, with a glass, is needed. A net of fine white silk or cotton +threads is stretched across the box at about one half the depth. Two +saucers containing yellow ammonium hydrosulphide are placed in the +bottom of the box. By means of a clean sponge or brush, moisten the +paper with distilled water; then place it on the net with the writing +side down. The action of the vapor of the ammonium hydrosulphide will +cause the obliterated writing to slowly turn brown, then black. But +within a short time after removal from the box the writing will again +disappear. + +Another method is to wash the document carefully in a solution of +hydrochloric acid, one part, and distilled water, one hundred parts. +Dry the moistened paper somewhat, leaving it just moist enough to hold +a uniform layer of fine yellow prussiate of potash. A plate of glass +with a light pressure should be placed on this. In a few hours dry the +paper thoroughly, and carefully brush off the yellow prussiate of +potash. The writing should come out a Prussian blue. This restored +writing will be permanent unless exposed too much to the light. + +The hydrochloric acid must be thoroughly removed; otherwise, it will +destroy the paper. Crystallized soda, two parts, and distilled water, +one hundred parts, in solution, will counteract the hydrochloric acid, +if the document is allowed to float on it for twenty-four hours. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +DETECTING FRAUD AND FORGERY IN PAPERS AND DOCUMENTS + +Infallible Rules for the Detection of Same--New Methods of +Research--Changing Wills and Books of Accounts--Judgment of the Naked +Eye--Using a Microscope or Magnifying Glass--Changeable Effects of +Ink--How to Detect the Use of Different Inks--Sized Papers Not Easily +Altered--Inks That Produce Chemical Effects--Inks That Destroy Fiber +of Paper--How to Test Tampered or Altered Documents--Treating Papers +Suspected of Forgery--Using Water to Detect Fraud--Discovering +Scratched Paper--Means Forgers Use to Mask Fraudulent Operations--How +to Prepare and Handle Test Papers--Detecting Paper That Has Been +Washed--Various Other Valuable Tests to Determine Forgery--A Simple +Operation That Anyone Can Apply--Iodine Used On Papers and Documents--An +Alcohol Test That is Certain--Bringing Out Telltale Spots--Double +Advantage of Certain Tests--Reappearance of Former Letters or +Figures--What Genuine Writing Reveals--When an Entire Paper or Document +is Forged. + + +The art of detecting forgery or fraud, in checks, drafts, documents, +seals, writing materials, or in the characters themselves is a study +that has attracted handwriting experts since its study was taken up. +There are almost infallible rules for the work and in this chapter is +given several new methods of research that will prove of the utmost +value to the public. + +It is not an uncommon occurrence that wills and other public documents +are changed by the insertion of extra or substituted pages, thereby +changing the character of the instrument. Where this is suspected +careful inspection of the paper should be made--first, as to its shade +of color and fiber, under a microscope; second, as to its ruling; +third, as to its water-mark; fourth, as to any indications that the +sheets have been separated since their original attachment; fifth, as +to the writing--whether or not it bears the harmonious character of +the continuous writing, with the same pen and ink, and coincident +circumstances, or if typewritten, whether or not by the same operator +or the same machine. It would be a remarkable fact if such change were +to be made without betraying some tangible proof in some one or more +of the above enumerated respects. + +Books of accounts are often changed by adding fictitious or fraudulent +entries in such spaces as may have been left between the regular +entries or at the bottom of the pages where there is a vacant space. +Where such entries are suspected, there should be at first a careful +inspection of the writing as to its general harmony with that which +precedes and follows, as to its size, slope, spacing, ink, and pen +used, and if in a book of original entry, the suspected entry should +be traced through other books, to see if it is properly entered as to +time and place, or vice versa. + +The judgment by the naked eye as to the colors or shades of two inks +in the same paper or document is very likely to be erroneous for the +reason that when a lighter ink is more heavily massed than a darker +one the effect on the eye is as if it were the darker. Under a +microscope or magnifying glass the field is more restricted, the finer +lines are broadened, and one has larger areas of ink to compare with +less surface of strongly contrasted white paper. Then, again, an ink +without noticeable bluish tinge to the naked eye may appear quite blue +under the glass where the films of ink are broadened and thinned and +their characters better observed. + +In order to judge whether two marks have been made by the same ink, +they should be viewed by reflected light to note the color, luster and +thickness of the ink film. Many inks blot or "run" on badly sized +paper--i.e., the lines are accompanied by a paler border which +renders their edges less well defined. + +Even on well-sized papers this class of inks usually exhibits only a +stained line of no appreciable thickness where the fluid has touched +the paper. + +The copying and glossy inks, which often contain a considerable +quantity of gum, do not "run" or blot even on partially sized paper, +and show under the glass a convexity on the surface of the line and an +appreciable thickness of the film. + +It does not always follow when an ink has made a blur on one part of +the paper and not on another that the paper has been tampered with. A +drop of water accidentally let fall on the blank page will frequently +affect the sizing in that place, and, besides, all papers are not +evenly sized in every part. + +The inks rich in gum, or those concentrated by evaporation from +standing in an open inkstand, give a more lustrous and thicker stroke. +Some inks penetrate deeper into the paper than others, and some +produce chemical effects upon the sizing and even upon the paper +itself, so that the characters can easily be recognized on the +underside of the sheet. In some old documents the ink has been known +to so far destroy the fiber of the paper that a slight agitation of +the sheet would shake out as dust much of the part which it covered, +thus leaving an imperfect stencil plate of the original writing. + +Distilled water is very useful in many cases to ascertain whether +paper has been scratched and partially sized or treated with resin. If +it has not been altered by chemical agents, the partial sizing and the +resinous matter used give to the paper a peculiar appearance. Sizing +takes away from the whiteness of the paper, and, thinned by the +scratching or washing, it absorbs much more quickly even when it has +been partially sized. + +A simple mode of operation is to place a document or paper suspected +of being a forgery, on a sheet of paper or better still, on a piece of +glass; then moisten little by little with a paint brush all parts of +it, paying close attention to the behavior of the liquid as it comes +in contact with the paper. + +By means of water one can discover what acids, alkalis, or salts the +parts of the paper with colored borders or white spots contain. + +With the aid of a pipette cover these spots with water and let it +remain for ten or fifteen minutes; then with the pipette remove the +liquid and examine the products it holds in solution. Afterwards make +a comparative experiment on another part of the paper which is neither +spotted nor whitened. + +If the original writing has been done with a very acid ink on a paper +containing a carbonate, such as calcium carbonate, the ink, in +attacking the calcareous salt, stains the paper, so that if the forger +has removed the ferruginous salts this removal is denoted by the +semi-transparence that water gives to the paper. + +To study carefully the action of the water it is necessary to repeat +the experiment several times, allowing the paper to dry thoroughly +before recommencing it. + +According to Tarry, it is necessary to have recourse to alcohol to +discover whether the paper has been scratched in any of the parts and +then covered with a resinous matter to prevent the ink from blotting. + +Place the document on a sheet of white paper and with a paint brush +dipped in alcohol of specific gravity 0.86 or 0.87 cover the place +supposed to have been tampered with. It may be discovered if the +writing thickens and runs when the alcohol has dissolved the resin. + +Hold the paper moistened with alcohol between the eye and the light; +the thinning of the paper shows the work of the forger. + +Some more skillful forgers use paste and resin at the same time to +mask their fraudulent operations; in this case luke-warm water should +be first employed and then alcohol; water to dilute the paste, and +alcohol to dissolve the resin. The result is that the ink added on the +places scratched out spreads, and the forgery is easily seen. + +Test-papers (litmus, mauve, and Georgina paper) serve to determine +whether a paper has been washed either by the help of chemical agents, +acids incompletely removed, or the surplus of which has been saturated +by an alkali, or by the help of alkaline substances. The change of the +color to red indicates an acid substance; an alkali would turn the +reddened litmus paper to blue, and the mauve and Georgina test-papers +to green. + +Take a sheet of test-paper of the same dimensions as the document to +be examined, moisten it, and cover it underneath with a sheet of +Swedish filter-paper. These two sheets together (the filter-paper +underneath) are then applied to the document which has been moistened +already. The whole is then laid between two quires of paper, covered +by a weighted board, and left in this condition for about an hour. At +the end of this time examine the test-paper to see if it has partly or +altogether changed color. This examination finished, put the +test-paper in contact with distilled water, to be afterwards removed +and tried by appropriate tests to discover the nature of the alkali or +acid present. + +Silver nitrate is also used to discover whether the paper has been +washed with chlorine or chlorites. A paper in that way becomes acid. +The chlorine changes to hydrochloric acid, which dissolves in the +water with which the suspected document or paper is moistened, and at +the contact of silver nitrate little spots of silver chloride appear. + +There are various other tests such as gallo-tannic acid or infusion +of nutgalls prepared a short time before application and may be used +with advantage to restore writings that have been removed by washing. +Place the document or paper on a sheet of white paper and moisten the +whole of its surface with a paint brush dipped in the reagent, taking +care not to rub it or strongly press it. When the surface is well +impregnated allow the solution to act for an hour, and at the end of +this time examine the document again. Then moisten it a second time +and the following day, examine the results. Repeat the moistening +several times if necessary, for it often takes some time to make the +traces of writing reappear. + +Chevallier and Lassaigne experimented together on the effect produced +by the vapor of iodine on the surface of the papers or documents upon +which the alteration of writing was suspected. Take a bottle with a +wide mouth from ten to eleven centimeters in height, and the opening +from five to six centimeters in width. This last is covered by a disk +of unpolished glass. Into the bottom of this vessel introduce from +twenty to thirty grams of iodine in crystals. + +Place the portion of paper on which the vapor of iodine is to act at +the opening of the bottle, and cover it with the stopper of unpolished +glass, on which put a weight so as to exert a slight pressure, and in +order that the aperture may be hermetically closed. Then allow the +vapor of iodine to act on the dry paper for three or four minutes at +the temperature of 15° to 16° C. and examine it attentively. When the +surface has not been spotted by any liquid (water, alcohol, salt +water, vinegar, saliva, tears, urine acids, acid salts, or alkalis) a +uniform pale-yellow or yellowish-brown tinge will be noticed on all +parts of the paper exposed to the vapor of iodine. + +Otherwise a different and easily distinguished tinge shows itself on +the surface that has been moistened and then dried in the open air. + +Machine-made papers with starchy and resinous sizing give such decided +reactions that sometimes it is possible to distinguish by the color +the portion of the paper treated with alcohol from that moistened with +water. The spot produced by alcohol takes a kind of yellow tinge; that +formed by water becomes a violet blue, more or less deep, after having +dried at an ordinary temperature. As to the spots produced by other +aqueous liquids, they approach in appearance, though not in intensity, +those occasioned by pure water. Feeble acids, or those diluted by +water, act like water; but the concentrated mineral acids, in altering +more or less the substance of the sizing, produce spots that present +differences. + +Spots which become apparent by using vapor of iodine are due to +chemical agents whose strength has altered either the fibers of the +surface, or the paste uniting them. + +In a word, the test of a document or paper by vapor of iodine has the +double advantage of indicating the place of the supposed alteration +and operating afterwards with appropriate reagents to bring back the +traces of ink. It is only the reappearance of former letters or +figures written or effaced that demonstrates forgery. Much time may be +profitably spent in merely scanning each letter of a document, and the +writing by lines, paragraphs, and pages before a closer scrutiny. +Gradually, if the writing be genuine, its character will begin to +reveal itself, and unconsciously a hypothesis as to the physical +causes of the irregularities or characteristics will be formed. + +When an entire document or page is forged, the ornamentation, +flourishes, or the capitals at its head will often be seen to be out +of keeping, either with its nature or with the supposed author's +habits in similar cases. In a writing all must agree, place, day, +year, handwriting, superscription or heading, signature, and material +carrying the writing, especially paper, both as to constitution and +color and ink. + +See illustrations of various kinds of handwriting at end of this book. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +GUIDED HANDWRITING AND METHOD USED + +The Most Frequent and Dangerous Method of Forgery--How to Detect +a Guided Signature--What Guided Handwriting Is and How It Is +Done--Character of Such Writing--Writing by a Guided Hand--Difficulty +in Writing--Force Exercised by Joint Hands--A Hand More or Less +Passive--Work of the Controlling Hand--How Guided Writing Appears--Two +Writers Acting in Opposition--Distorted Writing--How a Legitimate +Guided Hand is Directed and Supported--Pen Motion Necessary to Produce +Same--Influence in Guiding a Stronger Hand--Avoiding an Unnatural and +Cramped Position--Effect of the Brain on Guided Hand--Separating +Characteristics From Guided Joint Signature--Detecting Writing by a +System of Measurement. + + +Guided handwriting is one of the most frequent means of forgery and +oftentimes the most difficult to detect. It has been established that +with care the elements of each handwriting can be detected and proven +in a guided signature. The leading handwriting experts of the world +are unanimous in declaring that it is possible for holding another's +hand in making a guided signature to infuse the character of the +guider's hand into the writing. + +Guided handwriting is the writing produced by two hands conjointly and +is usually erratic, and at first sight, hard to connect with the +handwriting of any one person. + +The character and quality of writing in case of a controlled or +assisted hand must depend largely upon the relative force, exercised +by the joint hands. The difficulty in writing arises from the +antagonizing motion of one hand upon the other, which is likely to +produce an unintelligible scrawl, having little or none of the +habitual characteristics of either hand. + +Where one hand is more or less passive, the controlling hand doing the +writing, its characteristics may be more or less manifest in the +writing. But obviously the controlling hand must be seriously +obstructed in its motions by even a passive hand; and since the +controlling hand can have no proper or customary rest, the motion must +be from the shoulder and with the whole arm. The writing will +therefore be upon an enlarged scale, loose, sprawling, and can have +little, if any, characteristic resemblance to the natural and habitual +style of the controlling writer, and of course none of the person's +whose hand is passive. + +In appearance it changes abruptly from very high or very wide to very +low or narrow letters. This is to be explained by the non-agreement in +phase of the impulses due to each of the two writers. If both are +endeavoring at the same moment to write a given stroke the length of +that stroke will be measured by the sum of the impulses given by the +two writers. If they act in opposition to one another, one seeking to +make a down stroke while the other is trying to make an up stroke, the +result will be a line equal to the difference between the stronger and +the weaker force. + +As these coincidences and oppositions occur at irregular but not +infrequent intervals, like the interference and amplification phases +of light and sound waves, the result traced on the paper might be +expected in advance to be--and in fact is--a distorted writing where +maxima and minima of effect are connected together by longer or +shorter lines of ordinary writing. + +The only state of things which can justify the guiding of a hand +executing a legal instrument is the feebleness or illness of its +owner. + +When such assistance is required it is usually given by passing the +arm around the body of the invalid and supporting the writing hand +while the necessary characters are being made. + +Both participants in this action are looking at the writing, and both +are thinking of the next letter which must be written, and of the +motion of the pen necessary to produce it. Unless the executing hand +were absolutely lifeless or entirely devoid of power, it would be +impossible for it not to influence the guiding and presumably stronger +hand; for the least force exerted cannot fail to deflect a hand, +however strong, in an unnatural and cramped position. Nor can the hand +of the guider fail to add its contribution to the joint effort, +however much the brain which controls it may strive to render the hand +entirely passive. Both minds are busy with the same act, and +insensibly both hands will write the same letter with the results just +described. + +Can the characteristics of each hand be separated from those of the +other and the relative amount of the two contributions to the joint +signature be stated? + +This is a question which is naturally asked during the trial of a case +involving the consideration of a guided hand. From the comparatively +small number of experiments made in this direction it would be too +hazardous to answer it in the affirmative, but it may be said that +some of the characteristics of each hand can usually be made apparent +by the system of measurement, and the indications seem to point to the +probability of being able to increase the number of characteristics +elicited in proportion to the number of observations made. If the +significance of every part of every stroke could be properly +interpreted, it follows that a complete separation of characteristics +would be effected, but this would require an indefinitely large number +of observations to be made and a quite unattainable skill in +explaining them. + +See specimens of guided signatures in Appendix. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +TALES TOLD BY HANDWRITING + +Telling the Nationality, Sex and Age of Anyone Who Executes +Handwriting--Americans and Their Style of Writing--How English, +German, and French Write--Gobert the French Expert and How He Saved +Dreyfus--Miser Paine and His Millions Saved by an Expert--Writing +with Invisible Ink--Professor Braylant's Secret Writing Without +Ink--Professor Gross Discovers a Simple Secret Writing Method With a +Piece of Pointed Hardwood--A System Extensively Used--Studying the +Handwriting of Authors--How to Determine a Person's Character and +Disposition by Handwriting. + + +It is possible for a trained expert in handwriting to tell with a fair +degree of accuracy the nationality, sex, and age of any one who +executes writing of any kind. A study of the handwriting of the +different nations makes it comparatively easy to recognize in any +questioned specimen the nationality of the writer. The aggregate +characteristics of a nation are reflected in the style of handwriting +adopted as a national standard. The style most in use in the United +States is the semi-angular, forward-slant hand, although the vertical +round-hand is now being largely taught in the public schools and will +affect the appearance of the writing of the next generation quite +appreciably. + +Frequently educational and newspaper critics compare unfavorably +American writing with that of other nations. The writer has +investigated the subject by collecting from many countries copy-books +and specimens of writing from leading teachers of writing, students in +various grades of schools, clerks and business men. + +America is so far in advance of any other country in artistic and +business penmanship that there is really no second. Americans as a +whole write at a much higher rate of speed and with a freer movement +than any other nations, and, consequently, many critics stop when they +have criticized form alone, not making allowance for quantity. +Nervous, rapid writers (and such the Americans are) produce writing +more or less illegible, but it is not the fault of the standard so +much as the speed with which the writing is done. + +The writing of England is either angular (for rapid business style), +or the civil-service round-hand--too slow for the every-day rush of +business. England's colonies, influenced by her copy-books and +teachers, write about as England does. Canada is an exception, as her +proximity to the United States causes her to mix the English and +American styles, with the American gaining ground. + +The German and French write two radically different styles. Hence the +identity of the nation producing the writer as well as the identity of +the writer himself usually can be established. Before the writer is +known this frequently is of great benefit to the cause of justice as +it narrows down the search. + +A case such as the Dreyfus affair has a tendency to confuse the public +mind and leads to wrong conclusions. In initiating the prosecution of +Dreyfus the French government submitted the documents to expert +Gobert, of the Bank of France, who is considered the leader in this +line in France. Gobert reported that Dreyfus did not write the +incriminating documents. The prosecutors then placed the papers in the +hands of Bertillon, the inventor of the anthropometric system of +measurements (used principally on criminals) which bears his name. It +mattered not that Bertillon had never appeared in a handwriting case +before, or that his skill in this line was unknown. He was a man of +science, of great renown in other lines, and the government relied on +these facts to bolster up its claim that Dreyfus wrote the +incriminating papers Bertillon reported in favor of the government's +contention, and it was an easy matter to get some alleged +experts--weak as to will and ability--and one or two honest but +misguided men to agree with him. Some of these afterward changed their +opinions when better standards of writing were given to them. + +Dreyfus' friends sent engraved reproductions of standards and disputed +documents to the best-known experts all over the world, and without +exception these reported that Dreyfus was not the writer of the +disputed papers. On the side of the French government were a few +so-called "experts," headed and dominated by a man with no experience +whatever. The experts of skill and experience in France and the world +over were practically unanimous in favor of Dreyfus. A critical +examination of the documents in question produced an absolute +conviction that they could not possibly have been written by Dreyfus. + +Unless the individual is fitted by nature and inborn liking for +investigations of this character, no amount of education and +experience will fit him. But, given natural equipment and inclination, +it is necessary first of all that the expert have a good general +education. He should have a sufficient command of language to make +others see what he sees. He should have a good eye for form and color, +and a well-trained hand to enable him to describe graphically as well +as orally what his trained eye has detected. A few strokes on a +blackboard or large sheet of paper will often make a clouded point +appear much plainer to court, jury and lawyers than hours of oral +description. The ability to handle the crayon and to simulate well the +writings under discussion is a great aid. + +A very interesting case was involved in the will of Miser Paine in New +York in 1889. Here a deliberate attempt to get away with something +like $1,500,000 was made, which was frustrated by a handwriting +expert. When quite a young man, James H. Paine was a clerk in a Boston +business house. He absconded with a lot of money and went to New York, +where all trace of him was lost. He speculated with the stolen money, +and everything he touched turned to gold. He soon became a +millionaire. Then he became a miser. He went around the streets in +rags, lodged in a garret with a French family on the West Side, who +took him out of pure charity, and lived on the leavings which +restaurant-keepers gave him. There was only one thing that he would +spend money on; that was music. He was passionately fond of music, and +for years was a familiar figure in the lobby of the Academy of Music +during the opera season. He would go there early in the evening, and +beg people to pay his way in. If he didn't find a philanthropist he +would buy a ticket himself, but he never gave up hope until he knew +that the curtain had risen. + +Finally Paine was run over by a cab in New York. He was taken to a +hospital, but made such a fuss about staying there that he was finally +removed to his garret home. He died there in a few days. Then a man +came forward with a power of attorney which he said Paine gave him in +1885 and which authorized him to take charge of Paine's interest in +the estate of his brother, Robert Treat Paine. The closing paragraph +empowered him to attend to all of Paine's business and to dispose of +his property without consulting anybody, in the event of anything +happening to him. Nothing was known then of Paine's possessions. Later +the French family with whom Paine lived opened an old hair trunk they +found in the garret. In this trunk they found nearly half a million +dollars in gold, bank notes, and securities. Chickering, the piano +man, came forward then and said that some years before Paine gave him +a package wrapped up in an old bandana handkerchief for safe keeping. +He had opened this package and found that it contained $300,000 in +bank notes. Other possessions of Paine's were found. Relatives came +forward and employing handwriting experts proved that the power of +attorney presented was a forgery and the estate went to the relations +of Paine. This was a celebrated case in its day and called attention +to the value of experts in this line. + +Ovid, in his "Art of Love," teaches young women to deceive their +guardians by writing their love letters with new milk, and to make the +writing appear by rubbing coal dust over the paper. Any thick and +viscous fluid, such as the glutinous and colorless juices of plants, +aided by any colored powder, will answer the purpose equally well. A +quill pen should be used. + +The most common method is to pen an epistle in ordinary ink, +interlined with the invisible words, which doubtless has given rise to +the expression, "reading between the lines," in order to discover the +true meaning of a communication. Letters written with a solution of +gold, silver, copper, tin, or mercury dissolved in aqua fortis, or +simpler still of iron or lead in vinegar, with water added until the +liquor does not stain white paper, will remain invisible for two or +three months if kept in the dark; but on exposure for some hours to +the open air will gradually acquire color, or will do so instantly on +being held before the fire. Each of these solutions gives its own +peculiar color to the writing--gold, a deep violet; silver, slate; and +lead and copper, brown. + +There is a vast number of other solutions that become visible on +exposure to heat, or when having a heated iron passed over them; the +explanation is that the matter is readily burned to a sort of +charcoal. Simplest among these are lemon juice or milk; but the one +that produces the best result is made by dissolving a scruple of +salammoniac in two ounces of water. + +Several years ago Professor Braylant of the University of Louvain +discovered a method in which no ink at all was required to convey a +secret message. He laid several sheets of note paper on each other and +wrote on the uppermost with a pencil; then selected one of the under +sheets, on which no marks of the writing were visible. On exposing +this sheet to the vapor of iodine for a few minutes it turned +yellowish and the writing appeared of a violet brown color. On further +moistening the paper it turned blue, and the letters showed in violet +lines. The explanation is that note paper contains starch, which under +pressure becomes "hydramide," and turns blue in the iodine fumes. It +is best to write on a hard surface, say a pane of glass. Sulphuric +acid gas will make the writing disappear again, and it can be revived +a second time. + +One of the simplest secret writings, however, to which Professor Gross +of Germany calls attention is the following: + +Take a sheet of common writing paper, moisten it well with clear +water, and lay it on a hard, smooth surface, such as glass, tin, +stone, etc. After removing carefully all air bubbles from the sheet, +place upon it another dry sheet of equal size and write upon it your +communication with a sharp-pointed pencil or a simple piece of pointed +hardwood. Then destroy the dry paper upon which the writing has been +done, and allow the wet paper to dry by exposing it to the air (but +not to the heat of fire or the flame of a lamp). When dry, not a trace +of the writing will be visible. But on moistening the sheet again with +clear water and holding it against the light, the writing can be read +in a clear transparency. It disappears again after drying in the air, +and may be reproduced by moistening a great number of times. Should +the sheets be too much heated, however, the writing will disappear, +never to reappear again. This system is used extensively in Germany. + +An interesting study is the handwriting of authors, as it indicates to +a greater or less degree their personal temperaments. + +Longfellow wrote a bold, open back-hand, which was the delight of +printers, says the Scientific American. Joaquin Miller wrote such a +bad hand that he often becomes puzzled over his own work, and the +printer sings the praises of the inventor of the typewriter. + +Charlotte Bronte's writing seemed to have been traced with a cambric +needle, and Thackeray's writing, while marvelously neat and precise, +was so small that the best of eyes were needed to read it. Likewise +the writing of Captain Marryatt was so microscopic that when he was +interrupted in his labors he was obliged to mark the place where he +left off by sticking a pin in the paper. + +Napoleon's was worse than illegible, and it is said that his letters +from Germany to the Empress Josephine were at first thought to be +rough maps of the seat of war. + +Carlyle wrote a patient, crabbed and oddly emphasized hand. The +penmanship of Bryant was aggressive, well formed and decidedly +pleasing to the eye; while the chirography of Scott, Hunt, Moore, and +Gray was smooth and easy to read but did not express distinct +individuality. + +Byron's handwriting was nothing more than a scrawl. His additions to +proofs frequently exceeded in volume the original copy, and in one of +his poems, which contained in the original only four hundred lines, +one thousand were added in the proofs. + +The writing of Dickens was minute, and he had a habit of writing with +blue ink on blue paper. Frequent erasures and interlineations made his +copy a burden to his publishers. + +Horace Greeley could not decipher his own writing after it got cold. + +Mark Twain writes a cramped, plain hand, and writes with haste. + +For an evening entertainment when a few friends happen to drop in ask +each one to write any quotation that pops into his head and carefully +sign his name in full. Pen and ink are better than pencil, but the +latter will answer in a pinch. If the writing is dark this shows a +leaning toward athletics and a love for outdoor life and sports. If +the letters are slender and faint the writer is reserved and rarely +shows emotion or becomes confidential. Sloping letters indicate a very +sensitive disposition, whereas those that are straight up and down +evince ability to face the world and throw off the "slings and arrows +of outrageous fortune." + +Curls and loops are out of fashion nowadays, but any inclination to +ornate penmanship is a sure indication of a leaning toward the +romantic and sentimental, while the least desire to shade a letter +shows imagination and a tendency to idealize common things. If the +same letter is formed differently by the same person this shows love +of change. Long loops or endings to the letters indicate that the +writer "wears his heart upon his sleeve," or in other words, is +trusting, non-secretive, and very fond of company. If the "y" has a +specially long finish, this shows affectation, but if the same person +is also careless about crossing the "t's," the combination is an +unhappy one, as it points to fickleness in work and to affectation. A +curved cross to the "t," or the incurving of the first letters of a +word shows an affectionate and good-natured disposition if taken +separately; but if the two are indulged in by the same writer it is a +sign of jealousy. + +Writing that is rather small points to cleverness, quick intuitions, a +liking for one's own way, brilliant intellect, and fine powers of +penetration. Round, jolly, comfortable-looking letters betoken a +disposition to correspond. + +With these hints in mind it will be surprising to find how many caps +may be found to fit ourselves and our friends. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +WORKINGS OF THE GOVERNMENT SECRET SERVICE + +Officials of This Department Talk About Their Work--How Criminals +Are Traced, Caught and Punished--Its Work Extending to All +Departments--Secret Service Districts--Reports Made to the Treasury +Department--Good Money and Bad--How to Detect the False--System of +Numbering United States Notes Explained--Counterfeiting on the +Decrease--Counterfeiting Gold Certificates--Bank Tellers and +Counterfeits--The Best Secret Service in the World. + + +The secret service bureau of the Treasury Department is not an old +concern. It has not been in operation many years, compared to the +existence of other bureaus, but it grows in importance each year. +There are now a large number of investigators, by some called +detectives, in the field, but the exact number is not known and will +not be made public. + +Counterfeiting money is an old offense. It was done before the United +States became a government, but does not seem to have become so +widespread until the United States began making its own paper money +during the Civil War. Prior to that time the offenses had been dealt +with by states and municipalities, with such help as the general +government cared to give. The increase in the crime, however, caused +recognition by Congress in 1860, when $10,000 was appropriated for its +suppression to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the +Treasury. This sum was paid out in rewards to private detectives, +municipal officers and others instrumental in bringing to trial and +punishment those engaged in making bogus money. + +With the turning out of greenbacks by the government an increase in +the appropriation and a more organized fight against counterfeiting +were necessary. In 1864 Congress appropriated $100,000 and placed upon +the solicitor of the treasury the responsibility and supervision of +keeping down counterfeiting. This really inaugurated a methodical +system of hunting and punishing counterfeiters. The solicitor of the +treasury gathered about him a corps of men experienced in criminal +investigations and set them to work. The plan worked so well that when +John Sherman was secretary of the treasury he gave his approval to the +organization of a separate bureau for suppressing the output of +spurious currency. Under foreign governments the handling of +counterfeiters is in control of a centralized police organization, +which looks after all kinds of criminal offenses against the general +governments. The one bureau has surveillance over criminals of every +class. The tendency is in that direction in this government. The +secret service bureau is now being used by a number of departments of +the government. + +The operations of the secret service are confined by law to the +suppression of counterfeiting and the investigation of back pay and +bounty cases. This is all the law permits the officials of the service +to work on, but every day they are at work on other matters. That the +law may not be openly violated the secret service operators assigned +to do other work are practically taken off the secret service rolls +and the department employing them is required to pay their salaries +and expenses. Nearly all the departments now recognize the efficiency +of the service and call upon the bureau at any time for a man. The +Department of Justice has used a number of the operators in the last +few years. In the course of time this will become so general that this +government will probably build up a great criminal bureau, one that +will supply officers for investigation of any crime. The Postoffice +Department now has its own system of inspectors, who investigate +violations of postal laws, and the plan of pitting specialist against +specialist is regarded as perfect. This could be continued, though, if +all the criminal organizations of the government were centralized. + +The United States is divided into thirty secret service districts, +each in charge of an operative who has under his direction as many +assistants as the criminal activity of the section demands. The force +is concentrated in one district if there are counterfeiting operations +in progress, and then sent to another district as required. A written +daily report, covering operations for twenty-four hours, is exacted +from each district operative and from each man under him. These daily +reports frequently contain many fascinating stories, many details of +criminal life and espionage that would make columns. The reports +received by the bureau in Washington are carefully filed away in the +offices of the Treasury Department. Accompanying the reports are the +photographs and measurements of every man arrested for counterfeiting. +The Bertillon system of measurements is used by the service, as well +as a plain indexed card system. The two are so complete that even +without the name of a man his name and record can be obtained if his +measurements are forwarded. + +Hanging on the walls and in racks in the two rooms that are occupied +by the chief and his two assistants are the photographs of every known +counterfeiter in the country. Among these are the faces of William E. +Brockway, the veteran dean of counterfeiters; Emanuel Ninger, the most +expert penman the service ever knew, and Taylor and Bredell, who hold +the record as the cleverest counterfeiters in history next to +Brockway. There are hundreds of others who have at some time or other +gotten into the clutches of the service, many of them the most +desperate characters. Some of these have taken human life with the +same ease they would make a paper dollar or a silver coin. + +The development of modern processes of photolithography, photogravure, +and etching has revolutionized the note counterfeiting industry. So +famous a counterfeiter as Brockway realized this. In the old days all +counterfeiting plates were hand engraved and it took from eight to +fifteen months to complete a set. Now this part of the work may be +done in a few hours. + +Information as to the personnel and operations of the secret service +is carefully withheld from the public. The names of the heads of the +various districts and the operators are unknown and are seldom +published unless in case of the arrest of a counterfeiter and the the +facts get into the newspapers. The bureau is managed by John E. +Wilkie, chief. He has held the position since 1898, when he succeeded +Chief Hazen. Mr. Wilkie is a newspaper man having held responsible +positions on many large papers. He began his career as a reporter and +worked his way up to city editor of one of the big Chicago papers. He +has a great "nose" for criminal investigation, and his work is +regarded as brilliant. + +All the United States notes are printed in sheets of four notes of one +denomination on each sheet. Each note is lettered in its respective +order, in the upper and lower corners diagonally opposite, A, B, C, +and D, and this is the system for numbering notes: All numbers, on +being divided by 4 and leaving 1 for a remainder, have the check +letter A; 2 remainder, B; 3 remainder, C; even numbers, or with no +remainder, D. Any United States note the number upon which can be +divided by 4 without showing the above result is a counterfeit, and +while this rule is not infallible in all instances it will be found of +service in the detection of counterfeits. + +Compared with a dozen or so years ago, there is nothing like the +counterfeiting going on in this country. Shortly after the war the +country was practically flooded with it, but so perfect is the +machinery of the secret service and so successful have its officers +been in recent years in unearthing the big plants and their operators, +and placing the latter behind the bars, that counterfeiting has almost +ceased. + +The receipts of subsidiary counterfeit coins at the subtreasury at New +York have been in recent times inconsequential. Some time ago an +Italian silversmith, who was an expert coin counterfeiter, was +captured, and the destruction of his plant and his subsequent +conviction had a wholesome effect upon his fellow countrymen, some of +whom have come over to the United States for the express purpose of +counterfeiting its silver coins. Only five counterfeit issues of notes +made their appearance during the year in question, and of these three +were new and two were reissues of old counterfeits. + +This shows how well the counterfeit situation, as it were, is kept in +check and under control by the government. By some it is supposed that +most of our counterfeiters come from abroad, but this is not strictly +accurate, though many of those who attempt to imitate our silver +dollar and the subsidiary coin issues hail from Italy and Russia. + +In order to set up a first-class counterfeit shop for the turning out +of good paper counterfeits, there are so many indispensable requisites +on the part of the spurious money-makers that they get discouraged or +caught in most instances almost at the very outset of their would-be +easy money-making careers. All of the good engravers who are capable +of turning out good plates are more or less under the constant +supervision of the secret service officers, while the paper supply, or +its possible supply, is equally well watched. + +Because gold and silver coins pass current out on the Pacific coast, +where notes do not yet circulate freely as in the east, California has +more counterfeiting cases than any other state in the Union, with +Pennsylvania, with its large foreign population in the mining regions, +a close second. + +A moderately deceptive $5 silver certificate was made in Italy, +imported into this country by various gangs of Italians and passed +quite extensively in the eastern states, but the secret service +officers quickly got on to the source of issue, and made many arrests +and secured convictions. So closely did they hit the trail of a fairly +good counterfeit note issued in the west that they got the maker and +passer arrested and convicted and the plates captured so quickly that +it must have caused him acute pain. It was the same with a $10 note of +deceptive workmanship which appeared in New York. Only three of these +notes were circulated. + +Of course there are plenty of counterfeit notes and coins in +circulation--if there were not the secret-service officers would have +an easy time of it--but the output has largely decreased as compared +with former years, and, unless all signs fail, it is likely to go +still lower, as the secret service officers become each year more +expert in detecting this class of crime and putting the criminals away +where they will serve the state the best. Gold certificates issued +below the denomination of $20, are numbered the same as treasury notes +and are check-lettered in their order upon each sheet. + +The only denominations of the gold certificates which have been +counterfeited are the issues for $20 and $100, respectively, as the +gold certificates present a pretty tough counterfeiting proposition, +though most of the denominations of the various issues of the silver +certificates have been more or less extensively counterfeited, perhaps +the issues for $5 and $10, respectively, being the most favored at the +counterfeiter's hands, by reason of the ready circulation of these two +issues. + +The main deterrents to counterfeiting nowadays are, first, lack of +good engravers who will take the risk; second, the difficulty in the +making and the assembling of first-class plates, and third, the +difficulty in the securing of suitable paper. As to the last, the +fiber paper now in use with the two silk threads running through the +note lengthwise presents a hard proposition for imitation, and lastly, +and an important provision, is the fact the public is now pretty well +educated on the question of counterfeits, and know how a spurious bill +both looks and feels. As for the bank tellers, they scent counterfeits +by instinct. Things have changed for the counterfeiter, too, and they +are not for the best from his point of view. + +The secret service of the United States is without a question the best +in the world. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CHARACTER AND TEMPERAMENT INDICATED BY HANDWRITING + +A Man's Handwriting a Part of Himself--Cheap Postage and Typewriters +Playing Havoc with Writing by Hand--Old Time Correspondence +Vanishing--Two Divisions of Handwriting--Fashion Has Changed Even +Writing--Characteristic Writing of Different Professions--Handwriting +a Sure Index to Character and Temperament--Personality of +Handwriting--Handwriting a Voiceless Speaking--A Neglected +Science--Interest in Disputed Handwriting Rapidly Coming to the +Front--Set Writing Copies no Longer the Rule--Formal +Handwriting--Education's Effect on Writing--Handwriting and +Personality--The Character and Temperament of Writers Easily +Told--Honest, Eccentric, and Weak People--How to Determine Character +by Writing--The Marks of Truth and Straightforwardness--How +Perseverance and Patience Are Indicated in Writing--Economy, Generosity +and Liberality Easily Shown in Writing--The Character and Temperament +of Any Writer Easily Shown--Studying Character from Handwriting a +Fascinating Work--Rules for Its Study--Links in a Chain That Cannot Be +Hidden--A Person's Writing a Surer Index to Character Than His Face. + + +A person's handwriting is really a part of himself. It is an +expression of his personality and his character and is as +characteristic of his general make-up as his gait or his tone of +voice. + +There is always a direct and apparent connection between the style of +handwriting and the personality of the writer. Another familiar +evidence of this is the fact that no two persons write exactly alike, +notwithstanding that hundreds of thousands of people learned to write +from the same copy-books and were taught to form their letters in +precisely the same way. Thus, it will be seen, if handwriting bore no +relationship to personality and temperament and was not influenced by +the character of the individual, we would all be writing the beautiful +Spencerian copper-plate we were taught in our school days. But, as it +is, not one in fifty thousand writes in this manner five years after +leaving school. + +Like speech or gesture, handwriting serves as a means for the +expression of thought; and in expressing our thoughts we give +expression to ourselves. When once the art of writing is learned we +are no longer conscious of the mental and manual effort required to +form the letters. It becomes, as it were, a second nature to us. We do +it mechanically, just as we form our words when talking, without +realizing the complex processes of mind and muscle that it involves. + +Of course, the style of handwriting does not in every case remain the +same throughout the entire life of a man or woman. A man of fifty may +not write the same hand that he did when he was eighteen or twenty, +and if he lives to be eighty or ninety it will in all probability show +further indications of change. This fact only emphasizes the +relationship between handwriting, character, and personality; for it +will always be found that where there is a change in the style of +penmanship there is a corresponding change in the person himself. Very +few of us retain the same character, disposition, and nature that we +had in youth. Experience and vicissitudes do much to modify our +natures, and with such modifications come alterations in our +handwriting. In some persons the change is very slight, while in +others it is noticeably evident. + +When a man attempts to change his style of handwriting he simply +alters the principal features of it. If his writing normally slopes to +the right, he will probably adopt a back-hand. He may also use a +different kind of pen; may change the size of the writing, alter the +customary formation of certain letters, and add certain unfamiliar +flourishes. But knowing nothing about the many minor characteristics +of his natural writing he unconsciously repeats them, notwithstanding +his best efforts to veil the identity of his chirography. In this +respect he resembles the actor, who, while he may assume all the +outward characteristics of another individual, still retains certain +personal peculiarities of which he is himself unaware and which render +it impossible for him to completely disguise his own individuality. + +The introduction of cheap postage and the immense increase of +every-day correspondence has ruined handwriting and banished forever +the art of composition. The short, modern, business-like letters of +to-day will not bear comparison with the neat, voluminous letters full +of graphic scenic descriptions, which our forefathers were wont to +compile, and were worth keeping and rereading. Now, when similar +correspondence is undertaken, it is dictated to a stenographer, copied +on a typewriter, or printed, for few people will take the trouble to +read manuscript composition of any kind. Looking backward, we find a +marked paucity of ideas and carelessness of writing in correspondence, +getting worse the farther back we go. Few letters are preserved these +days, except those on business, which is a pity, for a letter is +always a unique production, being a correct reflect of a writer and +his times. + +There are always two divisions of handwriting, the formal hand +employed for clerk's work, and a freer, less mechanical, less careful +style, used for private correspondence. Writing was a profession only +understood by a few, and as late as the sixteenth century, when it was +necessary to communicate with persons at a distance, a professional +scribe was employed to write the letter. But letter-writing was rare +and did not become general till after the close of the sixteenth +century, and even then it was restricted to the upper classes of +society. + +Fashion changes in everything. Every generation had its own particular +type of writing. Compare, for instance, any bundle of letters taken at +random, out of an old desk or library. It is quite easy to sort them +into bundles in sequence of dates, and also guess accurately the age +and position of the writers. The flowing Italian hand, used by +educated women early in the nineteenth century, has now developed into +a bold, decisive, almost masculine writing. + +It will be found that most professions have special characteristics in +writing and these are all liable to change, according to circumstances +and writing is the clearest proof of both bodily and mental condition, +for in case of paralysis, or mental aberration, the doctor takes it as +a certain guide. + +The most noticeable movement by which cultured people recognize one +another are the play of the features, the gait, talking and writing. +Of these evidences the last named is the most infallible, for by a few +hasty lines we may recognize again a person whom we neither see nor +hear, and enjoy in addition the advantage of being able to compare +quietly and at our leisure the traits of one individual thus expressed +with the characteristics of another. There are not many men to be +found in any walk of life who do not endeavor to conceal to some +extent, however slight, their true views and emotions, when brought +into close contact with their fellow-beings. But the mind photographs +itself unsuspectingly in the movements of the hands, by the use of pen +and ink away from all alien observation, and with the rigid +unchangeable witness in our possession the character of the author of +the manuscript lies open to the gaze of the intelligent reader. + +In this way handwriting becomes much more individual than any other +active sign of personality. It varies more, it is more free, it +represents the individual less artificially than voice or gesture. +There must exist between the form and arrangements of letters in words +and lines, on the one hand, and certain individual peculiarities of +the writer, on the other, some kind of connection. It is strange that +no scientific writing has ever yet been undertaken, for it seems +conclusive that handwriting is a kind of voiceless speaking, +consequently a phenomenon, and therefore an operation which lies +within the province of physiology. + +Yet there are no books or studies on the subject of disputed +handwriting up to the present time, short newspaper and magazine +articles and sketches being the only contributions the public has been +favored with up to the publication of this work. + +There is as yet no physiology of handwriting formulated, and that the +further question of the relation of handwriting to the moods of the +writer has not ever been touched upon scientifically. The history of +science teaches us that in case a fact, which is theoretically and +practically important, has been neglected for decades and even +centuries by trained scientists; but the subject will now be taken up +and a place made for it among the prominent and leading studies of the +day. Interest in disputed handwriting and writing of all kinds is +rapidly coming to the front in the United States, and is a study and +research that the business man of the future will be perfectly +familiar with. + +It is now no longer the rule to teach to write entirely by the aid of +set copies, as was the case with our forefathers, who wrote after one +approved pattern, which was copied as nearly as possible from the +original set for them; therefore characteristics, peculiarities are +longer in asserting themselves and what is now considered a "formal" +handwriting was not developed till late in life. There were, and still +are, two divisions or classes of handwriting, the professional and +personal; with the first the action is mechanical and exhibits few, if +any, traces of personality. Yet in the oldest manuscripts studied and +consulted there are certain defined characteristics plainly shown. The +handwritings of historical and celebrated personages coincide to a +remarkable degree with their known virtues and vices, as criticized +and detailed by their biographers. + +As the art of writing became general, its form varied more, and more, +becoming gradually less formal, and each person wrote as was easiest +to himself. + +Education, as a rule, has a far from beneficial effect upon +handwriting; an active brain creates ideas too fast to give the hand +time to form the letters clearly, patiently and evenly, the matter, +not the material, being to the writer of primary importance. + +So as study increased among all classes, writing degenerated from its +originally clear, regular lettering into every style of penmanship. + +If the subject of handwriting, as a test of personality is carefully +studied, it will be found that immediate circumstances greatly +influence it; anxiety or great excitement of any kind, illness or any +violent emotion, will for the moment greatly affect the writing. +Writing depends upon so many things--a firm grasp of the pen, a +pliability of the muscles, clearness of vision and brain power--even +the writing materials, pens, ink and paper, all make a difference. It +is not strange, then, that with so many causes upon which it depends, +writing should be an excellent test of personality, temperament and +bodily health. + +Excitability, hastiness, temperament, personality and impatience are +all seen in the handwriting at a glance. A quick brain suggests words +and sentences so fast, one upon another, that though the pen races +along the page, it cannot write down the ideas quickly enough to +satisfy the author. + +Temper depends upon temperament. The crosses of the letter "t" are the +index whereby to judge of it. If those strokes are regular through a +whole page of writing, the writer may be assumed to have an +even-placed temper; if dashed off at random-quick short strokes +somewhat higher than the letter itself, quick outbursts of anger may +be expected, but of short duration, unless the stroke is firm and +black, in which case great violence may safely be predicted. + +Uncertainty of character and temperament is shown by the variation of +these strokes to the letter "t." Sometimes the cross is firm and +black, then next time it is light, sometimes it is omitted altogether, +varying with each repetition of the letter like the opinions and +sentiments of an undecided person. The up and down strokes of the +letters tell of strength or weakness of will; graduations of light and +shade, too, may be observed in the strokes. + +Capital letters tell us many points of interest. By them originality, +talent and mental capacity are displayed, as well as any deficiency or +want of education. There are two styles of capital letters at present +in use. The high-class style employed by persons of education is plain +and often eccentric, but without much ornamentation. The other may be +called the middle-class, for it is used by servants and tradespeople, +having a fair amount of education, mingled with a good deal of +conceited ignorance and false pride. + +With these last, the capital letters are much adorned by loops, hooks +and curves, noticeable principally in the heads of the letters, or at +their commencements. + +Therefore to become an expert on handwriting, a careful study must be +made of the writings of those whose life and character, together with +personal peculiarities, are intimately known and understood, and from +this conclusions may be drawn and rules arrived at for future use. Get +some friend to write his name and from your knowledge of his character +follow rules given in this work and you will find that a correct +conclusion will be arrived at. The same correct solution will be found +by studying any signature. + +Affection is marked by open loops and a general slant or slope of the +writing. A hard nature, unsympathetic and unimpressionable, has very +little artistic feeling or love of the fine arts; therefore the same +things which indicate a soft, affectionate disposition will also +indicate poetry, music and painting, on one or other kindred subjects. +The first of these accompanies a loving, impulsive nature. In +painting, four things are absolutely necessary to produce an artist, +form, color, light and shade. Success in art implies a certain degree +of ambition, and consequently upon its vanity and egotism; hence an +artist's signature is generally peculiar and often unreadable from its +originality, egotism and exuberance of creative power. + +Imagination and impulse do not tend to improve handwriting. The +strokes are too erratic. Haste is visible in every line. A +warm-hearted, impulsive person feels deeply and passionately at the +moment of writing and dashes off the words without regard to the +effect they will produce upon the reader. + +Truth and straightforwardness give even lines running across the page +and at regular distances from one word to another. Tact is very +essential. This quality requires often slight deceptions to be allowed +or practiced; hence an unevenness in the writing is observed. +Untruthfulness gives greater unevenness still; but do not rush to +conclusions on this point for an unformed handwriting shows this +peculiarity very often, being due, not to evil qualities, but to an +unsteady hand employed in work to which it is unused. + +Very round, even writing, in which the words are not closed, denotes +candor and openness of disposition, with an aptitude for giving +advice, whether asked or unasked, and not always of a complimentary +kind. + +Blunt, crabbed writing suggests obstinacy and a selfish love of power, +without thought for the feelings of others. True selfishness gives +every curve an inward bend, very marked in the commencement of words +or capital letters. + +Perseverance and patience are closely allied. In the former the letter +"t" is hooked at the top and also its stroke has a dark, curved end, +showing that when once an idea has been entertained no earthly +persuasion will alter or eradicate it. Such writers have strongly +defined prejudices and are apt to take very strong dislikes without +much cause. + +Carelessness and patience also are frequently linked together, more +often in later life, when adversity has blunted the faculties, or the +drill routine of an uneventful existence has destroyed all romance. +Then the writing has short, up and down strokes, the curves are round, +the bars short and straight; there are no loops or flourishes, and the +whole writing exhibits great neatness and regularity. + +Economy of living, curiously enough, is marked by a spare use of ink. +The terminals are abrupt and blunt, leaving off short. Where economy +is the result of circumstances, not disposition, only some of the +words are thus ended, while others have open, free curves and the long +letters are looped. + +Generosity and liberality may be seen likewise in the end curve of +every word. Where these characteristics are inconstant and variable, +the disposition will be found to be uncertain--liberal in some +matters, while needlessly economical and stingy in others. + +When a bar is placed below the signature, it means tenacity of +purpose, compared with extreme caution; also a dread of criticism and +adverse opinions. No dots to the letter "i" means negligence and want +of attention to details, with but a small faculty of observation. When +the dots are placed at random, neither above nor in proximity to the +letter to which they belong, impressionability, want of reflection and +impulsiveness may be anticipated. + +Ambition and gratified happiness give to the whole writing an upward +tendency, while the rest of the writing is impulsive without much +firmness. + +Sorrow gives every line of the writing a downward inclination. +Temporary affliction will at once show in the writing. A preoccupied +mind, full of trouble, cares little whether the letter then written is +legible or not; hence the writing is erratic, uncertain, and the +confusion of mind is clearly exhibited in every line. Irritable and +touchy persons slope the nourishes only, such as the cross of the +letter "t" and the upper parts of the capital letters. When the +capital letters stand alone in front of the words and the final +letters also are isolated, it betokens great creative power and +ideality, such as would come from an author and clever writer. + +The most personal part of a letter or document is, of course, the +signature, but alone without any other writing it is not always a safe +guide to character. In many instances the line placed below or after a +signature tell a great deal more than the actual name. A curved +bending line below a signature, ending in a hook, indicates coquetry, +love of effect, and ideality. An exaggerated, common-like form of line +means caprice, tempered by gravity of thought and versatility of +ideas. An unyielding will, fiery, and at the same time determined, +draws a firm hooked line after the signature. A wavy line shows great +variety in mental power, with originality. Resolution is shown in a +plain line, and extreme caution, with full power to calculate effect +and reason a subject from every point of view, is shown by two +straight dashes with dots, thus --:-- + +The personality of a writer can never be wholly separated from his +works. And in any question of date or authenticity of a document being +called in dispute, the value of graphology and its theories will be +found of the utmost importance, for the various changes in the style +of handwriting, or in the spelling of words, although, perhaps, so +minute and gradual as seldom to be remarked, are, nevertheless, links +in a chain which it would be extremely hard to forge successfully so +as to deceive those acquainted with the matter as well as versed in +its peculiarities. + +See specimens of handwriting in Appendix with descriptions thereof. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +HANDWRITING EXPERTS AS WITNESSES + +Who May Testify As An Expert--Bank Officials and Bank Employees Always +Desired--Definition of Expert and Opinion Evidence--Both Witness +and Advocate--Witness in Cross Examination--Men Who Have Made the +Science of Disputed Handwriting a Study--Objections to Appear in +Court--Experts Contradicting Each Other--The Truth or Falsity +of Handwriting--Sometimes a Mass of Doubtful Speculations--Paid +Experts and Veracity--Present Method of Dealing with Disputed +Handwriting Experts--How the Bench and Bar Regard the System--Remedies +Proposed--Should an Expert Be an Adviser of the Court?--Free +from Cross-Examination--Opinions of Eminent Judges on Expert +Testimony--Experts Who Testify without Experience--What a Bank +Cashier or Teller Bases His Opinions on--Actions and Deductions of +the Trained Handwriting Expert--Admitting Evidence of Handwriting +Experts--Occupation and Theories That Make an Expert--Difference +Between an Expert and a Witness--Experts and Test Writing--What +Constitutes an Expert in Handwriting--Present Practice Regarding +Experts--Assuming to Be a Competent Expert--Testing a Witness with +Prepared Forged Signatures--Care in Giving Answers--A Writing Teacher +as an Expert--Familiarity with Signatures--What a Dash, Blot, or +Distortion of a Letter Shows--What a Handwriting Expert Should Confine +Himself to--Parts of Writing Which Demand the Closest +Attention--American and English Laws on Experts in +Handwriting--Examination of Disputed Handwriting. + + +While the qualification necessary for the permission of a witness to +testify in court as an expert is largely discretionary with the judge, +such discretion is usually exercised with so great liberality that it +is not often that a witness offered as an expert is refused by the +court on the ground of deficient qualification. It is usually held +that any one possessed of anything more than ordinary opportunity for +studying or observing handwriting may give expert testimony, which the +jury may receive for what it is deemed to be worth. Bank officials and +employees are declared by most courts to be competent witnesses. If on +any previous occasion one has given testimony, that fact is usually +accepted as a sufficient qualification, or if he has ever seen the +person write whose writing is in question, he is deemed competent. +With such limited qualification it is no matter of surprise that +expert testimony is sometime made to appear at very great +disadvantage. Incompetent and mercenary witnesses will seek +employment, and since there are always two sides to a case, and on +each side lawyers who spare no efforts for victory, there is a chance +for every kind of witness, as there is for every kind of attorney. + +Expert evidence is that given by one especially skilled in the subject +to which it is applicable, concerning information beyond the range of +ordinary observation and intelligence. + +Opinion evidence is the conclusions of witnesses concerning certain +propositions, drawn from ascertained or supposed facts, by those who +have had better opportunities than the ordinary individual or witness +to judge of the truth or falsity of such propositions, or who are +familiar with the subject under inquiry, and give their conclusions +from the facts within their own knowledge concerning certain questions +involved. + +Let us look at the question as it presents itself to the layman, to +men of science and experience, to microscopists, to bank officials and +others having much to do with writing. An expert in handwriting +occupies a totally anomalous position when called before a court as a +witness. Technically he is both a witness and an advocate, sharing the +responsibilities of both but without the privileges of the latter. He +has to instruct counsel and to prompt him during its course. But in +cross examination he is more open to insult because the court does not +see clearly how he arrives at his conclusions, and suspects whatever +it does not understand. Nearly every person who has had to appear in +court as an expert has been subjected to more or less humiliation by +the judge. + +It may be, perhaps, cynically hinted that men who have made the +science of disputed handwriting a study should be willing to bear all +kinds of arrogance for the public good. In the first place, many +thoroughly competent experts in any department of science distinctly +and peremptorily refuse to be mixed up in any affair which may expose +them to cross examination. Many experts will investigate a matter, +give a report of their conclusions, but absolutely refuse to appear in +court. + +Another not very edifying spectacle is that of paid handwriting +experts standing in court and contradicting each other, or pretending +to contradict in the interests of their respective clients, is not +exactly right. These men would change places and reverse positions and +arguments if necessary. Men of the world are tempted to say that +"Science can lay but little claim to certainty in demonstrating the +truth or falsity of handwriting and the whole procedure is more a mass +of doubtful speculations than a body of demonstrable truths." But it +must be remembered that a professional expert must be paid for his +services, and always tell the truth as it appears to him. + +It is clearly seen that our present method of dealing with experts +regarding disputed handwriting is found to be on all sides not just +exactly satisfactory. Oftentimes the public is skeptical and many +honest and thorough experts are scandalized. The bench and bar share +this feeling but unfortunately are disposed to blame the individual +rather than the system. + +There is no question but what this unanimity of dissatisfaction will +vanish as soon as a remedy is seriously proposed. To that, however, we +must come unless we are willing to dispense with expert evidence +altogether. + +It is contended by many that an expert should be the adviser of the +court, not acting in the interest of either party in a lawsuit. Above +all things an expert ought to be exempt from cross-examination. His +evidence, or rather his conclusions, should be given in writing and +accepted just as the decisions of the bench on points of law. + +Opinions of eminent judges have differed widely respecting the +reliance to be placed upon testimony founded upon expert comparisons +of handwriting, but it should be remembered that those opinions have +been no more varied than has been the character and qualifications of +the experts by whose testimony they have been called forth. + +It is too true that very frequently persons have been allowed to give +testimony as experts who were utterly without experience in any +calling that tends to bestow the proper qualifications for giving +expert testimony. + +The constant professional observation of handwriting in any line of +financial or commercial business tends to confer expert skill. It +should be said here, however, that the average bank cashier or teller +bases his opinions and his identifications generally upon the +pictorial effect without recourse to those minuter and more delicate +points upon which the skilled expert rightly places the greatest +reliance. Such testimony can not be compared for accuracy or value +with that of the scientific investigator of handwriting. It follows, +then, that one who is endowed with more than ordinary acuteness of +observation, and has had an experience so varied and extensive as to +cover most of these lines, is likely to be best fitted for critical +and reliable expert work. + +In a word, the trained expert eye, even on so slight a thing as a +simple straight line, will detect certain peculiarities of motion, of +force, of pressure, of tool-mark, etc., that in normal circumstances +the result will stand for its author just as his photograph stands for +him. Now, this being undoubtedly true within certain limitations, how +more than incontestable must be the proposition to any rational man +that if, instead of a simple undeviating pen-stroke, lines that run to +curves and angles and slants, and shades and loops and ticks, and +enter into all sorts of combinations, such as any specimen of +handwriting must, however simple, bear inherent evidences of +authorship that yield their secrets to the expert examiner as the +hieroglyphics on an Egyptian monument do to a properly educated +antiquarian. + +The propriety of admitting the evidence of handwriting experts in +investigating questions of forgery is now recognized by statute in +most states. Common sense dictates that in all investigations +requiring special skill, or when the common intelligence supposed to +be possessed by the jury is not fully adequate to the occasion, we +should accept the assistance of persons whose studies or occupations +have given them a large and special experience on the subject. Thus +such men of experience or experts are admitted to testify that work of +a given description is or is not executed with ordinary skill; what is +the ordinary price of a described article; whether described medical +treatment or other practice was conducted with ordinary skill in a +specific case; which of two colliding vessels, their respective +movements being given, was in fault; whether one invention was an +infringement of another, looking at the models of both; and other +cases already mentioned. + +This is as near to an exact definition of who are admissible as +experts as it is possible for us to come. In all these cases it is to +be observed that the expert is to speak from no knowledge of the +particular facts which he may happen to possess, but is to pronounce +the judgment of skill upon the particular facts proved by other +witnesses. Of course the court must be first satisfied that the +witness offered is a person of such special skill and experience, for +if he be not, he can give no proper assistance to the jury; and of +course, also, very much must at least be left to the discretion of the +court, relative to the need of such assistance in the case; for very +often the matter investigated may be so bunglingly done that the most +common degree of observation may be sufficient to judge it. + +Where a witness is called to testify to handwriting, from knowledge of +his own, however derived, as to the hand of the party, he is not an +expert, but simply a witness to a fact in the only manner in which +that fact is capable of proof. Nor is he an expert who is called to +compare a test writing, whose genuineness is established by others, +with the writing under investigation, if he have knowledge of the +handwriting of the party, because his judgment of the comparison will +be influenced more or less by his knowledge, and will not be what the +testimony of an expert should be, a pure conclusion of skill. + +But when a witness, skilled in general chirography, but possessing no +knowledge of the handwriting under investigation, is called to compare +that writing with other genuine writings that have been brought into +juxtaposition with it, he is strictly an expert. His conclusions then +rest in no degree on particular knowledge of his own, but are the +deductions of a trained and experienced judgment, from premises +furnished by the testimony of other witnesses. + +One of the palpable anomalies of the present practice regarding +experts on handwriting is that a person who has seen another write, no +matter how ignorant the observer may be, is competent to testify as to +whether or not certain writing is by the hand of the person he has +once seen engaged in the art of writing, while an expert handwriting +witness may only testify that the hand appears to be simulated but may +not point out the differences between specimens of genuine writing and +the instrument in controversy. + +It is safe to presume that the apparently unreasonable position of the +law was assumed with a good object in view, and it is probable that +the object was the protection of the court from the swarm of so-called +experts which might be hatched by a laxity in the wording of the law. +Few things would be easier for a dishonest person than to swear he was +a competent expert, and then to swear that a document was, in his +opinion, forged or genuine, according to the requirements of his +hirer. The framers of the practice in reference to expert testimony on +documents seem to have had in mind that the only possible kind of +testimony as to documents was that based upon impressions; and that +the only method of coming to a conclusion was by giving words to the +first mental effect produced on a witness after he has looked at a +writing. + +For this reason the practice has grown up in many trials of preparing +carefully forged signatures and producing them before the witness as a +test of how far he is able to distinguish genuine from forged +signatures. + +However expert a witness may be, however successful in discriminations +of this kind, self-respect and a becoming modesty should induce him to +refuse to answer them without distinctly stating that his answer, +which gives his best judgment at the time, must be subject to reversal +if by longer and more thorough investigation it appear that the +opposite view were the true one. + +When there is presented before a court of law a document, of which it +is important to know whether a part or the whole of the body, or the +signature, or all, is actually in the handwriting of some person whose +writing or signature in other exhibits is admitted to be genuine, the +counsel on each side usually seeks the aid of one or more handwriting +experts. + +Usually a teacher of writing is called, but more often the cashier or +paying teller of a bank is preferred. There seems to be a good reason +for choosing a bank cashier or a paying teller, for the man upon whose +immediate judgment as to genuineness of signatures, reinforced by a +large and varied knowledge of human nature and quick observation of +any suspicious circumstances depends the safety of a bank, has +certainly gained much experience and is not apt to be easily deceived +in the kind of cases coming daily before him. How much the average +cashier and paying-teller depends upon the trifling circumstances +attending the presentation of a check, the appearance of the person +presenting it, the probability of the drawer inserting such a sum, +etc., becomes apparent when one has heard a number of these useful +officers testify in cases where they are deprived of all these +surroundings, and required to decide whether a certain writing is by +the same hand which produced another writing, both being unfamiliar to +them. + +In this case they are obliged to create a familiarity with the +signatures of a man whose character and peculiarities they have never +known. + +They miss the aid of some feature, such as a dash, a blot, or the +distortion of a letter, which would recall to them the character of +the writer. Most of the best experts of this class confess that they +cannot tell on what their judgment is based. They simply think that +the writing is not by the same hand as that admitted to be genuine. +"No," they will tell you, "it is not merely superficial resemblance. I +don't know what it is, but I feel sure," etc. These witnesses are more +frequently right than the more pretentious professional expert. The +former trust to the instantaneous impressions which they receive when +papers are handed to them; the latter too often give their attention +to the merely superficial features of chirography without getting +beyond the more obvious resemblances and differences which are +frequently the least important. + +While the expert in handwriting should confine himself to the concrete +examinations of the paper, ink, seals, etc., and leave to the counsel +the task of reasoning on the purport of the words added, and all other +matters not allied to the materials left as the result of the forgery, +yet it would be unreasonable to neglect altogether these means of +corroborating a previously formed suspicion, or directing a course of +inquiry. + +That expert would be more or less than human who could shut his eyes +to the importance of the fact that certain words containing evidence +in the manner of their formation or their position that raised doubts +as to their genuineness by their import gave to the person who might +have written them benefits which he would not have derived in their +absence. + +The parts of a writing which demand the closest attention are those +which have been made unconsciously and which are not easily noted by a +superficial view. The height, the spread of the letters, the +peculiarities of the endings, the nourishes, and the general shape are +things which the forger observes and imitates, often with success; but +the curvature of a letter in its different parts is not easily +appreciated by the naked eye. + +There are but few laws in the United States regarding the functions of +handwriting experts. Courts in various states have followed decisions +made by higher courts where matters affecting expert testimony have +been carried to the court of last resort. A code of uniform laws on +this question is being agitated and will soon be called to the +attention of all state legislatures. England has adopted a simple and +concise law on admissibility of testimony of handwriting experts. + +In the absence of such laws a few extracts from Stephens' Law of +Evidence, an English work, will be found interesting and instructive: + +Article XLIX: "When there is a question as to any point of science or +art, the opinions upon that point of persons specially skilled in any +such matter are deemed to be relevant facts. + +"Such persons are hereinafter called experts. + +"The words 'science or art' include all subjects on which a course of +special study or experience is necessary to the formation of an +opinion, and amongst others the examination of disputed handwriting. + +"Illustration: The question is, whether a certain document was written +by A. Another document is produced which is proved or admitted to have +been written by A. + +"The opinions of experts on the question whether the two documents +were written by the same person, or by different persons, are deemed +to be relevant." + +Article LI: "When there is a question as to the person by whom any +document was written or signed, the opinion of any person acquainted +with the handwriting of the supposed writer that it was or was not +written or signed by him, is deemed to be a relevant fact. + +"A person is deemed to be acquainted with the handwriting of another +person when he has at any time seen that person write, or when he has +received documents purporting to be written by that person in answer +to documents written by himself or under his authority, and addressed +to that person, or when in the ordinary course of business, documents +purporting to be written by that person have been habitually submitted +to him. + +"Illustration: The question is, whether a given letter is in the +handwriting of A, a merchant in Calcutta. + +"B is a merchant in London, who has written letters addressed to A, +and received in answer letters purporting to be written by him. C is +B's clerk, whose duty it was to examine and file B's correspondence. D +is B's broker, to whom B habitually submitted the letters purporting +to be written by A for the purpose of advising with him thereon. + +"The opinions of B, C, and D on the question whether the letter is in +the handwriting of A are relevant, though neither B, C, or D ever saw +A write. + +"The opinion of E, who saw A write once twenty years ago, is also +relevant." + +Article LI I: "Comparisons of a disputed handwriting with any writing +proved to the satisfaction of the judge to be genuine is permitted to +be made by witnesses, and such writings, and the evidence of witnesses +respecting the same, may be submitted to the court and jury as +evidence of the genuineness or otherwise of the writing in dispute. +This paragraph applies to all courts of judicature, criminal or civil, +and to all persons having by law, or by consent of parties, authority +to hear, receive, and examine evidence." + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +TAMPERED, ERASED, AND MANIPULATED PAPER + +Sure Rules for the Detection of Forged and Fraudulent Writing of Any +Kind--A European Professor Gives Rules for Detecting Fraud--How to +Tell Alterations Made on Checks, Drafts, and Business Paper--An +Infallible System Discovered--Results Always Satisfactory--Can Be +Used by Anyone--Vapor of Iodine a Valuable Agent--Paper That Has +Been Wet or Moistened--Colors That Tampered Paper Assumes--Tracing +Written Characters with Water--Making Writing Legible--How to Tell +Paper That Has Been Erased or Rubbed--What a Light Will +Disclose--Erasing with Bread Crumbs--Hard to Detect--How to Discover +Traces of Manipulation--Erased Surface Made Legible--Treating +Partially Erased Paper--Detecting Nature of Substance Used for +Erasing--Use of Bread Crumbs Colors Paper--Tracing Writing with a +Glass Rod--Tracing Writing Under Paper--Writing With Glass Tubes +Instead of Pens--What Physical Examination Reveals--Erasing +Substance of Paper--Reproducing Pencil Writing in a Letter +Press--Kind of Paper to Use in Making Experiments--Detecting Fraud +in Old Papers--The Rubbing and Writing Method. + + +Prof. G. Brynlants of the Belgian Academy of Sciences, who has made +the detecting of forgery and disputed handwriting a study for twenty +years, recently made public an account of the researches he had made +and deductions arrived at with a view of making known how frauds and +alterations are made on checks, drafts, and business paper generally +and how same can easily be detected. The system he recommends is now +in use in nearly every bank in Europe and the result of his work and +his recommendations should be carefully read and the system applied by +the banks and business houses of the United States, when occasion +requires. + +The following article has been specially prepared for this work; and +if its recommendations are carefully carried out it will prove a sure +rule for the detection of forged and fraudulent handwriting: + +"Although my experiments were not always carried on under the most +favorable circumstances, their results were eminently satisfactory and +will prove a boon to the banking and business world. A piece of paper +was handed to me for the purpose of determining if part of it had been +wet and if another part of it had been manipulated for the purpose of +erasing marks upon it; in other words, whether this part had been +rubbed. The sample I had to work upon had already gone through several +experiments. I had remarked that the tint of the paper exposed to the +vapor of iodine differs from that which this same paper assumes when +it has been wet first and dried afterwards. In addition to this I +realized that when sized and calendered paper, first partially wet and +then dried, is subjected to the action of iodine vapor, the parts +which have been wet take on a violet tint, while those which had not +been moistened became either discolored or brown. The intensity of the +coloration naturally varied according to the length of time for which +the paper was exposed to the iodine. + +"There is a very striking difference also when the water is sprinkled +on the paper and the drops are left to dry off by themselves in order +not to alter the surface of the paper. + +"Thorough wetting of the paper will cause the sprinkled spots to turn +a heavy violet-blue color when exposed to vapor while the parts which +are untouched by the water will become blue. + +"If, after sprinkling upon a piece of paper and evaporating the drops +thereon, this piece of paper is thoroughly wet, then dried and +subjected to the action of iodine, the traces of the first drops will +remain distinguishable whether the paper is dry or not. In the latter +case the trace of the first sprinkling will hardly be distinguishable +so long as the moisture is not entirely got rid of; but as soon as +complete dryness is effected their outlines, although very faint, will +show plainly on the darker ground surrounding the spot covered by the +first drop. + +"In this reaction, water plays virtually the part of a sympathetic +fluid, and tracing the characters with water on sized and calendered +paper, the writing will show perfectly plain when the paper is dried +and exposed to action of iodine vapor. The brownish violet shade on a +yellowish ground will evolve to a dark blue on a light blue ground +after wetting. These characters disappear immediately under the action +of sulphurous acid, but will reappear after the first discoloration +provided the paper has not been wet and the discoloration has been +effected by the use of sulphurous acid gas. + +"The process, therefore, affords means for tracing characters which +become legible and can be caused to disappear, but at will to reappear +again, or which can be used for one time only and be canceled forever +afterwards. + +"The usual method of verifying whether paper has been rubbed is to +examine it as to its transparency. If the erasure has been so great as +to remove a considerable portion of the paper, the erased surface is +of greater translucency; but if the erasure has been effected with +great care, examining same close to a light will disclose it; the +erased part being duller than the surrounding surface because of the +partial upheaval of the fibers. + +"If an erasure is effected by means of bread crumbs instead of India +rubber, and care is taken to erase in one direction the change escapes +notice; and it is generally impossible to detect it, should the paper +thus handled be written upon again. + +"Iodine vapors, however, show all traces of these manipulations very +plainly giving their location with perfect certainty. The erased +surfaces assume a yellow brown or brownish tint. If, after being +subjected to the action of the iodine, the paper on which an erasure +has been made is wet, it becomes of a blue color the intensity of +which is commensurate with the length of time to which it has been +under the action of the iodine, and when the paper is again dried the +erased portions are more or less darker than the remainder of the +sheet. On the other hand when the erasure has been so rough as to take +off an important part of the material exposure to iodine, wetting, and +drying result in less intensity to coloration on the parts erased, +because the erasing in its mechanical action of carrying off parts of +the paper removes also parts of the substance which in combination +with iodine give birth to the blue tint. Consequently the action of +the iodine differs according to the extent of the erasure. + +"When paper is partially erased and wet, as when letters are copied, +the same result although not so striking follows upon exposing it to +the iodine vapor after letting it dry thoroughly. + +"Iodine affords in certain cases the means of detecting the nature of +the substance used for erasing. Bread crumbs or India rubber turn +yellow or brownish yellow tints and these are distinguished by more +intense coloration; erasure by means of bread crumbs causing the paper +to take a violet shade of great uniformity. These peculiarities are +due to the upheaval of the fibers caused by rubbing. In fact this +upheaval creates a larger absorbing surface and consequently a larger +proportion of iodine can cover the rubbed parts than it would if there +had been no friction. + +"When paper upon which writing has been traced with a glass rod, the +tip of which is perfectly round and smooth, is exposed to iodine +vapor, the characters appear brown on yellow ground which wetting +turns to blue. This change also occurs when the paper written upon has +been run through a super-calender. If the paper is not wet the +characters can be made to appear or be blotted by the successive +action of sulphurous and iodine vapor. + +"Writing done by means of glass tips instead of pens will show very +little, especially when traced between the lines written in ink. The +reaction, however, is of such sensitiveness that where characters have +been traced on a piece of paper under others they appear very plainly, +although physical examination would fail to reveal their existence, +but a somewhat lengthy exposure to iodine vapors will suffice to show +them. + +"If the wrong side of the paper is exposed to the iodine vapor the +characters are visible; but of course in their inverted position. + +"If the erasure has been so great as to take off a part of the +substance of the paper the reconstruction of the writing, so as to +make it legible, may be regarded as impossible. But in this case +subjecting the reverse side of the paper to the influence of the +iodine will bring out the reverse outlines of the blotted-out +characters so plainly that they can be read, especially if the paper +is placed before a mirror. In some instances, when pencil writing has +been strong enough, its traces can be reproduced in a letter press by +wetting a sheet of sized and calendered paper in the usual way that +press copies are taken, placing it on paper saturated with iodine and +putting the two sheets in a letter book under the press, copies being +run off as is usual in copying letters. The operation, however, must +be very rapidly carried out to be successful. As a matter of fact the +certainty of these reactions depends entirely upon the class of paper +used. Paper slightly sized or poorly calendered will not show them. + +"Another point consists in knowing how long paper will contain these +reactive properties. In my own experience the fact has been +demonstrated that irregular wetting and rubbing three months old can +be plainly shown after this lapse of time. Characters traced with +glass rod tips could be made conspicuous. I have noticed that +immersing the written paper in a water bath for three to six hours +will secure better reactions, but although these reactions are very +characteristic they are considerably weaker." + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +FORGERY AS A PROFESSION + +How Professional Forgers Work--Valuable Points for Bankers and +Business Men--Personnel of a Professional Forgery Gang--The Scratcher, +Layer-down, Presenter and Middleman--How Banks Are Defrauded by +Raised and Forged Paper--Detailed Method of the Work--Dividing the +Spoils--Action in Case of Arrest--Employing Attorneys--What "Fall" +Money Is--Fixing a Jury--Politicians with a Pull--Protecting +Criminals--Full Description of How Checks and Drafts Are +Altered--Alterations, Erasures and Chemicals--Raising Any +Paper--Alert Cashiers and Tellers--Different Methods of Protection. + + +[This Chapter was written for this work by the manager of one of the +largest detective agencies in the United States. They make a specialty +of bank work and from the number of forgers apprehended and convicted +know just how the work is done. A careful reading of this chapter will +put bankers and the public on their guard against the most pestiferous +rascals they have to deal with.] + +Professional forgers usually make their homes in large cities. They +are constantly studying schemes and organizing gangs of men to defraud +banks, trust companies and money lenders by means of forged checks, +notes, drafts, bills of exchange, letters of credit, and in some +instances altering registered government and other bonds, and +counterfeitering the bonds of corporations. These bonds they dispose +of or hypothecate to obtain loans on. + +A professional forgery gang consists of: First, a capitalist or +backer; second, the actual forger, who is known among his associates +as the "scratcher"; third, the man who acts as confidential agent for +the forger, who is known as the "middleman" or the "go-between"; +fourth, the man who presents the forged paper at the bank for payment, +who is known as the "layer-down" or "presenter." + +The duties of the "middleman" or "go-between" are to receive from the +forger or his confidential agent the altered or forged paper. He finds +the man to "present" the same, accompanies his confederates on their +forgery trips throughout the country, acts as the agent of the backer +in dealing out money for expenses, sees that their plan of operations +is carried out, and, in fact, becomes the general manager of the band. +He is in full control of the men who act as "presenters" of the forged +paper. If there be more than one man to "present" the paper, the +middleman, as a rule, will not allow them to become known to each +other. He meets them in secluded places, generally in little +out-of-the-way saloons. In summer time a favorite meeting place is +some secluded spot in the public parks. At one meeting he makes an +appointment for the next meeting. He uses great care in making these +appointments, so that the different "presenters" do not come together +and thereby become known to each other. The middleman is usually +selected for his firmness of character. He must be a man known among +criminals as a "staunch" man, one who cannot be easily frightened by +detectives when arrested, no matter what pressure may be brought to +bear upon him. He must have such an acquaintanceship among criminals +as will enable him to select other men who are "staunch" and who are +not apt to talk and tell their business, whether sober or under the +influence of liquor. It is from among this class of acquaintances that +he selects the men to "present" the forged paper. It is an invariable +rule followed by the backer and the forger that in selecting a +middleman they select one who not only has the reputation of being a +"staunch" man, but he must also be a man who has at least one record +of conviction standing against him. This is for the additional +protection of the backer and forger, as they know that in law the +testimony of an accomplice who is also an ex-convict, should he +conclude to become a state's witness, would have to be strongly +corroborated before a court or jury in order to be believed. + +As the capitalist and forger, for self-protection, use great care in +selecting a "middleman," the middleman to protect himself also uses +the same care in the selection of men to "present" the forged paper. +He endeavors, like the backer and forger, to throw as much protection +around himself as possible, and for the same reasons he also uses +ex-convicts as the men to "present" the forged paper at the banks. The +"presenters" are of all ages and appearances, from the party who will +pass as an errand boy, messenger, porter, or clerk, to the prosperous +business man, horse trader, stock buyer, or farmer. When a presenter +enters a bank to "lay down" a forged paper, the "go-between" will +sometimes enter the bank with him and stand outside the counter, +noting carefully if there is any suspicious action on the part of the +paying teller when the forged paper is presented to him, and whether +the "presenter" carries himself properly and does his part well. But +usually the middleman prefers waiting outside the bank for the +"presenter," possibly watching him through a window from the street. +If the "presenter" is successful and gets the money on the forged +paper, the middleman will follow him when he leaves the bank to some +convenient spot where, without attracting attention, he receives the +money. He then gives the presenter another piece of forged paper, +drawn on some neighboring bank. They go from bank to bank, usually +victimizing from three to five banks in each city, their work being +completed generally in less than an hour's time. All money obtained +from the various banks on the forged paper is immediately turned over +to the middleman, who furnishes all the money for current expenses. +After the work is completed the presenters leave the city by different +routes, first having agreed on a meeting point in some neighboring +city. The "presenters" frequently walk out of the city to some +outlying station on the line of the road they propose to take to their +next destination. This precaution is taken to avoid arrest at the +depot in case the forgery is discovered before they can leave the +city. At the next meeting-point the middleman, having deducted the +expenses advanced, pays the "presenters" their percentage of the money +obtained on the forged paper. + +A band of professional forgers before starting out always agree on a +basis of division of all moneys obtained on their forged paper. This +division might be about as follows: For a presenter where the amount +to be drawn does not exceed $2,000, 15 to 25 per cent; but where the +amount to be drawn is from $3,000 to $5,000 and upwards, the +"presenter" receives from 35 to 45 per cent. The price is raised as +the risk increases, and it is generally considered a greater risk to +attempt to pass a check or draft of a large denomination than a +smaller one. The middleman gets from 15 to 25 per cent. His work is +more, and his responsibility is greater, but the risk is less. There +are plenty of middlemen to be had, but the "presenters" are scarce. +The "shadow," when one accompanies the band, is sometimes paid a +salary by the middleman and his expenses, but at other times, he is +allowed a small percentage, not to exceed 5 per cent, and his +expenses, as with ordinary care his risk is very slight. The backer +and forger get the balance, which usually amounts to from 50 to 60 per +cent. The expenses that have been advanced the men who go out on the +road are usually deducted at the final division. + +In case of the arrest of one of the "presenters" in the act of "laying +down" forged paper, the middleman or shadow immediately notifies other +members of the band who may be in the city. All attempts to get money +from the other banks are stopped, and the other members of the band +leave the city as best they can to meet at some designated point in a +near-by city. Out of their first successful forgeries a certain sum +from each man's share is held by the "middleman" to be used in the +defense of any member of the band who may be arrested on the trip. +This money is called "fall money," and is used to employ counsel for +the men under arrest, or to do anything for them that may be for their +interest. Any part of this money not used is paid back in proportion +to the amount advanced to the various members of the band from whose +share it has been retained. Sometimes, however, in forming a band of +forgers there is an understanding or agreement entered into at the +outset that each man "stand on his own bottom"--that is, if arrested, +take care of himself. When this is agreed to, the men arrested must +get out as best they can. Under these circumstances there is no +assessment for "fall money," but usually the men who present the paper +insist on "fall money" being put up, as it assures them the aid of +some one of the band working earnestly in their behalf and watching +their interests, outside of the attorney retained. + +When one of the party is arrested, an attorney is at once sent to him. +As a rule, in selecting an attorney, one is employed who is known as a +good criminal lawyer. It is also preferred that he should be a lawyer +who has some political weight. The middleman employs the attorney, and +pays him out of the "fall money." The arrested man is strictly +instructed by the attorney to do no talking, and is usually encouraged +by the promise that they will have him out in a short time. In order +to keep him quiet, this promise is frequently renewed by the attorney +acting for the "middleman." This is done to prevent a confession being +made in case the arrested man should show signs of weakening. Finally, +when he is forced to stand trial, if the case is one certain of +conviction, the attorney will get him to plead guilty, with the +promise of a short sentence, and will then bargain to this end with +the court or prosecutor. Thus guided by the attorney selected and +acting for the "middleman" and his associates, the prisoner pleads +guilty, and frequently discovers, when it is too late, that he has +been tricked into keeping his mouth shut in the interests of his +associates. It is but fair to state, however, that if money can save +an arrested party, and if his associates have it, they will use it +freely among attorneys or "jury fixers," where the latter can be made +use of, and frequently it is paid to politicians who make a pretense +of having a "pull" with the prosecuting officers of the court. + +In most instances when checks are sent out they are not seen again by +the maker for a period of days. As business houses of any considerable +magnitude always have a comfortable balance with their bankers, ample +time and an abundance of cash are thus placed at the disposal of the +check-raisers. + +As to the best methods of raising checks so that the fraud will not be +readily detected, much depends upon the way in which they are written. +The style of handwriting, the texture and quality of the paper, and +the chemical properties of the inks, are points which are necessary to +be considered. + +Many checks may be altered to a larger amount by the mere addition of +a stroke of the pen here or the erasure of a line, by means of +chemicals, in some other place. For instance, take a check of $100, no +matter how it may be written, there are five or six different ways in +which it may be altered to a much larger amount, and in such a manner +as to defy the scrutiny of the most careful bank teller. It may be +made into six hundred by merely adding the "S" loop to the "O," +dotting the first part of the "n" to make of it an "i," and crossing +the connecting stroke between the "n" and the "e" to form the "x." To +complete the change it will be found necessary to erase with chemicals +part of the "e." + +A check for one hundred dollars may also be easily altered to eight +hundred dollars, especially when sufficient space has been left +between the "one" and the "hundred," as follows: Add to the "O" the +top part of an "E," dot part of the "n" to form an "i," connect the +remaining part of the "n" with the "e," forming the loop of a "g," and +then add "ht." The figure "i" is very easily changed to "8." + +Sometimes a small capital is used for an "o." In this case an +alteration into "Four" hundred is easily accomplished by simply +prefixing a capital "F" and transforming the "e" into an "r," the "n" +being made to serve as a "u." + +Another change frequently made is to "Ten" hundred. It is done simply +by adding the stem and top part of the "T" to the "O" and changing the +first part of the "u" to an "e." + +Of course, any of the foregoing changes may be made with equal +facility whether the amount be "hundred" or "thousand." + +Two hundred, if anything, is a much easier amount to alter than one +hundred. It is done in the following manner: Make an "F" by simply +crossing the "T;" dot the first part of the "w" to make an "i." and +change the "o" into an "e." The figure "2" can be made into a perfect +"5" by simply adding the top part of the "5" to it. + +Three hundred is not so easily altered; still it may be done by +changing the word "hundred" into a "thousand"--an alteration which is +by no means rare, and which is quite simple, especially when the word +is begun with a small "h." The modus operandi is as follows: Place a +capital "T" before the "h"; change the first part of the "u" into an +"o," connecting it with the second part, which, with the first part of +the "u," will form a "u"; change the second part of the "u" to an "s"; +erase the top part of the "d," making of it an "a," and complete the +alteration by making an "n" of the "r" and "e." This alteration may +appear to be somewhat complicated, but a trial of it according to +direction will show how nicely it may be done. + +"Four" is another easy amount to alter. It is done by extending the +second part of the "u" into a "t," and adding the "y" loop to the "r." +"Five" is changed into "Fifty" and "Fifteen." "Six," "Seven," "Eight," +and "Nine" are changed into "Sixty," "Seventy," "Eighty," and "Ninety" +by simply affixing the syllable "ty." "Twenty" is another easily +changed amount; all that is necessary to make "Seventy" of it is to +make an "S" of the "T," and change the first part of the "w" into an +"e." To make the alteration perfect, the top part of the "T" must be +erased with chemicals. + +In regard to the chemicals used to erase ink, much depends upon the +ink. For most writing fluids and copying inks which are in daily use, +a saturated solution of chloride of lime is the best eraser known, and +when properly made is very quick and effective in its work. It may be +applied with a glass pointed pen, to avoid corrosion, or with a clean +bit of sponge. It acts as a powerful bleach, and with it the face of a +check may be washed as white as before it was written upon. When inks +have become dry and hard, sometimes carbolic or acetic acid is used +effectively with the chlorine. The application of any alkali or acid +to the clean polished surface of a check will, of course, destroy the +finish and leave a perceptible stain, but the work of covering up +these traces is quite as simple as removing the ink in the first +place. + +A favorite trick of forgers and check and draft raisers, who operate +on an extensive scale, is for one of them to open an office in a city +and represent himself as a cattle dealer, lumber merchant, or one +looking about for favorable real-estate investments. His first move is +to open a bank account, and then work to get on friendly terms with +the cashier. He always keeps a good balance--sometimes way up in the +thousands--and deports himself in such a manner as to lead to the +belief that he is a highly honorable gentleman, and the bank officials +are led to the belief that he will eventually become a very profitable +customer. + +Occasionally he has a note, for a small amount to begin with, always +first-class two-name paper, and he never objects--usually insists--on +paying a trifle more than the regular discount. At first the bank +officials closely examine the paper offered, and of course find that +the endorsers are men of high standing, and then their confidence in +the "cattle king" is unbounded. Gradually the notes increase in +amount, from a thousand to fifteen hundred dollars, and from fifteen +hundred to two or three thousand. The notes are promptly paid at +maturity. After the confidence of the bank people has been completely +gained, the swindler makes a strike for his greatest effort. He comes +in the bank in a hurry, presents a sixty-day note, endorsed by +first-class men, for a larger amount than he has ever before +requested, and it generally happens that he gets the money without the +slightest difficulty. Then he has a sudden call to attend to important +business elsewhere. When the note or notes mature, it is discovered to +be a very clever forgery. This has been done time and again, and it is +rare that the forger has been apprehended. + +The latest mode is for the forger to imitate a private check by the +photo-lithographic method, after having obtained a signed check. The +signature, after being photographed, is carefully traced over with +ink, and the body of the check is filled up for whatever amount is +desired. The maker of the check is requested to identify the person +who holds it, and as a general thing he does not wait to see the money +paid. The moment his back is turned, the layer-down palms the small +check and presents the large one. This way of obtaining money is +without the assistance of a middleman. + +Private marks on checks are no safeguards at all, although a great +many merchants believe they can prevent forgery by making certain +dots, or seeming slips of the pen, which are known only to the +paying-teller and themselves. This precaution becomes useless when the +forger uses the camera. Safe-breakers are often called upon by forgers +and asked to secure a sheet of checks out of a check-book. When this +is accomplished a few canceled checks are taken at the same time. +These are given to the forger and he fills them up for large amounts, +after tracing or copying the signature. The safe burglars receive a +percentage on the amount realized. If your safe, vault or desk is +broken open where your check-book is kept, carefully count the leaves +in your check-book, also your canceled checks. If any are missing +notify the banks and begin using a different style of check +immediately. The sneak-thief, while plying his trade, often secures +unsigned bonds of some corporation which has put the signed bonds in +circulation, leaving the rest unsigned until the next meeting of the +directors. + +Frequently unsigned bonds are left in the bank vault for safe keeping. +These are stolen and sent to the penman or "scratcher." Then a genuine +signed bond is purchased, from which the signatures are copied and +then forged. The same trick has been played on unsigned bank notes, +but on the bank notes almost any name will do, as no person looks at +the signature, as long as the note appears genuine. + +The ingenuity of a countless army of sharpers is constantly at work in +this country, devising plans to obtain funds dishonestly, without +work, but, in fact, they often expend more time, skill and labor in +carrying out their nefarious schemes, than would serve to earn the sum +they finally secure, by honest labor. Every banker must, therefore, be +on his guard, and should acquaint himself with the most approved means +of detecting and avoiding the most common swindlers. This is just as +necessary as it is to lock his books and cash in his safe before going +home. + +Next to the counterfeiter, the forger is the most dangerous criminal +in business life. Transactions involving the largest sums of money are +completed on the faith in the genuineness of a signature. Hence every +effort should be made to acquire the art of detecting an imitation at +a glance. This can only be done by considerable practice. It is +asserted that every signature has character about it which can not be +perfectly copied, and which can always be detected by an experienced +eye. This is problematical, but certainly a skillful bank-teller can +hardly be deceived by the forgery of a name of a well-known depositor. + +A banker and business man should accustom himself to scrutinize +closely the signatures of those with whom he deals. He should cut off +their names from the backs of checks and notes, and paste then in +alphabetical order in an autograph book devoted to that purpose, and +compare any suspicious signature with the genuine one. + +In consequence of the numerous frauds committed by forged checks, some +of the European bankers have adopted the custom of sending with their +letter of advice a photograph of the person in whose favor the credit +has been issued, and to stop the payment when the person who presents +himself at the bank does not resemble the picture. If this practice +were to become universal, the object of preventing frauds could be +well attained. + +It is probably a fair statement to make that any draft issued can be +raised, but it is unquestionably true that some can be much more +easily altered than others, and as in the last ten years additional +safeguards have been thrown around the bills of exchange of banks, so +the forger has become more and more expert and proficient, just about +keeping the pace. As the question of armor that can not be pierced and +projectiles that will pierce anything are first one and then the other +a little ahead, so it is with the bank forger and the banks. + +Admirable as some of the work unquestionably is, if anything so +disreputable can be called admirable, there is even yet a something +about either the work or the operator that should arouse the +suspicions of the teller or cashier who is on the alert; and a teller +or cashier without suspicion, and who is not on the alert, may be a +comparatively good man, but is certainly in the wrong place. + +The presenter of a counterfeit bill at the teller's window may have no +knowledge of the character of the bill that he is presenting, but he +who presents a forged draft, in addition to presenting a bad bill, has +a consciousness himself of the fraud that he is attempting, thus +giving the teller not only the chance of scrutinizing the bill, but +also to judge of the appearance, whether nervous or otherwise, of the +man who is laying the trap, and these two facts should inure greatly +to the advantage of the teller. + +As the news of the many successful depredations is scattered, we see +banks trying different methods of protection, many of which at first +glance are admirable, but which it will be seen on a little careful +study simply require but slight change of method on the part of the +professional forger to successfully evade. For instance: Many banks +are daily advising their correspondents of the number and amounts of +drafts issued, either in the course of the mails or otherwise. This at +first sight would seem to be almost absolute protection, but it really +may prove a trap to the bank so advised, as may readily be seen. Let +us suppose that Mr. Forger steps into a bank in Cleveland, buys a +draft for $5; a day or two later, or on the same day, he buys another +draft for $5,000. The first draft is successfully altered to $5,000, +but would not of course be paid by the correspondent bank for this +amount, because of the advice they have of this number is that it was +issued for $5; but it was a simpler matter to change the number of the +draft to correspond with the $5,000 draft, the number of which the +forger has, than it is to make the other alterations necessary to +raise it from $5 to $5,000. After making these alterations it goes in +for payment, and on reference to the advice sheet it is found that +this apparent number was issued for $5,000 and paid accordingly. Then +the forgers have simply the problem on hand to avail themselves, +either directly through the bank of issue or elsewhere of this genuine +$5,000 draft, which is certainly not a hard task for the men who have +successfully performed the harder one. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +A FAMOUS FORGERY + +The Morey-Garfield Letter--Attempt to Defeat Mr. Garfield for the +Presidency--A Clumsy Forgery--Both Letters Reproduced--Evidences of +Forgery Pointed Out--The Work of an Illiterate Man--Crude Imitations +Apparent--Undoubtedly the Greatest Forgery of the Age--General +Garfield's Quick Disclaimer Kills Effect of the Forgery--The Letters +Compared and Evidences of Forgery Made Complete. + + +Very few cases have arisen in this country in which the genuineness of +handwriting was the chief contention, and in which such momentous +interests were at stake, as in the case of the forged "Morey-Garfield +Letter." It was such as to arouse and alarm every citizen of the +republic. A few days prior to the presidential election of 1880, in +which James A. Garfield was the Republican nominee, there was +published in a New York Democratic daily paper, a letter purporting to +have been written to a Mr. H.L. Morey, who was alleged to have been +connected with an organization of the cheap-labor movement. The +letter, if written by Mr. Garfield, committed him in the broadest and +fullest manner to the employment of Chinese cheap labor. It was a +cheap political trick, a rank forgery, and the purpose of the letter +was to arouse the labor vote in close states against Mr. Garfield. It +was also a bungling forgery. We present herewith facsimiles of the +forged letter and one written by Mr. Garfield branding the Morey +letter a fraud. + +[Illustration: THE MOREY-GARFIELD FORGERY.] + +[Illustration: LETTER WRITTEN BY GARFIELD.] + +The Morey letter was evidently written by an uneducated man. Here are +three instances of wrong spelling that a man of Mr. Garfield's +education could not possibly make. The words "ecomony" and "Companys" +in the eighth line and "religeously" in the twelfth line give evidence +of a fraudulent and deceitful letter at once. + +The misplacing of the dot to the "i" in the signature to the left of +the "f" and over the "r" is a mistake quite natural to a hand +unaccustomed to making it, but a very improbable and remarkable +mistake for one to make in writing his own name. Another noticeable +feature in the Morey letter is the conspicuous variations in the sizes +and forms of the letters. Notice the three "I's" in the fifth line. +Variations so great in such close connection seldom occur in anything +like an educated and practiced hand. The "J" in the signature of the +Morey letter has a slope inconsistent with the remainder of the +signature and the surrounding writing. It is also too angular at the +top and too set and stiff throughout to be the result of a natural +sweep of a trained hand. + +The Morey letter was written in January, 1880, and made public in +October of the same year. If Mr. Garfield wrote the Morey letter in +January there was at that time no motive to write it in any other than +his ordinary and natural hand. The letter of denial is in his +perfectly natural hand; these two letters should therefore be +consistent with each other. + +The signature of the Morey letter is a clumsy imitation of General +Garfield's autograph. Observe the stiff, formal initial line of the +"_F_"--its sharp, angular turn at the top, absurd slope and general +stiff appearance, while the shade is low down upon the stem, and +compare with the free, flowing movement, round turns and consistent +slope of the same letter in his genuine autograph. We might extend the +comparison, with like result, to all the letters in the signature, and +to a multitude of other instances in the writing of the body of the +letter. + +Many persons, and some professed experts, have remarked what appeared +to them striking and characteristic resemblances between the Morey +letter and General Garfield's writing. + +It should be borne in mind that if the letter is not in the genuine +handwriting of Mr. Garfield it was written by some person whose +purpose was to have it appear so to be. That being the case, we should +naturally expect to find some, even more, _forms_ than we do, having a +resemblance to those used by Mr. Garfield. All these resemblances +appear to be either copied or coincidences in the use of forms. There +are no coincidences of the unconscious writing habit, which clearly, +to our mind, proves the Morey letter, as Mr. Garfield well +characterizes it, a very clumsy effort to imitate his writing. Indeed, +the effort seems to be little more than an endeavor, on the part of +the writer, to disguise his own hand, and copy a few of the general +features of Mr. Garfield's writing, adding a tolerable imitation of +his autograph. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +A WARNING TO BANKS AND BUSINESS HOUSES + +Information for Those Who Handle Commercial and Legal +Documents--Peculiarity of Handwriting--Methods Employed in +Forgery--Means Employed for Erasing Writing--Care to be Used +in Writing--Specimens of Originals and Alterations--Means of +Discovering and Demonstrating Forgery--Disputed Signatures--Free +Hand or Composite Signatures--Important Facts for the Banking and +Business Public--How to Use the Microscope and Photography to Detect +Forgery--Applying Chemical Tests--How to Handle Documents and Papers +to Be Preserved--The Value of Expert Testimony--Using Chemical, +Mechanical and Clerical Preventatives. + + +The following chapter is written by Mr. William C. Shaw, of Chicago, +the well-known handwriting expert and expert on forgery, whose +services are called in all important forgery and disputed handwriting +cases in the country. It is replete with facts and suggestions of the +greatest importance, and will be found not only interesting reading, +but an instructive article throughout. + +The comparative frequency with which checks, drafts, notes, etc., are +being raised or altered, as well as deeds, wills, etc., forged and +substituted, has naturally created a widespread interest in the +subject of "disputed handwriting." The importance of practical +knowledge in this direction by those who are continually handling +commercial papers and legal documents is at once apparent, but others +engaged in any business pursuit may be saved considerable loss, +trouble and annoyance by observing the principles and suggestions +explained and illustrated in this article. + +In approaching the subject of detecting forged or fraudulent +handwriting let it be understood as a fundamental principle that there +are hardly two persons whose writing is similar enough to deceive a +careful observer, unless the one is imitating the other. Hands, like +faces, have their peculiar features and expression, and the imitator +must not alone copy the original, but at the same time disguise his +own writing. Even the most skilled forger cannot entirely hide his +individuality and is bound to relapse into his habitual ways of +forming and connecting letters, words, etc. The employment of extreme +care can be detected by signs of hesitancy, the substitution of curves +for angles, etc., which appear very plainly when the writing is +critically examined with a magnifying glass. When a signature has been +forged by means of tracing over the original, the resemblance is often +so exact as to deceive even the supposed author. In these cases the +microscope is generally effective in detecting the forgery, as well as +the methods employed. Perfect identity of two genuine signatures is a +practical impossibility; if, therefore, two signatures superposed and +held against the light completely coincide it is almost certain that +one of them is a forgery. + +The methods employed in executing forged handwriting are varied and +depend largely on the individual skill and inclination of the party +attempting it. + +The most frequent class of forgeries consists of erasures, which means +the removing of the genuine writing by mechanical or chemical means. +Erasing with knife, rubber, etc., has practically been abandoned by +expert forgers, on account of the almost certain detection which must +necessarily follow the traces left in evidence. Erasing fluids, ink +eradicators, etc., are more generally used for this purpose. These +have entered the market for legitimate purposes and can be +commercially obtained. Too much confidence should, therefore, not be +placed in the careful writing of checks, etc., alone, as with the aid +of chemicals the original writing can be entirely removed and forged +words and figures substituted. + +[Illustration: Simple additions to genuine handwriting: +ORIGINAL--ALTERATION.] + +Second in importance and frequency, and perhaps the easiest kind of +forgery, consists of simple additions to genuine handwriting. In +checks or drafts the changing of "eight" to "eighty" by the addition +of a single letter is a striking illustration. The change of "six" to +"sixty," "twenty" to "seventy," etc., can also be accomplished by +adding a few strokes and without erasure, as per specimens given. + +The forging of signatures and writing in general is accomplished by +means of tracing as above referred to, free-hand copying, with the aid +of considerable practice, and copying by mechanical or chemical +processes. It is not intended here to give directions, but simply to +refer to facts, with a view to preventing losses and detecting +forgeries. For this reason one method of reproduction may briefly be +described. The carelessness with which blotters are used in public +places, bank counters, post, express and hotel offices is to be +strongly condemned. The entire signature of an indorser is often +clearly copied on the underside of the blotting paper, which only +needs to fall into the hands of a designing party to be projected on +any paper or document and in any desired position. + +The means of discovering and demonstrating forged handwriting are as +varied as the methods employed in its execution, and it may be some +comfort to know that the cunning of the forger is more than matched by +the skill and ability of the expert. + +The ordinary method of identifying handwriting consists in the +"comparison of hands." This, however, is only admitted in courts of +justice under certain limitations. The genuineness of a disputed +writing can be proved by a witness who has seen its execution, or by +comparison with correspondence received in the regular course of +business, or by comparisons with disputed specimens of the alleged +handwriting, which must also be in evidence. Disputed signatures may +be compared with other signatures acknowledged to be genuine, or with +letters or documents, the genuineness of which is unquestioned. In +arriving at conclusions many things are to be considered, the form of +the letters, their manner of combination, evidences of habit, etc. + +Another method of detecting forgery is afforded by the internal +evidences of fraud of the writing itself, with or without the aid of +comparison with genuine writing. These evidences may consist of +alterations, erasures, additions, crowding, etc., as above referred +to; tracing a genuine writing by means of ink or pencil, afterwards +retraced, etc. + +The copy of a genuine signature may be free-hand or composite, by +which is meant that the writing is produced discontinuously or in +parts. Comparison of the separate letters of the doubtful specimen of +writing with the separate letters of the genuine writing of the +supposed imitator or imitated always exhibits less uniformity if +imitation has been attempted, the copyist being frequently led into an +approach to his ordinary handwriting or into an oversight of some +special characteristics of the writing he is simulating. Even minor +points do not escape the expert's critical attention. The dotting of +the i's, or crossing of the t's, curls, loops, flourishes, intervals +between words and letters, connections, characteristics of up and down +strokes are all carefully noticed. + +A glass of low magnifying power will, as a rule, exhibit erasures, and +even bring to view the erased letters. In tracing, the forger +frequently fails to cover over the first outlines, which can be +plainly distinguished. The places where the pen has been put upon and +removed from the paper may sometimes be noticed, which is in itself +strong evidence of fraud. + +With the aid of a microscope the character of the alterations, certain +characteristics due to age, emotion, etc., the kind of pen used and +how it was held, the nature of ink, order of writing, with regard to +time, whether produced by the right or left hand, standing or sitting, +can often be determined. Indentations made by heavy strokes or a sharp +pen, as well as those employed as guides for the signature +subsequently written, will also be brought into prominence. Forged +signatures placed under the microscope have generally a patched +appearance, which results from the retracing of lines in certain +portions not occurring in genuine writing. + +In case of disputed handwriting photography has also been employed to +great advantage. Of course the writing in question should, whenever +practicable, be compared with the original, photographic copies being +looked upon with disfavor and considered by most courts as secondary +evidence. Still, photographic enlargements of genuine and disputed +signatures are very useful in illustrating expert testimony. Certain +characteristics, differences in ink, attempts to remove writing, etc., +may be brought to view, which would be entirely overlooked by direct +examination. The wonderful power of the camera has recently been +illustrated in a very striking manner. A large ocean steamer was +photographed, and on receipt of the proof the owners were surprised to +see a hand bill posted on the side of the hull. Examination of the +ship disclosed no hand bill there, but another photograph exhibited +the same result. A searching inspection revealed the presence of the +mysterious paper buried beneath four coats of paint, but defying the +superficial scrutiny of the human eye. + +As a last resort chemical tests may be applied, by which the identity +or difference of the inks used may be established, etc. As a means of +demonstrating that chemical erasures have been made a certain +manipulation and treatment of the paper submitted will almost +invariably bring back the original and obliterated writing. + +A few words regarding papers and documents, intended for preservation, +will not be amiss. Improved processes of manufacture have certainly +had no beneficial influence on the durability of the products, and +while inks and papers have become greatly reduced in price and +apparently improved in quality, it is very doubtful if much of our +book learning and many of our written instruments will go down to +future generations. Even fifty years will suffice to decompose many an +attractive volume at present on the shelves of our libraries, or fade +the writing of finely engraved and important documents. The quality of +the ink and paper selected is therefore of greatest importance. +Typewritten copies particularly are subject to the ravages of time, +and ought to be avoided when preservation for years to come is the +principal consideration, as for instance in the case of wills, etc., +which ought to be made in one's own handwriting whenever practicable. + +Briefly, I may state that all the safeguards employed on commercial +papers or legal documents, outside of the actual protection afforded, +have the beneficial effect or tendency to make forgeries, erasures or +alterations more difficult, at the same time warning prospective +forgers to keep a respectful distance. + +The inks used, the position of the writing, the paper on which it is +written, the employment of certain chemical, mechanical and clerical +preventatives are all to be thoughtfully considered by those who +desire to protect themselves against losses resulting from fraudulent +handwriting. + +With regard to expert testimony it may be said in conclusion that it +is most effective if governed solely by the evidence submitted, and +not by information otherwise obtained. The microscopic and +photographic examination of papers and documents, as well as their +mechanical and chemical treatment, require in all cases the trained +eye, the skilled hand and the extensive experience of the expert, in +order to fully utilize the available material and to arrive at +conclusions which are in entire accord with the facts under +consideration, thereby aiding in the just and equitable settlement of +weighty questions of profit or loss, affluence or poverty, liberty or +imprisonment, life or death. + +Another expert in handwriting says that regarding the methods made use +of to determine authorship, specialists are naturally reticent. Some +of them have admitted, however, the nature of the leading principles' +which guide them. The philosophy of the matter rests mainly on the +fact that it is very rare for any two persons to write hands similar +enough to deceive a careful observer, unless one is imitating the +other. "Fists," like faces, have all some special idiosyncrasy, and +the imitator has not merely to copy that of some one else but to +disguise his own. + +By careful and frequent practice he may succeed well enough to deceive +the ordinary man, but is rarely successful in baffling the expert. +Even the most skilful culprit cannot wholly hide his individuality, as +he is sure to relapse into his ordinary method occasionally. Then +again, great care has to be used, and this can be detected by the +traces of hesitancy, the substitution of curves for angles and _vice +versa_, which come out very plainly when the writing is examined under +the microscope, as it usually is by the expert. + +A plan of detection which has been adopted with great success is to +cut out each letter in a doubtful piece of writing, and paste all the +A's, B's, etc., on separate sheets of paper. The process is also gone +through with a genuine bit of caligraphy of the imitator or the +imitated, as the case may be. Comparison almost invariably shows that +the letters are less uniform if imitation has been attempted, the +writer being occasionally betrayed into some approach to his ordinary +caligraphy, or into momentary forgetfulness of some special point in +the handwriting he is simulating. + +No point is too small to escape an expert's attention. The dotting of +the "i's," the crossing of "t's," the curls and flourishes, the +intervals between the words, the thinness of the up-stroke and the +thickness of the down-stroke, are all noted and carefully compared. +Where only a signature has been forged, and that by means of tracings +from the original the resemblance is often so exact as to deceive even +the supposed author, but in these cases the microscope is generally +effective in determining not merely the forgery but the method by +which it was accomplished. It is some comfort to know that the cunning +of the forger is overmatched by the scientific skill of the trained +expert. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +HOW FORGERS ALTER BANK NOTES + +Bankers Easily Deceived--How Ten One Hundred-Dollar Bills Are Made out +of Nine--How to Detect Altered Bank Notes--Making a Ten-Dollar Bill +out of a Five--A Ten Raised to Fifty--How Two-Dollar Bills are Raised +to a Higher Denomination--Bogus Money in Commercial Colleges--Action +of the United States Treasury Department--Engraving a Greenback--How +They Are Printed--Making a Vignette--Beyond the Reach of Rascals--How +Bank Notes Are Printed, Signed and Issued by the Government--Safeguards +to Foil Forgers, Counterfeiters and Alterers of Bank Notes--Devices to +Raise Genuine Bank Notes--Split Notes--Altering Silver Certificates. + + +A dangerous game and one too often successfully perpetrated, is the +raising of bank bills from a lower to a higher denomination. +Counterfeiters and forgers have often been detected making ten bills +of nine by the following operation: + +A counterfeit one hundred-dollar bank note is cut into ten pieces; one +of these pieces is pasted into a genuine bill, cutting out a piece of +the genuine of the same size. In pasting nine genuine bills in this +manner nine pieces are obtained, which, with one piece of counterfeit, +will make a tenth bill, which is the profit. This operation is not a +very successful one, as the difference between the counterfeit and the +genuine will be very evident to any one who examines closely. + +Every business man should know how to detect altered bank bills, and a +close scrutiny of all money offered, bearing in mind the suggestions +here made, will prove a safeguard. Bank notes are sometimes altered by +raising from lower to higher denominations, or replacing name of +broken bank by name of good one. This is done either by erasing words +and printing others in their place, or by pasting on the original bill +a piece of counterfeit work or a piece taken from some genuine bill. +If the former, the new counterfeit piece will always differ from the +surrounding genuine work. If the latter, the fraud will be revealed by +holding the bill up to the light, when the portion pasted will look +darker than the surrounding portions. + +Another method employed is to cut ten-dollar bills in halves, also +five-dollar bills, then join them, and raise the five part to a ten by +the blue paper dodge. This bill can be successfully worked off in a +roll of other bills, owing to the workmanship, and sometimes a gang +will visit a certain locality and flood it with doctored bills. +Fifty-dollar bills have been often raised from a ten. This fraud is +generally neatly executed, and is well calculated to deceive the +unsuspecting, and a banker, in hurriedly counting money, is liable to +be taken in on one of these. + +A recent scheme to defraud with raised bills is to raise a two-dollar +bill to a five. In order to accomplish this feat rascals cut out the +figure five in the left-hand corner of a "V" and paste it over the +figure "2" in the upper right-hand corner of the two-dollar bill. The +pasting is done so neatly that not one person in a hundred, or even a +thousand, unless an expert, would notice the difference. The very +small $2 marks in the scroll-work surrounding the large figure are +blotted out with a pencil and are not visible. The figure "2" in the +lower right-hand corner is erased with acids, and the bill is in all +respects a first-class imitation of the genuine article. Treasury +officials say that this is something new in the way of bill-raising, +and is very dangerous. + +Many people who are not used to handling money have been swindled by +what is known as "Imitation Money." The United States Treasury +Department is making strenuous efforts to break up the practice of +issuing imitations of the national currency, to which many commercial +colleges and business firms are addicted. This bogus currency has been +extensively used by sharpers all over the country to swindle ignorant +people and its manufacture is in violation of law. + +So vague is the general idea as to how a bank note is made that we +give an explanation of the various processes it goes through before it +is issued as a part of the "money of the realm," saying, by way of +introduction, that this country leads the world in bank-note +engraving. Unfortunately, the first consideration in making a +bank-note is to prevent bad men from making a counterfeit of it, and +therefore all the notes of a certain denomination or value must be +exact duplicates of each other. If they were engraved by hand this +would not be the case; and, another thing, hand engraving is more +easily counterfeited than the work done by the processes we herewith +describe. + +Every note is printed from a steel plate, in the preparation of which +many persons take part. If you will look at a $5 "greenback" you will +see a picture in the center; a small portrait, called a vignette, on +the left, and in each of the upper corners a network of fine lines +with a dark ground, one of them containing the letter "V" and the +other the figure "5." These four parts are made on separate plates. + +To make a vignette it is necessary, first, to make a large drawing on +paper with great care, and a daguerreotype is then taken of the +drawing the exact size of the engraving desired. + +The daguerreotype is then given to the engraver, who uses a steel +point to mark on it all the outlines of the picture. The plate is +inked and a print taken from it. While the ink is still damp the print +is laid face down on a steel plate, which has been softened by heating +it red hot and letting it cool slowly. It is then put in a press and +an exact copy of the outline is thus made on the steel plate. This the +engraver finishes with his graver, a tool with a three-cornered point, +which cuts a clean line without leaving a rough edge. + +Now this is used for making other plates--it is never used to print +from. It must be made hard and this is done by heating it and cooling +it quickly. A little roller of softened steel is then rolled over it +by a powerful machine until its surface has been forced into all the +lines cut into the plate. The outlines of the vignette are thus +transferred to the roller in raised lines, and after the roller is +hardened it is used to roll over plates of softened steel, and thus +make in them sunken lines exactly like those in the plate originally +engraved. The center picture is engraved and transferred to a roller +like the vignette, but the network in the upper corners, and also on +the back of the note, is made by the lathe. This machine costs $5,000, +a price that puts it beyond the reach of counterfeiters, and its work +is so perfect that it can not be imitated by hand. + +The black parts of the note are printed first, and when the ink is dry +the green-black is printed, to be followed by the red stamps and +numbers. It is then signed and issued. For greater security one part +of the note is engraved and printed at one place and another part at +another place, when it is sent to Washington to be finished and +signed. + +But even after all this care and all these safeguards many skillfully +executed counterfeits and raised and altered bank notes have been made +and issued, some of them so good as to deceive the most expert judges +of money. + +Many devices have been resorted to by counterfeiters to raise genuine +bank-notes, as well as to manufacture bogus ones, but one of the most +novel has recently come to light. The scheme consists of splitting a +$5 and a $1 note, and then pasting the back of the $1 note to the +front of the $5 note and the front of the $1 note to the back of the +$5 note. The mechanical part of the work was excellently done, but the +fraud could be detected the moment the note was turned over. + +An effort had been made to change the "one" to "five" on the "one" +side of the new combined note, but it was done so clumsily that the +fraud would have been seen at a glance, and the only hope of passing +the notes as fives would have been to pass them over with the $5 side +up and trust to the man receiving it not to turn it over before +putting it away. The doctored notes came to the notice of the writer +through one of the Chicago banks, with the request that they be +allowed whatever they were worth. The government always redeems notes +at the face value, and as the faces in this case were of a $1 and a $5 +note, $6 was allowed. It is not known whether the bank was caught on +the split notes or not. + +Another scheme for altering bank-notes is practiced with more or less +success. It is to take a one dollar silver certificate and by means of +powerful acids and fine penwork the large figure "one" on the reverse +side is split into two "tens," and the intermediate portion transformed +into a scroll. On the other side the "one" over the representation of +the silver dollar is obliterated and "ten" substituted, but the "s" is +left off the dollar. The single "1" figures in the corners are neatly +eaten off and the figure "10" substituted. The small "one" is changed +to an "X" and a new series number is printed in red upon the face. The +bill would pass anywhere. None but an expert would detect the fraud. + + + + +APPENDIX + +INTERESTING WRITINGS OF VARIOUS KINDS FOR STUDY AND COMPARISON + + +FOUR ORDINARY SIGNATURES WITH DESCRIPTIONS + +[Illustration: A mechanical or artificial hand in copy-book style, +lightly and delicately traced. + +Characteristic signature, connected and rapidly traced letters +expressing great animation and mental activity. + +A natural hand, letters vary in size, written with great spontaneity +and expression. + +A restrained hand, letters slowly and deliberately traced, indicating +a slow intelligence and perception.] + + +STUDENTS' HANDWRITING--CRIMINALS' HANDWRITING + +[Illustration: The above is a comparison of the students' and +criminals' handwriting, the selections being made from the records of +each class.] + +[Illustration: The tremor of feebleness is shown in this signature. +This was written by a gentleman ninety-two years of age. Writing of +one who is ill or feeble is usually characterized by a light stroke. +The simulated tremor of a skilful penman is rarely successful in +deceiving a trained eye.] + +[Illustration: This signature represents the tremor due to illiteracy. +The tremors and angular features shown are by no means indicative of +lack of power, but the power is misdirected.] + +[Illustration: The signature of Ivan Wilson, herewith given, will serve +as an illustration of the tremor almost inseparable from forgery. The +tremors of a simulating hand are never so numerous nor so fine as real +tremors.] + + +GENUINE--FORGED TRACING--FORGED FREE-HAND + +[Illustration: The first signature is the original. The second is a +bungling traced forgery and the third is a forged freehand. Taken +apart from one another they are clever enough to deceive, but studied +together here the fraud and deception is readily apparent.] + + +ORIGINAL SIZE--GENUINE--FORGED TRACING--FORGED FREE HAND. + +[Illustration: We give above a genuine signature with a forged tracing +and a forged free-hand. You can readily detect the forgeries when +these signatures are placed together and explained. It gives one +points on how to study forged and disputed signatures.] + + +SOME THUMB AND FINGER-PRINT SUGGESTIONS + +[Illustration: We show herewith two enlarged finger-prints. These are +taken from the index finger and are used in many cases instead of +thumb-prints.] + +[Illustration: The above illustrations are fac-simile impressions of +the dermal furrows of the right and left thumbs of four different +persons. The left thumbs are in the top row, the right thumb being +below. These are enlarged to bring out the distinctive points. You +will note that no two are alike and it is absolutely impossible to +forge or duplicate the thumb-print of any person. "Thumb-prints Never +Forged" on page 115.] + +[Illustration: Promiscuous thumb-prints taken at random, easily +distinguishable in the original impression but not enlarged as in +above illustration. A photographic reproduction showing the lines +without enlargement almost impossible.] + + +INTERESTING AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES + +[Illustration: Kaiser's signature published in book sanctioned by him +is the writing of an extremely erratic and nervous man.] + +[Illustration: This is a facsimile of Capt. Myles Standish's +handwriting found on the fly-leaf of one of his books. Capt. Myles +Standish, known as the human sword blade, whose valor saved the +Pilgrims at Plymouth from utter destruction at the hands of hostile +Indians went back to England in 1625 on business for the colony. +Before his return, in 1626, he bought this book and carried it back to +America with him.] + +[Illustration: In this signature of the great Liberator of Italy, we +have indications of energy in the angular form of the letters, and in +the hasty and irregular dot to the small letter "i," and originality +in the curious angularly waved line below the signature. It denotes +tenacity of purpose.] + +[Illustration: In this signature of Napoleon Bonaparte, which appears +on a letter written by him when only a captain in the French army, we +have the "vaulting ambition" which made him all _but_ master of +Europe. There is the dominant will in the strongly marked "t," and in +the hard, thick line which terminates the flourish; his egotism and +self-assertion are evidenced in this flourish, his originality in the +peculiar form of the capital letter "B;" but ambition is here "still +the lord of all."] + + +GREELEY'S LAST LETTER. + +[Illustration: This was the last letter ever written by Horace +Greeley, America's famous editor and horrible penman.] + + +[Illustration: The signatures of this group are by well-known men, all +leaders in a special line of activity. These autographs are original +and typical of the men writing them. The general character, +temperament and make-up of these gentlemen are well-known to all, and +a study of these signatures will be found interesting.] + + +[Illustration: Reduced copy of the signatures and seals of the English +and American commissioners who signed the treaty of peace between +Great Britain and the United States in 1783.] + + +CHARACTERISTIC WRITING OF SOME OF THE BEST KNOWN MEN IN THE BANKING +WORLD OF THE UNITED STATES + +[Illustration: President American Bankers' Association and President +of the Continental National Bank, Chicago.] + +[Illustration: Mr. Vanderlip, President of the National City Bank, New +York.] + +[Illustration: Lewis E. Pierson, First Vice-president American +Bankers' Association and President Irving National Exchange Bank, New +York City.] + +[Illustration: F.O. Watts, Chairman Executive Council American +Bankers' Association and President First National Bank, Nashville, +Tenn.] + +[Illustration: Treasurer American Bankers' Association and Second +Vice-president Fidelity Trust Co., Tacoma, Wash.] + +[Illustration: Fred. E. Farnsworth, Secretary American Bankers' +Association, New York.] + +[Illustration: W.G. Fitzwilson, Assistant Secretary American Bankers' +Association, New York City.] + +[Illustration: Assistant Cashier of the National City Bank, Chicago, +and formerly President of the American Institute of Banking.] + +[Illustration: This gentleman is one of the best-known bankers in +America. He has also been Secretary of the Treasury.] + +[Illustration: A rather complicated, though not altogether unreadable +signature of John K. Ottley, vice-president of the Fourth National +Bank, Atlanta, Ga.] + +[Illustration: J. Furth, President of the Puget Sound National Bank, +Seattle, Wash.] + +[Illustration: There is no better known gentleman in the country than +John Farson, the millionaire banker of Chicago. He dresses attractively, +loves legitimate notoriety, is absolutely democratic in his daily +life, is charitable and pleasant and believes in making everybody +happy, and is a great lover of flowers and children. His signature +indicates his character thoroughly.] + +[Illustration: This is a fair specimen of the writing of a Japanese +banker and business man. This was written with great haste, also.] + + +CURIOUS AND FREAKISH SIGNATURES OF WELL-KNOWN BANKERS AND BUSINESS MEN + +[Illustration: Banker Wm. W. Quigg thinks this is a pretty good +signature. He is a banker at Ontario, Calif.] + +[Illustration: A Michigan bank cashier, E. Newell, writes this +signature.] + +[Illustration: This is the signature of Common Parse.] + +[Illustration: This is the way H.G. Nolton writes his name.] + +[Illustration: This was the original freak signature of the country. +It will be recognized by every one as F.E. Spinner.] + +[Illustration: F.S. Watts, teller in an Iowa bank, is not afraid to +use ink. He says this signature has never been counterfeited.] + +[Illustration: This stands for Lloyd Bowers, a well-known Kansas +banker.] + +[Illustration: R.J.B. Crombie, a Canadian banker, has a signature that +is certainly freakish.] + +[Illustration: Tom Randolph, president of a Sherman, Texas, National +Bank, thinks he is a good writer.] + +[Illustration: W.D. Mussenden, an eastern banker, thinks any man ought +to readily read his writing.] + +[Illustration: C.W. Bush, president of the Bank of Yolo, Woodland, +California, makes these marks and they are good on any check.] + +[Illustration: W.O. Cline, editor and publisher of a Chicago paper. +This is one of the most unique signatures in the United States.] + +[Illustration: A B. Ming might write worse but it is doubtful.] + +[Illustration: W.P. Hazen, a Kansas banker, has written this signature +so many years he thinks it ought to be legible to any one.] + +[Illustration: This is the very complicated signature of Hugh +Harbinson, a well-known Connecticut business man.] + +[Illustration: John Mohr, Jr., thinks this is a plain signature.] + +[Illustration: Jas. V.D. Westfall, formerly a well-known New York +State banker.] + +[Illustration: F.C. Miller, Kansas banker, wants this to pass current +as his name.] + +[Illustration: Louis Houck, historian, Cape Girardeau, Mo.] + +[Illustration: Tams Bixby, General Manager The Pioneer Press, St. +Paul, Minnesota. This is certainly a unique signature.] + +[Illustration: J.W. Dunegan, Cashier First National Bank, Marquette, +Mich.] + +[Illustration: This is known as the "Turn Around" signature. This was +furnished us by the president of one of the largest banks in New York +City. It is one of the most curious of signatures. Turn it around. It +reads the same both ways.] + +[Illustration: P.B. Elder, formerly a Pennsylvania bank president, +known as the "upside down" writer. Turn it around.] + +[Illustration: John R. Dixon, a well-known Chicago business man.] + +[Illustration: Peter White, President First National Bank, Marquette, +Mich.] + + +HOW SOME CELEBRATED WOMEN WRITE + +[Illustration: In this signature of the "divine Sarah," the flourish +peculiar to most actresses, which indicates love of admiration, is +very remarkable. We have also, in the return of the curve of the +letter "S" the sign typical of egotism; in the peculiar form of the +letter "B," we have originality; in the heavy down strokes we have +sensuousness; and in the angular forms of all the letters, strong +will.] + +[Illustration: Who has not heard of that eccentric woman in man's +garb, Dr. Mary E. Walker. She is egotistical, seeks after notoriety, +and her signature is a correct portrayal of a petulant and whimsical +nature.] + +[Illustration: This signature of Marie Antoinette was taken from a +letter written while she was in prison under sentence of death. This +is a despondent signature. Misfortune, separation from her husband and +children, and humiliation had crushed her pride, and the whole of this +signature is descendant, the four last letters remarkably so, which +indicates a thoroughly despondent condition.] + + +THREE OF AMERICA'S BEST-KNOWN MEN + +[Illustration: Melville W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, +of the United States.] + +[Illustration: P.S. Grosscup, Chicago, Judge of the Circuit Court of +the United States.] + +[Illustration: John Hay, formerly Secretary of State, is a versatile +man. The most remarkable point in this autograph is its extreme +clearness, indicative of lucidity of ideas. Cultivation is shown in +the form of the capital letters in both Christian and surname. No +obstinacy is shown in this nature, only sufficient firmness to hold +his own when necessary, the signature showing also a strong literary +leaning.] + + +THREE FAMOUS MILITARY MEN + +[Illustration: We present a group of signatures of famous military +men. The autograph of General Grant is plain and simple in its +construction, not an unnecessary movement or mark in it--a signature +as bare of superfluity and ostentation as was the silent soldier and +hero of Appomattox. In the autograph of R.E. Lee we have the same +terse, brief manner of construction as in Grant's. It is more +antiquated and formal in its style, more stiff and what might be +called aristocratic. Its firm upright strokes, with angular horizontal +terminal lines, indicate a determined, positive character. In somewhat +marked contrast with the two last-mentioned autographs is that of +General Beauregard, in that he indulges in a rather elaborate +flourish, which is a national characteristic.] + + +CHARACTERISTIC WRITING OF A FEW OF THE WORLD'S BEST-KNOWN LITERARY MEN +AND AUTHORS + +[Illustration: Shakespeare's writing shows a strong, intuitive +observation--that quick movement of the mind which seizes character at +a glance--is shown by the want of _liason_ between the curiously +formed letter "h" and the "a" which follows it. With a poet's +disregard of order, Shakespeare puts no dots to either of the small +letters "i" in his Christian name, nor is there any full stop at the +end of the signature, so suggestive, when seen in an autograph, of +caution, and that attention to minutiae which seems almost +incompatible with the poetic nature. No flourish of any kind disgraces +this thoroughly characteristic signature of England's greatest poet.] + +[Illustration: His popularity and fame as a novelist may be attributed +to the fascinating style and vivid portrayal of his imaginative rather +than realistic creations. The flourish after the signature has its +significance also. It is lacking in grace or harmony, and evidently +the quick, assertive stroke from the pen of one who will brook no +opposition.] + +[Illustration: In this signature of Longfellow we have imagination in +the letter "L" in the signature of the surname, lucidity of ideas in +the extreme clearness of the writing, ideality in the absence of +_liason_ between the "l" and "o," but not as much tenderness as +one would have expected in the writing of the author of "Evangeline."] + +[Illustration: Edgar Allen Poe was an egotistical and imaginative +writer. When the flourish takes any very peculiar abnormal form, it is +rather a sign of originality than vanity, though there is, perhaps +always a slight admixture of egotistical feeling in all flourishes.] + +[Illustration: Who has not heard of Emile Zola? This signature has the +lightning flourishes in the "Z" and "a," and the entire separation of +letters indicate an almost wholly intuitive mind, but lacking in +logic, reason and judgment.] + + +AUTOGRAPHS OF SOME WELL-KNOWN MEN. THEIR WRITING IS AS DIFFERENT AS +THEIR CHARACTERS. + +[Illustration: Uncle Joe Cannon, Speaker of the House of +Representatives, has a careless and rapid signature which indicates a +determined and arbitrary will.] + +[Illustration: Cecil T. Rhodes, the wealthy South Africa diamond king, +has a signature denoting secrecy and thrift. The curve of the "C" and +"T" denoting love of publicity. His wonderful endowments gave him fame +and publicity.] + +[Illustration: Signature of John Jacob Astor, the founder of that +well-known family.] + +[Illustration: Ingersoll's signature is that of a combative man. This +is told by a certain irregularity in writing and at the same time all +the signs of ardent courage.] + +[Illustration: Admiral George Dewey. Extreme straightforwardness is +indicated in this signature; the letters are all one height and the +line of writing is straight. It denotes precision, discipline and +loyalty.] + +[Illustration: An enlarged signature of one of the most successful +merchants in the country. This signature shows intuitive perception of +character and the heavy characters denote precision, organization, and +care for details.] + +[Illustration: The signature of H.N. Higinbotham, a former partner of +Marshall Field, and an immensely busy man. It shows that an active +business man can write a legible hand if he will.] + +[Illustration: This signature is that of one of America's greatest +merchants and financiers. He is as careful in writing as in business +and gives the greatest care to all details. Philanthrophy is also +shown in his hand.] + +[Illustration: This is the inventor of the telephone, and one of the +most famous characters of the country. This is a most pronounced +signature indicating inventive genius and charity, with strong +literary proclivities.] + +[Illustration: Joseph Zeisler, one of the best known physicians in the +country. This writing, while difficult to read, indicates a nervous +body and active brain.] + +[Illustration: Thomas A. Edison, the famous inventor.] + +[Illustration: One of the richest men in America and a well-known +philanthropist.] + +[Illustration: This signature evidences calm and clear judgment; the +open "o's," fluency of speech; and the simply formed capitals, the +modest, unpretentious nature.] + +[Illustration: The writing of one of the most famous characters in +American politics. His writing indicates firmness, love of notoriety +and also a semblance of weakness.] + +[Illustration: The signature of Emil G. Hirsch, Rabbi of Sinai +Congregation, Chicago, one of America's best-known and most-respected +Jewish citizens.] + +[Illustration: "Oom Paul" Kruger, formerly president of the Transvaal +Republic. This is the signature of a man that believed the world was +flat. He was "sot" in his ways--stubborn, obstinate, unmovable. His +rugged character was never brought within the restraints of +conventionality, and neither, apparently, was his handwriting.] + +[Illustration: One of America's best-known educators.] + +[Illustration: Arthur N. McGeoch, Milwaukee, Wis., a well-known +attorney.] + +[Illustration: Geo. E. Allen, Educational Director, American Institute +of Banking.] + +[Illustration: Characteristic writing of business men in the early +days of our country. These autographs appear on the original agreement +which formed the first stock exchange in New York City, in 1792. +Whirls, flourishes, and other peculiarities are remarkably plenty in +the above, which is an indication of correct writing in those days.] + +[Illustration: One of the few legible signatures to the Declaration of +Independence.] + +[Illustration: P.M. Hanney, a leading Chicago business man, and a +director in the great firm of Siegel Cooper & Company.] + +[Illustration: General counsel for the American Bankers' Association, +and authority on American banking law.] + +[Illustration: Retired Major General of the United States Army.] + + +AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES OF THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES + +[Illustrations] + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DISPUTED HANDWRITING*** + + +******* This file should be named 14003-8.txt or 14003-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/0/14003 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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