initial commit of ebook 13939HEADmain

1 files changed, 3818 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/13939-0.txt b/13939-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab72419
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13939-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3818 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13939 ***
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 484
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, APRIL 11, 1885
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 484.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Bridge over the Blaauw
+     Krantz Ravine, Cape Colony.--2 engravings.
+
+     Torpedo Ships.
+
+     The Gas Engine.--By DUGALD CLERK.--Combustion engines.--First
+     cylinder and piston engine.--Watt's experiments.--First gas
+     engine.--Principles of the gas engine.
+
+     Rapid Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway.--By E.T.
+     ABBOTT.
+
+     The Osgood Mammoth Excavator.--3 figures.
+
+     Capstan Navigation on the Volga.--4 figures.
+
+     Steamboat Equipment of War Vessels.--With engraving of winch
+     for raising and lowering torpedo boats.
+
+     Improved Steam Trap.--1 engraving.
+
+
+II.  TECHNOLOGY.--Critical Methods of Detecting Errors in Plane
+     Surfaces.--By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.--11 figures.
+
+     Photometric Standards.--9 figures.
+
+     Bleaching or Dyeing Yarns and Goods in Vacuo.--1 figure.
+
+     On the Moulding of Porcelain.--By CHAS. LAUTH.--Moulding by
+     pressure of the air.--Moulding by vacuum.--Drying the moulded
+     pieces.--2 figures.
+
+     Photo-Tricycle Apparatus.--1 figure.
+
+     A Photo Printing Light.--1 figure.
+
+     A New Actinometer.
+
+     Astronomical Photography.
+
+     Electricity as a Preventive of Scale in Boilers.
+
+
+III. DECORATIVE ART.--Alphabet designed by Godfrey Sykes.--An
+     engraving.
+
+     Old Wrought Iron Gate.--An engraving.
+
+
+IV.  GEOLOGY.--The Organization and Plan of the United States
+     Geological Survey.--By J.W. POWELL.--A topographic map
+     of the United States.--Paleontology.--Chemistry.--Physical
+     researches.--Statistics.--Library.--Publications.--General
+     geology.--Economic geology.--Relation of the general survey
+     to the State survey.
+
+
+V.   BOTANY, ETC.--The Sunflowers.--Annuals, perennials, etc.--11
+     engravings.
+
+     Lye's Fuchsias.--1 engraving.
+
+
+VI.  HYGIENE, ETC.--Brief Sanitary Matters in Connection with
+     Isolated Country Houses.--By E.W. BOWDITCH.
+
+     Sanitary Cooking.--By V.L. OPPENHEIMER.
+
+     Time required to digest Different Foods.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BLAAUW KRANTZ VIADUCT IN CAPE COLONY.
+
+
+This viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from Port Alfred
+to Grahamstown, at a height of about 200 ft. from the bottom. Its length
+is 480 ft. 6 in., and the width of the platform is 15 ft., the gauge of
+the railway being 3 ft. 6 in. The central span of the viaduct is an arch
+of 220 ft. span between abutments, and about 90 ft. height; the remainder
+of the space on each side is divided into two spans by an iron pier at a
+distance of 68 ft. from the retaining wall. These piers are 36 ft. 2 in.
+high, and carry girders 144 ft. long, balanced each on a pivot in the
+center. One end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by
+means of horizontal and vertical anchorages, while the other end rests in
+a sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+In designing the structure the following points had to be considered: (1)
+That, on account of the great height above the ground, and on account of
+the high price of timber at the site, the structure could be easily
+erected without the use of scaffolding supporting it as a whole. (2) That,
+on account of the high freights to Port Alfred, the quantity of iron in
+the structure should be as small as possible. (3) That the single parts of
+the principal span should be easy to lift, and that there should be as few
+of them as possible. For this latter reason most of them were made in
+lengths of 20 ft. and more. The question of economy of material presented
+itself as a comparison between a few standard types, viz., the girder
+bridge of small independent spans; the cantilever bridge, or the
+continuous girder bridge in three large spans; the single girder bridge
+with one large span and several small spans; and the arch with small
+girder spans on each side. The suspension bridge was left out of question
+as inadmissible. A girder bridge with small independent spans on rocker
+piers would probably have been the most economical, even taking into
+account the great height of the piers near the middle of the ravine, but
+there would have been some difficulty in holding those piers in position
+until they could be secured to the girders at the top; and, moreover, such
+a structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the character
+of the site. On the other hand, a cantilever or continuous girder bridge
+in three spans--although such structures have been erected in similar
+localities--could not enter into comparison of simple economy of material,
+because such a design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the
+greater part of the structure, viz., the side spans, being necessarily
+constructed to carry across a large space, would be too near the ground to
+justify the omission of further supports. The question was, therefore,
+narrowed to a comparison between the present arch and a central
+independent girder of the same span, including the piers on which it
+rests. The small side spans could obviously be left out in each case. The
+comparison was made with a view not only to arrive at a decision in this
+particular case, but also of answering the question of the economy of the
+arch more generally. The following table contains the weights of
+geometrically similar structures of three different spans, of which the
+second is the one here described. The so-called theoretical weight is that
+which the structure would have if no part required stiffening, leaving out
+also all connections and all wind bracing. The moving load is taken at one
+ton per foot lineal, and the strain on the iron at an average of four tons
+per square inch. The proportion of the girder is taken at 1 in 8.
+
+--------------+-----------------------+------------------------+
+              |  Theoretical Weight.  |      Total Weight.     |
+Span in Feet. +-----------------------+------------------------|
+              |  Arch.  |   Girder.   |     Arch.  |   Girder. |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------|
+     100      | 0.0724  |   0.1663    |    0.1866  |   0.2443  |
+     220      | 0.1659  |   0.4109    |    0.4476  |   0.7462  |
+     300      | 0.2414  |   0.6445    |    0.6464  |   1.2588  |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------+
+              |<------------Tons per foot lineal.------------->|
+
+It can be seen from these results that the economical advantage of the
+arch increases with the span. In small arches this advantage would not be
+large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of manufacture; but in the
+arch of 220 ft. span the advantage is already very marked. If the table
+were continued, it would show that the girder, even if the platform were
+artificially widened, would become impossible at a point where the arch
+can still be made without difficulty. The calculations leading to the
+above results would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this
+occasion to produce them. Our two views are from photographs.--_The
+Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO SHIPS.
+
+
+Commander Gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the use of
+torpedoes in war before the royal U.S. Institution, London, discussed
+H.M.S. Polyphemus, and urged as arguments in her favor: 1. That she has
+very high speed, combined with fair maneuvering powers. 2. That she can
+discharge her torpedoes with certainty either ahead or on the beam when
+proceeding at full speed. 3. That her crew and weapons of defense are
+protected by the most perfect of all armor possible, namely, 10 ft. of
+water. 4. That she only presents a mark of 4 ft. above the water line.
+
+Then, he asked, with what weapon is the ironclad going to vanquish these
+torpedo rams? Guns cannot hit her when moving at speed; she is proof
+against machine guns, and, being smaller, handier, and faster than most
+ironclads, should have a better chance with her ram, the more especially
+as it is provided with a weapon which has been scores of times discharged
+with certainty at 300 yards. The ironclad, he answered, must use
+torpedoes, and then he maintained that the speed and handiness of the
+Polyphemus would enable her to place herself in positions where she could
+use her own torpedo to advantage, and be less likely to be hit herself. He
+then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning towers
+in these ships, and prophesied that if a submarine ship, armed with
+torpedoes, be ever built, she will be the most formidable antagonist an
+ironclad ever had; and the nearer the special torpedo ship approaches this
+desideratum the better she will be.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PLUMBING TEST.
+
+
+A recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains, described by Mr.
+Cosmo Jones in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, is deserving of
+interest. The one fixed upon is 10 in. long, 2½ in. in diameter, and with
+the composition "charged rather hard," so as to burn for ten minutes. This
+gives the engineer time to light the fuse, insert the rocket in the drain,
+insert a plug behind it, and walk through the house to see if the smoke
+escapes into it at any point, finishing on the roof, where he finds the
+smoke issuing in volumes from the ventilating pipes. The house
+experimented upon had three ventilating pipes, and the smoke issued in
+dense masses from each of them, but did not escape anywhere into the
+house, showing that the pipes were sound. If the engineer wishes to
+increase the severity of the test, he throws a wet cloth over the top of
+the ventilating pipe, and so gets a slight pressure of smoke inside it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GAS ENGINE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lecture by Mr. Dugald Clerk, before the Literary and
+Philosophical Society, Oldham.]
+
+By DUGALD CLERK.
+
+
+In earlier days of mechanics, before the work of the great Scottish
+engineer, James Watt, the crude steam engines of the time were known as
+"fire engines," not in the sense in which we now apply the term to
+machines for the extinguishing of fires, but as indicating the source from
+which the power was derived, motive power engines deriving their vitality
+and strength from fire. The modern name--steam engine--to some extent is a
+misleading one, distracting the mind from the source of power to the
+medium which conveys the power. Similarly the name "Gas Engine" masks the
+fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines.
+
+The gas engine is more emphatically a "fire engine" than ever the steam
+engine has been. In it the fire is not tamed or diluted by indirect
+contact with water, but it is used direct; the fire, instead of being kept
+to the boiler room, is introduced direct into the motor cylinder of the
+engine. This at first sight looks very absurd and impracticable;
+difficulties at once become apparent of so overwhelming a nature that the
+problem seems almost an impossible one; yet this is what has been
+successfully accomplished in the gas engine. Engineers accustomed to the
+construction of steam engines would not many years ago have considered any
+one proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses.
+
+The late Sir William Siemens worked for many years on combustion engines,
+some of his patents on this subject dating back to 1860. In the course of
+a conversation I had with him on the subject of his earlier patents, I
+asked him why he had entitled one of those patents "steam engine
+improvements" when it was wholly concerned with a gas engine using
+hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder, the combustion of the hydrogen
+taking place in the motive cylinder. He answered me that in 1860 he did
+not care to entitle his patent gas or combustion engine simply because
+engineers at that time would have thought him mad.
+
+Notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers, and the
+apparent novelty of the gas engine idea, fire or combustion engines have
+been proposed long, long ago. The first Newcomen steam engine ever set to
+work was used by a Mr. Back, of Wolverhampton, in the year 1711.
+Thirty-one years before this time, in Paris--year 1680--Huyghens presented
+a memoir to the Academy of Sciences describing a method of utilizing the
+expansive force of gunpowder. This engineer is notable as being the very
+first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston, as well as the first
+combustion engine of a practical kind.
+
+The engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder, in which works a
+piston; the piston is connected by a chain passing over a pulley above it
+to a heavy weight; the upstroke is accomplished by the descent of the
+weight, which pulls the piston to the top of the cylinder; gunpowder
+placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder is now ignited, and expels
+the air with which the cylinder is filled through a shifting valve, and,
+after the products of combustion have cooled, a partial vacuum takes place
+and the atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its
+stroke, during which work may be obtained.
+
+On the board I have made a sketch of this engine. Some years previous to
+Huyghens' proposal, the Abbe Hautefeuille (1678) proposed a gunpowder
+engine without piston for pumping water. It is similar to Savery's steam
+engine, but using the pressure of the explosion instead of the pressure of
+steam. This engine, however, had no piston, and was only applicable as a
+pump. The Savery principle still survives in the action of the well-known
+pulsometer steam pump.
+
+Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of Huyghens, continued experimenting
+upon the production of motive power, and in 1690 published a description
+of his attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New Method of Securing Cheaply
+Motive Power of Considerable Magnitude."
+
+He mentions the gunpowder engine, and states that "until now all
+experiments have been unsuccessful; and after the combustion of the
+exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of its
+volume of air."
+
+For the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation and
+condensation of steam, heating the bottom of his cylinder by a fire; a
+small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized, and then on
+removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was forced down. This
+was substantially the Newcomen steam engine, but without the separate
+boiler.
+
+Papin died about the year 1710, a disappointed man, about the same time as
+Newcomen. Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger and blacksmith, of Dartmouth,
+England, had first succeeded in getting his engine to work. The hard fight
+to wrest from nature a manageable motive power and to harness fire for
+industrial use was continued by this clever blacksmith, and he succeeded
+when the more profound but less constructively skillful philosophers had
+failed.
+
+The success of the steam method and the fight necessary to perfect it to
+the utmost absorbed the energy of most able engineers--Beighton, John
+Smeaton--accomplishing much in applying and perfecting it before the
+appearance of James Watt upon the scene.
+
+It is interesting to note that in England alone over 2,000 horse power of
+Newcomen engines were at work before Watt commenced his series of
+magnificent inventions; he commenced experimenting on a Newcomen engine
+model in 1759 at Glasgow University, and in 1774 came to Birmingham,
+entered into partnership with Boulton, and 1781 we find his beautiful
+double acting beam condensing engine in successful work.
+
+From that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced,
+increasing in economy of fuel from 10 lb. of coal per horse power per hour
+to about 1¾ lb. per horse power per hour, which is the best result of
+to-day's steam engine practice. This result, according to the highest
+authorities, is so near to the theoretical result possible from a steam
+engine that further improvement cannot now be looked for. Simultaneously
+with the development of the steam engine, inventors continued to struggle
+with the direct acting combustion or gas engine, often without any
+definite understanding of why they should attempt such apparent
+impossibilities, but always by their experiments and repeated failures
+increasing knowledge, and forming a firm road upon which those following
+them traveled to success.
+
+In 1791 John Barber obtained a patent for an engine producing inflammable
+gas, mixing it with air, igniting it, and allowing the current so produced
+to impinge upon a reaction wheel, producing motion similar to the well
+known Aelopile, which I have at work upon the table. About this time,
+Murdoch (Jas. Watt's assistant at Birmingham) was busy introducing coal
+gas into use for lighting; in 1792 Boulton and Watt's works were lighted
+up with coal gas. From this time many gas engines were proposed, and the
+more impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention.
+
+In 1794 Thomas Mead obtained a patent for an engine using the internal
+combustion of gas; the description is not a clear one, his ideas seem
+confused.
+
+In the same year Robert Street obtained a patent for an engine which is
+not unlike some now in use. The bottom of a cylinder, containing a piston,
+is heated by a fire, a few drops of spirits of turpentine are introduced
+and evaporated by the heat, the piston is drawn up, and air entering mixes
+with the inflammable vapor. A light is applied at a touch hole, and the
+explosion drives up the piston, which, working on a lever, forces down the
+piston of a pump for pumping water. Robt. Street adds to his description a
+note: "The quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is
+always proportional to the confined space, in general about 10 drops to a
+cubic foot." This engine is quite a workable one, although the
+arrangements described are very crude.
+
+The first gas engine that was actually at work for some years; and was
+applied to a variety of purposes, was Samuel Buren's. His patent was
+granted in 1823, and in 1826 he built a locomotive carriage with which he
+made several experimental runs in London; he also propelled a vessel with
+it upon the Thames, and fitted up a large engine for pumping purposes. A
+company was formed to introduce his engine, but it proved too wasteful of
+fuel, and the company went into voluntary liquidation. Like almost all
+engines of this time, the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a
+vacuum, the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure.
+
+Buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years before the
+great trial in 1829, from which George Stephenson emerged victorious with
+his wonderful engine "The Rocket." To those curious in the matter, I may
+mention that S. Buren's patents are dated 1823, No. 4,874, and 1826, No.
+5,350.
+
+From this time on, a continuous series of gas engine patents appear, 20
+engines being patented between 1826 and 1860, which is the next date
+worthy of particular mention.
+
+In this year, 1860, the famous "Lenoir" engine appeared. The use of high
+pressure steam engines had long been common, and Lenoir's engine was
+analogous to the high pressure engine, as Buren's was to the condensing
+engine. It created a very general interest, and many engines were
+constructed and used in France, England, and America; it resembled very
+much in external appearance an ordinary high pressure horizontal steam
+engine, and it was double acting.
+
+During the following six years, other 20 British patents were granted, and
+the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome toy to a practicable
+and widely useful machine.
+
+From 1791 to the end of 1866, in all 46 British patents were granted for
+gas engines, and in these patents are to be found the principles upon
+which the gas engines of to-day are constructed, many years elapsing
+before experience enough was gained to turn the proposals of the older
+inventors to practical account.
+
+The most important of these patents are:
+
+                      No.  Year.
+Robert Street         1,983 1794  Direct-acting engine.
+Samuel Buren          4,874 1823  Vacuum engine.
+Samuel Buren          5,350 1826  Vacuum engine.
+W.L. Wright           6,525 1833  Direct-acting engine.
+Wm. Barnett           7,615 1838  Compression first proposed.
+Barsante & Matteucci  1,072 1854  Rack & clutch engine.
+Drake                   562 1855  Direct-acting engine.
+Lenoir                  335 1860  D.I. engine, electric ignition.
+C.W. Siemens          2,074 1860  Compression, _constant
+                                    pressure_.
+Hugon                 2,902 1860  Platinum ignition.
+Millein               1,840 1861  Compression, both constant vol. and
+                                    _pressure_.
+F.H. Wenham           1,873 1864  Free piston.
+Hugon                   986 1865  Flame ignition.
+Otto and Langen         434 1866  Rack and clutch, flame ignition.
+
+Leaving for the present the history of the gas engine, which brings us to
+a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine during the Newcomen's
+time, it will be advisable to give some consideration to the principles
+concerned in the economical and efficient working of gas engines, in order
+to understand the more recent developments.
+
+It has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to produce a vacuum
+in Huyghens' engine, and that it was abandoned in favor of gas by Buren in
+1823. The reason of departure is very obvious: a gunpowder explosion and a
+gaseous explosion differ in very important practical points.
+
+Gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed into a very
+small space; the gas evolved by its decomposition is so great in volume
+that, even in the absence of any evolution of heat, a very high pressure
+would result. One cubic inch of gunpowder confined in a space of one cubic
+inch would cause a pressure by the gas it contains alone of 15,000 lb. per
+square inch; if the heating effect be allowed for, pressures of four times
+that amount, or 60,000 lb. per square inch, are easily accounted for.
+These pressures are far too high for use in any engine, and the bare
+possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder quite
+outside the purpose of the engineer, quite apart from any question of
+comparative cost. In a proper mixture of inflammable gas and air is found
+an exceedingly safe explosive, perfectly manageable and quite incapable of
+producing pressures in any sense dangerous to a properly constructed
+engine.
+
+The pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and air is
+strictly determined and limited, whereas the pressure produced by the
+explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the relation between the
+volume of the gunpowder and the space in which it is confined.
+
+Engines of the "Lenoir" type are the simplest in idea and construction; in
+them a mixture of gas and air is made in the cylinder during the first
+half of the piston stroke, air being taken from the atmosphere and drawn
+into the cylinder by the forward movement of the piston. At the same time
+gas entering by a number of holes, and streaming into the air to form an
+explosive mixture, the movement of a valve cuts off the supply, and brings
+the igniting arrangement into action. The pressure produced by the
+explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke, when the
+exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine. The Lenoir and Hugon
+engines, the earlier forms of this type, were double acting, receiving two
+impulses for every revolution of the crank, the impulse differing from
+that in a high pressure steam engine in commencing at half stroke.
+
+The Lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome. I have it
+upon the table; the mixture was ignited at the proper time by the electric
+spark produced from a primary battery and Ruhmkorff coil.
+
+The Hugon engine was an advance in this respect, using a flame ignited,
+and securing greater certainty of action in a comparatively simple manner.
+
+It is really a modification of Barnett's lighting cock described in his
+patent of 1838.
+
+Other difficulties were found in using these engines; the pistons became
+exceedingly hot. In the case of the Lenoir larger engines, it sometimes
+became red hot, and caused complete ruin of the cylinder by scoring and
+cutting up. Hugon to prevent this injected some water.
+
+In the all important question of economy, these engines were found
+grievously wanting, Lenoir consuming 95 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour;
+Hugon consuming 85 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour.
+
+The surviving engines of this type are only used for very small powers,
+from one to four man power, or 1/8 to 1/2 horse, the most widely known of
+this kind being the "Bischoff," which is very largely used; its
+consumption of gas is even greater than the Lenoir, being 110 cubic feet
+per horse power per hour, as tested with a half-horse engine at a late
+exhibition of gas apparatus at Stockport.
+
+So large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming into extended
+use for engines of moderate power, and led inventors to work to obtain
+better results. The force generated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air is very short lived, and if it is to be fully utilized must be
+used quickly; a high pressure is produced, but it very quickly disappears.
+
+The quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is reached, the
+less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the cylinder. The flame
+which fills the cylinder and causes the increase of pressure rapidly loses
+heat, and the pressure falls.
+
+The idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy; it was thought
+that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner could not move
+fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was lost. Many inventors
+proposed to perform work upon a piston free from any direct connection
+with the crank or shaft of the engine; the explosion after attaining its
+maximum pressure expends its force in giving velocity to a piston; the
+velocity so acquired carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the
+energy is all absorbed, and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the
+cylinder instead of an excess of pressure. The return stroke is
+accomplished by the atmospheric pressure, and the work is now done upon
+the engine shaft on the return only. The method of connecting on the
+return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out stroke varies, but
+in many engines the principle was the same.
+
+Barsante and Matteucci, year 1857, British patent No. 1,625, describe the
+first engine of this kind, but Messrs. Otto and Langen were the first to
+successfully overcome all difficulties and make a marketable engine of it.
+Their patent was dated 1866, No. 434. To distinguish it from Otto's later
+patents, it may be called the rack and clutch engine.
+
+The economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the Lenoir.
+According to a test by Prof. Tresca, at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the
+gas consumed was 44 cubic feet per indicated horse power per hour.
+According to tests I have made myself in Manchester with a two horse power
+engine, Otto and Langen's free piston engine consumes 40 cubic feet per
+I.H.P. per hour. This is less than one-half of the gas used by the Hugon
+engine for one horse power.
+
+The igniting arrangement is a very good modification of Barnett's lighting
+cock, which I have explained already, but a slide valve is used instead of
+a cock.
+
+Other engines carried out the same principle in a different manner,
+including Gilles' engine, but they were not commercially so successful as
+the Otto and Langen. Mr. F.H. Wenham's engine was of this type, and was
+working in England, Mr. Wenham informed me, in 1866, his patent being
+taken out in 1864.
+
+The great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity and great
+noise in working; this was so great as to prevent engines from being made
+larger than three horse power. The engine, however, did good work, and was
+largely used from 1866 until the end of 1876, when Mr. Otto produced his
+famous engine, now known as "The Otto Silent Gas Engine." In this engine
+great economy is attained without the objectionable free piston by a
+method proposed first by Burnett, 1838, and also by a Frenchman, Millein,
+in 1861; this method is compression before ignition. Other inventors also
+described very clearly the advantages to be expected from compression, but
+none were able to make it commercially successful till Mr. Otto. To him
+belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle of operations capable of
+realizing compression in a simple manner.
+
+Starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the free piston
+engine--namely, that the more quickly the explosive force is utilized, the
+less will be the loss, and the greater the power produced from a quantity
+of burning gas--it is evident that if any method can be discovered to
+increase the pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature
+of the flame causing this pressure, then a great gain will result, and
+the engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work. This is
+exactly what is done by compression before ignition. Suppose we take a
+mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when exploded, or
+rather ignited (because explosion is too strong a term), a pressure of 45
+lb. above atmosphere, or 60 lb. per square inch absolute pressure. Then
+this mixture, if compressed to half volume before igniting and kept at
+constant temperature, would give, when ignited, a pressure of 120 lb.
+total, or 105 lb. above atmosphere, and this without any increase of the
+temperature of the flame.
+
+The effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work of a large
+one, and convert more heat into work by lessening the loss of heat through
+the walls of the cylinder. In addition to this advantage, greater
+expansions are made possible, and therefore greatly increase economy.
+
+The Otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you, that I
+need hardly trouble you with details of its external appearance. I shall
+briefly describe its action. Its strong points and its weak points are
+alike caused by its cycle. One cylinder and piston suffices to carry out
+its whole action. Its cycle is: First outstroke, gas and air sucked into
+the cylinder; first instroke, gas and air compressed into space; second
+outstroke, impulse due to ignition; second instroke, discharge of
+exhausted gases. When working at full power, it gets one impulse for every
+two revolutions; this seems to be a retrograde movement, but,
+notwithstanding, the advantages obtained are very great. The igniting
+arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the rack and clutch
+engine. The engine has been exceedingly successful, and is very
+economical. The Otto compression engine consumes 21 cubic feet of gas per
+I.H.P. per hour, and runs with great smoothness.
+
+In 1876 I commenced my work upon gas engines, and very soon concluded that
+the compression system was the true line to proceed upon. It took me two
+years to produce a workable engine. My efforts have always been directed
+toward producing an engine giving at least one impulse every revolution
+and, if possible, to start without hand labor, just as a steam engine
+does. My first gas engine was running in 1878, and patented and exhibited
+in 1879. It was first exhibited at the Kilburn Royal Agricultural
+Society's show.
+
+This engine was self-starting, gave an ignition at every revolution, and
+ignited without external flame. It consisted of two cylinders, a motor,
+and a compressing pump, with a small intermediate reservoir. Suitable
+valves introduced the mixture of gas and air into the pump, and passed it
+when compressed from the reservoir to the motor cylinder. The igniting
+arrangement consisted of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port;
+this cage was heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air
+mixed; it became white hot in a few seconds, and then the engine was
+started by opening a valve.
+
+The platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the successive
+ignitions, and, the engine once started, no further external flame was
+required. I have here one of these platinum cages which has been in use.
+Finding this method not well suited for small engines, I produced the
+engine which is at present in the market under my name.
+
+The cycle is different, and is designed for greater simplicity and the
+avoidance of back ignitions. It also consists of two cylinders, motor
+cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder. There is no intermediate
+reservoir. The displace crank leads the motor by a right angle, and takes
+into it the mixed charge of gas and air, in some cases taking air alone
+during the latter part of its stroke.
+
+The motor on the outstroke crosses V-shaped parts about from one-sixth to
+one-seventh from the out end, the displacer charge now passing into the
+motor cylinder, displacing the exhaust gases by these ports and filling
+the cylinder and the space at the end of it with the explosive mixture.
+The introduction of some air in advance of the charge serves the double
+purpose of cooling down the exhaust gases and preventing direct contact of
+the inflammable mixture with flame which may linger in the cylinder from
+the previous stroke. The instroke of the motor compresses the charge into
+the conical space at the end of the cylinder, and, when fully compressed,
+ignition is effected by means of the slide I have upon the table.
+
+This system of ignition has been found very reliable, and capable of
+acting as often as 400 times per minute, which the Otto ignite is quite
+incapable of doing. By this cycle the advantages of compression are gained
+and one step nearer to the steam engine is attained, that is, an impulse
+is given for every revolution of the engine.
+
+As a consequence, I am able with my engine to give a greater amount of
+power for a comparatively small weight. In addition to this, I have
+introduced a method of self-starting; in this I believe I was the
+first--about 100 of my engines are now using self-starting.
+
+The largest single engine I have yet made indicates 30 H.P. The
+consumption of gas in Glasgow is: Clerk engine consumes in Glasgow 18
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour; Clerk engine consumes in Manchester 22
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour. So far as I know, the Otto engine and my
+own are the only compression engines which have as yet made any success in
+the market. Other engines are being continually prepared, gas engine
+patents being taken out just now at the rate of 60 per annum, but none of
+them have been able as yet to get beyond the experimental stage. The
+reason is simply the great experience necessary to produce these machines,
+which seem so very simple; but to the inexperienced inventor the subject
+fairly bristles with pitfalls.
+
+I have here sections of some of the earlier engines, including Dr.
+Siemens' and Messrs. Simon and Beechy. Although interesting and containing
+many good points, these have not been practically successful.
+
+The Simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known American petroleum
+motor, the Brayton, the only difference consisting in the use of steam as
+well as flame.
+
+Dr. Siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines, but he aimed
+rather high at first to attain even moderate success. Had he lived, I
+doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing them for large
+powers. In 1882 he informed me that he had in hand a set of gas engines of
+some hundreds of horse power for use on board ship, to be supplied with
+gas from one of his gas producers modified to suit the altered
+conditions.
+
+Summarizing the ground over which we have passed, we find the origin of
+the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first to propose the
+steam engine, Huyghens and Papin, 1680 and 1690. Greater mechanical
+difficulties and ignorance of the nature of explosives caused the
+abandonment of the internal combustion idea, and the mechanical
+difficulties with steam being less, the steam engine became successful,
+and triumphed over its rival. The knowledge and skill gained in the
+construction of steam engines made it possible once again to attack the
+more difficult problem, and simultaneously with the introduction and
+perfecting of the steam engine, the gas engine idea became more and more
+possible, the practicable stage commencing with Lenoir and continuing with
+Hugon, Millein, Otto and Langen, F.H. Wenham, then Otto and Clerk. In
+1860, 95 cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour; in 1867,
+40 cubic feet accomplished the same thing; and now (1885) we can get one
+horse power for an hour for from 15 to 20 cubic feet of gas, depending on
+the size of the engine used.
+
+Considered as a heat engine, the gas engine is now twice as efficient as
+the very best modern steam engine. It is true the fuel used at present
+is more expensive than coal, and for large powers the steam engine is
+the best because of this. But the way is clearing to change this. Gas
+engines as at present, if supplied with producer gas, produced direct
+from coal without leaving any coke, as is done in the Siemens, the
+Wilson, and the Dawson producers, will give power at one-half the cost
+of steam power. They will use 7/8 of a pound of coal per horse power per
+hour, instead of 1-3/4 lb., as is done in the best steam engines. The
+only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the Dawson,
+and in it anthracite is used, because of the difficulty of getting rid
+of the tar coming from the Siemens and Wilson producers, using any
+ordinary slack.
+
+When this difficulty has been overcome, and that it will be overcome there
+can be no manner of doubt, gas engines will rapidly displace the steam
+engine, because a gas engine with a gas producer, producing gas from any
+ordinary coal with the same ease as steam is produced from a boiler, will
+be much safer, and will use one-half the fuel of the very best steam
+engines for equal power. The first cost also will not be greater than that
+of steam. The engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of
+equal power, but the gas producer will be less expensive than the boiler
+at present. Perfect as the gas engine now is, considered as a machine for
+converting heat into work, the possibility of great development is not yet
+exhausted. Its economy may be increased two or even three fold; in this
+lies the brilliant future before it. The steam engine is nearly as perfect
+as it can be made; it approaches very nearly the possibility of its
+theory. Its defect does not lie in its mechanism, but in the very
+properties of water and steam itself. The loss of heat which takes place
+in converting liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the
+greater portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in
+the condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine; but a small proportion of
+the heat is converted into work.
+
+The very best steam engines convert about 11 per cent. of the heat given
+them into useful work, the remaining 89 per cent. being wasted,
+principally in the exhaust of the engine.
+
+Gas engines now convert 20 per cent. of the heat given to them into work,
+and very probably will, in a few years more, convert 60 per cent. into
+useful work. The conclusion, then, is irresistible that, when engineers
+have gained greater experience with gas engines and gas producers, they
+will displace steam engines entirely for every use--mills, locomotives,
+and ships.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.
+
+By E.T. ABBOTT, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minnesota. Read December
+12, 1884.
+
+
+During the winter of 1881 and 1882, the contract was let to Messrs.
+Langdon, Sheppard & Co., of Minneapolis, to construct during the working
+season of the latter year, or prior to January 1, 1883, 500 miles of
+railroad on the western extension of the above company; the contract being
+for the grading, bridging, track-laying, and surfacing, also including the
+laying of the necessary depot sidings and their grading. The idea that any
+such amount of road could be built in that country in that time was looked
+upon by the writer hereof, as well as by railroad men generally, as a huge
+joke, perpetrated to gull the Canadians. At the time the contract was let,
+the Canadian Pacific Railway was in operation to Brandon, the crossing of
+the Assiniboine River, 132 miles west of Winnipeg. The track was laid,
+however, to a point about 50 miles west of this, and the grading done
+generally in an unfinished state for thirty miles further. This was the
+condition of things when the contract was entered into to build 500
+miles--the east end of the 500-mile contract being at Station 4,660
+(Station being at Brandon) and extending west to a few miles beyond the
+Saskatchewan River.
+
+The spring of 1882 opened in the most unpromising manner for railroad
+operations, being the wettest ever known in that country. Traffic over the
+St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba Railroad, between St. Paul and Winnipeg,
+was entirely suspended from April 15 to the 28th, owing to the floods on
+the Red River at St. Vincent and Emerson, a serious blow to an early
+start, as on this single track depended the transportation of all
+supplies, men, timber, and contractors' plant, together with all track
+materials (except ties), all of these things having to come from or
+through St. Paul and Minneapolis. The writer hereof was appointed a
+division engineer, and reported at Winnipeg the 15th of April, getting
+through on the last train before the St. Vincent flood. No sooner was the
+line open from St. Paul to Winnipeg than the cotillon opened between
+Winnipeg and Brandon, with a succession of washouts that defied and
+defeated all efforts to get trains over, so it was not until the fifth day
+of May that I left Winnipeg to take charge of the second division of 30
+miles.
+
+By extremely "dizzy" speed I was landed at the end of the track, 180 miles
+from Winnipeg, on the evening of the 9th (4 days). My outfit consisted of
+three assistant engineers and the necessary paraphernalia for three
+complete camps, 30 days' provisions (which turned out to be about 20), 11
+carts and ponies, the latter being extremely poor after a winter's diet
+on buffalo grass and no grain. On the 18th day of May I had my division
+organized and camps in running order. The country was literally under
+water, dry ground being the exception, and I look upon the feat of getting
+across the country at all as the engineering triumph of my life.
+
+On May 20 a genuine blizzard set in, lasting 24 hours, snowed five inches,
+and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice, a decidedly
+interesting event to the writer, as he was 18 miles from the nearest wood,
+therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack. I stabled my ponies in
+the cook tent, and after they had literally eaten of the sod inside the
+tent, I divided my floor with them.
+
+On 28th day of May I saw the first contractor, who broke ground at station
+7,150. On the 1st of June I was relieved from this division, and ordered
+to take the next, 50 miles west. On the 13th day of June ground was broken
+on this division, at station 8,070, or only about 62 miles west of the
+east end of the 500-mile contract. It looked at this time as though they
+might build 150 miles, but not more. But from this time on very rapid
+progress was made. On July 17 the track reached station 7,000, making
+however up to this time but about 50 miles of track-laying, including that
+laid on the old grade; but large forces were put on to surfacing, and the
+track already laid was put in excellent condition for getting material to
+the front. The weather from this until the freezing-up was all that could
+be desired. Work ceased about the 1st of January, 1883, for the season,
+and the final estimate for the work was as follows: 6,103,986 cubic yards
+earth excavation, 2,395,750 feet B.M. timber in bridges and the culverts,
+85,708 lineal feet piling, 435 miles of track-laying. This work was all
+done in 182 working days, including stormy ones, when little, if anything,
+could be done, making a daily average of 33,548 yards excavation, 13,150
+feet B.M. timber, 471 feet piling, 2-38/100 miles track-laying. We never
+had an accurate force report made of the whole line, but roughly there
+were employed 5,000 men and 1,700 teams.
+
+The admirable organization of the contractors was something wonderful. The
+grading work was practically all done by sub-contractors, Messrs. Langdon,
+Sheppard & Co. confining themselves to putting in the supplies and doing
+the bridge work, surfacing, and track-laying. The grading forces were
+scattered along about 150 miles ahead of the track and supply stores,
+established about 50 miles apart, and in no case were sub-contractors
+expected to haul supplies over 100 miles. If I remember rightly, there
+were four trains of about forty wagons each, hauling supplies from the end
+of track to the stores.
+
+As can be readily seen, the vital point of the whole work, and the problem
+to solve, was food for men and horses. 1,700 bushels of oats every day and
+15,000 pounds of provisions, Sundays and all, for an entire season, which
+at the beginning of the work had to come about 170 miles by rail, and then
+be taken from 50 to 150 miles by teams across a wilderness, is on the face
+of it considerable of an undertaking, to say nothing about hauling the
+pile-drivers, piles, and bridge-timber there. To keep from delaying the
+track, sidings 1,500 feet long were graded, about 7 miles apart. A
+side-track crew, together with an engine, four flats, and caboose, were
+always in readiness; and as soon as a siding was reached, in five hours
+the switches would be in, and the next day it would be surfaced and all in
+working order, when the operating department would fill it with track
+material and supplies. From the head of the siding to the end of the track
+the ground was in hands of track-laying engine, never going back of the
+last siding for supplies or material, and my recollection is that there
+were but six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole
+season, at any rate up to some time in November. The track-laying crew was
+equal to 4 miles per day, and in the month of August 92 miles of track
+were laid. The ties were cut on the line of the road about 100 miles east
+of Winnipeg, so the shortest distance any ties were hauled was 270 miles;
+the actual daily burden of the single track from Winnipeg west was 24 cars
+steel, 24 cars ties, aside from the transportation of grain and
+provisions, bridge material, and lumber for station houses. The station
+buildings were kept right up by the company itself, and a depot built with
+rooms for the agent every 15 miles, or at every second siding. The
+importance of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the
+mind of the superintendent of this branch, and, as a satire, he
+telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track by
+teams, he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and tanks the
+whole season. The telegraph line was also built, and kept right up to the
+end of the track, three or four miles being the furthest they were at any
+time behind.
+
+It might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well done, but
+it is the best built prairie road I know of on this continent. It is built
+almost entirely free from cuts, and the work is at least 20 per cent.
+heavier than would ordinarily be made across the same country in the
+States, on account of snow. 2,640 ties were laid to the mile, and the
+track ballasting kept well up with the laying; so well, in fact, and so
+well done, that as 100 mile sections were completed schedule trains were
+put on 20 miles an hour, and the operating department had nothing to do
+but make a time table; the road was _built_ by the construction department
+before the operating department was asked to take it. The engineering was
+organized in divisions of 30 miles each, and as each was finished the
+parties moved ahead again to the front, the engineers usually finding men
+sitting on their shovels waiting for the work to be laid out for them. It
+was as much as the locating parties could do to keep out of the way of the
+construction. The roadbed was built 14 ft. wide in embankment and 20 in
+the very few cuts there were, there being no cuts of any moment except
+through the Coteaus and the Saskatchewan crossing, and these have since
+been widened out on account of snow, so that the road can be operated the
+year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure in the operating
+expenses.
+
+The country is a virgin desert. From Winnipeg to the Pacific Ocean there
+are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an _oasis_--at
+Brandon, Portage la Prairie, etc.--but it is generally what I should call
+worthless; 100 miles to wood and 100 feet to water was the general
+experience west of the Moose jaw, and the months of June, July, and August
+are the only three in the year that it is safe to bet you will not have
+sleighing. I burned wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts 85
+miles, and none any nearer. It is a matter of some pride that both the
+engineering and the construction were done by what our Canadian neighbors
+kindly termed "Yankee importations." However, there was one thing that in
+the building of this road was in marked contrast to any other Pacific road
+ever constructed, that is, there was no lawlessness, no whisky, and not
+even a knock-down fight that I ever heard of the whole season, and even in
+the midst of 12,000 Indians, all armed with Winchester rifles and plenty
+of ammunition, not one of the locating or construction parties ever had a
+military escort, nor were any depredations ever committed, except the
+running off of a few horses, which were usually recovered; and I think
+there were but two fatal accidents during the season, one man killed on
+the Grand Coule Bridge, and another from being kicked by a horse.
+
+The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were rails hauled
+ahead by teams. Two iron cars were used, the empty returning one being
+turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by.
+
+The feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will never be
+duplicated, done as it was by a reckless expenditure of money, the orders
+to the engineers being to _get there_ regardless of expense and
+horse-flesh; if you killed a horse by hard driving, his harness would fit
+another, and there was no scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was
+done; and I must pay the tribute to the company to say that everything
+that money would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable. It was
+bad enough at best, and the Chief Engineer (J.C. James) rightly considered
+that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the work was a good
+investment.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+In the accompanying illustration, we present to our readers a mammoth
+excavator, built by the Osgood Dredge Company of Albany, N.Y., for the
+Pacific Guano Company of California, for uncovering their phosphate
+deposits on Chisholm Island, South Colombia.
+
+[Illustration: THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.]
+
+In order to bring out more clearly the principal problem involved in the
+construction of this machine, we shall state first the proposed method of
+its operation. This is as follows, viz.: The excavator is to dig a trench
+thirty feet wide, down to the phosphate rock, and the entire length of the
+bed--about one quarter of a mile--dumping the earth of the first cut to
+one side. The phosphate is taken out behind the excavator. On reaching the
+end of the bed, the excavator is reversed and starts back, making a second
+cut thirty feet wide, and dumping now into the cut from which the
+phosphate has just been removed. In this way the entire bed is traversed,
+the excavator turning over the earth in great furrows thirty feet wide,
+and giving an opportunity to simultaneously get out all the phosphate.
+
+As will be seen, the main problem presented was to turn the car around at
+each end of the cut in a very limited space. To accomplish this, the car
+is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and on a truck under its center of
+gravity; this is somewhat forward of the geometrical center of the car.
+The frame of the truck is circular, thirteen feet in diameter, made of I
+beams curved to shape. The circle carries a track, on which a ring of
+coned rollers revolves, which in turn supports the car. By pulling out the
+track from under both ends of the car, the whole weight is balanced on
+this central turntable truck, thus admitting of the car being turned, end
+for end, within its own length. This method of turning the car, and the
+size of the machine, are the principal features.
+
+The car is 40' × 13', with arched truss sides. The track is seven feet
+gauge, the spread between tracks 20 feet, the height of the A frame 38
+feet, length of boom 40 feet, swinging in a circle of 30 feet radius, and
+through two-thirds of the entire circle. It has a steel dipper of 46 cubic
+feet capacity, 1 inch steel chains, 10" × 12" double cylinder hoisting
+engine, and 6¼" × 8" double cylinder reversible crowding engine. The
+drums are fitted with friction clutches. Owing to the great distance at
+which the dipper is handled, its size is reduced, and because it swings on
+the arc of so large a circle the capacity of this machine is only one-half
+of that of the No. 1 excavator built by the Osgood Dredge Company.
+Nevertheless it will do the work of from 75 to 100 men, since its capacity
+is from 800 to 1,000 cubic yards per day, the amount of rock _uncovered_
+depending, of course, upon the depth of earth overlying it. The excavator
+will dump 30 feet from the center line of the car, and 26 feet above the
+track, which is laid on the rock. Total weight about fifty tons. The crew
+required for its operation consists of 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 1 craneman,
+and 4 to 5 pit men to tend jacks, move track, etc.
+
+In the illustration the boiler connections are omitted, also the housing
+for the protection of the crew. The design is characterized by the evident
+care which has been bestowed upon securing simplicity and
+durability.--_American Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr. John C.
+Trautwine, Jr., exhibited and described drawings of a large land dredge
+built by the Osgood Dredge Co., of Albany, New York, for the Pacific Guano
+Co., to be used in removing 8 to 15 feet of material from the phosphate
+rock at Bull River, S.C.
+
+The more prominent features of the machine are the car-body, the water
+tank, boiler and engine, the A frame (so-called from its slight
+resemblance to the letter A), the boom, the dipper-handle; and the dipper,
+drawings of which were shown and described in detail.
+
+Before the excavation is begun, the forward end of the car (the end
+nearest the dipper) is lifted clear of the track by means of 3
+screw-jacks. When the machine has excavated as far in advance of itself as
+the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will permit, say
+about 8 feet, the car is again lowered to the track, the screw-jacks
+removed, and the car is moved forward about 8 feet by winding the rope
+upon the drum, the other end of the rope being attached to any suitable
+fixed object near the line of the track. The forward end of the car is
+then again lifted by means of the 3 screw-jacks, and the digging is
+resumed. The machine cuts a channel from 25 to 35 feet wide, and deposits
+all the dirt upon one side. If necessary, it can dump earth about 25 feet
+above the track. The miners follow in the wake of the machine, getting out
+the phosphate as fast as it is uncovered. When the machine reaches the end
+of the field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed.
+Shoes or skids are then placed upon the track, and the wheels of the
+turntable are run up on them. This lifts the end wheels clear of the
+track, so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the turntable. By
+now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only _one_ of the ropes,
+the car body and the machine are swung around end for end. The digging is
+then resumed in the opposite direction, the temporary track, upon which
+the machine travels, being shifted to one side, so that the second channel
+is made alongside of the first. The earth removed in cutting this second
+channel is dumped into the first channel, the phosphate (as stated above)
+having been first removed.
+
+The dipper is of plate steel, and holds 1¾ cubic yards of earth when even
+full.
+
+The machine is manned by an engineer, a fireman, and a dipper-tender,
+besides which from five to ten laborers are required. These look after the
+track, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.
+
+
+On several of the large rivers on the Continent, with rapid currents,
+cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older methods of
+transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or by towage with
+screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid on the bottom of the
+river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and passed over a chain pulley
+driven by the steam engine and guided by pulleys on the steam tug, the tug
+lifting it out of the water at the bow and dropping it over the stern and
+winding itself with the barges attached to it along the chain, the latter
+being utilized as a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the
+tugs are propelled by paddles or screws, and can tow a sufficient number
+of barges with the assistance of the current. The system has been found
+advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the barges and
+tugs against the current is of course the same in all cases, the slip and
+waste of power by screws and paddles is avoided. The size of the screws or
+paddles is also limited by the nature of the river and its traffic, and
+with cable towage a larger number of barges can be hauled, while the
+progress made is definite and there is no drifting back, as occurs with
+paddle or screw tugs when they have temporarily to slow or stop their
+engines on account of passing vessels. Several streams, as the Elbe,
+Rhine, and Rhone, have now such cables laid for long distances in those
+parts of the rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the
+adoption of the system. While this has been introduced only during the
+last 16 or 18 years, a similar method of transporting merchandise has been
+in use in Russia on the river Volga for upward of 40 years. Navigation on
+this river is interrupted for about half the year by the ice, and the
+traffic is of larger amount only during part of the summer, while the
+length of the river itself is very great, so that laying down permanent
+cables would not pay; while, on the other hand, the current is so strong
+that towage of some sort must be resorted to for the transport of large
+quantities. The problem has been solved by the introduction of the capstan
+navigation or towage.
+
+[Illustration: CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.]
+
+There are two kinds of capstans in use, one actuated by horse-power and
+the other by steam engines. A horse capstan boat carries according to size
+150 to 200 horses, which are stabled in the hold. On deck a number of
+horse gears are arranged at which the horses work. The power of the
+separate gears is transmitted to a main shaft, which is connected to the
+drums that wind on the rope. The horses work under an awning to protect
+them from the burning sunshine, and are changed every three hours. Eight
+and sometimes ten horses work at each horse gear. The horses are changed
+without interruption of the work, the gears being disengaged from the main
+shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the gear is
+standing. The horses are bought at the place of departure in the south of
+Russia and resold at the destination, usually Nishny-Novgorod, at a fair
+profit, the capstan boat carrying fodder and provender for the attendants.
+The capstan is accompanied by a steam launch which carries the anchor and
+hawser forward in advance of the capstan. The latter has a diameter of as
+much as 5 in., and is two to three miles in length. The anchor is dropped
+by the tug and the hawser carried back to the capstan, where it is
+attached to one of the rope drums, and the boat with the barges attached
+to it towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the
+hawser. The advance continues without interruption day and night, the
+launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping the anchor
+in advance of the first by a hawser's length, so that when the capstan has
+wound up the first hawser it finds a second one ready for attachment to
+the rope drum. The launch receives the first hawser, picks up the anchor,
+and passes the capstan to drop it again in advance of the anchor
+previously placed, and carries the hawser back to the capstan, and so on.
+A capstan tows twelve or more barges, placed in twos or threes beside and
+close behind each other, with a load of a million pounds, or about 16,000
+to 17,000 tons. From Astrachan and the mouth of the Kama the capstans make
+during the season from the beginning of May to the end of July in the most
+favorable case two journeys to the fair of Nishny-Novgorod; after this
+time no more journeys are made, as the freights are wanting. At the end of
+the up-stream journey the horses are sold, as mentioned before, and the
+capstan towed down stream by the steam launch to Astrachan or the Kama
+mouth, where meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got
+ready, a new supply of horses is bought, and the operation repeated.
+
+Besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are less
+complicated and have condensing steam engines of about 100 horse power,
+the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope drum. The rope drum
+shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards of the boat, and for the
+return journey paddle wheels, are put on to assist the launch in towing
+the clumsy and big capstan boat down the river. The steam capstans tow
+considerably larger masses of goods than the horse capstans and also
+travel somewhat quicker, so that the launch has scarcely sufficient time
+to drop and raise the anchors and also to make double the journey. We do
+not doubt that this system of towage might with suitable modifications be
+advantageously employed on the large rivers in America and elsewhere for
+the slow transport of large quantities of raw materials and other bulky
+merchandise, a low speed being, as is well known, much more economical
+than a high speed, as many of the resistances increase as the square and
+even higher powers of the velocity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEAMBOAT EQUIPMENT OF WAR VESSELS.
+
+
+The larger ships in the navy, and some of the more recent small ones, such
+as the new cruisers of the Phaeton class, are fitted with powerful steam
+winches of a type made by Messrs. Belliss and Co. These are used for
+lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats.
+
+We give an illustration of one of these winches. The cylinders are 6 in.
+in diameter and 10 in. stroke. The barrel is grooved for wire rope, and is
+safe to raise the second class steel torpedo boats, weighing nearly 12
+tons as lifted. The worm gearing is very carefully cut, so that the work
+can be done quietly and safely. With machinery of this kind a boat is soon
+put into the water, and as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's
+boilers with hot water from the ship's boilers, the small craft can be
+under way in a very short time from the order being given.
+
+Mr. White is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to boats as
+small as 21 ft. long, and we give a view of a pair of compound engines of
+a new design, which Messrs. Belliss are making for the boats of this
+class. The cylinders are 4 in. and 7 in. in diameter by 5 in. stroke. The
+general arrangement is well shown in the engraving. On a trial recently
+made, a 25 ft. cutter with this type of engines reached a speed of 7.4
+knots.
+
+About three years ago the late Controller of the Navy, Admiral Sir W.
+Houston Stewart, wished to ascertain the relative consumption of fuel in
+various classes of small vessels. An order was accordingly sent to
+Portsmouth, and a series of trials were made. From the official reports of
+these we extract the information contained in tables F and G, and we think
+the details cannot fail to be of interest to our readers. The run around
+the island was made in company with other boats, without stopping, and
+observations were taken every half hour. The power given out by the
+engines was fairly constant throughout. The distance covered was 56 knots,
+and the total amount of fuel consumed, including that required for raising
+steam, was 1,218 lb. of coal and 84 lb. of wood. The time taken in raising
+steam to 60 lb. pressure was forty-three minutes. The rate of consumption
+of fuel is of course not the lowest that could be obtained, as a speed of
+over 10 knots is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked
+most economically.
+
+[Illustration: STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND
+TORPEDO BOATS.]
+
+The trials afterward made to find the best results that could be obtained
+in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness of the weather on
+the day they were made. The same boat was run for 10 miles around the
+measured mile buoys in Stokes Bay. The following are some of the results
+recorded:
+
+_Table F.--Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft.
+Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110._
+
+Date                                           August 4, 1881.
+
+Where tried                                    Round the Isle of
+                                                   Wight
+
+Draught of water / Forward                       3 ft. ½ in.
+                 \ Aft                           3 ft. 6½ in.
+Average boiler pressure                          104.81 lb.
+Average pressure in receivers   / Starboard       16.27  "
+                                \ Port            16.54  "
+Mean air pressure in stokehold                   1.4 in. water.
+Vacuum in condenser, average                      26.72 in.
+Weather barometer                                 30.37  "
+Revolutions per minute    / Starboard            240.75
+                          \ Port                 251.95
+                                                    lb.
+Mean pressure in cylinders / Starboard / High     45.33
+                           |           \ Low      16.16
+                           \ Port      / High     43.16
+                                       \ Low      15.3
+Indicated horse-power      / Starboard / High     18.20
+                           |           \ Low      16.32
+                           | Port      / High     18.13
+                           |           \ Low      16.17
+                           \ Collective Total     68.82
+Speed by log                                      10.18 knots.
+Force of wind                                         One.
+Sea                                                  Smooth.
+Quantity of coal on board                             1 ton.
+Description                                    Nixon's navigation.
+Consumption per indicated horse-power per hour     4.17 lb.
+Time under way                                    5 hrs. 30 min.
+
+
+_Table G.--Report of Trial of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No.
+110._
+
+When tried                                        August 3, 1881.
+Where tried                                         Stokes Bay.
+Draught   / Forward                                 3 ft. 1 in.
+          \ Aft                                     3 ft. 3¼ in.
+Average boiler pressure                               55.52 lb.
+Vacuum                                                25.12 in.
+Weather barometer                                     30.35 "
+Revolutions per minute  / starboard                  165.54
+                        \ port                       161.55
+Indicated horse-power[2]   / Starboard / High          5.05
+                           |           \ Low           5.53
+                           | Port      / High          3.75
+                           |           \ Low           4.02
+                           \ Collective Total         18.35
+Speed of vessel by log (approximate)                   7.404
+Wind      / Force                                     4 to 5
+          \ Direction                             Bow and Quarter.
+State of sea                                           Rough.
+
+[Footnote 2: In consequence of the seas breaking over the boat, a large
+number of diagrams were destroyed, and, on account of the roughness of the
+weather, cards were only taken with the greatest difficulty. The records
+of power developed are therefore not put forward as authoritative.]
+
+In connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to give
+particulars of a French and American steam launch; these we extract from
+the United States official report before mentioned.
+
+_Steam Launch of the French Steamer Mouche_.
+
+Length on low water level                   27 ft. 10-1/2 in.
+Breadth                                      5 ft. 11 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                      3 ft. 3-1/3 in.
+Draught of water aft                         2 ft. 1-1/2 in.
+Weight of hull and fittings                   2,646 lb.
+Weight of machinery with water in boiler      3,473 lb.
+
+The boat is built of wood, and coppered. The engine consists of one
+non-condensing cylinder, 7-1/2 in. in diameter and 5.9 in. stroke. The
+boiler has 4.3 square feet of grate surface. The screw is 21-2/3 in. in
+diameter by 43.3 in, pitch. The speed is 7 knots per hour obtained with
+245 revolutions per minute, the slip being 19.7 per cent. of the speed.
+
+The United States navy steam cutters built at the Philadelphia navy yard
+are of the following dimensions:
+
+Length                                          27 ft. 7½ in.
+Breadth                                          7 ft. 10 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                          3 ft. 11¾ in.
+Displacement (to two feet above rabbet of keel)    5.96 tons.
+Weight of hull and fittings                         4,675 lb.
+   "      engine                                    1,240  "
+   "      boiler                                    3,112  "
+   "      water in boiler and tanks                 2,696  "
+
+The engine has a single cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 8 in. stroke of
+piston. The screw is four bladed, 4 in. long and 31 in. in diameter by 45
+in. pitch. The following is the performance at draught of water 2 feet
+above rabbet of keel:
+
+Boiler pressure           90 lb.
+Revolutions                353
+Speed                    7.8 knots.
+Indicated horse power.      53
+
+These boats are of 1870 type, but may be taken as typical of a large
+number of steam cutters in the United States navy. The naval authorities
+have, however, been lately engaged in extensive experiments with compound
+condensing engines in small boats, and the results have proved so
+conclusively the advantages of the latter system that it will doubtless be
+largely adopted in future.--_Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.
+
+
+The illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by Mr. Hyde, and
+made by Mr. S. Farron, Ashton-under-Lyne. The general appearance of this
+arrangement is as in Fig. 1 or Fig. 3, the center view, Fig. 2, showing
+what is the cardinal feature of the trap, viz., that it contains a
+collector for silt, sand, or sediment which is not, as in most other
+traps, carried out through the valve with the efflux of water. The escape
+valve also is made very large, so that while the trap may be made short,
+or, in other words, the expansion pipe may not be long, a tolerably large
+area of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement
+of the expansion pipe.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.]
+
+The object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of condensation
+without allowing the escape of steam from drying apparatus and steam pipes
+used for heating, power, or other purposes. One of the plans employed is
+by an expansion pipe having a valve fixed to its end, so that when the
+pipe shortens from being cooler, due to the presence of the water, the
+valve opens and allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to
+the trap, which, being hotter, lengthens the pipe and closes the valve.
+Now with this kind of trap, and, in fact, with any variety of trap, we
+understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user to find
+his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that may be present
+in the pipes has been carried to the valve and lodged there by the water,
+causing it to stick, and with expansion traps not to close properly or to
+work abnormally some way or other. The putting of these contrivances to
+rights involves a certain amount of trouble, which is completely obviated
+by the arrangement shown in the annexed engravings, which is certainly a
+simple, strong, and substantial article. The foot of the trap is made of
+cast iron, the seat of the valve being of gun metal, let into the
+diaphragm, cast inside the hollow cylinder. The valve, D, is also of gun
+metal, and passing to outside through a stuffing box is connected to the
+central expansion pipe by a nut at E. The valve is set by two brass nuts
+at the top, so as to be just tight when steam hot; if, then, from the
+presence of water the trap is cooled, the pipe contracts and the water
+escapes. A mud door is provided, by which the mud can be removed as
+required. The silt or dirt that may be in the pipes is carried to the trap
+by the water, and is deposited in the cavity, as shown, the water rises,
+and when the valve, D, opens escapes at the pipe, F, and may be allowed to
+run to waste. A pipe is not shown attached to F, but needless to say one
+may be connected and led anywhere, provided the steam pressure is
+sufficient. For this purpose the stuffing-box is provided; it is really
+not required if the water runs to waste, as is represented in the
+engraving. To give our readers some idea of the dimensions of the valve,
+we may say that the smallest size of trap has 1 in. expansion pipe and a
+valve 3 in. diameter, the next size 1¼ in. expansion pipe and a valve 4½
+in. diameter, and the largest size has a pipe 1½ in. and a valve 6 in.
+diameter. Altogether, the contrivance has some important practical
+advantages to recommend it.--_Mech. World._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRITICAL METHODS OF DETECTING ERRORS IN PLANE SURFACES.[3]
+
+[Footnote 3: A paper read before the Engineers' Society of Western
+Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.]
+
+By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.
+
+
+In our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day, in the
+various branches of scientific investigation, we should not forget that it
+has been a plant of very slow growth, and it is interesting indeed to
+glance along the pathway of the past to see how step by step our micron of
+to-day has been evolved from the cubit, the hand's breadth, the span, and,
+if you please, the barleycorn of our schoolboy days. It would also be a
+pleasant task to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the Chinese,
+Egyptians, and Peruvians, the scarphie of Eratosthenes, the astrolabe of
+Hipparchus, the parallactic rules of Ptolemy, Regimontanus Purbach, and
+Walther, the sextants and quadrants of Tycho Brahe, and the modifications
+of these various instruments, the invention and use of which, from century
+to century, bringing us at last to the telescopic age, or the days of
+Lippershay, Jannsen, and Galileo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+It would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of our
+subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the invention of
+that marvelous instrument, the telescope, followed closely by the work of
+Kepler, Scheiner, Cassini, Huyghens, Newton, Digges, Nonius, Vernier,
+Hall, Dollond, Herschel, Short, Bird, Ramsden, Troughton, Smeaton,
+Fraunhofer, and a host of others, each of whom has contributed a noble
+share in the elimination of sources of error, until to-day we are
+satisfied only with units of measurement of the most exact and refined
+nature. Although it would be pleasant to review the work of these past
+masters, it is beyond the scope of the present paper, and even now I can
+only hope to call your attention to one phase of this important subject.
+For a number of years I have been practically interested in the subject of
+the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for optical
+purposes, _i.e._, in the production of such surfaces free if possible from
+all traces of error, and it will be pleasant to me if I shall be able to
+add to the interest of this association by giving you some of my own
+practical experience; and may I trust that it will be an incentive to all
+engaged in kindred work _to do that work well?_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+In the production of a perfectly plane surface, there are many
+difficulties to contend with, and it will not be possible in the limits of
+this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors when found; but I
+must content myself with giving a description of various methods of
+detecting existing errors in the surfaces that are being worked, whether,
+for instance, it be an error of concavity, convexity, periodic or local
+error.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+A very excellent method was devised by the celebrated Rosse, which is
+frequently used at the present time; and those eminent workers, the Clarks
+of Cambridge, use a modification of the Rosse method which in their hands
+is productive of the very highest results. The device is very simple,
+consisting of a telescope (_a_, Fig. 1) in which aberrations have been
+well corrected, so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as
+possible. This telescope is first directed to a distant object, preferably
+a celestial one, and focused for parallel rays. The surface, _b_, to be
+tested is now placed so that the reflected image of the same object,
+whatever it may be, can be observed by the same telescope. It is evident
+that if the surface be a true plane, its action upon the beam of light
+that comes from the object will be simply to change its direction, but not
+disturb or change it any other way, hence the reflected image of the
+object should be seen by the telescope, _a_, without in any way changing
+the original focus. If, however, the supposed plane surface proves to be
+_convex_, the image will not be sharply defined in the telescope until the
+eyepiece is moved _away_ from the object glass; while if the converse is
+the case, and the supposed plane is concave, the eyepiece must now be
+moved _toward_ the objective in order to obtain a sharp image, and the
+amount of convexity or concavity may be known by the change in the focal
+plane. If the surface has periodic or irregular errors, no sharp image can
+be obtained, no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+This test may be made still more delicate by using the observing
+telescope, _a_, at as low an angle as possible, thereby bringing out with
+still greater effect any error that may exist in the surface under
+examination, and is the plan generally used by Alvan Clark & Sons. Another
+and very excellent method is that illustrated in Fig. 2, in which a second
+telescope, _b_, is introduced. In place of the eyepiece of this second
+telescope, a diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are
+drilled, as in Fig. 2, _x_, or a slit is cut similar to the slit used in a
+spectroscope as shown at _y_, same figure. The telescope, _a_, is now
+focused very accurately on a celestial or other very distant object, and
+the focus marked. The object glass of the telescope, _b_, is now placed
+against and "square" with the object glass of telescope _a_, and on
+looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its holes or
+the slit is seen. This diaphragm must now be moved until a sharp image is
+seen in telescope _a_. The two telescopes are now mounted as in Fig. 2,
+and the plate to be tested placed in front of the two telescopes as at
+_c_. It is evident, as in the former case, that if the surface is a true
+plane, the reflected image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the
+telescope, _b_, will be seen sharply defined in the telescope, _a_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+If any error of convexity exists in the plate, the focal plane is
+disturbed, and the eyepiece must be moved _out_. If the plate is concave,
+it must be moved _in_ to obtain a sharp image. Irregular errors in the
+plate or surface will produce a blurred or indistinct image, and, as in
+the first instance, no amount of focusing will help matters. These methods
+are both good, but are not satisfactory in the highest degree, and two or
+three important factors bar the way to the very best results. One is that
+the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected, a very
+difficult matter of itself, and requiring the highest skill of the
+optician. Another, the fact that the human eye will accommodate itself to
+small distances when setting the focus of the observing telescope. I have
+frequently made experiments to find out how much this accommodation was in
+my own case, and found it to amount to as much as 1/40 of an inch. This is
+no doubt partly the fault of the telescopes themselves, but unless the eye
+is rigorously educated in this work, it is apt to accommodate itself to a
+small amount, and will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion
+or bias _in the direction of the accommodation_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Talking with Prof. C.A. Young a few months since on this subject, he
+remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact in its demands as it
+grew older, in regard to the focal point. A third and very serious
+objection to the second method is caused by diffraction from the edges of
+the holes or the slit. Let me explain this briefly. When light falls upon
+a slit, such as we have here, it is turned out of its course; as the slit
+has two edges, and the light that falls on either side is deflected both
+right and left, the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward
+the left, and from the left side of the slit toward the right, produce
+interference of the wave lengths, and when perfect interference occurs,
+dark lines are seen. You can have a very pretty illustration of this by
+cutting a fine slit in a card and holding it several inches from the eye,
+when the dark lines caused by a total extinction of the light by
+interference may be seen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+If now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame; you will see a
+series of colored bands, that bring out the phenomenon of partial
+interference. This experiment shows the difficulty in obtaining a perfect
+focus of the holes or the slit in the diaphragm, as the interference
+fringes are always more or less annoying. Notwithstanding these defects of
+the two systems I have mentioned, in the hands of the practical workman
+they are productive of very good results, and very many excellent surfaces
+have been made by their use, and we are not justified in ignoring them,
+because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better ones. In my
+early work Dr. Draper suggested a very excellent plan for testing a flat
+surface, which I briefly describe. It is a well known truth that, if an
+artificial star is placed in the exact center of curvature of a truly
+spherical mirror, and an eyepiece be used to examine the image close
+beside the source of light, the star will be sharply defined, and will
+bear very high magnification. If the eyepiece is now drawn toward the
+observer, the star disk begins to expand; and if the mirror be a truly
+spherical one, the expanded disk will be equally illuminated, except the
+outer edge, which usually shows two or more light and dark rings, due to
+diffraction, as already explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+Now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance on the
+opposite side of the true focal plane, precisely the same appearance will
+be noted in the expanded star disk. If we now place our plane surface any
+where in the path of the rays from the great mirror, we should have
+identically the same phenomena repeated. Of course it is presumed, and is
+necessary, that the plane mirror shall be much less in area than the
+spherical mirror, else the beam of light from the artificial star will be
+shut off, yet I may here say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror
+will act just as well as the whole surface, there being of course a loss
+of light according to the area of the mirror shut off.
+
+This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3, where _a_ is the spherical
+mirror, _b_ the source of light, _c_ the eyepiece as used when the plane
+is not interposed, _d_ the plane introduced into the path at an angle of
+45° to the central beam, and _e_ the position of eyepiece when used the
+with the plane. When the plane is not in the way, the converging beam goes
+back to the eyepiece, _c_. When the plane, _d_, is introduced, the beam is
+turned at a right angle, and if it is a perfect surface, not only does the
+focal plane remain exactly of the same length, but the expanded star
+disks, are similar on either side of the focal plane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+I might go on to elaborate this method, to show how it may be made still
+more exact, but as it will come under the discussion of spherical
+surfaces, I will leave it for the present. Unfortunately for this process,
+it demands a large truly spherical surface, which is just as difficult of
+attainment as any form of regular surface. We come now to an instrument
+that does not depend upon optical means for detecting errors of surface,
+namely, the spherometer, which as the name would indicate means sphere
+measure, but it is about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical
+work, and Prof. Harkness has been, using one for some time past in
+determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of Venus
+photographic instruments. At the meeting of the American Association of
+Science in Philadelphia, there was quite a discussion as to the relative
+merits of the spherometer test and another form which I shall
+presently mention, Prof. Harkness claiming that he could, by the
+use of the spherometer, detect errors bordering closely on one
+five-hundred-thousandth of an inch. Some physicists express doubt on this,
+but Prof. Harkness has no doubt worked with very sensitive instruments,
+and over very small areas at one time.
+
+I have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work, as a more
+simple, delicate, and efficient method was at my command, but for one
+measurement of convex surfaces I know of nothing that can take its place.
+I will briefly describe the method of using it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The usual form of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4; _a_ is a steel screw
+working in the nut of the stout tripod frame, _b_; _c c c_ are three legs
+with carefully prepared points; _d_ is a divided standard to read the
+whole number of revolutions of the screw, _a_, the edge of which also
+serves the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the
+milled head, _e_. Still further refinement may be had by placing a vernier
+here. To measure a plane or curved surface with this instrument, a perfect
+plane or perfect spherical surface of known radius must be used to
+determine the zero point of the division. Taking for granted that we have
+this standard plate, the spherometer is placed upon it, and the readings
+of the divided head and indicator, _d_, noted when the point of the screw,
+_a_, just touches the surface, _f_. Herein, however, lies the great
+difficulty in using this instrument, _i.e._, to know the exact instant of
+contact of the point of screw, _a_, on the surface, _f_. Many devices have
+been added to the spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible, such as
+the contact level, the electric contact, and the compound lever contact.
+The latter is probably the best, and is made essentially as in Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+I am indebted for this plan to Dr. Alfred Mayer. As in the previous
+figure, _a_ is the screw; this screw is bored out, and a central steel pin
+turned to fit resting on a shoulder at _c_. The end of _d_ projects below
+the screw, _a_, and the end, _e_, projects above the milled head, and the
+knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever, _f_, which in turn
+rests against the long lever, _g_, the point, _h_, of which moves along
+the division at _j_. It is evident that if the point of the pin just
+touches the plate, no movement of the index lever, _g_, will be seen; but
+if any pressure be applied, the lever will move through a multiplied arc,
+owing to the short fulcri of the two levers. Notwithstanding all these
+precautions, we must also take into account the flexure of the material,
+the elasticity of the points of contact, and other idiosyncrasies, and you
+can readily see that practice alone in an instrument so delicate will
+bring about the very best results. Dr. Alfred Mayer's method of getting
+over the great difficulty of knowing when all four points are in contact
+is quite simple. The standard plate is set on the box, _g_, Fig. 4, which
+acts as a resonater. The screw, _a_, is brought down until it touches the
+plate. When the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off either or all
+of the legs, and the plate is gently tapped with the finger, a _rattle_ is
+heard, which is the tell-tale of imperfect contact of all the points. The
+screw is now reversed gently and slowly until the _moment_ the rattle
+ceases, and then the reading is taken. Here the sense of hearing is
+brought into play. This is also the case when the electric contact is
+used. This is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of
+screw, _a_, completes the electric circuit, in which an electromagnet of
+short thick wire is placed. At the moment of contact, or perhaps a little
+before contact, the bell rings, and the turning of the screw must be
+instantly stopped. Here are several elements that must be remembered.
+First, it takes time to set the bell ringing, time for the sound to pass
+to the ear, time for the sensation to be carried to the brain, time for
+the brain to send word to the hand to cease turning the screw, and, if you
+please, it takes time for the hand to stop. You may say, of what use are
+such refinements? I may reply, what use is there in trying to do anything
+the very best it can be done? If our investigation of nature's profound
+mysteries can be partially solved with good instrumental means, what is
+the result if we have better ones placed in our hands, and what, we ask,
+if the _best_ are given to the physicist? We have only to compare the
+telescope of Galileo, the prism of Newton, the pile of Volta, and what was
+done with them, to the marvelous work of the telescope, spectroscope, and
+dynamo of to-day. But I must proceed. It will be recognized that in
+working with the spherometer, only the points in actual contact can be
+measured at one time, for you may see by Fig. 6 that the four points, _a a
+a a_, may all be normal to a true plane, and yet errors of depression, as
+at _e_, or elevation, as at _b_, exist between them, so that the
+instrument must be used over every available part of the surface if it is
+to be tested rigorously. As to how exact this method is I cannot say from
+actual experience, as in my work I have had recourse to other methods that
+I shall describe. I have already quoted you the words of Prof. Harkness.
+Dr. Hastings, whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is of the
+most critical character, tells me that he considers it quite easy to
+measure to 1/80000 of an inch with the ordinary form of instrument. Here
+is a very fine spherometer that Dr. Hastings works with from time to time,
+and which he calls his standard spherometer. It is delicately made, its
+screw being 50 to the inch, or more exactly 0.01998 inch, or within
+2/100000 of being 1/50 of an inch pitch. The principal screw has a point
+which is itself an independent screw, that was put in to investigate the
+errors of the main screw, but it was found that the error of this screw
+was not as much as the 0.00001 of an inch. The head is divided into two
+hundred parts, and by estimation can be read to 1/100000 of an inch. Its
+constants are known, and it may be understood that it would not do to
+handle it very roughly. I could dwell here longer on this fascinating
+subject, but must haste. I may add that if this spherometer is placed on a
+plate of glass and exact contact obtained, and then removed, and the hand
+held over the plate without touching it, the difference in the temperature
+of the glass and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the
+surface enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced.
+Any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it fully
+discussed in that splendid series of papers by Dr. Alfred Mayer on the
+minute measurements of modern science published in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+SUPPLEMENTS, to which I was indebted years ago for most valuable
+information, as well as to most encouraging words from Prof. Thurston,
+whom you all so well and favorably know. I now invite your attention to
+the method for testing the flat surfaces on which Prof. Rowland rules the
+beautiful diffraction gratings now so well known over the scientific
+world, as also other plane surfaces for heliostats, etc., etc. I am now
+approaching the border land of what may be called the abstruse in science,
+in which I humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all I
+don't know; yet I hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and
+accurate method, and for fear I may forget to give due credit, I will say
+that I am indebted to Dr. Hastings for it, with whom it was an original
+discovery, though he told me he afterward found it had been in use by
+Steinheil, the celebrated optician of Munich. The principle was discovered
+by the immortal Newton, and it shows how much can be made of the ordinary
+phenomena seen in our every-day life when placed in the hands of the
+investigator. We have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap
+bubble, or when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water.
+Place a lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass, and,
+looking at it obliquely, a black central spot is seen with rings of
+various width and color surrounding it. If the lens is a true curve, and
+the glass beneath it a true plane, these rings of color will be perfectly
+concentric and arranged in regular decreasing intervals. This apparatus is
+known as Newton's color glass, because he not only measured the phenomena,
+but established the laws of the appearances presented. I will now endeavor
+to explain the general principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in
+the testing of plane surfaces. Suppose that we place on the lower plate,
+lenses of constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes
+nil, or in other words a true plane. The rings of color will constantly
+increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases, until at last
+one color alone is seen over the whole surface, provided, however, the
+same angle of observation be maintained, and provided further that the
+film of air between the glasses is of absolutely the same relative
+thickness throughout. I say the film of air, for I presume that it would
+be utterly impossible to exclude particles of dust so that absolute
+contact could take place. Early physicists maintained that absolute
+molecular contact was impossible, and that the central separation of the
+glasses in Newton's experiment was 1/250,000 of an inch, but Sir Wm.
+Thomson has shown that the separation is caused by shreds or particles of
+dust. However, if this separation is equal throughout, we have the
+phenomena as described; but if the dust particles are thicker under one
+side than the other, our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands as
+in Fig. 8, the broader the bands the nearer the absolute parallelism of
+the plates. In Fig. 7 let _a_ and _b_ represent the two plates we are
+testing. Rays of white light, _c_, falling upon the upper surface of plate
+_a_, are partially reflected off in the direction of rays _d_, but as
+these rays do not concern us now, I have not sketched them. Part of the
+light passes on through the upper plate, where it is bent out of its
+course somewhat, and, falling upon the _lower_ surface of the upper plate,
+some of this light is again reflected toward the eye at _d_. As some of
+the light passes through the upper plate, and, passing through the film of
+air between the plates, falling on the upper surface of the _lower_ one,
+this in turn is reflected; but as the light that falls on this surface has
+had to traverse the film of air _twice_, it is retarded by a certain
+number of half or whole wave-lengths, and the beautiful phenomena of
+interference take place, some of the colors of white light being
+obliterated, while others come to the eye. When the position of the eye
+changes, the color is seen to change. I have not time to dwell further on
+this part of my subject, which is discussed in most advanced works on
+physics, and especially well described in Dr. Eugene Lommel's work on "The
+Nature of Light." I remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly
+_plane_, there would be one color seen, or else colors of the first or
+second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands, but this
+would also take place in plates of slight curvature, for the requirement
+is, as I said, a film of air of equal thickness throughout. You can see at
+once that this condition could be obtained in a perfect convex surface
+fitting a perfect concave of the same radius. Fortunately we have a check
+to guard against this error. To produce a perfect plane, _three surfaces
+must_ be worked together, unless we have a true plane to commence with;
+but to make this true plane by this method we _must_ work three together,
+and if each one comes up to the demands of this most rigorous test, we may
+rest assured that we have attained a degree of accuracy almost beyond
+human conception. Let me illustrate. Suppose we have plates 1, 2, and 3,
+Fig. 11. Suppose 1 and 2 to be accurately convex and 3 accurately concave,
+of the same radius. Now it is evident that 3 will exactly fit 1 and 2, and
+that 1 and 2 will separately fit No. 3, _but_ when 1 and 2 are placed
+together, they will only touch in the center, and there is no possible
+way to make three plates coincide when they are alternately tested upon
+one another than to make _perfect planes_ out of them. As it is difficult
+to see the colors well on metal surfaces, a one-colored light is used,
+such as the sodium flame, which gives to the eye in our test, dark and
+bright bands instead of colored ones. When these plates are worked and
+tested upon one another until they all present the same appearance, one
+may be reserved for a test plate for future use. Here is a small test
+plate made by the celebrated Steinheil, and here two made by myself, and I
+may be pardoned in saying that I was much gratified to find the
+coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error is much less than
+0.00001 of an inch. My assistant, with but a few months' experience, has
+made quite as accurate plates. It is necessary of course to have a glass
+plate to test the metal plates, as the upper plate _must_ be transparent.
+So far we have been dealing with perfect surfaces. Let us now see what
+shall occur in surfaces that are not plane. Suppose we now have our
+perfect test plate, and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error,
+say depressed at center and edge and high between these points. If this
+error is regular, the central bands arrange themselves as in Fig. 9. You
+may now ask, how are we to know what sort of surface we have? A ready
+solution is at hand. The bands _always travel in the direction of the
+thickest film of air_, hence on lowering the eye, if the convex edge of
+the bands travel in the direction of the arrow, we are absolutely certain
+that that part of the surface being tested is convex, while if, as in the
+central part of the bands, the concave edges advance, we know that part is
+hollow or too low. Furthermore, any small error will be rigorously
+detected, with astonishing clearness, and one of the grandest qualities of
+this test is the absence of "personal equation;" for, given a perfect test
+plate, _it won't lie_, neither will it exaggerate. I say, won't lie, but I
+must guard this by saying that the plates must coincide absolutely in
+temperature, and the touch of the finger, the heat of the hand, or any
+disturbance whatever will vitiate the results of this lovely process; but
+more of that at a future time. If our surface is plane to within a short
+distance of the edge, and is there overcorrected, or convex, the test
+shows it, as in Fig. 10. If the whole surface is regularly convex, then
+concentric rings of a breadth determined by the approach to a perfect
+plane are seen. If concave, a similar phenomenon is exhibited, except in
+the case of the convex, the broader rings are near the center, while in
+the concave they are nearer the edge. In lowering the eye while observing
+the plates, the rings of the convex plate will advance outward, those of
+the concave inward. It may be asked by the mechanician, Can this method be
+used for testing our surface plates? I answer that I have found the
+scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light. My
+assistant in the machine work scraped three 8 inch plates that were tested
+by this method and found to be very excellent, though it must be evident
+that a single cut of the scraper would change the spot over which it
+passed so much as to entirely change the appearance there, but I found I
+could use the test to get the general outline of the surface under process
+of correction. These iron plates, I would say, are simply used for
+preliminary formation of polishers. I may have something to say on the
+question of surface plates in the future, as I have made some interesting
+studies on the subject. I must now bring this paper to a close, although I
+had intended including some interesting studies of curved surfaces. There
+is, however, matter enough in that subject of itself, especially when we
+connect it with the idiosyncrasies of the material we have to deal with, a
+vital part of the subject that I have not touched upon in the present
+paper. You may now inquire, How critical is this "color test"? To answer
+this I fear I shall trench upon forbidden grounds, but I call to my help
+the words of one of our best American physicists, and I quote from a
+letter in which he says by combined calculation and experiment I have
+found the limiting error for white light to be 1/50000000 of an inch, and
+for Na or sodium light about fifty times greater, or less than 1/800000 of
+an inch. Dr. Alfred Mayer estimated and demonstrated by actual experiment
+that the smallest black spot on a white ground visible to the naked eye is
+about 1/800 of an inch at the distance of normal vision, namely, 10
+inches, and that a line, which of course has the element of extension,
+1/5000 of an inch in thickness could be seen. In our delicate "color test"
+we may decrease the diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still
+its perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light, and we
+may diminish our line ten thousand times, yet find it just perceivable on
+the border land of our test by white light. Do not presume I am so foolish
+as to even think that the human hand, directed by the human brain, can
+ever work the material at his command to such a high standard of
+exactness. No; from the very nature of the material we have to work with,
+we are forbidden even to hope for such an achievement; and could it be
+possible that, through some stroke of good fortune, we could attain this
+high ideal, it would be but for a moment, as from the very nature of our
+environment it would be but an ignis fatuus. There is, however, to the
+earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence, for as our
+model is so will our work approximate; and although we may go on
+approximating _our_ ideal forever, we can never hope to reach that which
+has been set for us by the great Master Workman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING.]
+
+PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.
+
+
+In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I found that
+it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the flames of the
+standard candles always at their proper distance from the light to be
+measured, because the wick was continually changing its position (of
+course carrying the flame with it), and thus practically lengthening or
+shortening the scale of the photometer, according as the flame was carried
+nearer to or farther from the light at the other end of the scale. In
+order, therefore, to obtain a correct idea of the extent to which this
+variation of the position of the wick might influence the readings of the
+photometer scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame
+of a candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no
+other person being in it during the experiment except a photographer, who
+placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed camera, and changed them
+after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing this he was careful to keep
+close to the camera, and disturb the air of the room as little as
+possible. In front of the candle a plumb-line was suspended, and remained
+immovable over its center during the whole operation. The candle was
+allowed to get itself into a normal state of burning, and then the wick
+was aligned, as shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was
+left to itself.
+
+[Illustration: VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.]
+
+With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand you
+full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60 inch
+Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an opportunity of
+estimating for themselves the effect which such variations from the true
+distance between the standard light and that to be measured, as shown in
+this series of photographs, must exercise on photometrical observations
+made by the aid of either of the instruments named.
+
+W. SUGG.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BLEACHING OR DYEING-YARNS AND GOODS IN VACUO.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of textile
+fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which they require to
+be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo, _i.e._, in such
+apparatus as shall allow of the air being withdrawn. The apparatus shown
+in the annexed engraving--Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884--although not
+essentially different from those already in use, embodies, the _Journal of
+the Society of Chemical Industry_ says, some important improvements in
+detail. It consists of a drum A, the sides of which are constructed of
+stout netting, carried on a vertical axis working through a stuffing-box,
+which is fitted in the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B.
+The air can be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a
+central division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted
+the extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P is
+also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R serving to
+convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the reservoir C. The
+combination of the rotary motion communicated to A, which contains the
+goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very thorough penetration and
+circulation of the liquids effected by means of the vacuum established in
+B, is found to be eminently favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the
+dye or bleach.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE MOULDING OF PORCELAIN.
+
+By CHAS. LAUTH.
+
+
+The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over other methods
+of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid irregularities of form,
+twisting, and visible seams, and can manufacture thin pieces, as well as
+pieces of large dimensions, of a purity of form that it is impossible to
+obtain otherwise.
+
+The method of moulding small objects has been described with sufficient
+detail in technical works, but such is not the case with regard to large
+ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to quote some practical
+observations from a note that has been sent me by Mr. Constantine Renard,
+who, for several years, has had the superintendence of the moulding rooms
+of the Sevres works.
+
+The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste, thinned with
+water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture gradually hardens
+against the porous sides with which it is in contact, and, when the
+thickness of the hardened layer is judged sufficient, the mould is emptied
+by inverting it. The excess of the liquid paste is thus eliminated, while
+the thicker parts remain adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the
+absorption of the water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to
+allow the object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing
+is simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same is
+not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we cannot get
+rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside down, because of the
+latter's size, and, on another hand, it is necessary to take special
+precautions against the subsidence of the paste. Recourse is therefore had
+to another method. In the first place, an aperture is formed in the lower
+part of the mould through which the liquid may flow at the desired moment.
+Afterward, in order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft
+paste from settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported
+by directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through
+atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in which
+the mould is inclosed.
+
+The history and description of these processes have been several times
+given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall at once
+proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has communicated to
+me.
+
+The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's attention
+is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it concerns an object of
+large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height, for example, the moulder is
+obliged to cut the form or core horizontally into three parts, each of
+which is moulded separately. To this effect, it is placed upon a core
+frame and surrounded with a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the
+plaster into the space between the latter and the core, and, while doing
+so, must stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment
+the plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of such
+precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of the plaster
+from depositing first, through the action of gravity. These will naturally
+precipitate upon the table or upon the slanting sides of the core, and the
+mould will therefore present great inequalities as regards porosity. Since
+this defect exists in each of the pieces that have been prepared in
+succession, it will be seen that when they come to be superposed for the
+moulding of the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of
+different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste unequally.
+Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that result from this, and
+the manner of avoiding them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such circumstances it
+often happens that there forms upon the surface of the plaster a hard
+crust which, although it is of no importance as regards the outside of the
+mould, is prejudicial to the interior because it considerably diminishes
+its absorbing power. This trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces
+that it is necessary to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard
+advises that the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall
+be kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to prevent
+the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a desiccation. I now
+come to the operation of moulding. In the very first place, it is
+necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt the arrangement by
+pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the objects will determine the
+choice. A very open piece, like a bowl, must be moulded by vacuum, on
+account of the difficulty of holding the closing disk in place if it be of
+very large dimensions. The same is the case with large vases of wood form.
+On the contrary, an elongated piece tapering from above is more easily
+moulded by pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches
+in height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by
+vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is adapted
+to it, because this process permits of following and directing the drying,
+while with pressure it is impossible to see anything when once the
+apparatus is closed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+_Moulding by Pressure of the Air._--The plaster mould having been put in
+place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste having been long and
+thoroughly stirred in order to make it homogeneous, and get rid of the air
+bubbles, we open the cock that puts the paste reservoir in communication
+with the lower part of the mould, care having been taken beforehand to
+pour a few pints of water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in
+ascending pushes this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the
+plaster and makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely
+filled, the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the
+upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the plaster,
+forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid begins almost
+immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A new quantity of paste
+is introduced, and we continue thus, in regulating its flow so as to keep
+the mould always full. This operation is prolonged until the layer is
+judged to be sufficiently thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form,
+or construction of the vessel. The operation may take from one to five
+hours.
+
+The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a question of
+allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to support the piece by
+air pressure. The flange spoken of above is quickly cut, and the paste is
+made to rise again for the last time, in order to form a new flange, but
+one that this time will be extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed
+for forming the top joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed
+upon the mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when
+the apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air
+pump maneuvered.
+
+If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the mould and the
+piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the piece would be
+inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a hermetical joint,
+although it must at the same time present but a slight resistance, since,
+as soon as the liquid paste has flowed out, the piece begins to shrink,
+and it is necessary that at the first movement downward it shall be able
+to disengage itself, since it would otherwise crack.
+
+As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the air enters
+the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the air pump begins
+to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's loss of time, to remove
+the screw press, the disk, and the upper part of the mould itself, in
+order to facilitate as much as possible the contraction of the piece.
+Finally, an hour or an hour and a half later, it is necessary to remove
+the lower part of the mould, this being done in supporting the entire
+affair by the middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in
+reality, suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to
+prevent cracking.
+
+_Moulding by Vacuum._--The operation by vacuum follows the same phases as
+those just described. It is well, in order to have a very even surface,
+not to form a vacuum until about three hours after the paste has been made
+to ascend. Without such a precaution the imperfections in the mould will
+be shown on the surface of the object by undulations that are
+irremediable.
+
+The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at the
+moment the piece is detached.
+
+Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above, permits of
+giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained in the pressure
+process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is desired to exceed one inch at
+the base of the piece (the maximum thickness usually obtained), the
+operation is as follows: The piece is moulded normally, and it is
+supported by a vacuum; but, at the moment at which, under ordinary
+circumstances, it would be detached, the paste is made to ascend a second
+time, when the first layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of
+supplementary mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about 2/5
+of an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste is
+introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.
+
+Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both processes. They
+are due, in general, to the irregular contraction of the pieces, caused by
+a want of homogeneousness in the plaster of the moulds. In fact, as the
+absorption of the water does not proceed regularly over the entire surface
+of the piece, zones of dry paste are found in contact with others that are
+still soft, and hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and
+breaking of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of
+frequent loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure
+the beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.
+
+Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He takes
+unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning operations,
+fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of the mould. This
+light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of the water, and so the
+operation goes on as usual; but, at the moment of contraction, the piece
+of porcelain being, so to speak, supported by the muslin, comes put of the
+mould more easily and with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances
+all trace of the joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are
+unattended with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire
+safety. In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the
+process of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in
+the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of large
+porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding of certain
+pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and, finally, it is very
+useful when we have to do with a damaged mould, which, instead of being
+repaired with plaster, can be fixed with well ground wet sand covered with
+a strip of muslin.
+
+_Drying of the Moulded Pieces._--When the moulded pieces become of a
+proper consistency in the mould, they are exposed to the air and then
+taken to the drying room. But, as with plaster, the surface of the paste
+dries very quickly, and this inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in
+pieces that are to be polished) is very great in pieces that carry
+ornaments in relief, since the finishing of these is much more difficult,
+the hardened paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to
+remedy this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved
+with powdered dry paste.--_Revue Industrielle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.]
+
+This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing
+arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the position of
+the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be inserted so as to give the
+horizontal or vertical position to the dry plate when in the camera. To
+the front and base-board a brass swiveled side bar, made collapsible by
+means of a center slot, is attached by hinges, and this renders the camera
+rigid when open or secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a
+brass plate within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint
+in a new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary angle,
+and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is mounted upon a
+brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of clamps, is attached to the
+steering handle or other convenient part of the tricycle, preferably the
+form made by Messrs. Rudge & Co., of Coventry, represented in the
+cut.--_Photo. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PHOTO PRINTING LIGHT.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the light of a
+gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a spherical
+reflector. The same frame may be used for other purposes.-_Photographic
+News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW ACTINOMETER.
+
+
+A selenium actinometer has been described in the _Comptes Rendus_ in a
+communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro. The instrument is used to
+measure the actinic power of sunlight when the sun is at various
+altitudes; but the same principle is applicable to other light sources.
+The sensitive part of the apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38
+disks of copper, isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The
+latter being of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces
+between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of rubbing
+a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward gently warming.
+The selenium then presents a grayish appearance, and is ready for use.
+Connection is made by conductors, on opposite sides, with the odd and even
+numbers of the disks, which diminishes the resistance of the selenium. The
+cylinder thus formed is insulated by glass supports in the inside of a
+vacuum tube, for the purpose of preserving it from the disturbing
+influence of dark rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded
+from reflected light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured
+for actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is passed
+through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the variations of
+the latter will show the effect produced upon the selenium. A scale must
+be prepared, with the zero point at the greatest possible resistance of
+the selenium, which corresponds with absolute darkness. The greatest
+effect of the light would be to annul the resistance of the selenium.
+Consequently, the cylinder must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent
+this effect; and the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be
+observed, and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus
+obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale will be
+established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to supply the
+constant current required.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
+
+
+During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has become
+rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of physical
+research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of the sister
+sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true in general, none, I
+think, will question the assertion that a proficient in any of the
+physical sciences must be fairly conversant with photography as a science,
+or at least as an art. If we take for example a science which has of late
+years made rapid strides both in Europe and America, the science of
+astronomy, we shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a
+great portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is
+effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has quite
+lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require observers of
+the heavens, but that their place can be better supplied by the gelatine
+plate of the photographer; and his words have been echoed by others not
+less able than himself. "Abolish the observer, and substitute the
+sensitive plate," is a sensational form of expressing the revolution in
+observational astronomy that is taking place under our eyes; but, although
+it suggests a vast amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an
+exaggerated impression inimical to the best interests of science.
+
+The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold medal of the
+Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession, to those who have
+been most successful in celestial photography is no doubtful sign of the
+great value attached to such work. Last year it was Mr. Common who
+received the highest testimony of the merit due to his splendid
+photographs of the nebula of Orion; and this year Dr. Huggins, who has
+drawn much attention to celestial photography, by his successful attempts
+to picture the solar corona in full daylight, has received a similar
+acknowledgment of his labors in photographing the spectra of stars and
+comets and nebulæ.
+
+An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid of
+photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all that is
+being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of the work may
+prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A few years since, the
+astronomers who had advanced their science by aid of photography were few
+in number, and their results are soon enumerated. Some good pictures of
+the solar corona taken during solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot
+photographs, and a very limited number of successful attempts made upon
+the moon, and planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their
+labors. But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in
+this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.
+
+Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South Kensington, in
+India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam, and thus a sure record
+is obtained of all the spots upon its surface, which may serve for the
+study of the periodicity of its changes, and for their probable connection
+with the important phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In
+France the splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical
+Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts at a
+photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar surface.
+
+Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily photographic
+record of the solar prominences, and only lately he has secured results
+that justified a special expedition to the Alps to photograph the sun's
+corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill,
+the government astronomer at the Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry
+on the experiments that were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.
+
+We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily picture of the
+sun and a photographic record of its prominences, and even of a certain
+portion of the solar corona; but the precious moments of each solar
+eclipse will always be invaluable for picturing those wondrous details in
+the corona that are now shown us by photography, and which can be obtained
+by photography alone.
+
+Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the marvelous
+photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer by Professor
+Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred and fifty lines
+between H and K, and which he is still laboring to improve! The extension,
+too, of the visible solar spectrum into the ultra-violet by Corun,
+Mascart, and others, adds much to our knowledge of the sun; while the
+photographs of Abney in the ultrared increase our information in a
+direction less expected and certainly less easy of attainment. Both these
+extensions we find most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very
+interesting photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the
+corona taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the
+photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can not
+only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would be
+impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds
+information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be furnished
+by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to accumulate, even
+under the most favorable circumstances.
+
+The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon and
+planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious to call for
+lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the present; for it is
+principally in the observation of details that the eye cannot grasp with
+the required delicacy, or with sufficient rapidity, that photography is so
+essential for rapid and sure progress.
+
+Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made of
+comets, and still more of nebulæ, even by the most accomplished artists,
+are all, to say the least, open to doubt in their delicate details. And
+the truth of this is so obvious, that it is the expressed opinion of an
+able astronomer that a single photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by
+Mr. Common, would be of more value to posterity than the collective
+drawings of this interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond,
+Secchi, and so many others.
+
+Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving very great
+attention at present, is the mapping of the starry heavens; and herein
+photography will perhaps do its best work for the astronomer. The trial
+star map by the brothers Henry, of a portion of the Milky Way, which they
+felt unable to observe satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near
+absolute perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the
+photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this
+subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up
+vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work; Mr.
+Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr. Roberts of
+Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to make this part of
+his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able direction of Dr. Gill.
+Besides star maps, clusters, too, and special portions of the heavens are
+being photographed by the Rev. T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such
+pictures will be of the greatest value, not only in fixing the position at
+a given date, but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color,
+variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and multiple
+stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and telescopic comets.
+
+Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are receiving the
+most valuable aid at present from photography; but the very value of the
+gift that is bestowed should make exaggeration an impossibility.
+Photography can well afford to be generous, but it must first be just, in
+its estimate of the work that has still to be done in astronomy
+independently of its aid; and although the older science points with just
+pride to what is being done for her by her younger sister, still she must
+not forget that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her
+progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the mathematician,
+but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her own indefatigable
+observers.--_S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in Br. Jour. of Photography._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AS A PREVENTIVE OF SCALE IN BOILERS.
+
+
+The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam boilers,
+and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost danger, resulting in
+many instances in great injury to life and property, besides eating away
+the substance of the iron plate, was referred to in a paper lately read by
+M. Jeannolle before the Paris Academy of Sciences, in which the author
+described a new method for keeping boilers clean. This method is as
+follows:
+
+The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a certain
+power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at one end through
+positive, and at the other through negative, wires. In incrusted steam
+boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212° to 300° Fahr., and a pressure
+of from 30 to 90 lb. to the square inch, the current thus engendered
+decomposes the accumulated salts, and precipitates them, from which they
+may easily be removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of
+some other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where
+it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current may be
+set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be decomposed, and a
+precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which can be removed with equal
+facility.
+
+From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it appears that
+in order to render the various actions of electricity, perfect, it is
+necessary to coat either with red lead or with pulverized iron, or with
+any other conductor of electricity, an operation which must be repeated
+whenever the boiler is emptied with a view to cleaning out. The above
+system Is being advantageously applied in Calais for removing the
+incrustations of boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve
+Bunsen elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty
+to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When a
+boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may be
+prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the same
+conditions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.
+
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.--ALPHABET DESIGNED BY
+GODFREY SYKES.]
+
+Among the many designs which have been issued by the South Kensington
+Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have illustrated here to-day.
+The letters appear frequently among the decorations of the museum
+buildings, especially in the refreshment rooms and the Ceramic gallery,
+where long inscriptions in glazed terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The
+alphabet has also been engraved to several sizes, and is used for the
+initial letters in the various official books and art publications
+relating to the museum, which are published by the Science and Art
+Department.--_Building News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE.
+
+
+[Illustration: OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE]
+
+This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of the
+eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which stands at
+about five miles from Leicester, England.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BRIEF SANITARY MATTERS IN CONNECTION WITH ISOLATED COUNTRY HOUSES.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Read before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, April 1884
+_Journal A. of E. Societies_.]
+
+By E.W. BOWDITCH, C.E.
+
+
+I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best practice,
+for I am not sure there are any definitely established rules; therefore I
+can only explain _my_ ways of doing such work, which, though I try to make
+as complete and at the same time as simple as possible, I know to be far
+from perfect.
+
+Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my landscape
+gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that seemed wholly
+satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new arrangements from time to
+time, according to the requirements of the case in hand.
+
+To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or any _one_
+evening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not worth while even
+if there was time, as much of it would prove matter of little or no
+interest. I will confine my remarks, therefore, to certain elements of the
+work where my practice differs, I believe, essentially from that of most
+engineers, and where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other
+members of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way
+as to help me.
+
+There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be called upon
+to prescribe for:
+
+_First._ A new place where nothing has been arranged.
+
+_Second._ An old place where the occupants have been troubled either by
+their outside arrangements or by fixtures or pipes within.
+
+Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two acres of
+land in some inland town, where the family intends to live but six months
+in the year, though they are liable to reside there the whole twelve.
+
+There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff, retentive
+clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to have plumbing and
+drainage that shall be as inexpensive as possible, but that shall be
+entirely safe.
+
+In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself in the
+same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon setting the
+bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him with his right arm
+broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to be of assistance, as his
+specialty was the left arm.
+
+I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing, but
+confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the supplies I do not
+feel competent to pass upon.
+
+One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal one, is
+due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.
+
+Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking, careless
+mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints--all these and a dozen
+other things are liable to be sources of trouble. Subordinate wastes are
+apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a less extent.
+
+The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within certain limits
+may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however, with the materials.
+
+There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes, within a
+building, of anything but metal.
+
+Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent, brick, stone,
+and wood; twice I have found canvas--all these, however, are inferior, and
+should never be accepted or specified. The writer believes that at the
+present time, hereabouts, lead and iron are more used for wastes than any
+other materials, and are found the most satisfactory on the whole.
+
+One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use of that
+are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not be the best,
+though they have served me many good turns, and I have not succeeded in
+devising any better.
+
+Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron, four inches
+in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or "extra heavy." For
+some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe has been the favorite, as
+being the more reliable, the writer in common with others making use of
+the same freely, until one day a cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected.
+Since that time plain, untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to
+the so-called kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with
+kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A moment's
+thought will convince any one that when a pipe is asphalted or tar coated
+it is very difficult to detect either sand holes or small cracks, and the
+difficulty of proper calking is increased, as lead does not cling so well
+to the tar as to plain iron.
+
+At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is concerned, is a
+misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used exclusively as giving more
+satisfactory results, and being less troublesome to apply.
+
+I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil pipe,
+plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled at my office,
+in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by the chalk marks I have
+made, just where the leaks were and their area. I may say here that a
+sound pipe of this caliber and standard weight is the exception rather
+than the rule, and it was selected for this experiment merely to try and
+show the reaction a little better than the heavier pipe might.
+
+Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two years,
+and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the soil pipe
+furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably better than at
+first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and sold to other customers I
+have no means of knowing; probably it is, however.
+
+A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my suggestion by the
+Superintendent of Construction of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, at
+Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results from him, but doubtless they
+will be interesting. A brief summary of the results may be of some
+interest.
+
+The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers hereabouts
+are:
+
+Mott & Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips & Weeden, and
+Bartlett, Hayward & Co.
+
+On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  60 per ct. to 70 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      20 per ct. to 80 per ct.
+Percentage passed special castings,
+   including Y's and T's.               60 per ct.
+
+5" pipe extra heavy:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  25 per ct. to 35 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      No record.
+Percentage special castings,
+including Y's and T's.                  60 per ct.
+
+It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does away with
+the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not prepared to
+acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known that much poor pipe is
+tar-coated and sold in the market as good, and when coated it is almost
+impossible to detect any but _very_ defective work.
+
+The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either "heavy" or
+"extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the discounts, and
+amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4" pipe. The present rate
+for the best water pipe of the same caliber is about $38 (now $29) per
+long ton, and the additional charge for soil pipe should guarantee the
+very best iron in the market, though it appears to be rarely furnished.
+
+It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water pressure.
+I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this, unless it be
+acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately, whether it bears the test
+or not, for more than once I have found a single length of soil pipe (5
+feet) that could not bear the pressure of a column of water of its own
+height without leaking.
+
+Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings, the next
+trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is frequently found
+that very shallow joints are made instead of deep ones, and hard lead used
+instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead, two runnings and two calkings. By
+soft lead I mean pig lead, and by hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead
+that may have been melted a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked
+that it is quite difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the
+process will crack the hub.
+
+The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance--there are dozens of
+good patterns of every class. If they are carefully put in, and provided
+with suitable traps placed just as close to the fixture as possible, the
+result will usually be satisfactory.
+
+Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the fixtures
+they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length of untrapped
+pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A set bowl with trap
+two feet away may become in time a great nuisance if not properly used. A
+case in point where the fixture was used both as a bowl and a urinal was
+in a few months exceedingly offensive--a fact largely (though not wholly)
+due to its double service.
+
+I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same water-closets,
+bowls, faucets, traps, etc.
+
+Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through the roof,
+and sufficiently high to clear all windows.
+
+Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures not used at
+least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all plumbing as simple
+as possible, and try and get it all located so that outside air can be got
+directly into all closets and bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your
+fixtures in glass rather than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the
+main drain at least five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of
+cast iron.
+
+Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying everything
+except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a ventilated running
+trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on the house side of the
+trap (example), to prevent annoyance from puffing or pumping, or, better
+still, a pipe corresponding to the soil pipe is carried up on the outside
+of the house.
+
+The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as the main
+drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry this pipe on
+the outside of the house as high as the top of the chimney.
+
+A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry sinks.
+Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is now to put in
+Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though perhaps I may succeed in
+devising a cast-iron one that will answer better. The brick ones were
+occasionally heaved by the frost, and cracked; the Portland cement ones
+answer better, and when thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an
+appreciable quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced
+($28 each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none
+as yet that I feel satisfied with.
+
+Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage to a tank
+or cesspool.
+
+Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care of. The
+worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however, hard, wet,
+impervious clay.
+
+The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to distribute
+the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward filtration. This is
+rather expensive, and a customer is rarely willing to pay the bills for
+the same. I should always advise it as the best; but where not allowed to
+do so, I have had fair success with shallow French drains connecting with
+the tank or cesspool.
+
+Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were used
+first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not been very
+successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and stop it up, or it
+gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank, provided with a tell-tale,
+and that is to be opened either by a valve operated by hand, or that is
+arranged with a standing overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised
+and secured by a hook.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SANITARY COOKING.[5]
+
+[Footnote 5: Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society, Seymour,
+March 13, 1884.--_The Sanitarian._]
+
+By VIRGINIA L. OPPENHEIMER, M.D., Seymour, Ind.
+
+
+    "We may live without poetry, music, and art,
+    We may live without conscience, and live without heart,
+    We may live without friends,
+    We may live without books,
+    But civilized man cannot live without cooks.
+
+    "We may live without books--
+    What is knowledge but grieving?
+    We may live without hope--
+    What is hope but deceiving?
+    We may live without love--what is passion but pining?
+    But where is the man that can live without dining?"
+
+Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the hands of
+the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To you, my fat,
+jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more especially to
+_you_, my somber, lean, dyspeptic, two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler,
+the cook is indeed a valuable friend. The cook wields a scepter that is
+only second in power to that of love; and even love has become soured
+through the evil instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook.
+This is no jest, it is a very sad fact.
+
+Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health of her
+patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw the gourmands
+into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.
+
+1. You must have _the_ cook. I mean by this, that not every one can occupy
+that important office. The greatest consideration in the qualities of a
+cook is, does she like the work? No one can fulfill the duties of any
+noteworthy office unless he labors at them with vim and willingness.
+
+2. You must have good articles of food originally.
+
+3. As our honest Iago said, "You must have change."
+
+When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by experience what
+articles of food _do_, and what articles of food do _not_, agree with him,
+and to shun the latter, no matter how daintily served or how tempting the
+circumstances. The man who knows that _pates de foie gras_, or the livers
+of abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them, is
+not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake him.
+
+The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very much, to do
+with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this paper to teach
+cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to the best as well as
+the simplest methods of preparing staple articles of food. The same
+articles of food can and should be prepared differently on each day of the
+week. Changes of diet are too likely to be underestimated. By constant
+change the digestive organs in the average person are prevented from
+having that repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is
+likely to result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.
+
+We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article of food is
+excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for bone, etc., etc. Now,
+stubborn facts are like stone walls, against which theories often butt out
+their beauty and their power. It is well known to almost every one
+nowadays that _well-cooked_ food, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread,
+fish, or anything else worthy the name of food, will well maintain,
+indefinitely, either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.
+
+Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the principal
+ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and albumen. Starch is the
+principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables and breadstuffs. Albumen is
+the principal ingredient of meats, eggs, milk, and other animal
+derivatives.
+
+Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be converted into
+sugar either in the body or out of it. The process of this transformation
+of starch into sugar is beautifully exemplified in certain plants, such as
+the beet, the so-called sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is,
+to a great extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a
+substance is produced which is called _diastase_. Through the influence of
+this _diastase_ the starch is converted into a peculiar non-crystallizable
+substance called _dextrine_, and as the plant matures, this dextrine is
+transformed into crystallizable sugar.
+
+"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the action of
+dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting it at a
+temperature between 284° and 330° F., till it is of a light brown color,
+and has the odor of overbaked bread."
+
+A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of bread--that
+sweetish substance that gives the crust its agreeable flavor. Pure
+dextrine is an insipid, odorless, yellowish-white, translucent substance,
+which dissolves in water almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it
+is easily converted into _dextrose_, or _glucose_, as it is usually named.
+
+This _glucose_ is often sold under the name of sugar, and is the same
+against which so many of the newspapers waged such a war a year or two
+ago. These critics were evidently, for the most part, persons who knew
+little about the subject. Glucose, if free from sulphuric acid or other
+chemicals, is as harmless as any other form of sugar. Most of our candies
+contain more or less of it, and are in every way as satisfactory as when
+manufactured wholly from other sugars.
+
+It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary article of
+food, the process which aids the transformation of our starchy foods must
+necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me to say by this that, if
+all our starchy foods were converted into sugar, their digestion would
+thereby be completed. As I stated a moment ago, this sweet food, if taken
+into the stomach day after day, would soon cause that particular organ to
+rebel against this sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to
+illustrate this point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day
+articles of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be
+rendered more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is
+a demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested than
+the same foods unsavored.
+
+The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an accomplishment
+in itself. It is very reasonable that all things that go to make up beauty
+and harmony at the dinner table should add their full quota to the
+appetite, and, I was about to say, "to the digestion;" but will qualify
+the statement by saying, to the digestion if the appetite be not porcine.
+
+Our commonest article of food is the _potato_. Let us see how
+potatoes--which contain only twenty per cent. of starch, as against
+eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent. in wheat
+flour--can be prepared as just mentioned. We will look for a moment at the
+manner in which they are usually served by the average cook:
+
+1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3, roasted with
+meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.
+
+1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly prepared.
+But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often allowed to boil
+slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked, soggy, and solid, and
+proportionately indigestible. They should be put over a brisk fire, and
+kept at a brisk boil till done; then drain off the water, sprinkle a
+little salt over them, and return to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly,
+when you will find them bursting with their white, mealy contents.
+
+2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible. A more
+agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot embers (wood fire),
+care being used to keep them covered with the hot embers.
+
+3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost as
+digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their grease-dripping
+beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless seen the potatoes neatly
+sliced and dumped into a frying pan full of hot lard, where they were
+permitted to sink or float, and soak and sob for about a half hour or
+more. When served, they presented the picturesque spectacle of miniature
+potato islands floating at liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any
+of you can relish and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to
+leave this clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.
+
+If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:
+
+Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner; when cold,
+remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season with salt, pepper,
+and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying pan, with enough meat
+drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom; put in the potatoes and fry a
+rich brown, stirring constantly with a knife to prevent burning. Serve
+very hot.
+
+4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.
+
+5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are usually made
+up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are, therefore, not very
+digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they are so palatable that we
+cannot easily dispense with them; but, after eating them, if you expect to
+have inward peace, either split wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take
+some other light exercise.
+
+More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the following methods
+of cooking this useful vegetable:
+
+1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato croquettes; 4,
+potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.
+
+1. For _Saratogas_, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as possible,
+dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a tiny piece of alum
+to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water for an hour or longer.
+Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea towel. Have ready a quantity of
+boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry a delicate brown. Drain all grease
+from them, sprinkle with salt, and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you
+will have the much desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is
+already half digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you
+feel no inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy,
+water-soaked _boiled_ potatoes?
+
+2. For _a la maitre d'hotel_, pare the potatoes, cut into pieces half an
+inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into cold water until wanted
+(an hour or so); then drain, and fry in boiling lard. Just as they begin
+to brown take them out with a skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put
+back, and fry a rich brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.
+
+3. For _croquettes_, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix with salt,
+pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to moisten thoroughly.
+Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form into small balls, taking care
+to have them smooth. Have ready one plate with a beaten egg upon it, and
+another with cracker crumbs. Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the
+crumbs, and brown nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get
+rid of any superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.
+
+4. _Potatoes and cream_ are prepared by mincing cold boiled potatoes fine,
+putting them in a spider with a little melted butter in it, and letting
+them fry slightly, keeping them well covered. Add a very small piece of
+fresh butter, season with pepper and salt, and pour over them cream or
+rich milk. Let them boil up once, and serve. This is a very nice dish, and
+may be safely taken into delicate stomachs.
+
+5. _A la Lyonnaise_ is prepared as follows: Take five cold potatoes, one
+onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion finely, and fry it in
+butter until it begins to take color; add the sliced potatoes, salt and
+pepper to taste, and keep shaking the saucepan until they are somewhat
+browned. Serve hot.
+
+A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods. If the
+albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is rendered _less_
+instead of more digestible. Therefore, the so-called _well-cooked_ meats
+are really _badly-cooked_ meats. Meats should be only half done, or rare.
+To do this properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks
+should be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who
+said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be arrested for
+cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be well cooked before
+eating.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the prevalence
+of disease in hogs, should be well done.]
+
+The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled egg is only
+fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never intended by nature to
+adorn the human stomach. There are very many ways of preparing eggs--by
+frying, baking, poaching, shirring, etc. I will only describe briefly a
+few simple methods of making omelets.
+
+In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to an
+_omelet_. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add a teaspoonful
+of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth; add to the yolks a
+teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then season with salt, and
+about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich milk. Have your spider very hot;
+turn your whites and yolks together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a
+bit of butter in the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set
+(which takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not
+brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle with
+powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten immediately.
+
+Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies between the
+folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the addition of placing
+in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.
+
+French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of boiling milk
+with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour this over one-half
+cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt, pepper, and the yolks of
+three eggs beaten very light; mix thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites
+whipped to a stiff froth. Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly
+done, fold together in a half moon, and serve immediately.
+
+And thus we might continue _ad infinitum_, but, as was stated before, it
+is not my object to instruct you in special cooking, but to illustrate in
+this manner how much easier it is, to both the cook and your stomachs, to
+prepare healthful dishes than to do the reverse.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.
+
+
+_The Monitor de la Salud_ contains in a recent number the results of some
+experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time required for the
+digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of the person on whom the
+experiments were made was emptied by means of a pump; 100 grammes, equal
+to 1,544 grains, or about 2-2/3 ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed
+with three times the quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment
+was considered ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to
+contain no muscular fibre.
+
+It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15-1/2 grains, and the
+cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The 2-2/3 ounces of meat were
+therefore mixed with nearly eight ounces of water, before being introduced
+into the stomach.
+
+The results were as follows:
+
+  Beef, raw, and finely chopped.  2  hours.
+    "   half cooked.              2½   "
+    "   well cooked.              3    "
+    "   slightly roasted.         3    "
+    "   well roasted.             4    "
+  Mutton, raw.                    2    "
+  Veal.                           2½   "
+  Pork.                           3    "
+
+The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The quantity used
+was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same as in the 100
+grammes of beef.
+
+  602 cubic centimeters, nearly sixteen ounces,
+      of cow's milk, not boiled, required.        3½ hours
+  602 cubic centimeters, boiled.                  4    "
+  602   "       "        sour.                    3½   "
+  675   "       "        skimmed.                 3½   "
+  656   "       "        goat's milk, not boiled. 3½   "
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.[7]
+
+[Footnote 7: Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences at the
+October meeting in 1884.]
+
+By J.W. POWELL.
+
+
+A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government authority
+can be controlled by statute and by superior administrative authority but
+to a limited extent. These operations are practically carried on by
+specialists, and they can be controlled only in their financial operations
+and in the general purposes for which investigations are made. Their
+methods of investigation are their own--originate with themselves, and are
+carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific operations of
+such a government institution, there is an unofficial authority which,
+though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in to approve or condemn,
+viz., the body of scientific men of the country; and though their
+authority is not exercised antecedently and at every stage of the work,
+yet it is so potent that no national scientific institution can grow and
+prosper without their approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish
+unless sustained by their strong influence.
+
+As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I owe
+allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this reason I
+desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the organization and
+plan of operations of the Survey.
+
+
+A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE UNITED STATUS.
+
+Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good topographic
+map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the publication of the
+results of geologic investigation is very imperfect without a good map;
+but with a good map thorough investigation and simple, intelligible
+publication become possible. Impelled by these considerations, the Survey
+is making a topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of
+this map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established
+throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a
+triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is executed on a
+scale only sufficiently refined for map-making purposes, and will not be
+directly useful for geodetic purposes in determining the figure of the
+earth. The hypsometric work is based upon the railroad levels of the
+country. Throughout the greater part of the country, there is a system of
+railroad lines, constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these
+roads have been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross
+each other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded, so
+that the railroad surface of the country can be determined therefrom with
+all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and elaborate topographic
+maps. From such a hypsometric basis the reliefs for the whole country are
+determined, by running lines of levels, by trigonometric construction, and
+in mountainous regions by barometric observation.
+
+The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is executed by
+a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar conditions found in various
+portions of the country. To a large extent the plane-table is used. In the
+hands of the topographers of the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not
+simply a portable draughting table for the field; it is practically an
+instrument of triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of
+topography are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.
+
+The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions of the
+prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the topography and
+the geology alike are simple, and maps on a comparatively small scale are
+sufficient for practical purposes. For these districts it is proposed to
+construct the sheets of the map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four
+miles to the inch. In the mountain regions of the West the geology is more
+complex, and the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these
+regions are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It
+would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic survey of
+the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much of this area the
+sheets of the map will also be constructed on a scale of 1-250,000, but in
+special districts that scale will be increased to 1-125,000, and in the
+case of important mining districts charts will be constructed on a much
+larger scale. In the eastern portion of the United States two scales are
+adopted. In the less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is
+used; in the more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is
+adopted, or about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few
+special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic
+structure, dense population, or other condition, will require charts on
+still larger scales. The area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska,
+is about three million square miles, and a map of the United States,
+constructed on the plan set forth above, will require not less than 2,600
+sheets. It may ultimately prove to require more than that, from the fact
+that the areas to be surveyed on the larger scale have not been fully
+determined. Besides the number of sheets in the general map of the United
+States, there will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as
+above described.
+
+Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been developed at the
+present time. In this connection it should be stated that the map of the
+United States can be completed, with the present organization of the
+Geological Survey, in about 24 years; but it is greatly to be desired that
+the time for its completion may be materially diminished by increasing the
+topographic force of the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good
+topographic map of the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of
+the whole area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been
+completed on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the
+United States under the auspices of the General Government and under the
+auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows those areas that
+have been surveyed by various organizations on such a scale and in such a
+manner that the work has been accepted as sufficient for the purposes of
+the Survey.
+
+Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient refinement and
+accuracy to be of present value, though such work subserved its purpose in
+its time. An examination of the map will show that the triangulation of
+the various organizations is already largely in advance of the topography.
+The map of the United States will be a great atlas divided into sheets as
+above indicated. In all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of
+1-250,000, a page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in
+longitude and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page
+of the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the scale
+is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of a degree. The
+degree sheet will be designated by two numbers--one representing latitude,
+the other longitude. Where the sheets represent fractional degrees, they
+will be labeled with the same numbers, with the addition of the
+description of the proper fractional part.
+
+The organization, as at present established, executing this work, is as
+follows: First, an astronomic and computing division, the officers of
+which are engaged in determining the geographic coordinates of certain
+primary points. Second, a triangulation corps engaged in extending a
+system of triangulation over various portions of the country from measured
+base-lines. Third, a topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven
+parties, scattered over various portions of the United States. Such, in
+brief outline, is the plan for the map of the United States, and the
+organization by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief
+Geographer.
+
+
+PALEONTOLOGY.
+
+Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic survey, it
+will be better to explain the accessory plans and organizations. There are
+in the Survey, as at present organized, the following paleontologic
+laboratories:
+
+1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other than the
+Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a corps of
+paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.
+
+2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Quaternary age,
+with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall being in charge.
+
+3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Cenozoic and
+Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr. C.A. White is in
+charge.
+
+4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Paleozoic age,
+with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is in charge.
+
+5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of paleobotanists,
+Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.
+
+The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the laboratories
+above described, study and discuss in reports the fossils collected by the
+general geologists in the field. They also supplement the work of the
+field geologists by making special collections in important districts and
+at critical horizons; but the paleontologists are not held responsible for
+areal and structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not
+held responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the
+large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the Geological
+Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are engaged from time
+to time to make special studies.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a large corps of
+chemists engaged in a great variety of researches relating to the
+constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks. A part of the work of
+this corps is to study the methods of metamorphism and the paragenesis of
+minerals, and in this connection the chemists do work in the field; but to
+a large extent they are occupied with the study of the materials collected
+by the field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this
+department.
+
+
+PHYSICAL RESEARCHES.
+
+There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps of men
+engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance to geologic
+philosophy. These researches are experimental, and relate to the effect of
+temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks. This laboratory is under the
+charge of the chief chemist.
+
+
+LITHOLOGY.
+
+There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large corps of
+lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks. These lithologists
+are field geologists, who examine the collections made by themselves.
+
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a large corps
+of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which are published in an
+annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr. Albert Williams, Jr., is
+the Chief Statistician of the Survey.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of preparing
+illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr. W.H. Holmes is
+in charge of this division. Illustrations will not hereafter be used for
+embellishment, but will be strictly confined to the illustration of the
+text and the presentation of such facts as can be best exhibited by
+figures and diagrams. All illustrations will, as far as possible, be
+produced by relief methods, such as wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc.
+As large numbers of the reports of the Survey are published, this plan is
+demanded for economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed
+to be of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be
+used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time, and it
+is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various purposes from
+time to time. The illustrations made for the reports of the Survey, if on
+relief-plates that can be cheaply electrotyped, can be used again when
+needed. This is especially desirable in paleontology, where previously
+published figures can be introduced for comparative purposes. There are
+two methods of studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices
+of geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to subserve
+the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their biologic relations, and
+should be studied and arranged in biologic groups. Under the plan adopted
+by the Survey, the illustrations can be used over and over again for such
+purposes when needed, as reproduction can be made at the small cost of
+electrotyping. These same illustrations can be used by the public at large
+in scientific periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by
+the Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this manner.
+
+
+LIBRARY.
+
+The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes, and is
+rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary to purchase
+but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a corps of assistants
+engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed to prepare a catalogue of
+American and foreign publications upon American geology, which is to be a
+general authors' catalogue. In addition to this, it is proposed to publish
+bibliographies proper of special subjects constituting integral parts of
+the science of geology.
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS.
+
+The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual Reports,
+Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a part of the
+Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year, but is a distinct
+volume. This contains a brief summary of the purposes, plans, and
+operations of the Survey, prepared by the Director, and short
+administrative reports from the chiefs of divisions, the whole followed by
+scientific papers. These papers are selected as being those of most
+general interest, the object being to make the Annual Report a somewhat
+popular account of the doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by
+the intelligent people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published
+as a part of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary
+of the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of Representatives;
+and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000 copies, distributed by
+the Survey and members of the Senate and House of Representatives. Four
+annual reports have been published; the fifth is now in the hands of the
+printer.
+
+The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them somewhat
+speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted to some specific
+topic, in order that the material ultimately published in the bulletins
+can be classified in any manner desired by scientific men. Nine bulletins
+have been published, and seven are in press. The bulletins already
+published vary in size from 5 to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost
+of press-work and paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each;
+4,900 copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by
+Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological Survey.
+
+The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method of
+publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to the
+public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued; five
+monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of each monograph
+are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the
+Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and binding. They vary in price
+from $1.05 to $11.
+
+The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that originate in their
+several corps. The general editorial supervision is exercised by the Chief
+Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C. Pilling.
+
+
+GENERAL GEOLOGY.
+
+In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary, first, to
+consider what had already been done in various portions of the United
+States; and for this purpose the compilation of a general geologic map of
+the United States was begun, together with a Thesaurus of American
+formations. In addition to this the bibliographic work previously
+described was initiated, so that the literature relating to American
+geology should be readily accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this
+point it became necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the
+work; that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts
+to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly geographic
+apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an unscientific
+division of labor would result, and the same classes of problems would to
+a large extent be relegated to the several corps operating in field and in
+the laboratory. It was thought best to divide the work, as far as
+possible, by subject-matter rather than by territorial areas; yet to some
+extent the two methods of division will coincide. There are in the Survey
+at present:
+
+First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin, formerly
+State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong corps of
+assistants. There is an important field for which definite provision has
+not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess that constitutes the
+bluff formations of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. But as this
+loess proves to be intimately associated with the glacial formations of
+the same region, it is probable that it will eventually be relegated to
+the glacial division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an
+extent that its field of operations will include the whole Quaternary
+geology.
+
+Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt. Clarence E.
+Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in charge, also with
+a strong corps of assistants.
+
+Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute work on
+the archæan rocks, embracing within their field not only all rocks of
+archæan age, but all metamorphic crystalline schists, of whatever age they
+may be found. The first division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly,
+assisted by a corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the
+crystalline schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the
+United States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will
+also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are
+immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in their
+orographic structure.
+
+The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in charge of
+Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and his field of
+operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not proposed at present to
+undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the Rocky Mountain
+region.
+
+Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the areal,
+structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian region, extending
+from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which separates the mountain
+region from the great valley of the Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has
+charge of this work, and has a large corps of assistants.
+
+Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and partly for
+administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and geologic survey
+should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr. Arnold Hague is in charge
+of the work, with a corps of assistants. When it is completed, his field
+will be expanded so as to include a large part of the Rocky Mountain
+region, but the extent of the field is not yet determined.
+
+It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to those
+areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous formations is very
+imperfectly and incompletely organized. The reason for this is twofold:
+First, the work cannot be performed very successfully until the maps are
+made; second, the Geological Survey is necessarily diverting much of its
+force to the construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations
+expand the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field
+over the entire country.
+
+
+ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
+
+Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations in economic
+geology are restricted to those States and Territories in which there are
+public lands; the extension of the work into the eastern portion of the
+United States included only that part relating to general geology. Two
+mining divisions are organized. One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker,
+with headquarters at San Francisco, California, is at the present time
+engaged in the study of the quicksilver districts of California. The
+other, under charge of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver,
+Colorado, is engaged in studying various mining districts in that State,
+including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a corps of
+assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also, are under
+investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of assistants.
+
+
+EMPLOYES.
+
+The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September, 1884,
+were as follows:
+
+Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate (Director), 1.
+
+Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the recommendation of the
+Director of the Survey, 134.
+
+Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.
+
+
+APPOINTMENTS.
+
+Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The statute provides
+that "the scientific employes of the Geological Survey shall be selected
+by the Director, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior,
+exclusively for their qualifications as professional experts." The
+provisions of this statute apply to all those cases where scientific men
+are employed who have established a reputation, and in asking for their
+appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting forth
+the work in which the person is to be employed, together with his
+qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his published
+works. On such recommendations appointments are invariably made. Young men
+who have not established a reputation in scientific research are selected
+through the agency of the Civil Service Commission on special examination,
+the papers for which are prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half
+of the employes, however, are temporary, being engaged for services
+lasting for a few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and
+coming under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such
+persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions, and are
+discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will be seen that
+the Director is responsible for the selection of the employes, directly
+for those whom he recommends for appointment, and indirectly for those
+selected by the Civil Service Commission, as he permanently retains in the
+work. If, then, improper persons are employed, it is wholly the Director's
+fault.
+
+The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal year
+ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum does not
+include the amount appropriated for ethnologic researches--$40,000. Nor
+are the expenses for engraving and printing paid for from the above
+appropriations, but from appropriations made for the work under the
+direction of the public printer. It is estimated that the amount needed
+for engraving and printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.
+
+
+THE RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT SURVEY TO STATE SURVEYS.
+
+The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations with the
+various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and the State Survey
+of New York, there is direct co-operation. The State Survey of
+Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to the Government Survey,
+and negotiations have been entered into for closer relations and more
+thorough co-operation. The State Surveys of North Carolina, Kentucky, and
+Alabama are also co-operating with the Government Survey, and the director
+of the Government Survey is doing all within his power to revive State
+Surveys. The field for geologic research in the United States is of great
+magnitude, and the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of
+many scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it
+is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States and
+Territories. There is work enough for all, and the establishment of local
+surveys would greatly assist the general work prosecuted under the
+auspices of the government, and prevent it from falling into perfunctory
+channels. Its vigor and health will doubtless be promoted by all thorough
+local research.
+
+It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the Director finds
+that in presenting the general results, interests, and needs of the Survey
+to Congress, and to Committees of Congress, a thorough appreciation of the
+value of scientific research is shown by the statesmen of the country.
+Questions relating to immediately economic values are asked, as they
+should be; but questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of
+investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously urged, and
+the principle is recognized that all sound scientific research conduces to
+the welfare of the people, not only by increasing knowledge, but
+ultimately by affecting all the industries of the people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+THE SUNFLOWERS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.]
+
+The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for the
+distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to the labor of
+Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the highest authority on North
+American plants. In the recently published second part of his "Synoptical
+Flora of North America" he has described thirty-nine species, six of which
+are annual. The synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have
+led to much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared
+up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the species are
+variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added that some at least of
+the species readily form hybrids. There is always more or less difficulty
+with a variable genus in making garden plants fit wild specific types, but
+in the following notes I have described no kinds which I have not myself
+cultivated, selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned
+severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants seem to
+come nearest.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_Helianthus multiflorus_, or, according to Asa Gray, speaking botanically,
+H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is mentioned first, because it is
+the subject of the colored illustration. The name multiflorus is
+established by long usage, and perhaps was originally given in contrast to
+the few-flowered habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more
+floriferous than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only
+in cultivation from early times, must have been derived from
+decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have accepted on
+less indisputable authority, as they will all think the habit and
+appearance of the two plants widely different. The variety multiflorus has
+several forms; the commonest form is double, the disk being filled with
+ligules much shorter than those of the ray flowers, after the form of many
+daisy-like composites. In this double form the day flowers are often
+wanting. It is common also on old plants in poor soils to see double and
+single flowers from the same root. In the single forms the size of the
+flowers varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to
+kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following
+treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch high,
+cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant them singly in
+deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded situation. By August each
+will have made a large bush, branching out from one stalk at the base,
+with from thirty to forty flowers open at a time, each 5 inches across.
+The same plants if well dressed produce good flowers the second season,
+but after that the stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The
+same treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following kinds
+are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's book:
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+
+ANNUALS.
+
+_H. argophyllus_ (white-leaved, not argyrophyllus, silver-leaved, as
+written in some catalogues).--An annual with woolly leaves, neater and
+less coarse than H. annuus, with which it is said soon to degenerate in
+gardens if grown together with it.
+
+_H. annuus._--The well known sunflower in endless varieties, one of the
+most elegant having pale lemon-colored flowers; these, too, liable to pass
+into the common type if grown in the same garden.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN
+AUTUMN.]
+
+_H. debilis var. cucumerifolius._--I have never seen the typical species,
+but the variety was introduced a few years ago by Mr. W. Thompson, of
+Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It becomes 4 feet or 5 feet
+high, with irregularly toothed deltoid leaves and spotted stalks, making a
+widely branched bush and bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3
+inches across, with black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower
+that grows near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a
+very fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced no
+good seed.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).]
+
+
+PERENNIALS.
+
+_H. orgyalis_ (the fathom-high sunflower).--The name is far within the
+true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A very distinct species,
+increasing very slowly at the root and throwing all its growing efforts
+upward. The long linear ribbon leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading
+in wavy masses round the tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at
+the summit, are a more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are
+moderate in size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.]
+
+_H. angustifolius._--A neat and elegant species, which I first raised from
+seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It has a very branching habit
+quite from the base like a well-grown bush of the common wallflower. The
+flowers are abundant, about 2½ inches across, with a black disk. The
+plant, though a true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one
+stalk each year.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).]
+
+_H. rigidus_ is well known as the best of the perennial sunflowers, and
+has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum. It need not be
+described, but one or two things about it may be noted. The shoots, which
+come up a yard or more from last year's stalk, may be transplanted as soon
+as they appear without injury to the flowering, but if put back to the old
+center, the soil, which should be deep and light, ought to be enriched.
+The species is variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it
+produces seed in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I
+have one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A
+variety is figured in _Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,668, under the name of
+H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab. 2,020, as H.
+diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H. missouriensis. Its
+native range extends across North America in longitude, and covers many
+degrees of latitude. It likes a dry soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the
+flower-stalk is apt to wither in the middle, and the bud falls over and
+perishes prematurely.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_H. Lætiflorus._--Under this name we grow in England a tall,
+much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and very stout and stiff
+stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It increases at the base of the
+stalks; it makes close growth, and shows little disposition to run at the
+root. The flowers are rather small, not more than 9 inches across, but so
+durable and so well displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to
+make the plant very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot
+identify this plant with the lætiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us
+resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears flowers
+with numerous rays 1½ inches long.
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.]
+
+_H. occidentalis._--Recently introduced by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich,
+who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a neat species, growing about 2
+feet high, well branched, and producing at the end of July abundance of
+flowers about 2 inches across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with
+long stalks, ovate in form.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.]
+
+_H. mollis_, so called from the soft white down with which the leaves are
+covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large, ovate, and sessile; growth
+of the plant upright, with hardly any branches; flowers pale yellow, about
+3 inches across, not very ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.
+
+_H. giganteus_ grows 10 feet high; stem much branched and disposed to
+curve. Flowers about 2½ inches across, produced abundantly in August; rays
+narrow and pointed, cupped, with the ends turning outward; leaves
+lanceolate and sessile; rootstock creeping, forming tuberous thickenings
+at the base of the stems, which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato
+of the Assiniboine tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H.
+tuberosus.
+
+[Illustration: FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.]
+
+_H. maximiliani._--Half the height of the last, which it resembles, but
+the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are also the flowers, which are
+produced later. It is not so floriferous and ornamental as the last.
+
+_H. lævigatus._--Smooth stalked, very distinct, does not spread at the
+roots, which are composed of finer fibers than those of most of the genus;
+stalks slender and black, growing closely together, branched near the
+summit, 5 feet high; leaves narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers
+plentiful and about 2 inches across; rays few, and disk small.
+
+We are warned that the following species are "difficult of extrication,"
+either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.
+
+_H. doronicoides._--I place this the third in merit among perennial
+sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being first and second. It is 6
+feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth, with many stalks. Flowers 3½
+inches across, produced from the end of July to the end of September,
+bright golden yellow; leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to
+both ends; stalk leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the
+stalk by their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running
+rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens in
+_Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,778.
+
+_H. divaricatus_ resembles the last, but is inferior, being a smaller
+plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come out a month
+later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge widely, which habit
+gives its name to the plant. A casual observer would hardly notice the
+difference between this species and the last, but when grown together the
+superiority of doronicoides as a garden plant is at once evident.
+
+_H. strumosus._--Fully 6 feet high; growth upright; rootstock less
+spreading than the last two; leaves on very short stalks, broadest at the
+base, ovate tapering by a long narrow point; flower disk narrow, but rays
+large and orange-yellow; flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out
+late in August. I had this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would
+have led me rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied
+species.
+
+_H. decapetalus._--Five feet high; flowers from end of July; makes a dense
+forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched at the top; spreads fast;
+leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather large; flowers abundant, pale yellow,
+about 2 inches across; rays nearly always more than ten, in spite of the
+name.
+
+_H. tuberosus._--The well-known Jerusalem artichoke; not a plant grown for
+ornament, being too coarse and late in flowering, but several things in
+its history may be mentioned, as Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study
+over it. It is believed to have been cultivated by the natives before the
+discovery of America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a
+development of cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found
+wild, but whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation
+was for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency to
+produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray used to
+refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it is now
+believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of which it is
+difficult to identify with certainty the typical form.
+
+I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for sunflower. After
+several years' careful observation, I believe the notion that the flowers
+keep their face to the sun is quite a delusion.
+
+Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A QUICK FILTER.--The _Druggists Circular_ recommends chamois skin, free
+from thin places; cut it of the desired size; wash it in a weak solution
+of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove the grease, and rinse thoroughly in
+cold water before using.
+
+Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered rapidly. A
+pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or five minutes. By
+washing thoroughly after each time of using, it will last a long time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LYE'S FUCHSIAS.
+
+
+The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a collection of
+nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well known cultivator, Mr.
+James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market Lavington, at an exhibition held
+in Bath in September last, and which received the first prize in the
+premier class for that number of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has
+exhibited fuchsias at exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes,
+Calne, Chippenham, and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a
+high order of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were
+universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an exhibition tent.
+So much were the committee of the Bath show pleased with the specimens
+that they engaged the services of a photographer to make a picture of them
+on the spot; but after being two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory
+result occurred. After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they
+were photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height
+and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of Mr.
+Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average height. It
+should be mentioned that previous to being photographed they had traveled
+by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a distance of 52 miles, in
+addition to having been exhibited two days. They returned to their home
+apparently little the worse for wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt
+owing to the admirable system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes
+said that the act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives
+the plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an
+abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely developed
+flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking cultivation. It is only
+those who are privileged to see these unrivaled plants who can appreciate
+them at their proper worth.
+
+It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of Mr. Lye's
+own raising, which facts attests to the value of his seedlings, many of
+which he has produced. Four of these are dark varieties, viz., Bountiful,
+Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs. Hay--the latter one of the oldest,
+but one of the freest, and scarcely without an equal for its great freedom
+of bloom. The remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite,
+Harriet Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.
+
+[Illustration: MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.]
+
+The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It is really
+marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two years; and lest it
+might be supposed that he has plenty of glass accommodation, and can keep
+his plants under glass continuously, it is due to him it should be stated
+that he is very deficient in house accommodation, having but two small
+houses, in one of which (an old house) he winters his plants and brings
+them on until he can place them with safety in the open air in early
+summer. His method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words
+may prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done
+flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back into the
+shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep them dry for a
+week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which follows; after that I
+give a little water just to start them into growth, so as to make shoots
+about three-quarters of an inch in length, in order to keep the old wood
+active and living. I keep them in a cold house, and give but very little
+water until the first or second week in February, when I shake the old
+soil from the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three
+parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part leaf-mould
+and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep it open. In order
+to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon as the pots are filled
+with roots. About the first week in June I place them out of doors on a
+border somewhat sheltered, and syringe the plants freely every day during
+hot weather to keep the foliage clean and healthy. I top them back till
+about seven or eight weeks before I want to show them, according to the
+requirements of the variety, as some of them require it to be done more
+freely than others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the
+cows, which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week
+or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week as they
+show signs of flowering."
+
+In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and very heavy
+rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is stretched some
+floral shading, which can be readily removed when required; it also serves
+the purpose of shading the plants from the sun in very hot and scorching
+weather.
+
+During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken nearly one
+hundred first prizes--a measure of success which fully justifies the
+bestowal of the title of being the Champion Fuchsia Grower of his
+day.--_R.D. in The Gardeners' Chronicle_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific papers
+heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this office.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+
+Published Weekly. Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United
+States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign
+country.
+
+All the back numbers of The Supplement, from the commencement, January 1,
+1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of The Supplement can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in paper,
+or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.
+
+Combined Rates--One copy of Scientific American and one copy of Scientific
+American Supplement, one year, postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+
+In connection with the Scientific American, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 40 years' experience,
+and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents are obtained
+on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the Scientific American of all Inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the Patentee.
+By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is directed to the
+merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free
+of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN &
+Co.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats.
+Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.
+
+Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+484, April 11, 1885, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13939 ***