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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13746 ***
+
+GOLD, SPORT, AND COFFEE PLANTING IN MYSORE
+
+WITH CHAPTERS ON
+
+COFFEE PLANTING IN COORG, THE MYSORE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, THE INDIAN
+CONGRESS, CASTE, AND THE INDIAN SILVER QUESTION
+
+BEING THE 38 YEARS' EXPERIENCES OF A MYSORE PLANTER
+
+BY
+
+ROBERT H. ELLIOT
+
+AUTHOR OF "EXPERIENCES OF A PLANTER," "WRITTEN ON THEIR FOREHEADS," ETC.
+
+_WITH A MAP IN COLOURS_
+
+WESTMINSTER
+
+1898.
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+ I have much pleasure in dedicating this book to my friend SIR K.
+ SHESHADRI IYER, K.C.S.I., Dewan of Mysore, and trust that it may
+ be useful in making more fully known the resources of the State
+ whose affairs he has for many years so wisely and ably
+ administered.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the year 1871 I published "The Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles
+of Mysore," and had intended to bring out a new edition of it, but, from
+various causes, the project was delayed, and when I at last took the
+matter in hand, I found that so many things had happened since 1871 that
+it was necessary to write a new book. In this, hardly anything of the
+"Experiences" has been reproduced, except a very few natural history notes
+and the chapter on Caste, a subject to which I would particularly call the
+attention of those interested in Indian missions.
+
+I have been much assisted by informants too numerous for mention here, and
+can only allude to those who have most conspicuously aided me. Amongst
+these I am much indebted to my friend Sir K. Sheshadri Iyer, K.C.S.I.,
+Dewan of Mysore, for access given me to information in the possession of
+the Government, and for returns specially prepared for the book. From my
+friends Mr. Graham Anderson and Mr. Brooke Mockett, two of the most able
+and experienced planters in Mysore, I have derived much information and
+assistance. I am particularly obliged to my friend Dr. Voelcker[1] for
+many valuable hints, and the chapter on manures has had the advantage of
+being read by him. For information as regards the history of coffee in
+Coorg I am much indebted to Mr. Meynell, who represents the large
+interests of Messrs. Matheson and Co. in that province, and indeed,
+without his aid, I could not at all have done full justice to the subject.
+To Mr. Grey, manager of the Nundydroog mine, I am indebted for information
+as regards the gold mines, and for the kind assistance he in many ways
+afforded me when I visited them last January. I am also obliged to Colonel
+Grant, Superintendent of the Mysore Revenue, Survey and Settlement
+Department, for information as regards game, and the proposed Game Act for
+Mysore.
+
+I had intended to add a chapter on the cultivation of cardamoms and
+pepper, but have not done so, because, for the want of recent information
+from those specially engaged in these cultivations, I could not feel
+confident of doing full justice to the subject. I may, however, say that
+as regards cardamoms, I have good reason for supposing that there is not
+much to be added to the chapter on them which appeared in the
+"Experiences."
+
+Though I have collected many experiences, I am of course aware that many
+more remain to be collected, and I should feel particularly obliged if
+planters and those who have any experiences to give me (natural history
+and sporting information would be very welcome) would be kind enough to do
+so. These I would propose to incorporate in an improved edition, which I
+look forward to bringing out when a sufficient amount of additional
+information has been collected. If those who have any information to give,
+suggestions to make, or criticisms to offer, would be kind enough to
+communicate with me, an improved edition might be brought out which would
+be highly valuable to all tropical agriculturists, and all those
+interested in the various subjects on which I have written.
+
+My Indian address is Bartchinhulla, Saklaspur, Mysore State, and home
+address, Clifton Park, Kelso, Roxburghshire.
+
+ROBERT H. ELLIOT.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Dr. Voelcker, Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, was, by the permission of the Society, employed for upwards of a
+year by the Government in India; and his "Report on the Improvement of
+Indian Agriculture" is an elaborate, work, of upwards of 400 pages, and
+contains a large body of carefully digested information, remarks, and
+opinions which will be of great value to the Government, and of much
+practical value to planters, and all tropical agriculturists.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTORY.
+
+Myself and the route to Mysore in 1855.
+
+The pioneer planters of Southern Mysore.
+
+The life of a planter by no means a dull one.
+
+Effects of English capital on the progress of the people and the
+ finances of the State.
+
+The value, in times of famine, of European settlers.
+
+A deferred native message of thanks to the English public.
+
+The causes that have led to an increase of famine and scarcities.
+
+Measures to promote the digging of wells by the people.
+
+A line of railway from Mysore to the western coast sanctioned.
+
+Wanted, land tenures which will promote well digging and other
+ irrigation works.
+
+The late Dewan's opinions in favour of a fixed land tax.
+
+Evidences of irrigation works made by occupiers being promoted by
+ a fixed land tax.
+
+Famine question of great importance to settlers in India.
+
+The number of European and native coffee plantations in Mysore.
+
+Probable annual value of coffee produced in Mysore. Manufactures
+ in India.
+
+Manufactures in Mysore.
+
+Endeavours by the Dewan to develop the iron wealth of the
+ province.
+
+"The Mysore and Coorg Directory." Value of the Dewan's annual
+ addresses in the Representative Assembly.
+
+The Dewan's efforts to promote improvements of all kinds.
+
+European settlers favourably received by officials of all
+ classes.
+
+Hints as to representing any matter to a Government official.
+
+Native officials are polite and obliging.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE SCENERY AND WATERFALLS OF MYSORE.
+
+General description of the Mysore country.
+
+The climate. A healthy one for Europeans.
+
+The beautiful scenery of the western borderlands.
+
+The falls of Gairsoppa.
+
+Height of the falls; difficulty of getting at them; the
+ Lushington, Lalgali, and Majod Falls might be visited-when on the
+ way to Gairsoppa Falls.
+
+The best time for visiting the falls.
+
+Description of the falls.
+
+Startling sounds to be heard at the falls.
+
+To the bottom of the gorge below the falls.
+
+Wonderful combinations of sights and sounds.
+
+The scene on the pool above the falls.
+
+The beautiful moonlight effects.
+
+A flying squirrel; a tiger bounding across the road.
+
+The Cauvery Falls and the route to them.
+
+General description of the falls.
+
+The Gangana Chuckee Falls.
+
+The Bar Chuckee Falls.
+
+The Gairsoppa and Cauvery Falls contrasted.
+
+Interesting bridges built by native engineers.
+
+Leisure, solitude, and repose necessary to enjoy scenery.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.--MYSORE--ITS GOVERNMENT AND REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY.
+
+The early history of Mysore.
+
+The Hindoo and Mahometan lines.
+
+The Hindoo line restored by us in 1799.
+
+The insurrection of 1830.
+
+The Maharajah deposed and the country in 1831 administered by the
+ British.
+
+The State restored to native administration in 1881.
+
+The people at first generally disliked the change; causes of
+ this.
+
+Value of an admixture of Europeans in the Mysore service.
+
+The alleged breach of good faith as regards conferring
+ appointments on natives in British territory.
+
+The constitution of Mysore; terms on which it was transferred not
+ to native rule but to native administration.
+
+Mysore as practically under British rule as any part of British
+ India.
+
+After deducting sum allotted for Maharajah's personal
+ expenditure, the remaining revenues to be spent on public
+ purposes only.
+
+The advantages possessed by settlers in Mysore.
+
+The Mysore Representative Assembly.
+
+The notification by which the Assembly was established, and the
+ system of nominating members.
+
+Contrast between it and the Egyptian General Assembly of the
+ Legislative Council.
+
+First meeting of the Assembly, Oct. 7th, 1881.
+
+Rules of 1890 announcing a system of electing members in future.
+
+My election in 1891 as a member of the Assembly.
+
+Am appointed chairman of preliminary meetings.
+
+Measures agreed to at the preliminary meetings.
+
+Rules to regulate discussions in preliminary meetings.
+
+Organization desired to be established; funds for working the
+ proposed organization.
+
+The lady students of the Maharanee's College.
+
+The Assembly formally opened; the Dewan's address.
+
+Gold mines, railways, roads; interference of Madras Government
+ with proposed Mysore Irrigation Works.
+
+Measure to promote digging of wells.
+
+Value of the Assembly as a means of communicating intelligence
+ amongst the people.
+
+Forests. Elephants. Female education.
+
+The Archæological Survey. The Census. The municipal elections.
+
+Reform of religious and charitable institutions. An irregular
+ meeting of members.
+
+A marriage law proposed. Great excitement caused thereby.
+ Proposal adjourned.
+
+Proposal to store grain against times of famine.
+
+Revenue should be remitted in full when there is no crop.
+
+My speech in the Assembly as chairman of preliminary meetings.
+
+Members called up in order to represent grievances and wants. The
+ marriage question again.
+
+Influence of public opinion as regards age for consummation of
+ marriages.
+
+Opinion of two native gentlemen as regards my speech.
+
+An important concession gained by the representatives.
+
+The admirable working of the Mysore Government. General
+ appreciation of the Dewan's administration.
+
+Representatives have no power and do not want any. Causes of the
+ absence of any demand for parliamentary institutions such as
+ those in England.
+
+Absence of general interest in the Assembly. Causes of this.
+
+Great value of Assembly in bringing rulers and ruled together.
+ Such Assembly more necessary now than formerly. Causes of this.
+
+The Indian Congress. Causes of the creation of.
+
+Started in 1885 by a small number of the educated classes.
+
+Seditious pamphlets circulated by the Congress.
+
+Copies bought for the Athenæum Club.
+
+Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, M.P. one of the sellers of the pamphlets.
+
+Proceedings of the Congress legitimate till it fell under
+ guidance of Mr. Hume. Excuses for Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji.
+
+The composition of the first and second Congresses.
+
+The third Congress. The members desire to make the laws and
+ control the finances of India.
+
+The Congress declares that as Indians in rural districts are not
+ qualified to elect members, these should be elected by an
+ electoral college composed of the flower of the educated classes.
+
+As the desired powers are not likely to be obtained in India, the
+ people of England must be made to believe that India is being
+ misgoverned.
+
+The Congress' schemes for bringing about a revolution in India.
+ Native volunteers to be enrolled to bring pressure to bear on the
+ Government. The Repeal of the Arms Act demanded.
+
+The seditious pamphlets issued by the Congress.
+
+The sums of money collected with the aid of the pamphlets.
+
+Opinions of Congress that natives are wanting in the qualities
+ necessary for governing India.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.--NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT.
+
+The advantages and pleasures of big game shooting.
+
+Comparative risks from tigers, bears, and panthers.
+
+Boars and other wild animals more dangerous now than formerly.
+ Advantages of this for sportsmen.
+
+The natural history of Mysore.
+
+Elephants. Tigers much more numerous in former times in Mysore.
+
+In a short time 118 caught in traps. Remarkable cessation of such
+ captures. The balance of nature destroyed.
+
+The spread of intelligence amongst wild animals. Tiger passes.
+ Difference of opinion as to how tigers seize their prey.
+
+The use of the paw in killing animals and people.
+
+The carrying powers of tigers and panthers.
+
+Reasons for not sitting on the ground when tiger shooting.
+
+Illustration of risk of sitting on the ground.
+
+Caution should be exercised when approaching a tiger supposed to
+ be dead.
+
+Another illustration of the risk of sitting on the ground.
+
+Illustration of the importance of sitting motionless when obliged
+ to sit on the ground.
+
+An exciting rush after a wounded tiger.
+
+Coolness and courage exhibited by a native.
+
+Estimate of danger of tiger shooting on foot. Should not be
+ pursued by those whoso lives are of cash value to their families.
+
+People killed by wounded tigers. Difficulty of seeing a tiger in
+ the jungle.
+
+Distinguishing sight of natives superior to that of Europeans.
+
+Tigers easily recover from wounds.
+
+Effects on the nerves and heart from the roar of a wounded tiger.
+
+Precautions that should be exercised by sportsmen with damaged
+ hearts.
+
+The lame tiger. Met in the road at night.
+
+Tying out live baits for tigers.
+
+Interesting instance of tiger stalking up to a live bait.
+
+Another illustration of risk of approaching a tiger apparently
+ dead.
+
+Importance of using a chain when tying out a bait. Sport spoiled
+ from a chain not being used.
+
+Tigers eat tigers sometimes. Illustration of this.
+
+The tiger's power of ascending trees.
+
+Interesting instance of a jackal warning tigers of danger.
+
+Tiger put to flight by the rearing of a horse.
+
+Effect on a tiger of the human voice. Tigers often undecided how
+ to act.
+
+Tigers form plans and act in concert. Illustration of this.
+
+Tigers of Western Ghaut forests, if unmolested, rarely dangerous
+ to man.
+
+Very dangerous man-eating tigers have existed in the interior of
+ Mysore. Man-eaters enter villages. A tiger tearing off the thatch
+ of a hut.
+
+Great courage and determination shown by natives in connection
+ with tigers. Illustrations of this.
+
+The life of a planter saved by a dog attacking the tiger.
+
+Interesting behaviour of the dog after Mr. A. was wounded.
+
+Treatment of wounds from tigers. A native recovers from thirteen
+ lacerated wounds and two on the head.
+
+A mad tiger. Position of body that should be adopted when waiting
+ for a tiger. Importance of this.
+
+Tiger purring with evident satisfaction after having killed a
+ man.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--BEARS, PANTHERS, JUNGLE DOGS, SNAKES, JUNGLE PETS.
+
+Bear has two cubs at a time. Bears rapidly decreasing. Said by
+ natives to be killed and eaten by tigers. Instances of tigers
+ killing bears.
+
+Bears dreaded by natives more than any animal in the jungle.
+ Probable cause of their often attacking people. Illustration of
+ this.
+
+Attacked by an unwounded and unprovoked bear.
+
+If suddenly attacked by an animal at close quarters rush towards
+ it.
+
+Wanton attacks made by bears on people. Approaching caves and
+ getting bears out of them.
+
+Great value of stink balls.
+
+How not to attempt to get a bear out of a cave. Am caught by a
+ hill fire.
+
+Amusing incident at a bear's cave. A man wounded.
+
+Value of having a good dog when out bear shooting. Am knocked
+ down by a bear.
+
+Panthers. Should be hunted with dogs.
+
+Panther probably feigning death. A man killed.
+
+The wild boar the most daring animal in the jungles. Illustration
+ in point.
+
+The great power of the wild boar. My manager charged by one.
+
+Boars make shelters for themselves in the rains. The flesh of the
+ boar not a safe food.
+
+Jungle dogs. Said by natives to kill tigers.
+
+The use, said by the natives to be made by the dogs, of their
+ acrid urine.
+
+A cross between the jungle and the domestic dog.
+
+Curious incident connected with jungle dogs.
+
+Great increase of jungle dogs. A reward should be offered for
+ their destruction.
+
+Many reported deaths from snake bites probably poisoning cases.
+ Reasons in support of this view. From 1855 to 1893 only one death
+ from snake bite in my neighbourhood.
+
+The cobra not an aggressive snake. Unless hurt or provoked will
+ probably never bite. Illustrations in support of this view.
+
+Snakes keep a good look out. Tigers and snakes run away.
+
+Many snakes are harmless, and some useful.
+
+Wild animals probably require to be taught by their parents to
+ dread man.
+
+A tame stag. A tame flying squirrel.
+
+A tame hornbill.
+
+Probable cause of pets not caring to rejoin their wild congeners.
+
+Some remarks on guns. The Paradox.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.--BISON SHOOTING.
+
+Unless molested the bison never attacks man.
+
+An attempt to photograph a solitary bull.
+
+Description of the bison.
+
+Height of bull bison. Account of an interesting friendship
+ between a tame sambur deer and a bull bison.
+
+Bison are often attacked by tigers.
+
+Interesting instance of a tiger stalking up to a solitary bull.
+
+The tiger and bull knocked over right and left.
+
+Precautions that should be taken when following up a wounded
+ bull.
+
+A tracker killed by a bull. Following a wounded bull.
+
+Stalking up to a herd. The value of peppermint lozenges.
+
+How a wounded bull may be lost.
+
+The value of a dog when following up a wounded bull.
+
+Wonderful bounding power of the bison. A narrow escape from a
+ charging bull.
+
+Special Act required for preservation of cow bison.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.--GOLD.
+
+The earliest tradition as regards gold in Mysore.
+
+Explanation of gold being found on the ears of corn. Lieutenant
+ Warren's investigations in 1800.
+
+Native methods of procuring gold by washing and mining.
+
+Depths to which old native pits were sunk.
+
+Probable cause of the cessation of mining at considerable depths.
+
+In 1873 leave first given to a European to mine for gold.
+ Remarkable absence in Mysore of old records or inscriptions
+ relating to gold mining.
+
+Mr. Lavelle in 1873 applied for right to mine in Kolar.
+
+Of the mines subsequently started all practically closed in 1882,
+ except the Mysore mine, which began to get gold in end of 1884.
+
+Had the Mysore Company not persevered the Kolar field would
+ probably have been closed. Depths to which mines have been sunk.
+ The Champion Lode.
+
+General description of the Kolar field. Notes by a lady resident.
+
+Life on the field. Gardening. Visitors from England.
+
+The volunteers at the mines. Sport near the field.
+
+Servants and supplies. Elevation and the climate. A healthy one.
+
+Mining and the extraction of gold.
+
+The rates of wages. No advances given to labourers.
+
+Expenditure by the companies in Mysore in wages. Consequential
+ results therefrom on the prosperity of the people.
+
+Measures which the State should take to encourage the opening of
+ new mines.
+
+Royalty on mines that are not paying should be reduced or
+ abolished. Act required to check gold stealing.
+
+Some summary process should be adopted to check gold thefts.
+
+Want of water on the field. Measures proposed for conserving it.
+
+The want of tree planting. Other auriferous tracts in Mysore. Mr.
+ R. Bruce Foote's report.
+
+Brief analysis of Mr. Bruce Foote's report on the various
+ auriferous tracts. The central group of auriferous rocks.
+
+The west-central group.
+
+The western group. Expects that many other old abandoned workings
+ will be discovered in the jungly tracts.
+
+An inexhaustible supply of beautiful porphyry near Seringapatam
+ and close to a railway.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--CASTE.
+
+Valuable to rural populations.
+
+My inquiry limited to its rural and practical effects on life.
+
+Its moral effects as regards the connection of the sexes.
+
+Its value in limiting the use of alcohol.
+
+Morality in Manjarabad superior to that of England.
+
+Widows may contract a kind of marriage. The value of caste in
+ socially segregating inferior from superior races.
+
+The mental value of the separation caused by caste.
+
+The separation caused by caste has not hindered advancement
+ amongst the rural population. The Coorgs an instance of this.
+
+Disadvantages of caste as regards town populations.
+
+Instances of the evils of caste amongst the higher classes in the
+ towns.
+
+Inquiry as to how far caste has acted beneficially in opposing
+ the existing interpretation of Christianity.
+
+Worthlessness of pure dogmas when adopted by a degraded people.
+
+Native Christians readily revert to devil worship in cases of
+ danger or sickness.
+
+Native Christians neither better nor worse than the low-classes
+ from which they are usually drawn. Experience of the Abbé Dubois.
+
+The upper class peasantry having to give up caste would be
+ injured by being converted.
+
+The town population would not be injured by conversion.
+
+Causes of the outcry against caste.
+
+Its alleged tendencies.
+
+The way to retain the good and lessen the evil of caste.
+
+To become a Christian our missionaries compel the entire
+ abandonment of caste. Their version of Christianity wisely
+ rejected.
+
+Mischievous action of our missionaries as regards caste. Their
+ erroneous views a bar to the progress of Christianity.
+
+Bishop Heber's "Letter on Caste."
+
+Bishop Wilson's fatal "Circular" requiring absolute abandonment
+ of caste by Christians.
+
+Secession of native Christians in consequence of the "Circular."
+ Erroneous views contained in the Report of the Madras
+ Commissioners.
+
+Views of the Tanjore missionaries as regards caste.
+
+Mr. Schwartz's opinions.
+
+The Tanjore missionaries not unfavourable to the retention of
+ caste by their converts.
+
+Inquiry into the origin of caste.
+
+No connection between caste and idolatry. They may and do exist
+ apart.
+
+Caste as it exists in Ceylon.
+
+The way in which caste probably did originate.
+
+The Jews a strictly guarded caste.
+
+Caste difficulties as regards taking the Sacrament.
+
+Its sanitary advantages.
+
+Caste no bar to the exercise of hospitality and charity.
+
+Advantages of caste in increasing hospitality and charity.
+
+Caste has a levelling as well as a keeping down tendency.
+
+Instances of people rising into a superior caste.
+
+Rigidity of caste laws much exaggerated. They vary in different
+ places. Occasional violations of caste law condoned. Remarkable
+ instance of this.
+
+Infringement of caste when out tiger shooting.
+
+Instance of variation in caste law. Caste apt to be made the
+ scapegoat of every Indian difficulty.
+
+Mr. Pope's remarks on the effects of caste.
+
+Mr. Raikes's remarks on the evil effects of caste. Thinks that it
+ is the cause of infanticide.
+
+Instance to show that infanticide can exist amongst people free
+ from caste. Polyandrous habits not necessarily a cause of
+ infanticide.
+
+Summary of principal conclusions arrived at.
+
+Curious customs of the Marasa Wokul tribe in Mysore.
+
+The effect of caste on the transmission of acquired aptitudes.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.--COFFEE PLANTING IN COORG.
+
+Description and the history of Coorg.
+
+Conquered and annexed by us in 1834. My first visit to Coorg in
+ 1857. The pioneer planters.
+
+Planting without shade caused the failure of many of the
+ plantations.
+
+After shade was introduced coffee flourished.
+
+European and native plantations. Their number and the probable
+ yield from them. Expenditure per acre.
+
+The kinds of manure used. Experiments by an analytical chemist.
+
+Proportions of manure varied according to the condition of the
+ coffee. The time in which manure should be applied. Applications
+ of burnt earth.
+
+Widespread results arising from the expenditure on plantations in
+ Coorg.
+
+Rates of wages, and system of procuring labourers. Leaf disease
+ and Borer.
+
+Remedies experimented on as regards leaf disease and Borer.
+
+Primary cause of the existence of so much Borer. The terms on
+ which Government lands are sold for planting.
+
+Reasons why certain of the reserved State forests should be given
+ out for planting.
+
+Cinchona and Ceara rubber planting tried and abandoned. Coffee
+ seed introduced from Brazil, and other countries, without any
+ apparent advantage. Liberian coffee tried experimentally.
+
+The capital spent on labour and the consequential results of this
+ on agriculture. My visit to Coorg in 1891.
+
+The route from Mysore. The coffee works at Hunsur. Interesting
+ adventure with a panther.
+
+To Mr. Rose's estate near Polibetta. Description of Bamboo
+ district.
+
+Life in the Bamboo district. The club, church, and co-operative
+ store.
+
+Visits to plantations. Left for Mercara.
+
+The Retreat. Mr. Meynell's house. Its kitchen arrangements, etc.
+
+Mr. Mann's coffee garden at Mercara. The large profits from it.
+ To the Hallery estate six miles from Mercara.
+
+Visits to several estates. To the Coovercolley estate. Mr.
+ Mangles's.
+
+Left Coovercolley for Manjarabad in Mysore.
+
+General observations on coffee planting in Coorg. Its flourishing
+ condition. More attention should be paid to shade.
+
+Defects as regards shade. More attention to it would lessen
+ Borer.
+
+Manures used on the best kept up estates.
+
+The profits that may be expected from good, well-managed estates.
+ The great want of a Game Preservation Act.
+
+
+CHAPTER X.--COFFEE PLANTING IN MYSORE.
+
+An agreeable life for an active intelligent man who must work
+ somewhere.
+
+Qualities necessary to make a successful planter.
+
+The work not hard. The climate agreeable and healthy. The
+ elevation of the coffee districts above sea level.
+
+The changes that may be taken in the slack season by planters.
+ The durability of well-shaded plantations.
+
+Shaded plantations a very permanent property. The profits of
+ coffee. Case of an estate bought with borrowed money.
+
+Analysis of yield, expenses, and profits on a Manjarabad estate.
+
+Probable profits on estates in the northern part of Mysore.
+
+From want of information coffee plantations in Mysore not
+ saleable at good prices. Failure of coffee in Ceylon. This gave
+ coffee generally an undeservedly bad name.
+
+Early notices of coffee in India. Its early history in Mysore.
+
+Failure of the variety of coffee first introduced.
+
+The successful introduction of the Coorg variety of coffee.
+
+Mysore coffee fetches the highest price in the London market.
+ Original Mysore coffee land tenures.
+
+The new Coffee Land Rules introduced in 1885.
+
+In the south of Mysore all coffee land probably taken up. In
+ north, land reported to be still available. Planters well
+ satisfied with the Government.
+
+Advances to labourers. Legislation as regards them much needed.
+
+Proposed measure to meet the advances to labourers difficulty.
+
+Legislation required to amend the extraditions laws.
+
+The New Cattle Trespass Act. The want of a Wild Birds' Protection
+ Act. The neglect of game preservation.
+
+In consequence of game destruction tigers forced to prey heavily
+ on village cattle. Great losses in consequence.
+
+Cruelty of native hunters. Evidences of extermination of game
+ birds.
+
+The want of a Government Agricultural Chemist. The discovery of a
+ new hybrid coffee plant.
+
+Enormous yield from it.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.--SHADE.
+
+General remarks on the importance of shade.
+
+The governing principle as regards shade for coffee.
+
+The most desirable kinds of shade trees. Those of less desirable
+ kinds.
+
+The Jack. Its merits and defects.
+
+The Attí. Good when young, less desirable when old.
+
+The Noga. The objections to relying on this tree.
+
+Other kinds of less desirable shade trees.
+
+_Albizzia Moluccana._ Said to be a valuable tree for shade.
+
+Methods adopted when forming a shaded plantation.
+
+Great advantages of clearing without burning the forest.
+
+The order in which shade trees should be planted.
+
+The young shade trees require shade. The charcoal tree a good
+ nurse.
+
+The management of young shade trees.
+
+The evils arising from excessive trimming of side branches of
+ shade trees. Planting under the shade of the original forest
+ trees.
+
+The value of leaving marginal belts of forest. The danger of a
+ running fire.
+
+The quantity of shade required for varying aspects and gradients.
+
+The great differences between northern and southern aspects as
+ regards heat.
+
+Western and eastern aspects.
+
+Importance of attending to the gradients, the quality of the
+ soil, and its exposure to drying winds.
+
+Elevation and rainfall govern quantity of shade that should be
+ kept. The thinning, and lopping lower boughs of shade trees.
+
+Much knowledge and experience required in judicious thinning.
+
+More shade will be required as trees become lofty.
+
+Importance of at once planting up spots where shade is deficient,
+ in order to keep out the Borer insect.
+
+Planting out young shade trees. The removal of parasites from
+ shade trees.
+
+Preparation of shade tree cuttings before planting out. How to
+ grow young charcoal-tree plants. Valuable as nurses.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.--MANURE.
+
+How shade complicates the economical and effective manuring of
+ coffee.
+
+Bulk manures as a rule should not be applied to land directly
+ under shade trees, but to more open spaces.
+
+Less manure should be applied to coffee directly under shade
+ trees.
+
+Manure should be varied on different aspects. The quantity that
+ should be annually supplied.
+
+Bones may be seldom used if lime is regularly applied.
+
+A considerable amount of manure required even though the loss
+ from crops is small.
+
+A test of land being sufficiently supplied with manure. The
+ quantity of manure probably required.
+
+The quantity of manure that should be put down at a time.
+
+Danger from over-manuring, especially in ease of light soils.
+
+Ridges should be more heavily manured than hollows. The time of
+ year when manures should be applied.
+
+Advantages of manuring at the end of the monsoon.
+
+Bearing that the time of applying manures has on leaf disease.
+ Mr. Marshall Ward's remarks as to this.
+
+The various methods of applying manures.
+
+In the case of steep land the manure should be buried in
+ trenches. Farmyard manure. Its great value for coffee.
+
+Substitutes for farmyard manure.
+
+Value of forest land top soil as a manure, and as a substitute
+ for farmyard manure.
+
+The comparative cost of farmyard manure and top soil. Remarkable
+ result from an application of pink-coloured soil.
+
+If top soil costs the same as farmyard manure the former is
+ better. Reasons for this being so. A compost of pink soil and
+ manures may be made, which will equal good farmyard manure, and
+ cost but little more.
+
+The manurial value of pulp, and of dry fallen leaves.
+
+Manurial value of green twigs of trees, ferns and wood ashes.
+
+Night soil. Lime.
+
+Bonedust. Fish manure.
+
+Oil-cakes. Proportion of phosphate of lime in castor cake.
+
+Nitrates of potash and soda.
+
+Potash. A manure of doubtful value in the case of Mysore soils.
+
+Attempt to ascertain value of potash as a manure for coffee.
+
+How to grow young plants in old soils. Coprolites, discovery of,
+ in Mysore.
+
+An agricultural chemist wanted for the province. A careful record
+ should be kept of manure applied.
+
+Bringing round a neglected plantation. Steps that should be
+ taken.
+
+Manurial experiments.
+
+Native manurial practises should be studied. Application of
+ various soils as top dressing by native cultivators. The best and
+ most economical way of manuring coffee has yet to be discovered.
+
+Manurial experiments need not be costly.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.--NURSERIES, TOPPING, HANDLING, PRUNING, ETC.
+
+The selection of seed.
+
+Irrigated coffee near Bangalore. Mr. Meenakshia's gardens. The
+ selection of a site for a nursery.
+
+The best time for putting down the seed.
+
+Plants should be grown in baskets. The pits for vacancy plants.
+
+Topping. The best heights for.
+
+The time when trees should be topped.
+
+Handling and the removal of suckers. Its importance as regards
+ rot and leaf disease.
+
+Pruning.
+
+Management of pruning, with reference to rot and leaf disease.
+
+The removal of moss and rubbing down the trees. The cultivation
+ of the soil.
+
+Difficulties connected with the proper cultivation of the soil.
+
+The best tools for digging. Renovation pits.
+
+Renovation pits valuable as water-holes. Their value in
+ connection with water conservation.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.--THE DISEASES OF COFFEE.
+
+Leaf disease, or attacks of _Hemeleïa Vastatrix_.
+
+Mr. Marshall Ward's report on leaf disease in Ceylon. Leaf
+ disease probably always existed in Mysore. Said to have caused
+ much loss on some estates.
+
+Losses of leaves from other causes commonly attributed to leaf
+ disease. No reason to fear it if land is well cultivated,
+ manured, and shaded. Evidence that shade can control leaf
+ disease.
+
+Bad kinds of shade trees cannot control, but increase leaf
+ disease.
+
+Conditions under which leaf disease is liable to occur in the
+ cases of good soil under good shade trees.
+
+The importance of manure and cultivation with reference to leaf
+ disease. Mr. Graham Anderson's, Mr. Marshall Ward's and Mr.
+ Brooke Mockett's opinions. The Coorg plant not so liable to be
+ attacked as the Chick plant.
+
+The Borer insect.
+
+Borer is worst under bad kinds of shade trees, but can be
+ controlled by good caste trees.
+
+Conditions favorable to attacks of the Borer.
+
+Reasons for thinking that the usual practice of destroying all
+ bored trees is of little use.
+
+The Borer can only be suppressed by adequate shade. Rot, or
+ _pellicularia koleroga_. Aggravated by want of free circulation
+ of air.
+
+Measures for lessening rot. Importance of meeting monsoon with
+ mature leaves on the coffee trees.
+
+Green-bugs. None in Mysore, Receipt for killing them used on
+ Nilgiri Hills.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.--THE SELECTION OF LAND FOR PLANTATIONS, AND THE VALUATION OF
+COFFEE PROPERTY.
+
+Much uncleared land available in northern part of Mysore.
+
+The various classes of forest lands.
+
+Much land unsuitable from over heavy rainfall. Mr. Graham
+ Anderson's return of rainfall. His interesting memorandum.
+
+Elevation of plantations above sea level. With a few exceptions
+ not much difference in value of the coffee of various estates.
+
+The especial importance of aspect in Mysore.
+
+The most favourable gradients. Various kinds of soil.
+
+Comparative healthiness of the different coffee districts in
+ Mysore.
+
+Various considerations to be taken into account when valuing
+ land.
+
+An old established estate may not necessarily be an old
+ plantation.
+
+The quality of the shade ought largely to affect a valuation of a
+ property.
+
+Facilities that should be considered when valuing a property.
+
+Impossible to offer opinion as to value of coffee property, till
+ facts as regard it are widely known, and the line is opened to
+ western coast.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.--HOW TO MAKE AN ESTATE PAY, AND THE ORDER OF THE WORK.
+
+Inferior parts of estates should be thrown out of cultivation.
+
+The losses caused by giving advances.
+
+Advances not so necessary as formerly, as labour rates are higher
+ now.
+
+Advances to Maistries to bring labour.
+
+Minor sources of loss. The order in which the various works
+ should be performed.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.--THE MANAGEMENT OF ABSENTEE ESTATES.
+
+"The fact is, we all require a little looking after."
+
+Advisable to give manager an interest in the estate. Managers for
+ estates in Mysore require to be very carefully selected.
+
+A clear understanding essential between proprietor and manager.
+
+Powers of attorney should be carefully drawn up. The proprietor
+ entirely in the power of the manager.
+
+The value of the eye of the owner. Every estate should have an
+ information book.
+
+Points to be entered in the information book.
+
+Hints to managers.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.--THE PLANTER'S BUNGALOW AND THE AMENITIES OF AN ESTATE.
+
+The best form of bungalow.
+
+The kitchen arrangements.
+
+The aspect of the bungalow and ground around it.
+
+Cash value of the amenities of an estate. The flower garden.
+
+Building materials.
+
+How to keep out white ants.
+
+Coolie lines.
+
+Tree planting for timber and fuel.
+
+Precautions for the conservation of health.
+
+Hints as regards food, and the table generally.
+
+Suggestions as to books and newspapers.
+
+Importance of having some interesting pursuit.
+
+The minor amenities of an estate.
+
+The conditions of a planter's life now ameliorated by railways.
+
+Mysore out of the reach of House of Commons faddists. Advantages
+ of this.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.--THE INDIAN SILVER QUESTION.
+
+On June 26th, 1893, gold standard introduced and mints closed to
+ free coinage of silver.
+
+Movement originated in India by the servants of Government, and
+ from no other class whatever.
+
+Some merchants afterwards joined in the agitation. Gold to be
+ received at the mints at a ratio of 1s. 4d. per rupee.
+ Sovereigns in payment of sums due to Government to be received at
+ the rate of fifteen rupees a sovereign.
+
+Cash effects of the measure. For benefit of English reader
+ figures given in pounds sterling, a rupee taken at 2s. Rupee
+ prices little changed in India, China and Ceylon. Difficulty of
+ forming exact estimates as to this.
+
+If gold value of silver can be forced up from 1s. 3d. to 1s.
+ 4d., Indian Government will gain about one and a half million
+ sterling on its home remittances, and the people lose about seven
+ millions on their exports.
+
+The Indian Finance Minister contemplates a rise to 1s. 6d.
+ eventually.
+
+A rise to 1s. 6d. would give the Exchequer a gain on home
+ remittances of £4,500,000 and entail on the people a loss
+ £21,000,000, equal to a tax of 21 per cent. on the exports of
+ India. Effects of this on the producers.
+
+The producers of coffee in Mysore alone would lose £56,000 a year
+ were exchange forced up to 1s. 4d., and £156,000 a year were it
+ raised to 1s. 6d. All producers in other parts of India of
+ articles of export would be similarly affected.
+
+If the rupee is artificially forced up by the State, the shock to
+ confidence will repel capital and injure credit. The first effect
+ will show itself in a lessened demand for labour.
+
+The effects of increased employment on the finances. The bearing
+ of the measure on famines and scarcity. It will intensify the
+ effects of both, and make them more costly to the State.
+
+The measure has arrayed all classes against the Government,
+ except its own servants and a very few of the merchants.
+
+The effects of the measure on the tea-planters of India and
+ Ceylon. It must heavily affect both. If Ceylon establishes a
+ mint, tea-planters there will have advantages over their rivals
+ in India.
+
+Coffee planters of India and Ceylon will he prejudicially
+ affected in their competition with silver-using countries. Evil
+ effects of the measure on the trade, manufactures, and railways
+ of India.
+
+The measure rotten from financial, political, and economical
+ points of view.
+
+The Viceroy and the supporters of the measure have admitted that
+ it must be injurious to the producers of India. Sir William
+ Hunter's admirable survey of the former and present financial
+ condition of India.
+
+The Viceroy has publicly declared that cheap silver has acted as
+ "a stimulus" to the progress of India.
+
+The unfair action of Lord Herschell's Committee. Not a single
+ representative of the producing classes examined. But the
+ majority of witnesses were dead against the monetary policy of
+ the Government. The Currency Committee reported against the
+ weight of the evidence. The most important points not inquired
+ into at all by the Committee.
+
+The Indian Government and Currency Committee financially
+ panic-stricken, and in dread of effects of repeal of Sherman Act.
+ The financial condition not such as to warrant panic. Taxational
+ resources not exhausted.
+
+Sir William Hunter's statement proves that the financial
+ conditions were full of hope. The dread that the repeal of the
+ Sherman Act might reduce rupee to 1s. Examination of the
+ subject on that supposition.
+
+By a rate of 1s. a rupee the Government would lose about seven
+ millions on its home remittances, and the people of India gain
+ fourteen millions on their exports. Mr. Gladstone's Government
+ adopted Home Rule Bill, and Currency Measure in one year. Both
+ forced on by tyrannical action. Gladstonian action as to Opium
+ Commission equally tyrannical.
+
+The monetary measure a policy of protection for the benefit of
+ the silver-using countries that compete with India.
+
+Some of the evils the measure, if successful, must cause. The
+ Indian Finance Minister declared that "it ought not to be
+ attempted unless under the pressure of necessity." No necessity
+ arisen. An independent body wanted to efficiently check the
+ Government. The Duke of Wellington's opinion.
+
+India and Mexico compared. Mr. Carden's Consular Report.
+
+Cheap silver advantageous to Mexico. The losses to the Government
+ and railways which arise from gold payments are, comparatively
+ speaking, a fixed quantity, while the gain to the people from
+ cheap silver, produces consequential benefits far beyond reach of
+ calculation. These remarks equally applicable to India. Wanted, a
+ Government that can see this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.--PROGRESS IN MYSORE.
+
+
+As I now turn my thoughts back to the year 1855, when, being then in my
+eighteenth year, I sailed for India to seek my fortunes in the jungles of
+Mysore, it is difficult to believe that the journey is still the same, or
+that India is still the same country on the shores of which I landed so
+long ago. But after all, as a matter of fact, the journey is, practically
+speaking, not the same, and still less is India the same India which I
+knew in 1855. For the route across Egypt, which was then partly by rail,
+partly by water, and partly across the desert in transits, the bumping of
+which I even now distinctly remember, has been exchanged for the Suez
+Canal, and the frequent steamers with their accelerated rate of speed have
+altered all the relations of distances, and on landing at Bombay the
+traveller of 1855 would now find it difficult to recognize the place. For
+then there were the old fort walls and ditches, and narrow streets filled
+with a straggling throng of carts and people, while now the fort walls and
+ditches no longer exist, and the traveller drives into a city with public
+buildings, broad roads and beautiful squares and gardens, that would do
+credit to any capital in the world, and sees around him all the signs of
+advanced and advancing civilization. Then as, perhaps, he views the scene
+from the Tower of the Elphinstone College, and looks down on the
+beautiful city, on the masts of the shipping lying in the splendid
+harbour, and on the moving throngs of people to whom we have given peace
+and order, what thoughts must fill his mind! And what thoughts further, as
+on turning to view the scene without the city he sees on one side of it
+the tall chimneys of the numerous mills which have sprung up in recent
+times, and which tell of the conjunction of English skill and capital with
+the cheap hand-labour of the East--a combination that is destined, and at
+no very distant period ahead, to produce remarkable effects. But I must
+not wander here into the consideration of matters to which I shall again
+have occasion to refer when I come to remark on the wonderful progress
+made in India in recent years owing to the introduction of English skill
+and capital, and shall now briefly describe my route to the western
+jungles of Mysore.
+
+When I landed in Bombay, in 1855, the journey to the Native State of
+Mysore, now so easy and simple, was one requiring much time and no small
+degree of trouble, for the railway lines had then advanced but little--the
+first twenty miles in all India having been only opened near Bombay in
+1853. A land journey then was not to be thought of, and as there were no
+coasting-steamers, I was compelled to take a passage in a Patama (native
+sailing craft) which was proceeding down the western coast with a cargo of
+salt which was stowed away in the after-part of the vessel. Over this was
+a low roofed and thatched house, the flooring of which was composed of
+strips of split bamboo laid upon the salt. On this I placed my mattress
+and bedding. My provisions for the voyage were very simple--a coop with
+some fowls, some tea, sugar, cooking utensils, and other small necessaries
+of life. A Portuguese servant I had hired in Bombay cooked my dinner and
+looked after me generally. We sailed along the sometimes bare, and
+occasionally palm-fringed, shores with that indifference to time and
+progress which is often the despair and not unfrequently the envy of
+Europeans. The hubble-bubble passed from mouth to mouth, and the crew
+whiled away the evening hours with their monotonous chants. We always
+anchored at night; sometimes we stopped for fishing, and once ran into a
+small bay--one of those charming scenic gems which can only be found in
+the eastern seas--to land some salt and take in cocoa-nuts and other
+items. As for the port of Mangalore, for which I was bound, it seemed to
+be, though only about 450 miles from Bombay, an immense distance away, and
+practically was nearly as far as Bombay is from Suez. At last, after a
+nine days' sail, we lay to off the mouth of the harbour into which, for
+reasons best known to himself, the captain of the craft did not choose to
+enter, and I was taken ashore in a canoe to be kindly received by the
+judge of the collectorate of South Kanara, to whom I had a letter of
+introduction.
+
+After spending some pleasant days at Mangalore I set out for Manjarabad,
+the talook or county which borders on the South Kanara district--in what
+is called a manshiel--a kind of open-sided cot slung to a bamboo pole
+which projects far enough in front and rear to be placed with ease on the
+shoulders of the bearers. Four of these men are brought into play at once,
+while four others run along to relieve their fellows at intervals. I
+started in the afternoon, and was carried up the banks of a broad river by
+the side of which hero and there the road wound pleasantly along. In the
+course of a few hours night fell, and then all nature seemed to come into
+active life with the hum of insects, the croaking of frogs, and various
+other indications of an abounding animal life. Presently I was lulled to
+sleep by the monotonous chant of the bearers--sleep only partially broken
+when changes of the whole set of bearers had to be made--and awoke the
+following morning to find myself some fifty miles from the coast, and
+amidst the gorges of the Ghauts, with vast heights towering upwards, and
+almost all around, while the river, which had now sunk to what in English
+ideas would still seem to be one of considerable size, appeared as if it
+had just emerged from the navel of a mountain-barrier some miles ahead.
+After a few miles more we passed the last hamlet of what was then called
+the Company's Country, and leaving the inhabited lands--if indeed in a
+European sense they may be called so--behind us, began to ascend the
+twenty miles of forest-clad gorges which lead up into the tableland of
+Mysore. The ascent was necessarily slow, and it was not till late in the
+afternoon that I saw, some 500 feet above me, and at a total elevation of
+about 3,200 feet above sea-level, the white walls of the only planter's
+bungalow in the southern part of Mysore. To this pioneer of our
+civilization--Mr. Frederick Green, who had begun work in 1843--I had a
+letter of introduction, and was most kindly received, and put in the way
+of acquiring land which I started on and still hold. To the south, in the
+adjacent little province of Coorg--now, as we shall afterwards see, an
+extensive coffee-field--the first European plantation had been started the
+year before, i.e., 1854, while to the north some fifty to seventy miles
+away the country was, in a European sense, occupied by only three English,
+or, to be exact, Scotch planters. In 1856 I started active life as a
+planter on my own account, about twelve miles away from the estate of Mr.
+Green, while in the same year two other planters--Scotchmen by the
+way--made their appearance. The southern part of Mysore was thus occupied
+by four planters, and we were all about twelve miles from each other. It
+is difficult to conceive the state of isolation in which we lived, and as
+we were all Europeanly speaking single handed, and could seldom leave
+home, we often had not for weeks together an opportunity of seeing a
+single white face, and so rare indeed was a visit from a neighbour that,
+when one was coming to see me, I used to sit on a hill watching for the
+first glimpse of him, like a shipwrecked mariner on a desert island
+watching for the glimpse of a sail on the horizon. As for the Indian
+mutinies, which broke out the year after I had started work, they might
+have been going on in Norway as far as we were concerned; none of us at
+all appreciated the importance and gravity of the events that were
+occurring, and one of my neighbours said that it was not worth while
+trying to understand the situation, and that we had better wait for the
+book that would be sure to come out when things had settled down. And the
+native population around us appeared to know as little of the mutinies as
+we did. They seemed to be aware that some disturbance was going on
+somewhere in the north, and that represented the whole extent of their
+knowledge of the subject.
+
+I have described our life as having been one of great isolation so far as
+European society was concerned, but I never felt it to be a dull one, nor
+did my neighbours ever complain of it, though we only took a holiday of a
+few weeks in the year. But we had plenty of work, and big game shooting,
+and the occupation was an interesting one, and as I even now return with
+pleasure every winter to my planter's life, this proves that my earlier
+days must have left behind them many pleasant associations. And the
+occupation and sport were really all we had to depend on. We had few
+books, nor any means of getting them, for I need hardly say that pioneer
+planters, who have to keep themselves and their coffee till the latter
+comes into bearing, cannot afford to buy anything that can be dispensed
+with. But after all this perhaps was no disadvantage, for, as a great
+moral philosopher has pointed out, nothing tends to weaken the resources
+of the mind so much as a miscellaneous course of reading unaccompanied (as
+it usually is, I may remark) by reflection. The management of people, the
+business of an estate, the exercise of the inventive powers, the
+cultivation of method, the sharpening of the observing and combining
+faculties, which are so well developed by big game shooting, yield real
+education, or the leading out and development of the mental resources,
+while books provide the individual merely with instruction which has often
+a tendency to cramp and even to fossilize the mind.
+
+I have said at the outset, that the journey to India is not the same as it
+was in 1855, and that still less is India the same India, and I may
+certainly say that still less is Western Mysore the Western Mysore of
+1855, except that its beautiful scenery is as beautiful as ever. For our
+planting is not like that of Ceylon, where the planter, like the locust,
+finds a paradise in front to leave a desert in his rear--a desert of bare
+lull sides from which the beautiful forest has been entirely swept away,
+while the most valuable constituents of the soil have been washed down to
+the river beds. And when standing in 1893 on a lull in my district of
+Manjarabad, and looking around, I can see no sign of change in the
+landscape from the days of 1855, except that the woodland paths leading
+from village to village are much more distinctly marked, owing to the
+great increase of labourers employed in the numerous native and European
+plantations, which now stretch in an unbroken line along all the western
+border of Mysore. And no sign of change is apparent, because all the
+coffee is planted either under the shade of the original forest trees, or
+under the shade of trees which have been planted to take their place. But
+all else is practically and largely changed by the agency of a universal
+progress, which has been brought about by British government and the
+introduction of British capital, skill, and energy. And this progress, I
+am glad to be able to say, has benefited all classes of the community, and
+the labouring classes by far the most of all, and the results as regards
+those are so striking, so interesting, and so much more widely diffused
+than could at first sight be thought possible, and are, as I shall show,
+of such vast importance to the finances of the State, that they are well
+worthy of special attention. Had the Government been aware of the enormous
+financial value to the State of the introduction of English capital, I
+feel sure that much greater efforts would have been made to stimulate
+European enterprise, and that the progress of India would have been much
+accelerated all along the line.
+
+When I started my plantation in 1858, the pay of a labourer was 2 rupees 4
+annas (4s. 6d.) a month. It is now, throughout the numerous plantations
+in Mysore, from six to seven rupees a month, and a labourer can live on
+about two rupees a month. Such a statement made of any country would
+indicate a satisfactory degree of progress; but whereas in England it
+would simply mean a greater ability in the working classes to live in an
+improved condition, and perhaps some improvement in the condition of the
+shopkeepers with whom they dealt, in India it means the creation of a
+social and ever wide-spreading revolution. For when in India capital is
+introduced, and employment on a large scale is afforded to the people, the
+poorer of the peasant classes are at once able to free themselves from
+debt, and the labourers soon save enough money to enable them to start in
+agriculture, coffee culture, or any culture within, their reach. The
+result of this, in my experience, has been most remarkable. When I started
+in Manjarabad, for instance, the planters relied solely on labour procured
+from the adjacent villages. But now the local labourer is almost a thing
+of the past, for he has taken to agriculture and coffee culture, and now
+only occasionally works for a short time to earn some money to pay his
+taxes. When this change began, the planters had of course to go further
+afield for labour, but merely to produce over again a similar result by
+enabling labourers from distant villages to do what the local labourers in
+the coffee districts had done, and thus for labour we have to operate on
+ever-widening circles, till at last I have heard it remarked that the
+Kanarese language is often of little use, and the native overseers on my
+estate have complained that they now often cannot make the labourers
+understand them. And this of course is not surprising, as at one moment
+the overseer may have to deal with labourers from any one of the villages
+between Mysore and the Western Sea, and at another with people from
+villages in the Madras Presidency, far away on the route to the Bay of
+Bengal. Field after field, and village after village, has thus been
+irrigated by that capital for which India thirsts, and which, as we have
+seen, produces such wide-spreading social effects on the welfare of the
+people, and, consequently, on the resources of the State--enabling land to
+be more largely and fully developed, wells to be dug, gardens to be made,
+and the people to pay with greater ease the demands of the Government. But
+there is yet another point of great importance to notice as regards the
+introduction into India of European capital, with its accompanying
+effects--effects which largely enhance its value--namely, those arising
+from setting the natives practical examples of both method, skill, and
+energetic action. I allude to the bearing of these forces upon famine--a
+subject well worthy of some passing remarks, more especially because in
+Mysore we can furnish proofs of the value in times of famine of having
+Europeans settled in the country.
+
+The actual money value of the infuse of English capitalists, and its
+bearing on the resources of the State, and in enabling the people the
+better to contest with famine and scarcity, is sufficiently apparent, but
+it was only when the terrible famine of 1876-77 (which cost Mysore the
+loss of about a fifth of its population, an immense sum of money, and
+crippled its resources for years) broke out that the value of having a
+European agency ready at hand to grapple with famine, and honestly
+administer the funds available, was absolutely proved. It would be tedious
+to go into this subject at any length, indeed I have not space to do so,
+and I can only say that, as far as I could learn, the only satisfactory
+treatment of the great famine was that initiated and carried out by the
+planters, or, to be at once just and exact, I should rather say that the
+system adopted was initiated by one of our leading planters--Mr. Graham
+Anderson--who, and entirely at his own cost, was the first to start and
+maintain on his estate a nursery for children. He saw that if the parents
+could only be relieved of their children the former could work and be able
+to maintain themselves, while all their efforts would be insufficient to
+maintain at once themselves and their children. The nursery system that
+was then initiated by Mr. Anderson, was adopted by other planters who were
+subsequently aided by the assistance of money from the Mansion House Fund,
+and Mr. Anderson was formally appointed by the Government as President of
+the relief operations in the Southern Mysore coffee district, and, owing
+to his energy, example, and administrative still, most satisfactory
+results were obtained. I have before me, and written by Mr. Anderson, a
+full account of all the famine relief operations he had charge of, showing
+the assistance afforded by the planters in employing labour from which,
+owing to the weakness of the people, very little return could be got; and
+moreover by sheltering in their lines the wandering starvelings who were
+moving about the country. I can only regret that want of space prevents my
+going into the subject more in detail. I must, however, at least find room
+for his concluding remarks, in order to deliver for him a message he has
+long been desirous of sending to those of the English public who
+subscribed to the Mansion House Fund.
+
+"If there is one thing," writes Mr. Anderson, "I am certain of it is this,
+that although some people think that natives have no gratitude, there has
+never been anything concerning which the natives have been so loud in
+their praise as the unbounded generosity of the London public, who in time
+of fearful distress came forward with money to feed and clothe hundreds
+and thousands of starving poor. Many a poor woman and man have asked me to
+express blessings to 'the people of my village' who rescued them in their
+dire distress. Perhaps you can give this message, which, as an outsider, I
+have never had an opportunity of doing." I only wish I could add that the
+gratitude of the Government was equal to that of the natives. Yes, Mr.
+Graham Anderson was an outsider, and the Government (Mysore was under
+British rule at the time) was evidently determined that he should remain
+so in the fullest sense of the word, for he never even received a letter
+of thanks for his valuable and gratuitous services, or the smallest notice
+of any kind. I have no hesitation in praising most highly the action of
+the planters, because, though one of them, I was not in India at the time,
+and, though my estate manager took an early and active part in relief
+operations, I had nothing personally to do with the famine relief work.
+
+The subject of famines is of such vast importance to the people, the
+Government, and all who have any stake in India, that I think it well to
+offer here some remarks on them, and also suggest some measures for their
+prevention, or perhaps I should rather say for their mitigation.
+
+The causes that would lead to an increase of famines in India were fully
+pointed out by me in 1871 in the "Experiences of a Planter," in letters to
+the "Times," and in the evidence I gave when examined by the India
+Finance Committee of the House of Commons in 1872. There were two
+principal causes--the spread of the use of money instead of grain as a
+medium of exchange, and such a restricted development of communications
+that, while these were sufficient to drain the countries in the interior
+of their grain, they were not sufficiently developed to enable the grain
+to be brought back again in sufficient quantities when it was necessary to
+do so in times of famine. Till, then, communications were developed to an
+adequate extent, it was quite clear that India would be much more exposed
+to risk from famines than she was in the days when grain was largely used
+as a medium of exchange, and when, besides, grain, from the want of
+communication, was largely kept in the country. The people, in short, in
+the olden days, and even for some time after I landed in India, hoarded
+grain, and in times of scarcity they encroached upon their supplies of
+buried grain, whereas now they hoard money, which in time of famine can go
+but a very short way in buying grain. The statement that an increase of
+famines would be sure to ensue from the causes above indicated is amply
+corroborated by the facts. There is no evidence to show that droughts have
+increased, but there can be no doubt that in comparatively recent times
+famines and scarcities have. And in looking over the list of famines from
+1769 to 1877, I find that, comparing the first 84 years of the period in
+question with the years from then up to 1877, famines have more than
+doubled in number, and scarcities, causing great anxiety to the State,
+seem certainly to be increasing. That the latter are so we have strong
+evidence in Mysore, and in looking over the annual addresses of the Dewan
+at the meeting of the Representative Assembly of Mysore, I am struck with
+the frequent allusion to scarcities and grave apprehensions of famine. In
+his address of 1881, only four years after the great famine of 1876-77,
+the Dewan refers to "the period of intense anxiety through which the
+Government and the people have passed owing to the recent failure of the
+rains. But," he adds, "such occasional failure of rains is almost a normal
+condition of the Province, and the Government must always remain in
+constant anxiety as to the fearful results which must follow from them."
+In his address of 1884 the Dewan says that "the condition of the Province
+is again causing grave anxiety." In the address of 1886 the Dewan says
+"this is the first year since the rendition of the Province (in 1881) in
+which the prospects of the season have caused no anxiety to the
+Government." But in the address of 1891 lamentations again occur, and we
+find the Dewan congratulating the members on the narrow escape, owing to
+rain having fallen just in time, they had had from famine. But our able
+Dewan--Sir K. Sheshadri Iyer, K.C.I.E.--has taken measures which must
+ultimately place the Province in a safe position, or at least in as safe a
+position as it can be placed. He has seen, and it has been amply proved by
+our experience in the Madras Presidency during the famine of 1876-77, that
+the only irrigation work that can withstand a serious drought is a deep
+well, and he has brought out a most admirable measure for encouraging the
+making of them by the ryots. The principal features of this are that
+money, to be repaid gradually over a long series of years, is to be
+advanced by the State on the most easy terms, and that, in the event of a
+ryot taking a loan, and water not being found, or found in inadequate
+quantity, the Government takes upon itself the entire loss. But the
+results from this highly liberal and valuable measure cannot be adequately
+arrived at for many years to come, and in the meanwhile the risks from
+famine go on, and as the Dewan has seen that these can only be immediately
+grappled with by an extension of the railway system, he has always been,
+anxious to make a line to the western frontier of Mysore, if the Madras
+Government would agree to carry it on to Mangalore on the western coast.
+But the Madras Government felt itself unable to find funds to carry out
+the project, and hence Mysore, all along its western frontier, was, from a
+railway point of view, completely imprisoned, and there seemed to be no
+prospect of anything being done to connect the Province with the western
+seaboard for many years to come. However, a Mysore planter last year
+sought a personal interview with Viscount Cross, the Secretary of State
+for India, who has always taken a great interest in railway extensions,
+and the result of this was that Lord Cross initiated action which resulted
+in prompt steps being taken. Early this year a preliminary survey of the
+route from a point on the line in the interior of Mysore, _viâ_ the
+Manjarabad Ghaut, to Mangalore was made, and I am in a position to state
+that the completion of this much and long-wanted line may be regarded as a
+thing of the near future. After this line has been made a line will be
+constructed from Hassan to Mysore, _viâ_ Holî Nursipur, and Yedatora, and
+from Mysore a line will be run, _viâ_ Nunjengode[2] to Erode, the junction
+of the Madras and South Indian Railways. I may mention here that Sir
+Andrew Clarke, in his able Minute of 1879 on Indian Harbours, says that
+"Mangalore undoubtedly admits of being converted into a useful harbour,"
+though he adds that "the project may lie over until the prospects of a
+railway connecting it with the interior are better than at present." As
+the immediate prospects of a line being made are quite secure, it is of
+great importance to call attention to this matter now, as it is to the
+manifest interest of both Governments that the harbour of Mangalore should
+be improved as soon as possible.
+
+After having done so much to contend against famine-producing causes, it
+may seem that the Dewan might rest and be thankful; but it must be
+considered that, though railways will undoubtedly enable the State to save
+life, it will have to pay a ruinously heavy charge whenever a widespread
+and serious drought occurs, and, sooner or later, it seems inevitable that
+such a drought must occur. And it is therefore perfectly evident, that
+without the extension of deep wells the province cannot be placed in a
+thoroughly sound financial position. It is, then, of obvious importance to
+remove at once the great obstacle that stands in the way of the rapid
+addition to the number of deep wells. That obstacle, and a most formidable
+obstacle it is, as I shall fully show, lies in the fact that the present
+form of land tenure in Mysore (under which also about four-fifths of the
+land of British India are held) does not provide a sufficient security for
+investors in landed improvements. By the existing tenure the land is held
+by the occupier from the State at a rental which is fixed for thirty
+years, and after that it is liable to augmentation. The Government, it is
+true, has declared that it will not tax improvements, and that, for
+instance, if a man digs a well no augmentation of rent will be demanded
+for the productive power thus added to the land, but it has reserved to
+itself wide powers of enhancing the rent on general grounds, such as a
+rise in prices, improved communication, etc., and to what amount the
+enhancement may go the ryot cannot tell. And hence we find that the
+representatives in the Mysore Assembly have repeatedly argued that it is
+owing to the uncertainty as to what the rise of rent may be at the close
+of each thirty years' period that improvements are not more largely made,
+and have therefore prayed for a permanently fixed assessment. Now I am not
+prepared to say that, for the present at any rate, it would be wise to
+grant a fixed assessment on all lands, but I am quite sure that it would
+be wise to grant, for the irrigable area watered by a well dug at an
+occupier's expense, a permanent assessment at the rent now charged on the
+land. The Government, it is true, would sacrifice the rise it might obtain
+on the land at the close of each lease, but, as a compensation for
+this--and an ample compensation I feel sure it would be--the State would
+save in two ways, for it would never have to grant remissions of revenue
+on such lands, as it now often has to do in the case of dry lands, and
+with every well dug the expenditure in time of famine would be diminished.
+Such a measure, then, as I have proposed, would at once benefit the State
+and draw out for profitable investment much capital that is now lying
+idle. There is nothing new, I may add, in this proposal, for it was
+adopted by the old native rulers, who granted fixed tenures on favourable
+terms to those making irrigation works at their own expense. An
+English-speaking Mysore landholder once said to me, "I will not dig wells
+on my lands under my present tenure, but give me an assessment fixed for
+ever, and I will dig lots of wells." The present landed policy of the
+Indian Government[3] is as shallow as it is hide-bound. It wants, like a
+child, to eat its cake and still remain in possession of the article. It
+is most anxious to see private capital invested in land, and it still
+wants to retain the power of every thirty years indefinitely augmenting
+the land revenue on general grounds. Surely it must be apparent to minds
+of even the humblest calibre that these two things are utterly
+incompatible!
+
+I may mention that there is a strong party in India in favour of granting
+at once a permanent assessment at the existing rate of rent for all lands,
+and in reference to this point it may be interesting to give the following
+passage from a letter I once received from the late Prime Minister of
+Mysore, Mr. Rungacharlu, the minister who started the first Representative
+Assembly that ever sat in India:
+
+"As you know," he wrote, "I hold decided views on the subject, and the
+withholding of the permanent assessment is a serious injury to the
+extensive petty landed interests in the country, and is no gain whatever
+to the Government. Nearly the whole population of the country are
+agriculturists, and live in one way or another upon the cultivation of the
+land. The effect of a permanent settlement will therefore create a greater
+feeling of security, and to encourage the outlay of capital and labour on
+land will be beneficial to the entire population. It will thus be quite a
+national measure reaching all, and not in the interests of a few, and is
+calculated to develop the capabilities of the land to the utmost. The
+prospect of the Government ever being benefited by the reservation of an
+increase of assessment on the unearned increment is a mere dream. Such
+increase is sure to be resisted or evaded, occasioning meanwhile great
+discontent. The Government may confidently look to the development of
+other sources of revenue from the increased prosperity of the people."
+
+But whether the best remedy lies in granting, as I have proposed, a fixed
+assessment on land brought under well-irrigation at owners' expense, or in
+granting a permanent assessment for all lands, or, perhaps, in extending
+the period of lease from thirty to sixty years (and the last proposal
+would answer fairly well), one thing is certain, and that is, that under
+the thirty years' tenure system it is impossible to expect such a
+development of the landed resources of India as will secure the Government
+from the vast financial losses caused by famine, or at least reduce these
+losses to a moderate amount. And we have ample evidence to prove that,
+where adequate security exists, private enterprise will be sure to step in
+and carry out most extensive and important irrigation works. This has
+been particularly shown in the proceedings of the Government of the
+North-West Provinces and Oudh, where the condition of things in the
+permanently settled districts has been contrasted with that in the
+temporarily settled, or thirty year leasehold districts. I have no space
+to go into the details. They would only weary the general reader, and it
+is sufficient to say that in the permanently settled districts there has
+been an immense progress in irrigation carried out by private enterprise;
+and that, to quote from the proceedings:--"Throughout the whole tract
+there have been occasional periods of agricultural distress, but it has
+always been in a mild form, and for a century famines such as have
+occurred in other parts of India have been unknown." In short, private
+enterprise, backed by a fair assessment fixed for ever, has driven famine
+from the tract in question, and this will occur in other parts of India if
+the Government will only grant tenures sufficiently safe to induce the
+people to invest their money in wells and permanent improvements. And if
+further proofs are needed, we have only to turn to Mr. Gribble's valuable
+memorandum on well irrigation, which is published in the proceedings of
+the Famine Commission.
+
+In concluding my remarks on famines, I may say that the whole question
+regarding them is of the greatest practical importance to all employers of
+labour in India. Our labour market in Mysore was enormously injured by the
+great famine of 1876-77, when the loss of population amounted to about a
+million, and when, through the agency of railways, loss of life can be
+averted in the future, it will only be averted at such a cost as will
+cripple the resources of the State for years to come, and so lessen its
+powers for maintaining roads and other works in an efficient state, and
+developing the resources of the country. The whole of the evils arising
+from famine then can only be averted by a full development of well
+irrigation, and this and the development of the landed resources of the
+country in general can only be effected through the agency of improved
+tenures. This is a point which all individuals having a stake in India
+should continuously urge on the attention of the Government.
+
+The reader will remember that when I started in Mysore in 1856, there were
+only seven European planters in the province. I have lately endeavoured to
+ascertain the number there are at present, and the Dewan, to whose
+kindness I have been much indebted for information when writing this book,
+has supplied me with a specially drawn up return, showing all the
+information available as regards coffee from the year 1831 up to 1890-91,
+and by this it seems that there were in 1890-91 662 plantations held by
+Europeans in Mysore, but there are no means of ascertaining the number of
+planters. I have referred the return to one of the oldest and most
+advanced planters, and in his reply he says, "It is impossible to say
+exactly how many landowners the 662 plantations represent, as several of
+the plantations in many cases go to make up what we call an estate, but I
+should not imagine that the number would be more than 300, and in that
+calculation I have allowed for there being partners in many of the
+properties." The area held by Europeans was 49,862 acres, and some
+increase has no doubt since been made to this.
+
+The native plantations amounted to 27,180 in number in 1890-91, with an
+area of 96,814 acres, but many of these so-called plantations only consist
+of small patches of coffee. The total area of European and native holdings
+in 1890-91 was 146,676 acres. There are no means whatever of ascertaining
+from the returns at my command even approximately the amount of coffee
+produced. A reasonable calculation, however, based on a general knowledge
+of the circumstances, makes it probable that the European production of
+coffee may be put down at about an average of 120,000 cwts. a-year, and
+the native production at about 172,000 cwts., and if we put the average
+value of both as low as £3 a cwt. this would make the annual value of the
+coffee amount to £876,000. I now proceed to close this chapter with some
+remarks on manufactures in Mysore.
+
+Many years ago I heard the late Mr. Hugh Mason (formerly President of the
+Manchester Chamber of Commerce) speak at a meeting of the Society of Arts
+on the manufacturing prospects of India, and, after reviewing the general
+situation, he said that it is difficult to see what other advantages India
+could require in order to raise itself into the position of a great
+manufacturing country. It is true, he said, that the operative there
+cannot do as much as the operative hero, but, he continued, I can remember
+the time when the operative here could not do nearly as much as he can do
+now, and there is no reason to doubt but that a similar improvement would
+take place in the case of the Indian operative. And when this improvement
+takes place, and India becomes more known and developed, her great
+manufacturing capabilities will become fully apparent. India has two very
+great advantages. She has an abundant, docile, and orderly population, and
+she obtains from the sun an ample supply of that heat which has to be paid
+largely for here. When, then, the Indian operative attains to an advanced
+degree of proficiency--and to this he undoubtedly will attain--the
+greatest labour competition that the world has ever seen will begin--a
+competition between the white labourer who requires to be expensively fed,
+warmly clothed, and well shod, and housed, and the black or brown skinned
+man who can live cheaply, and work naked, and who is as physically
+comfortable in a mere shelter as his rival is in a well built dwelling.
+The Indian peasant already, in the case of wheat, undersells the English
+farmer, and it seems merely a question of time as to when the Indian
+operative will undersell his Lancashire rival, and when perhaps calico
+will come to England, as it once did, from Calicut. And no doubt, some
+such thoughts were passing through Cobden's mind when he once said, "What
+ugly ruins our mills will make." We are, however, a considerable way from
+such remains as the reader will see if he consults the interesting paper
+on "The Manufactures of India," read by Sir Juland Danvers at a meeting of
+the Society of Arts on the 24th of April last, and by this it appears that
+the imports of cloths of English manufacture have increased in recent
+years. Still India is progressing, and there are now a total of 126 cotton
+mills in all India. Of these one is in Bangalore, and was opened in 1885.
+The Mysore Government took 250 shares in it, and to enable the Company to
+extend the buildings, subsequently lent it on easy terms two lakhs of
+rupees. There is also another company at work in Bangalore which started
+as a woollen factory, but which has now set up machines for spinning
+cotton. The efforts made to push forward industries of all kinds in Mysore
+are highly creditable to the administration, and I find numerous
+references in the annual addresses made by the Dewan at the meeting of the
+Representative Assembly to the desire of the Government to foster any kind
+of industry that is likely to afford increased employment to the people. A
+long reference is made in the Dewan's address of 1890, to the endeavours
+made by the Government to open up the iron wealth of the province, and it
+was then in correspondence with a native gentleman who had proposed to
+start iron works in the Malvalli Talook of the Mysore district. The
+Government, it appears, were prepared to grant most liberal concessions as
+regards the supply of fuel. But I regret that I have no information as to
+whether these proposed works have or have not been started. For the
+information of those who might be inclined to embark in this industry I
+may mention that a copy of the Dewan's annual addresses always appears in
+the "Mysore and Coorg Directory," which is a most valuable compilation on
+all points of importance relating to those provinces. These annual
+addresses are admirably drawn up and are most interesting to read. The
+attention shown to the many various points treated of is most remarkable.
+Nothing seems too great and nothing too small for notice by the Dewan, and
+it is this even attention all along the line that shows the fine
+administrator. As one instance to the point I may mention that when
+attending as a member of the Representative Assembly at Mysore in 1891, I
+happened to meet the Dewan and some of his officers in the veranda outside
+the great hall where our meetings were held, and his attention was
+attracted to a coffee peeler--the invention of a native who thought this a
+good opportunity for introducing his machines to the notice of the public,
+and had some cherry coffee at hand to show how they worked. The Dewan at
+once inspected the machine, saw the coffee put through, and himself turned
+the handle, and was so satisfied that he ordered some of the machines to
+be bought and sent for exhibition to the head-quarters of the coffee
+growing Talooks, or counties, and in his address of 1892 he reports that
+the machines had been found to be much in favour with the planters who had
+used them. The state of the box is the best evidence of the goodness of
+the gardener. But it is time now to draw this chapter to a close. I must,
+however, find room for a few remarks which will show those who might be
+inclined to settle in India that their interests are sure to be well
+attended to by the Government.
+
+During my long Indian experience I have had occasion to represent
+grievances and wants to Government officers, from district officers to
+high Indian officials, to officials at the India office, and to more than
+one Secretary of State for India, and am therefore able to testify
+directly to their admirable courtesy, patience, and consideration. In the
+ordinary sense of the word, the planters in the various parts of India are
+not represented, but as a matter of fact their interests are most
+efficiently represented, for the officers of the Government, whether
+civilians or soldier-civilians (and when Mysore was under British rule I
+had practical experience of both), are distinguished by an amount of
+energy, industry, and ability, to which I believe it is impossible to find
+a parallel in the world, and combined with these qualities there is
+everywhere exhibited a conscientious zeal in promoting in every possible
+way the interests of the countries committed to their charge. And these
+officers know that they are at once the administrators and rulers of the
+land, and, as there is no representative system such as we have in
+England, freely admit that to them the people have a right to appeal in
+all matters affecting their interests. This right of personal appeal
+planters most freely exercise, and in this way are sure, sooner or later,
+and often with very little delay, to obtain the supply of wants or the
+redress of grievances. And here I may offer in conclusion one useful hint.
+The time of officials, and especially of high officials, is very valuable,
+and every effort should be made to avoid putting them to trouble that can
+be avoided. The subject to be brought forward should be carefully thought
+out, and put in the form of a memorandum. This in some cases it is
+advisable to forward by letter when asking for an interview, while in
+other cases I have thought it more advisable that the memorandum should be
+taken with one and read to the official, as this gives a good opportunity
+for discussing the points in regular order. In the latter case, at the
+close of the interview, the official will probably ask that the memorandum
+may be left with him for reference, but it is then better to ask to be
+allowed to send a well-written copy by post, as this gives an opportunity
+for making clearer any points that may have been discussed at the
+interview, and which may require further explanation. It is well always to
+bear in mind that all high officials, and the heads of districts, are
+representatives of the Crown, and as such are entitled to a due amount of
+deference and formality when being personally addressed, or addressed by
+letter. These are points which are sometimes not sufficiently taken into
+account by inexperienced persons.
+
+I need hardly say that the remarks last made apply equally to native
+officials either in Mysore or elsewhere.
+
+In conclusion, I may mention that I have always found the native officials
+to be most polite, considerate, and obliging, and such, I feel sure, is
+the general experience of those who have been brought in contact with
+them.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] When this line is finished the planters of Mysore will have an easy
+and very direct route by rail to the Nilgiri Hills, and this will be of
+immense advantage to themselves, and especially to their families.
+
+[3] It has imposed this policy on Mysore, and by the terms of the deed of
+transfer to the Rajah, no alteration in the tenures can be made without
+the consent of the Supreme Government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE SCENERY AND WATERFALLS OF MYSORE.
+
+
+Mysore is a tract of country in Southern India approximating in area to
+Scotland, and with a general elevation of from two to three thousand feet
+above the level of the sea. It is commonly spoken of as the Mysore
+tableland, but this is rather a misleading description if we adopt the
+dictionary definition of the word tableland as being "a tract of country
+at once elevated and level," for, though there are in the interior of the
+province considerable stretches of rolling plains, the so-called tableland
+presents to the view a country intersected at intervals, more or less
+remote, with mountain chains, while scattered here and there in the
+interior of the plateau are isolated rocky hills, or rather hills of rock,
+termed droogs (Sanscrit, durga, or difficult of access) which sometimes
+rise to a total height of 5,000 feet above sea level. The surface of the
+country, too, is often broken by groups, or clusters of rocks, either low
+or of moderate elevation, composed of immense boulders, the topmost ones
+of which are often so finely poised as to seem ready to topple over at the
+slightest touch. The highest point of the plateau is about 3,500 feet, and
+is crowned as it were by the fine bold range of the Bababuden mountains,
+which have an average elevation of about 6,000 feet. There are three
+mountains in Mysore which exceed this elevation, and the highest of them,
+Mulaìnagiri, is 6,317 feet above the level of the sea. The province,
+which is completely surrounded by British territory, is flanked on the
+west and east by the Ghauts, or ranges of hills up the passes through
+which the traveller ascends on to the tableland, and on the south it is,
+as it were, pointed off by the Nilgiri hills. The greatest breadth of
+Mysore from north to south is about 230 miles, and its greatest length
+from east to west is 290 miles. On the western side one part of the
+province runs to within ten miles of the sea, though the average distance
+from it is from thirty to fifty miles. The nearest point to the sea on the
+eastern side is about 120 miles, and the most southerly extremity of the
+tableland is 250 miles from the most southerly point of India.
+
+As regards climate, cultivation, and the general appearance of the
+country, Mysore may be divided into two very distinctly marked tracts--the
+forest and woodland region which stretches from the foot of the Western
+Ghauts to distances varying from about twenty to as much as forty-five
+miles, and the rolling and comparatively speaking treeless plains of the
+central and eastern parts of the province, which are only occasionally
+broken by tracts which have some of the characteristics of both. In the
+western tract are numerous plantations of coffee and cardamoms, and the
+cereal cultivation consists mainly of rice fields irrigated from perennial
+streams; while in the central and eastern parts of the tableland, which by
+far exceed in area the woodland tracts of the west, the cultivation is
+mainly of the millets and other crops which do not depend on irrigation,
+though these are interspersed at intervals, more or less remote, with rice
+fields, the water for which is chiefly derived from tanks, or artificial
+reservoirs. The rainfall, temperature, and quality of the atmosphere in
+the western tract varies considerably from those of the open country of
+the interior. The rainfall of the first varies from sixty to one hundred
+inches, and, on the crests of the Ghauts, is probably often about 200
+inches,[4] while in the interior of the province the rainfall is probably
+about thirty inches on the average. The temperature of the western tract
+too is naturally much damper and cooler than that of the rest of the
+tableland, and at my house within six miles of the crests of the Ghauts at
+an elevation of about 3,200 feet, the shade temperature at the hottest
+time of the year and of the day rarely exceeds eighty-five, and such a
+thing as a hot night is unknown, as the woodland tracts are within reach
+of the westerly sea breezes, while in the interior the climate is much
+hotter and drier, and the maximum day temperature of the hot weather is
+about ninety, and, in very hot seasons, about ninety-five. In the woodland
+tracts the cold weather and the monsoon months have a very pleasant
+temperature, and then flannel shirts and light tweeds--in short, English
+summer clothing--are used, and a blanket is always welcome at night. The
+climate of Mysore is considered to be a healthy one for Europeans of
+temperate habits, and who take reasonable care of themselves. As we are
+now hearing so much of cholera in Europe, it may not be uninteresting to
+mention that, though the province was under British administration from
+1831 to 1881, and there have since been a considerable number of European
+officials in the employ of the now native government of Mysore, only one
+European official has died of cholera during that period, and that, though
+there are a considerable number of planters, only one has been reported to
+have died of the disease, though his, I am told, was a doubtful case.
+
+I have said that there are marked differences between the western tracts
+and the remainder of the province, but the most marked difference of
+course between the forest and woodland country of the west, and the
+country to the east, lies in the scenery of the two tracts, for, though in
+the latter case there are occasional bits of attractive landscape, and
+partially wooded hills, there is nothing at all to compare with the grand
+forest scenery of the Western Ghauts, or the charming park-like woodlands
+which stretch into the tableland at varying distances from the crests of
+the frontier mountains. Everyone who has seen the latter has been struck
+by their extraordinary and diversified beauty, and last year a friend of
+mine, who had for a considerable time been travelling all round the world,
+said to me, as he rode up to my house, "After all I have seen I have seen
+nothing to equal this." But this, I must add, was the very best of our
+Western Ghaut park scenery which is mostly contained in the talook or
+county of Manjarabad which stretches for about twenty-five miles along the
+western frontier of Mysore, a tract of country so beautiful that the
+laconic Colonel Wellesley (afterwards the great Duke of Wellington), who
+rarely put a superfluous word into his dispatches, could not refrain from
+remarking in one of them on the beautiful appearance of the country.[5]
+There are two things especially remarkable about this tract. The one is
+that throughout the best of it there is nothing distinctively Indian in
+the scenery. Bamboos are rare, and in much of the tract entirely absent,
+and as the palm trees are always concealed in the woods there is nothing
+to connect the country with the usual feature of Indian woodland scenery.
+Another point most worthy of notice is that the scenery which appears to
+one seeing it for the first time to be entirely natural, is in reality
+very largely the creation of man. And it has been much improved by his
+action for, as you leave Manjarabad to go northwards the jungle becomes
+too continuous, and it is the same if you go southwards into the adjacent
+district of Coorg, and when you compare the last mentioned tracts with
+Manjarabad you then begin to realize the fact that nature, if left to
+herself, is apt to become a trifle monotonous. But in Manjarabad man has
+invaded nature to beautify her and bring her to perfection--cutting down
+and turning eventually into stretches of grass much of the original
+forest--leaving blocks of from 50 to 200 acres of wood on the margin of
+each group of houses, clearing out the jungle in the bottoms for rice
+cultivation and thus forming what at some seasons appear to be bright
+green rivers winding through the forest-clad or wooded slopes, and here
+and there planting on the knolls trees of various wide-spreading kinds.
+And yet from the absence of fences, and of cultivation on the uplands, the
+whole scene appears to be one of Nature's creations, and all the more so
+because no houses nor farm-buildings are visible, as these are hidden
+amongst the trees on the margins of the forest lands. Then this long tract
+of beautifully wooded and watered country is fringed on its western border
+by the varied mountain crests of the Western Ghauts, while on the east it
+is traversed by the Hemavati river which is fed by the numerous streams,
+and brawling burns which descend from the frontier hills. But though
+Manjarabad has combinations of charms unrivalled in their kind, we must
+not forget that an examination of of them by no means exhausts the scenery
+of the Ghauts, for, on the north-western border of Mysore are the falls of
+Gairsoppa. Often had I read descriptions of them which I once thought must
+have been too highly coloured, but when I visited the falls some years ago
+I found that the accounts I had read were not only far below the reality,
+but that the most important parts of the wonderful combinations of the
+scenes had either never been noted, or been quite inadequately recorded.
+I do not now profess to give anything approaching an adequate account of
+them. Nor indeed do I think it would be possible to do so. But what
+follows will I think at least be of advantage in directing the attention
+of the traveller to the best way of observing the varied scenes, and
+noting the wonderful musical combinations, which are to be heard at these
+marvellously beautiful falls.
+
+The falls of Gairsoppa are on the Sarawati, or Arrowborn[6] river, which,
+rising in the western woodland region of Northern Mysore, flows north-west
+for about sixty-two miles, and then, turning abruptly to the west,
+precipitates its waters over cliffs about 860 feet in height. When the
+river is at the full in the south-west monsoon an immense body of water
+rushes over the precipice, and from calculations made by some engineers,
+and which are recorded in the book at the Travellers' Bungalow, the volume
+and height of fall at that time, if taken together, would give a force of
+water about equal to that of Niagara. But, however that may be, a glance
+at the high water marks, and a knowledge of the immense rainfall on the
+crests of the Ghauts during the monsoon months, makes it certain that, at
+that time of year, the amount of water must be very large. At that season,
+though, the falls are almost invisible, as they are concealed by vast
+masses of mist and spray, and even were they visible, as the water then
+stretches from bank to bank, there would only be one vast monotonous fall.
+But after the heavy monsoon floods are over, the river above the
+falls-shrinks back as it were into a long deep pool which lies at a
+distance of several hundred yards from the brink of the precipice, and
+from this pool the water of the river then escapes by four distinct rapids
+which have cut their way to-the brink of the precipice, and fall over the
+cliffs in four distinct falls, each one of widely different character
+from the others. The falls at this season are only 834 feet high, but when
+the river rises to the full the fall, as I before mentioned, must be about
+860 feet, or approximating in height to the loftiest story of the Eiffel
+Tower. Across the rapids light bridges of bamboo are thrown, at the end of
+each monsoon. There are thus two ways of crossing the river--one by the
+pool above the falls where there is a ferry-boat which can take over
+horses as well as people--the other by the bridges of the rapids--and it
+is necessary to cross the river because the only bungalow is on the north,
+or Bombay side of the river, and the best point for seeing the falls is on
+the southern side. The only way too of reaching the bottom of the falls is
+by the southern side.
+
+The only objection to these falls is the difficulty of getting at them,
+owing to their being quite out of the usual travellers' route, and that is
+why they have, if I may judge by the travellers' book at the bungalow,[7]
+been, comparatively speaking, rarely visited. Then there is no railway
+nearer than about ninety miles, and though the falls are only thirty-five
+miles from the western coast, steamers do not call at the nearest port to
+them. Nor is it at all even probable that any line will ever be brought
+nearer to the falls than about sixty miles. It is, too, rather
+discouraging to have the prospect of a ninety mile road journey to see the
+falls, and then return by the same route. But I would suggest that a
+traveller might make a very enjoyable trip by going from Bombay to Hoobli
+on the South Maharatta line, and, on the way to Gairsoppa visit the
+Lushington Falls which are about 400 feet in height, the Lalgali Fall
+which has a series of picturesque rapids and cascades, with a total fall
+of from 200 to 300 feet, and the Majod falls where the Bedti-Gangaveli
+river forms a picturesque waterfall leaping in a series of cascades over
+cliffs varying in height from 100 to 200 feet in height, and together 800
+feet high. I have not visited any of these last named falls. An account of
+them and other places of interest in the Kanara district is given in the
+"Bombay Gazetteer" for Kanara,[8] which gives a complete history of this
+interesting district, and is a book which the traveller should buy, as it
+is well worthy of a place in any library. I now proceed to give an account
+of my visit to the Gairsoppa Falls.
+
+On the 12th of January, 1886 (I should not advise the traveller to visit
+the falls earlier than November 1st nor later than the middle of January,
+as the water lessens after the latter date), I arrived at the Travellers'
+Bungalow at the Falls, after having travelled there by the coast route
+from Bombay, which I found so troublesome that I cannot recommend its
+adoption. The bungalow, which is about thirty-five miles from the western
+coast, and on ground 1,800 feet above sea level, is situated in a truly
+romantic spot (in fact rather too romantic if we take the possibility of
+an earthquake into consideration), for it is close to the edge of a gorge
+900 feet deep, and in full view of the face of the precipice over which
+the waters of the Arrowborn river precipitate themselves on their way to
+the western sea. To north, south, east, and west stretch hills and vales
+for the most part covered with the evergreen forest, and only here and
+there showing grassy slopes and summits. On the opposite side of the gorge
+as you peer down into it you can see emerging from the edge of the jungle
+about half way down from the top of the side of the gorge what looks like
+a long ladder of stone, but which really consists of the rough steps by
+which alone the bottom of the falls can be reached.
+
+On the following morning I proceeded to cross the river by the bridges
+over the rapids. The first rapid is that of the Rajah Fall, the water of
+which shoots sheer from the cliff, and, without even touching a rock,
+falls 830 feet into a pool 132 feet deep. After crossing the bridge you
+sometimes walk through, and sometimes clamber over, the vast assemblage of
+rocks and huge boulders which form the bed of the river, and are deeply
+submerged when the river is full. The sight here is extremely curious and
+interesting as, after leaving the bridge of the Rajah rapid, there are
+about 1,000 feet of rock and boulders to pass through or over before you
+reach the next rapid, and, when half way, there would be nothing to show
+that you were not wandering through a mere wilderness of rocks were it not
+for the unceasing thunder, far below, from the bottom of the Rajah Fall.
+The next rapid to be crossed is that of the Roarer, which takes, before it
+goes over the precipice a most singular course--first flowing into a basin
+at the edge of the cliff, and then leaving this in a northerly direction,
+after which it rushes down a steep stony trough to fall into the same deep
+pool which receives the water of the Rajah Fall. After crossing the bridge
+of the Roarer rapid the bed of the river has again to be traversed and at
+a distance of about 700 feet you reach the rapid of the Rocket. This is a
+fall of wonderful beauty, for the water projects itself sheer from the
+cliff to fall about 100 feet on to a vast projecting piece, or rather
+buttress of rock, which causes the water to shoot out into a rocket-like
+course from which are thrown off wonderfully beautiful jets, and arrowy
+shoots of water, and spray, and foam, which seem to resemble falling stars
+or shooting meteors. You then pass over another section of the river bed
+for about 500 feet till you reach the rapid, or rather stream, of the la
+Dame Blanche Fall which glides gently over the precipice in a broad
+foaming silvery sheet. From the first rapid to the last the distance is
+about 733 yards. I have met with no estimate of the total width of the
+fall when the river is in full flood, but it can hardly be less than half
+a mile wide, and the depth of the water, as one can see from the high
+water mark, must be very great. It is interesting to note on the tops of
+the boulders here and there the circular stones that have, during each
+monsoon, been whirling round and round, each one in its own pothole.
+
+After crossing the last bridge you then walk over the rocks into the
+forest beyond and strike the path which leads down through the forest on
+the Mysore side of the river, to a point called Watkin's platform--an
+open-sided shed about 100 feet below the top of the falls, and which
+commands a view of the gorge below the falls, and a fair, though rather
+distant view of the falls. When approaching the platform I was positively
+startled by a vast shrieking clang which suddenly burst on the ear and
+seemed to fill the air. This I afterwards found had come from the
+semi-cavernous gorge of rock about half a mile away, into which fall the
+waters of the Rajah and Roarer rapids, and though I afterwards heard
+somewhat similar sounds issuing from these falls, I never heard again
+anything approaching to this singular and startling burst of sound. These
+sounds have often been remarked upon, but no one seems to have attempted
+to trace their cause, but they most probably arise from the escape of air
+which has been driven by the falling waters into some deep fissures of the
+rock.
+
+Having thus taken a general view of the situation, I then returned to the
+bungalow for breakfast, and in the afternoon at about two o'clock returned
+to Watkin's platform by the route of the ferry across the pool, and, with
+my companion, set out for the foot of the falls, first of all by a steep
+winding path, and then by a flight of very rough and uneven steps which
+had been formed by placing stones in places on and between the rocks. When
+descending, we often paused to view the constantly changing scene, for,
+as we got lower and lower, the rainbow hues across each fall, which were
+at first widely broken by the masses of cliff stretching between the
+falls, came closer and closer, till at last, when we reached the region
+where the spray of all the falls was mingled, the iris hues stretched
+across the gorge in an unbroken band of colour. At length, as we neared
+the foot of the fall, we reached a small open-sided shed, which had
+recently been erected on the occasion of the Maharajah of Mysore's visit.
+From this, which was probably fifty feet from the bottom of the gorge and
+about 100 yards from the falls, an admirable view was obtained of the
+entire situation, and we began to realize how impossible it is to form any
+adequate conception of the falls from the top, or from the higher sides of
+the gorge. We next descended to the bottom of the gorge, where the ground
+is strewn with vast boulders of rock, which had evidently fallen from the
+cliff as it had been eaten back by waters toiling through countless bygone
+ages. Many of these masses of rock lie at some distance from the foot of
+the falls, and on the partially decayed surfaces of some of them
+vegetation had evidently been flourishing for an indefinite period of
+time. Huge masses of rocks and boulders, as you look down the river, seem
+almost to block up its route towards the western sea, and indeed so
+completely seem to fill up the pass, that one seemed to be standing at the
+bottom of a rock-bound hollow which had been excavated by the agency of
+Nature, after a toil through periods of time far beyond the calculations
+of man.
+
+As I found that the rocks at the foot of the falls were covered with a
+slimy mud, and as I was suffering slightly from a damaged foot, I
+presently returned to the shed, while my companion proceeded to explore
+the bed of the gorge further down the river. The floor of the shed had
+been strewed with straw, and I lay down at full length, partly to rest
+and partly to examine the situation more minutely, for the height is so
+great that it is impossible adequately to survey the scene in any other
+position. And then, when you have stillness and solitude, and when the
+body is in complete repose, there pour in on eye and ear floods of
+impressions so quickly varying that the mind feels quite unable to record
+them, and there is finally nothing left behind but a vague and
+indescribable sensation of all that is grand and beautiful and melodious
+in nature. For there are vast heights and gloomy depths and recesses, and
+varied forms of falling waters, and in the general surroundings everything
+to convey exalted ideas of grandeur to the mind, but grandeur accompanied
+by exquisite beauty, in colour, in the graceful movement of animal life,
+and in the varying sounds of falling waters--the charm of the iris hues
+which ever beautify the falling waters--beauty in the varied colours of
+the rocks, and in the plants and ferns growing in the fissures of the
+cliff--beauty in exquisite forms of motion--of water varied in countless
+ways as it descends from the four separate falls--beauty in the unceasing
+movements of countless swallows, mingled here and there with specimens of
+the Alpine swift and the pretty blue-hued rock pigeons, which build their
+nests on the ledges of the cliffs, and are constantly to be seen flying
+across the falls. Then there are the unceasing and ever varying sounds of
+falling waters, grand in their totality, grand and melodious in their
+separate cadences--the deep bass of the Rajah, sometimes like cannon
+thundering in the distance, and sometimes like the regular tolling of some
+vast Titanic bell; sounds of most varied and brilliant music from the
+Rocket; the jagged note of the Roarer, as its waters rush down their
+steep, stony trough; the eerie and mysterious sounds which, sometimes like
+a mingling of startling shrieks and clangs, and sometimes, to the active
+imagination, like the far-off lamentations of imprisoned spirits,[9]
+occasionally rise from the semi-cavernous chasm which has been hollowed
+out behind the great pool beneath the cliff; the gentle murmuring note of
+the White Lady Fall, tangled threads of sound from which fall in fitful
+cadences on the ear as the wind rises and falls athwart the falls; and
+lastly, but by no means leastly, the undulating and endless varieties of
+sounds which, having broken away from their original source, are ever
+wandering and echoing around the rock-bound gorge. Beautiful indeed and
+altogether indescribable are the elements of melody which are created by
+the falling waters of the Arrowborn river!
+
+And the music, too, seemed to be for ever varying, for the choral odes
+which were sweetly chanted to the ear were not perpetually continuous, and
+at times, owing to some change in the direction of the wind as it swirled
+around the gorge, the choral element was subordinated to the deep thunder
+of the Rajah Fall, or the vague tumult of startling discords which arose
+at intervals from the semi-cavernous walls of the pool into which plunge
+the waters of the Rajah and Roarer Falls. And then these sounds would
+gradually lose their predominance, and the more uniform sounds in which
+all the four falls joined would once more fill the air and charm the ear.
+And thus the attention could never be lulled to sleep, for here monotony
+was not, and the mind was always kept in an attitude of expectancy for the
+variations in the music which were sure to come, and, so far as they
+reached the ear, were never the same combinations of sounds that had been
+heard before. All the elements of melody were here, indeed, in profuse
+abundance, and it seemed as if they only required to be caught by some
+master hand and strung into methodical musical combinations to yield to
+the mind and feelings those exquisite sensations which music alone can in
+any effective degree convey.
+
+And besides the effects we have noticed, there is the motion of colour
+constantly, though gradually, shifting and altering, for, as the sun
+declines, the rainbow hues move steadily upwards on the face of the falls,
+and the colours of the rocks, which are of varying shades of purple and
+yellow, continually alter in character with the sinking day. But the
+finest combined effects of beauty and grandeur are, perhaps, most fully
+felt when, late in the afternoon, the eye wanders delighted over the vast
+combination of lofty cliffs and falling waters to rest finally far above
+on the iris tints of the Rajah and Roarer Falls, through the colours of
+which myriads of swallows incessantly wheel on lightsome wing, mingled
+with the quick, darting movement of the Alpine swifts, and the gentle
+flight of the blue rock pigeons, which occasionally wing their way through
+the mazy throng. For there the eye is ever delighted with the charm of
+colour and of those endless variations of graceful movement which
+continuously convey pleasurable sensations to the mind. But how could eye
+or ear ever tire of those rare combinations of form, colour, motion and
+rhythmic sounds which fill the mind with an exalted sense of feeling and
+of pleasure, and the conscious heart with exquisite sensations far beyond
+the power of language to describe?
+
+Presently my companion returned and aroused me from my state of dreamy
+pleasure, and I turned reluctantly away from the scene as the rainbow
+colours were, with the sinking sun, beginning to disappear from the
+topmost heights of the falls.
+
+Delightful indeed were the brilliant and varied scenes I have been
+attempting to describe, and after them the remainder was by comparison
+tame, but still I found that, as I took a canoe the following evening and
+rowed up the forest-margined pool from which the rapids emerge, that the
+minor scenes at the falls have exquisite charms of their own. And then it
+was that I realized that, varying though the scale may be, there is
+everywhere about the falls the same beauty of detail and beauty of
+combined effect, and that, too, unaccompanied by a single jarring note.
+For nowhere can you say, as you can often say in viewing scenes elsewhere,
+"leave out this, or alter that, and the scene would be perfect," and in
+none of the scenes about the falls does anything poor, or base, or mean,
+or uninteresting strike the eye, and as I rowed slowly up the pool I felt
+that the mind was both charmed and soothed by the exquisite repose of the
+scene, which is only broken, if indeed it can be said to be broken, by the
+beautiful birds and gaily painted kingfishers which occasionally wing
+their way across the water, or flit along the margin of the forest-clad
+shore. As you look towards the West the eye wanders over the wild
+assemblage of water-worn rocks and boulders which intervene between the
+pool and the head of the falls, to rest finally on the distant hills,
+covered mostly to their tips with the evergreen forest, while on looking
+up the river you see that it is flanked by woods on either hand, and as
+you lose sight of the water as it bends towards the south, the eye glances
+upwards to hills of moderate height, wooded in the hollows, and showing on
+the ridges grassy vistas dotted with occasional trees.
+
+On returning, I went lower down in the pool than the point I had started
+at, and passed a number of rocks worn into all sorts of curious shapes,
+and one of these leaned, like some gigantic Saurian, over the flood. As we
+neared the rapids, one felt that one would by no means like to run any
+risk of being drawn into one of them, and I was by no means anxious to go
+nearer to them than the boatmen, wished. One of them told me that the
+natives sometimes descended the cliffs between the Roarer and the Rocket
+Falls in order to carry off the fledglings from the nests of the blue rock
+pigeons, and said that several lives had thus been lost. He said that
+there was no way of reaching the bottom of the cliff, and rather quaintly
+added, "Those who came up again came up, and those who did not, died." He
+said that some European had once put what was evidently dynamite into the
+pool. A great explosion followed, which killed a large number of fish,
+many of which were washed over the falls.
+
+In the evening I sat for a long time in the bungalow veranda smoking my
+cigar, and looking dreamily out at the moonlit falls, and observing from
+time to time the scenic changes that were produced by the great masses of
+mist which drifted up the gorge below me to be dispersed as they touched
+the cliffs, and presenting, as they did so, most charming pictures. In the
+morning, too, beautiful effects were to be seen, as masses of mist arose
+from the chasm of the Rajah to flit in fleecy fragments across the face of
+the falls. But the scenes about this spot are of endless variety, and I
+must allow myself to mention only one more, which my companion saw one
+morning from Watkin's platform when the iris hues were on the pool below
+the falls, which, as the spray fell into it, seemed like a mass of golden
+water dotted all over, as if yellow tinted rain were falling into it. On
+some occasions visitors have illuminated the falls with fireworks, and by
+floating over the falls ignited bundles of straw soaked in paraffin, and I
+regret that I had not thought of following their example.
+
+Next morning I set out on a drive of about 150 miles to my plantations in
+Manjarabad. As we left the falls, we passed, and close to the river pool
+above them, a tree covered with fruit which was being eaten by green
+pigeons and other birds, and on looking up into it I was surprised, as it
+is an animal of nocturnal habits, to see a large and beautiful flying
+squirrel peering at me with a quiet but by no means apprehensive eye. I
+was strongly tempted to shoot it for the sake of its skin, but my
+companion, who had been much affected by the beauties of the falls, said
+that it would be a sacrilege to shoot anything so near them. So I spared
+his feelings and the poor squirrel, and am now very glad to think that I
+did so. I may here mention that the traveller, though he sets out early in
+the morning and late in the afternoon, very rarely sees anything in the
+shape of big game, even though the jungles he may be driving through may
+abound with it, and the sole exception I can remember, after numerous
+journeys through them, occurred on the occasion of my drive home from the
+falls, when, early one morning, a tiger bounded across the road at a
+distance of about 100 yards ahead. It is also worthy of remark that you
+very seldom see a snake, and, though I landed on the Western coast at
+Carwar and travelled by easy stages by way of the falls to my estate, I
+did not see a single snake during the whole course of the journey.
+
+As it is probable that this account of the Gairsoppa Falls may induce
+travellers to visit them, I think it may be useful to give an account of
+the Cauvery Falls on the southern frontier of Mysore, which are well
+worthy of a visit, and easily accessible. The best time for visiting them
+is generally said to be August, or not later than the middle of September,
+though when I visited them on the 25th of that month last year, the river,
+though not in full flood, had an ample supply of water in it, and, from
+Mr. Bowring's description of his visit to them on November 21st,[10] there
+must still, up to that date, be a considerable flow in the river. From my
+own experience, I feel sure that the best time to see these falls is after
+the great floods have subsided, as the water then is clear, or nearly so,
+and the effects, as in the case of the Gairsoppa Falls, are far more
+varied and brilliant. There is one point I would here particularly impress
+on the traveller, and that is, that when visiting falls such as those of
+Gairsoppa and the Cauvery, which present a great variety of scenic
+effects, and are not merely monotonous single masses of water, he should
+devote at least two clear days to them, i.e., he should arrive on one
+day, remain two days, and leave on the fourth day. He should also select a
+time when there is a sufficiency of moonlight. I was particularly
+impressed with the first point, because I most thoroughly enjoyed my visit
+to Gairsoppa as I had two clear days there, whereas my visit to the
+Cauvery Falls was attended with that sense of hurry which, if not
+destructive of all enjoyment, leaves behind on the mind a feeling that
+many points in the scenes must have been either missed or quite
+inadequately observed. The account of my visit to these falls, however,
+may at least be useful in showing a traveller short of time how to visit
+them with the least possible expenditure of it.
+
+I left Bangalore, then, on the morning of Thursday, September 24th, 1891,
+by the 8.20 a.m. train, for the Mudoor Railway Station, on the lino to
+Mysore city, and arrived there shortly after midday. I then had luncheon
+at the station, and left for the Malvalli Travellers' Bungalow at a little
+before three, in a carriage I had sent on from Bangalore with two pairs of
+horses (it is advisable to have an extra pair posted), and arrived at my
+destination shortly after five. To this bungalow, which is about fourteen
+miles from the falls, I had previously sent on with my native servants
+bedding and mosquito curtains, and the means necessary to prepare meals
+for the party. Reports had reached us of creeping things being abroad in
+this bungalow, and my servant had been particularly enjoined to look out
+for, and, as far as possible, guard against them. This he had done by
+putting the bedsteads in the sun and doing what further he could. But
+notwithstanding his assurances of safety, one of the ladies of the party
+insisted that, from all she had heard, there must be creeping things
+somewhere about. The servant listened with an air of respectful attention
+to all she had to say, and, when she had quite done, said with quiet
+persistence, and much to our amusement, "What Missus says is true, but
+there are no bugs," and I am glad to say that he was justified in making
+the assertion. We rose very early the following morning, started at 4.20,
+at 6.20 arrived at the bungalow near the falls, and, after a little delay
+to get a cup of tea, drove at once to the nearest fall. But I must here
+pause for a few moments to describe the general situation of the river,
+the islands formed by its splitting into two distinct branches, and the
+position of the fall--a total situation which is not easily comprehended
+without the aid of a map.
+
+The Cauvery Falls are on the river of that name, which rises in Coorg,
+and, after a run of 646 miles to the south-east, falls into the Bay of
+Bengal about midway between Madras and Cape Comorin. Before reaching
+Seringapatam (which is on an island in the river) it is joined by the
+Hemavati which rises to the north of Manjarabad and, as we have seen,
+skirts the eastern border of that talook, or county. As the Hemavati sends
+down a large body of water the source of which is more distant from the
+sea than the spot in Coorg which is called the head of the Cauvery, I may
+remark in passing that it is singular that the latter should have been
+regarded as the source of this fine river, which really rises in Mysore.
+But, rise where it may, it at last arrives at a point on the southern
+frontier of Mysore where the bed of the Cauvery splits into two channels
+and forms the island of Hegora, which is about three miles long, and from
+a quarter of a mile to a mile wide, and, by a rather curious, coincidence,
+almost exactly the size of the island on which the fortress of
+Seringapatam has been built. The northern branch of the river washes the
+Mysore frontier and this, after about two miles, again divides, or rather
+a small branch diverges to the north and, forming a loop, cuts away from
+the mainland the island of Ettikoor, and there falls into the northern
+branch of the river by various cascades, and just below the point where
+the falls on the main northern branch occur. This group of falls is called
+Gangana Chuckee.
+
+The southern branch of the river on the Madras side flows as a single
+stream for about half a mile, and then splits off some of its water into
+various channels, but forming nothing worthy of the name of an island till
+it severs from the mainland the island of Hegora, a strip of land about
+two furlongs at the widest, and less than a mile in length. To the south
+of this the main body of the water goes to form lower down the fine series
+of cascades and falls called the Bar Chuckee, while a comparatively small
+body of water goes to the left to form the pretty series of cascades and
+steep runnels of water which fall, though at a different point of the
+compass from the main falls, into the wide pool at the foot of the Bar
+Chuckee Falls. After this necessary digression I now proceed to narrate
+what I saw and did.
+
+I drove, then, after a short delay at the bungalow, to the Gangana Chuckee
+Falls, passing on the way the temple of Sivasamudrum, and various
+buildings connected with it, and leaving the carriage, walked down towards
+the falls, passing on the right Pir's Tomb, the grave of a Mahometan
+priest of that name, and went to a point just below it, from which a fine
+general view of these falls and the river can be obtained. Glancing
+upwards, the view of the river, as the waters race down their steep stony
+bed towards the falls amidst numerous projecting rocks, is extremely grand
+and picturesque. Then at a point just below the spot I was standing on,
+the water plunged down a nearly precipitous descent, from which it
+apparently (for the spray prevented one seeing exactly) fell
+perpendicularly into the pool below, sending up as it did so gossamer
+veils of spray full of fleeting, faint, and ever varying iris hues. This
+pool is flanked, and probably about 100 yards below the foot of the
+previously mentioned fall, on the northern side by a precipice about 250
+feet high, down which, in four separate cascades, falls the water of the
+branch of the river which cuts off the small island of Ettikoor. On the
+side of the precipice next to the great fall of the main river stands a
+piece of tree-clad rocky ground, apparently about 50 feet higher than the
+precipice, and this is flanked by a rapid at the top, passing into a
+cascade lower down, which then held but little water, but which in floods
+must add much to the beauty of the scene. After viewing the scene for
+sometime, I returned to the carriage, and drove across the island to visit
+the Bar Chuckee Falls, and left the carriage at a point where the road
+begins to descend into the valley into which the southern branch of the
+river precipitates itself. I then advanced to a point on the right of the
+road from which a fine general view can be obtained, though it is rather
+too distant as regards the main body of the falls, and, as I reached the
+point in question, came suddenly into view of such a number of separate
+falls and cascades that a description of them is extremely difficult. For,
+on the opposite side of the valley, I counted no less than thirteen, which
+leap partly over one side of a horseshoe shaped precipice which had
+evidently, from the huge boulders in the channel below, been eaten back
+into the side of the precipice, and partly shoot out through various
+hidden channels which the waters have deeply cut through a huge
+semicircular platform of rock which overhangs the valley below. As they
+thus shoot out the effect is extremely striking and picturesque, and their
+resemblance to the spokes of light from a star no doubt caused the natives
+to give the very appropriate name of Chuckee (pronounced
+Chickee--Kanarese for star) to these beautiful falls. This semicircular
+platform of rock stands on one side of the river-bed, next to this we have
+the horseshoe-shaped precipice I have mentioned, and next to that again,
+as it were by way of quietly beautiful contrast, there is a vast sheet of
+steeply sloping rock, which is completely covered by a thin coating of
+white, and everywhere foaming water. When the river is at the full this
+fine series of falls and cascades vanishes, and is replaced, as in the
+case of the falls at Gairsoppa, by one great fall about half a mile wide.
+
+After looking at this beautiful scene, the eye wanders next over some
+jungle-clad slopes on the western side of the main falls, to dwell on a
+series of cascades and racing waters which descend through channels
+flanked on either side by scrubby plants and trees--a series which arises
+from a branch which diverges about a mile higher up the river, and the
+cascades and runnels of water of which are scattered round precipitous
+slopes right up to, and immediately below, the point on which I was
+standing. All the falls and cascades unite in a pool below of great width,
+from which the water escapes through a narrow gorge, to join, further
+down, the river branch on which are the Gangana Chuckee Falls. The general
+effect here appears to be that you are looking at falls and cascades
+proceeding from two different rivers, the one flowing from the south and
+the other from the west, and the effect is the same at the first described
+falls. The general height of all the falls is said to be from 200 to 250
+feet, and in Mr. Bowring's "Eastern Experiences" 300 feet, but I can find
+no account, and could hear of no particulars, as to when or how
+measurements were taken, as in the case of the falls at Gairsoppa, which
+were carefully surveyed by officers of the Indian Navy. I was particularly
+struck with the absence of bird life at these falls, and only saw two
+small birds, and one hawk, and a small flight of what in the distance
+appeared to be pigeons, which alit on a rock at the foot of one of the
+falls.
+
+It is impossible to refrain from contrasting these falls with those at
+Gairsoppa. The Cauvery Falls have indeed much beauty and grandeur in
+river, and varied waterfall scenery, and had I not seen the Gairsoppa
+Falls I should have thought that it would have been difficult to find
+anywhere in the world scenes more varied and beautiful. But the beauties
+of the falls of Cauvery are set in comparatively speaking sterile
+surroundings of rock and scrubby jungle, trees and shrubs scattered over
+ground partly undulating, and partly over hills of moderate height and
+uninteresting form. Then the grandeur arising from their great height, and
+the charms of the varied sounds of the falls of Gairsoppa, and the
+marvellously beautiful effects of graceful bird life wheeling and darting
+amidst the iris hues of the falls, and the setting of the whole scene
+amidst the tropical wealth of the evergreen forest of the Western Ghauts,
+afford combinations which far exceed those of the Cauvery Falls. I have no
+hesitation in saying, as a traveller to the falls of Gairsoppa has said
+before, that they alone would repay one for all the trouble of the voyage
+to India. But, beautiful and grand as they undoubtedly are, I cannot quite
+say the same of the Cauvery falls, though I can with confidence say that
+if the traveller leaves India without seeing them he will certainly have
+missed one of the scenes best worth seeing in it.
+
+After spending some time at the Bar Chuckee Falls I then drove back to the
+bungalow and, leaving the carriage there, walked rather more than half a
+mile to the bridge which connects the island with the Madras side of the
+river, and which I closely examined, as it is a most curious and
+interesting specimen of the work of native engineers, and as it has
+withstood the floods of about seventy years, one of which passed over the
+roadway of the bridge to a depth of three feet, is most highly creditable
+to native workmanship. A similar bridge connects the island with the
+Mysore side of the river, and both bridges were repaired at his own cost
+by a native in the employ of the Mysore Government, who in recognition of
+this important work, received from the British Government, for himself and
+his heirs (who are bound to keep up the bridges) land yielding an annual
+revenue of £800, and of £900 from the Mysore Government.
+
+The bridge I now proceeded to examine. It is built entirely of stone
+without any mortar or cement, and is supported on two rows of single block
+stone pillars standing on slabs of stone placed on the river bed. Those
+pillars are about nine feet high and eight feet apart. On the top of each
+pillar is first of all a thick block of stone projecting about eighteen
+inches from the pillar on its upper and lower sides. Then on this was a
+rather thicker block of stone, and on the top of all cross beams of solid
+single stones had been laid, and from one cross beam to another were solid
+and closely put together slabs of stones, some of which were eighteen
+inches wide, and some rather wider, thus making a roadway above so narrow
+that two carriages cannot pass each other. In order to strengthen the
+pillars and keep them in position, a flat slab of stone had been laid on
+the bed of the river, from the base of the lower pillar to within about
+two feet of the upper one, and between the end of this slab and the pillar
+a thick, high block of stone had been wedged. In this bridge there were
+109 pairs of pillars, giving a total length of about 1,000 feet. I was
+struck with the difference in the age of the pillars, and with the fact
+that, whereas some were plain, roughly hewn pillars, others, which had
+been dressed and chiselled into various forms, were evidently of great
+antiquity, and I was subsequently informed by the clerk of the proprietor
+of the island that the latter had been procured from ruined temples in
+the neighbourhood. These bridges at first sight seem to be curved in a
+slight loop up the stream, but a closer examination shows that they have
+been built in several lines, first slightly up the stream and then
+advancing by several straight lines to a blunt arrow-like point in the
+centre of the river, and this was evidently to enable the bridges the
+better to resist the heavy floods, one of which, as I have previously
+mentioned, went no less than three feet over the roadway. As you stand on
+the edge of the river and look along the centre of the rows of pillars the
+effect is very curious, as they then present the appearance of a long
+colonnade of pillars of various shapes, with a flat roof of solid slabs of
+stone overhead.
+
+After thoroughly inspecting the bridge, I lay for some time in the shade
+of a tree which stood on the bank of the river about fifty yards below the
+bridge, and awaited the arrival of the carriage, which I had sent for as
+the day was getting hot, and as I thus lay languidly observing the long
+colonnade, and the water which rapidly flowed between the pillars, and
+looked up the river as it stretched away to the north-west, and enjoyed
+the cool air which gently moved along the water, I felt a quiet sense of
+enjoyment which gave me a greater, and certainly a more lasting, sense of
+pleasure than I had experienced when visiting the beautiful falls I have
+just endeavoured to describe. I mention this for the moral, which is, that
+to enjoy scenery the body must be comfortable and in complete repose. I
+would also add that you must be alone, or practically alone, by being out
+of sight or hearing of your companions. Presently I was aroused by the
+rumble of the carriage, and, collecting my party, returned to the bungalow
+for luncheon. At about half past four the carriage was brought round, and
+we drove to our temporary home to dinner, and on the following day reached
+Bangalore at two o'clock, the whole trip having thus occupied about sixty
+hours.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] No less than 291.53 inches fell this year, between April and the last
+day of September, at a Cardamom plantation on the crests of the Ghauts.
+
+[5] After the fall of Seringapatam some further military operations were
+necessary in Manjarabad, and some of Colonel Wellesley's letters were
+written within a few miles of my bungalow.
+
+[6] So called from its flowing from a source which was supposed to have
+been formed by a stroke of Rama's arrow.
+
+[7] All travellers are obliged to record their names in these books, and
+state the time they have stayed, and the sums they have paid for the use
+of the bungalow.
+
+[8] "Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency," vol. xv. Kanara, Bombay. Printed
+at the Government Central Press, 1883.
+
+[9] The native idea.
+
+[10] "Eastern Experiences," by L. Bowring, C.S.I.; Henry S. King and Co.,
+London, 1871. Before visiting Mysore the traveller should certainly buy or
+consult this book.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+MYSORE--ITS HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY.
+
+
+In my last chapter I gave a description of Mysore and its waterfalls. In
+the present chapter I purpose very briefly remarking on its history,
+government, and representative assembly, and shall conclude by contrasting
+the last with the so-called National Indian Congress.
+
+In his Report of December, 1804, the Acting Resident of Mysore, Colonel
+Mark Wilks, observed that "the territories composing the present dominion
+of His Highness the Rajah of Mysore had, from the remotest periods of
+tradition, been held by a number of polygars and petty Rajahs, whose
+possessions were incessantly enlarged, diminished, or alienated, by a
+series of revolutions which it would perhaps be impossible to trace, and
+unprofitable to describe," and it is interesting to note how little, at
+that time, seems to have been known about the history of the kingdoms we
+conquered. But all doubts as to the early history of Mysore have now been
+removed, and the reader will find in Mr. Rice's admirable gazetteer of
+Mysore a minute history of the country accompanied by coloured maps which
+show at a glance the numerous transitions which the territories now
+comprised under the head of Mysore have undergone in former times, but as
+I think that it would certainly be unprofitable to describe these
+transitions here I shall content myself with a bare enumeration of those
+leading facts which are necessary for a general comprehension of the
+situation. All, then, that the reader requires to know is, that a line of
+Hindoo Rajahs which once reigned over a very limited portion of Mysore
+gradually acquired about half of it; that a descendant of their line was
+set aside by the Mahometan usurper Hyder Ali (an able soldier of fortune,
+who had risen to the chief command of the army); that he conquered the
+remainder of the present territory and ruled it from 1761 to 1782; and
+that after his death he was succeeded by his son Sultan Tippoo, who on May
+4th, 1799, lost his life at Seringapatam, and with it all the territories
+acquired by his father, thereby fulfilling what Hyder Ali said when he
+observed to his son one day, "I was born to win and you were born to lose
+an empire." The subsequent history of the province is soon told. After the
+fall of Seringapatam it was resolved to place a descendant of the old
+Hindoo line on the throne, and Krishna Rajah Wodeyar--then about five
+years old, became Maharajah of Mysore, with Purnaiya (formerly prime
+minister of Tippoo) as Dewan and Regent, and Colonel (afterwards Sir
+Barry) Close as Resident, while Colonel Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke
+of Wellington) commanded the division. Under the new Government all at
+first went well, and in 1804 the Governor-General declared that during the
+past five years "the affairs of the Government of Mysore had been
+conducted with a degree of regularity, wisdom, discretion and justice
+unparalleled in any native state in India." But, unfortunately for himself
+and his subjects, the Maharajah, in 1811, began to rule, and Purnaiya, the
+able prime minister, retired, and soon afterwards died. Then followed a
+long period of misgovernment, which culminated in the insurrection of
+1830, to put down which the aid of British troops had to be called in. A
+formal inquiry was then made by the British Government, and the result of
+this was that it was determined to transfer the entire administration to
+British officers, and put the Maharajah on an allowance for his personal
+expenditure. At first two commissioners were appointed to administer the
+government, but this was found to be inconvenient, and in April, 1834,
+Colonel (afterwards Sir Mark) Cubbon was appointed as sole commissioner
+for the province. He occupied the post till February, 1861, when he
+retired, and when on his way home died at Suez at about seventy-seven
+years of age, having spent the whole of the previous years of the century
+in India. He was succeeded by other able commissioners, and nothing of any
+political importance happened in the province till June, 1865, when the
+Maharajah adopted as his heir a scion of one of the leading families of
+his house. It was for some time doubtful whether the Government would
+recognize the adoption, as, after the death of the Maharajah, it had been
+generally assumed that the province would be annexed, but in April, 1867,
+the Home Government decided that it should be recognized, and on September
+23rd, 1868, six months after the death of Krishna Rajah, his adopted son,
+Chama Rajendra Wodeyar Bahadur, at that time between five and six years
+old, was duly installed at Mysore, and it was then decided that the
+country should remain under British administration till the Maharajah came
+of age. His Highness attained his majority at the age of eighteen, on the
+5th of March, 1881, and was formally installed on the throne on the 25th
+of that month, and thus the province, after having been directly
+administered by the British for almost exactly fifty years, was handed
+over, not as we shall afterwards see, to native rule, but to native
+administration.
+
+And here a rather interesting question naturally arises. How was such a
+change--one quite unique in the history of India--received by the
+inhabitants of the country? So far as the planters (of whom I am one of
+the oldest, having settled in the province in 1855) are concerned, I do
+not think they have been in the slightest degree affected. They were all
+well satisfied with the English administration, and I think they are
+equally well satisfied with the present native administration. In fact,
+there is no change perceptible, except that the criminal administration,
+has somewhat fallen off, and it certainly has been occasionally found that
+an answer from a native official sometimes resembles death--you think it
+is never coming and then it comes when least expected. But I must confess
+that, as regards answers to communications, I have heard of similar
+complaints made by the former Mysore Government against the Supreme
+Government, and of a like complaint made by the latter against the Home
+Government. But, though the change was regarded with indifference by the
+settlers in the province, and was indeed of obvious advantage to them, as
+there is no income-tax, and the finances are flourishing, it was not at
+all acceptable to the native population in general, and the native
+officials were quite aware that the new administration was not popular. I
+made frequent inquiries as to the cause of this, not only from natives in
+my own neighbourhood, but from those I met when travelling by easy stages
+from the Gairsoppa Falls in the north-western corner of the province to my
+estates in Southern Mysore, and found that the universal complaint was
+that there was a want of Daryápti, or active inquiry into grievances, and
+one of my old native neighbours was loud in his praises of the palmy days
+of Sir Mark Cubbon. I confess, however, that though there may have been
+some grounds for complaint as regards "inquiry," owing to the greater zeal
+and personal activity of Englishmen, I do not think that there were any
+real grounds for dissatisfaction, and feel sure that the unpopularity of
+the new administration was owing partly to the fact of the country, at the
+time of the rendition, not being in a very prosperous condition, partly to
+the strong conservative instincts of the natives, and partly, perhaps, to
+their being under some apprehension that the abuses of the old native
+government might possibly be revived. But, however that may be, from
+inquiries made when last in India, and especially from the absence of any
+reference to the subject in the many conversations I had with natives of
+all classes, I believe that the unpopularity of the new administration,
+which at first undoubtedly existed, has now quite passed away.
+
+It may be as well to mention here that, though the administration is now a
+native one, there are still, in the Mysore service, about thirty-five
+Englishmen in the various departments of the State, and that the most
+friendly relations exist between them and the native officials. I feel
+sure, too, that the value of an admixture of Englishmen in the
+administration is fully recognized by the native officials. As regards
+brain power they equal Englishmen, and indeed are often superior to them,
+but the classes from which the native officials are mainly drawn are, as a
+rule, deficient in that physical vigour which is required for executive
+work, as one of the native officials, who himself was an exception to the
+rule, once told me, "and therefore," he added, "we must have an admixture
+of natives and Europeans in the service." I must, however, observe that,
+though his remark is true as regards the Brahminical classes from which
+the officials are mainly taken, I think it probable that, when education
+spreads, there will ultimately be found amongst the hardy peasantry of
+Mysore a fair proportion of individuals who will have a sufficient degree
+of physical vigour for executive work. In confirmation of the remark I
+have made as to the want of executive vigour on the part of native
+officials, a defect which would be equally apparent in us were our energy
+not kept up by fresh importations from home, I may mention that, under the
+new regime, there has been a distinct falling off in the up-keep of
+roads, and in the detection of crime.
+
+In connection with this subject I may make a passing remark on a point
+which has not hitherto been noticed, so far as I am aware, by previous
+writers. It has constantly been asserted by natives that we have not kept
+faith with them as regards opening to them many appointments in the public
+service which are at present reserved for Englishmen. I would call
+attention to the fact that one of the passages so often quoted contains
+really no general promise of employment. This passage--taken from a clause
+in the East India Act, passed in Parliament, 1833--merely says "That no
+native of the said territories, nor any natural born subject of his
+majesty resident therein, shall by reason _only_ of his religion, place of
+birth, descent, colour, or any of them, be disabled from holding any
+place, office, or employment under the said company." "By reason _only_."
+Yes, but this does not bar disqualification for other reasons, as for
+instance the want of physical vigour to which I have alluded. Then mark
+the careful limitation contained in the often quoted passage from the
+Queen's proclamation of 1858, which sets forth that "It is our further
+will, that, _as far as may be_, our subjects, of whatever race or creed,
+be freely and impartially admitted to office in our service, the duties of
+which they may be qualified, by their education, _ability_ and integrity,
+duly to discharge." But natives have not, generally speaking, the ability
+to discharge executive duties requiring much physical vigour, and no one
+is more ready to admit that than the best among the natives. But besides
+executive efficiency there is the fact that the mere sight of the zeal,
+energy, and general interest in progress exhibited by the English is to
+the natives around them an education worth all the book instruction we
+have imported into India. We cannot have too much of this leavening
+element, and the effects of it are everywhere apparent. It is extremely
+striking in the coffee districts, where many native planters have been,
+much improved as regards go, and a desire to adopt improvements, since
+Europeans have settled more freely amongst them.
+
+But it is time now to turn to the subject of the constitution of Mysore--a
+subject which, I need hardly say, is of the greatest practical importance
+to those who hold, or may think of acquiring, property in the province.
+
+The Instrument of Transfer, then, as it is officially called, by which
+Mysore was made over to native administration on the 25th of March, 1881,
+begins by declaring the installation of the Maharajah and his power to
+rule under certain general conditions, which are--(1) That the Maharajah
+and those who are to succeed him in the manner hereinafter provided, are
+to hold possession of and administer the province as long as they fulfil
+the conditions laid down in the Instrument of Transfer; that (2) the
+succession should devolve on the Maharajah's lineal descendant, whether by
+blood or adoption, except in the case of disqualification through manifest
+unfitness to rule; and that (3) the Maharajah and his successors shall at
+all times remain faithful in allegiance and subordination to the British
+Crown, and perform all the duties which, in virtue of such allegiance and
+subordination, may be demanded of them. Then follow clauses with reference
+to the subsidy to be paid to the British Government for protecting and
+defending the province, military stipulations, foreign relations, coinage,
+railways and telegraphs, and extradition, and as regards the last, it is
+declared that plenary jurisdiction over European British subjects in
+Mysore shall continue to be invested in the Governor-General in Council,
+and that the Maharajah of Mysore shall only exercise such jurisdiction in
+respect to European British subjects as may from time to time be delegated
+to him by the Viceroy. Then with reference to "Laws and Settlements," it
+is declared that those in existence at the time of the transfer must be
+maintained, and that the Maharajah of Mysore "shall not repeal or modify
+such laws, or pass any laws or rules inconsistent therewith," and that no
+material change in the system of administration as established previous to
+the date of the transfer shall be made without the consent of the Viceroy.
+And finally, under this head, it is declared that all title-deeds granted,
+and all settlements of land revenues in force on March 25th, 1881 (the
+date of the transfer), shall be maintained, excepting so far as they may
+be rescinded or modified either by a competent court of law or with the
+consent of the Governor-General in Council. Lastly, under the heading of
+"British Relations," it is declared that "the Maharajah of Mysore shall at
+all times conform to such advice as the Governor-General in Council may
+offer him with a view to the management of the finances, the settlement
+and collection of the revenues, the imposition of taxes, the
+administration of justice, the extension of commerce, the encouragement of
+trade, agriculture, and industry, and any other objects connected with His
+Highness's interests, the happiness of his subjects, and his relations to
+the British Government." And, "In the event of the breach or
+non-observance of any of the foregoing conditions," the Governor-General
+may resume possession of Mysore and administer it as he thinks fit. Such,
+then, is a brief summary of the Constitution of Mysore; and it is most
+necessary to dwell on it with some degree of minuteness in order to show
+those Englishmen who are interested in Mysore, or who may be desirous of
+settling there, that they and their possessions in that country are as
+practically under British rule as they would be in any part of British
+India.
+
+I have previously pointed out that there is no income-tax in Mysore. I
+have also alluded to the fact that, as the finances are in a flourishing
+condition, and, beyond the subsidy annually levied, are free from any
+obligation to contribute to the general expenditure of British India,
+there are ample and certain means available for developing the resources
+of the country. And that these means shall be devoted to that end
+exclusively, I would call particular attention to the fact that it has
+been laid down by the British Government that, after deducting the amount
+set apart annually for the personal expenses of the Maharajah, the
+remaining revenues of the province are to be spent on public purposes
+only, under a regular system of an annual budget appropriation, and the
+proper accounting for such expenditure. So that, taking all the
+circumstances into consideration, it is clear that the settlers in Mysore
+have advantages over any other settlers in India. The taxes they pay on
+their lands are fixed and most moderate in amount, they have every
+security that capital can enjoy, and they are living in a country which,
+after an ample expenditure on public works of all kinds, has an ample
+annual surplus. But, besides those circumstances, the settlers in the
+province, and the inhabitants as well, have another advantage which must
+by no means be lost sight of, for Mysore has a Representative Assembly,
+which sits once a year, and which affords a ready means for publicly
+ventilating any grievance, or making known any want which may be felt by
+the community; and as there is no institution exactly like it in the
+world, I propose to describe the constitution of the Assembly and its
+proceedings with some degree of minuteness.
+
+The Mysore Representative Assembly, then, which was originated by Mr.
+Rungacharlu, the first Prime Minister of Mysore, was inaugurated on the
+25th of August, 1881, or about five months after the accession of the
+Maharajah, by the following notification:
+
+"His Highness the Maharajah is desirous that the views and objects which
+his Government has in view in the measures adopted for the administration
+of the Province should be better known and appreciated by the people for
+whose benefit they are intended, and he is of opinion that a beginning
+towards the attainment of that object may he made by an annual meeting of
+the representative landholders and merchants from all parts of the
+Province, before whom the Dewan will place the results of the past year's
+administration, and a programme of what is intended to be carried out in
+the coming year. Such an arrangement, by bringing the people into
+immediate connection with the Government, would serve to remove from their
+minds any misapprehension as regards the views and action of the
+Government, and would convince them that the interests of the Government
+are identical with those of the people.
+
+"The annual meeting will be conveniently held at Mysore immediately after
+the close of the Dassara festival, which occasion will offer an additional
+inducement to those invited to attend the meeting. For the present the
+Local Fund Boards of the several districts will be asked to select from
+amongst themselves and others of the district the persons who are to be
+deputed to represent their respective districts at the meeting. In order
+to represent the landed interests of all the Talooks (counties), as well
+as the interests of trade, there should be sent one or two cultivating
+landholders from each Talook, possessed of general influence and
+information amongst the people, and three or four leading merchants for
+the district generally. A list of them should be sent beforehand to this
+office, in order to arrange for their accommodation in Mysore. They may be
+allowed a small sum from the local funds to meet the actual expenses of
+their travelling."
+
+The Assembly thus constituted was, as will have been perceived at a
+glance, a purely consultative body, and had no power whatever except (and
+a highly important exception it is) that of publicly stating to the rulers
+of the country all the grievances and wants of the people. The only
+institution that I can hear of that at all resembles it is the Egyptian
+General Assembly of the Legislative Council, but that, though a
+consultative, and not at all a law-making body, has the power of putting a
+veto on any new tax proposed by the Government. In constitution, too, it
+differs widely from the Mysore Assembly, as the ministers have seats in
+it, while in Mysore no Government official can be a member of the
+Assembly. I may mention here that the Egyptian Assembly was initiated by
+Lord Dufferin in May, 1883, and I would refer those interested in the
+creation of representative institutions to his Report, No. 6 (1883), and
+to the Report on Egypt, No. 3 (1892), by Sir Evelyn Baring (now Lord
+Cromer), both being Blue Books presented to the Houses of Parliament. It
+is interesting to note here that whereas Lord Dufferin took the first step
+in the direction of representative institutions by uniting, in the same
+assembly, Government officials, and members elected on the broad basis of
+manhood suffrage, the native statesman began by carefully excluding the
+officials, and allowing only the middle and upper classes to have anything
+to do with the Assembly.
+
+The first meeting of the Mysore Representative Assembly took place on
+October 7th, 1881, when 144 members attended. The Dewan first of all read
+the annual report on the administration of the province, and after that
+the members were called up in succession and asked to state their
+grievances and wants. At the end of the session the Dewan's annual
+statement, or report, and an account of the proceedings of the Assembly,
+are printed in English and in Kanarese.
+
+The Assembly, as we have seen, consisted of members partly appointed by
+the Local Fund Boards, and partly of members nominated through the agency
+of Government officials, but at the conclusion of the Dewan's address of
+October 28th, 1890, an important change in the constitution of the
+Assembly was announced, and a new body of rules was issued. By these all
+members were in future to be elected, and the qualifications entitling a
+man to vote for, or be elected a member for a county (talook), were (1)
+the payment of land revenues, a house and shop tax to the amount specified
+in the schedule[11] for each county; (2) the ownership of land to the
+value of 500 rupees a year, accompanied with residence in the county; and
+(3) any resident in a county who is a graduate of any Indian university is
+declared to be a duly qualified person. Those so qualified were to meet on
+a certain day, of which a month's notice was to be given, and elect
+members from amongst themselves. 212 members from the counties were to be
+thus elected. The cities of Bangalore and Mysore return four members each,
+and these must either pay a house or shop tax of twenty-four rupees, or be
+a graduate of any Indian university; the nine Local Fund Boards return two
+members each; the eighty-nine municipalities one for each municipality,
+and associations representing approved public interests, and of not less
+than 100 members, and also associations of smaller numbers, but recognized
+by Government--as for instance the Planters' Associations--may depute one
+member each, and the total of all the members is estimated at 351. By Rule
+6 it is declared that "As the object of the Assembly is to elicit
+non-official public opinion, no person holding a salaried appointment
+under Government shall vote for, or be returned as, a member of the
+Assembly." By Rule 7, each member is to prepare and forward to the deputy
+commissioner a memo describing seriatim the representations and
+suggestions he may desire to make at the meeting of the Assembly; and by
+Rule 9 the memoranda are to be forwarded, with the deputy-commissioner's
+remarks, to the Chief Secretary to Government. By Rule 10 all the members
+are to hold a formal meeting at Mysore not less than three days before the
+meeting of the Assembly, and should they decide at this preliminary
+meeting to bring forward at the Assembly any subjects not mentioned in the
+memoranda previously sent in by members, a supplemental list of such
+subjects must be sent in to the Chief Secretary.
+
+When announcing the adoption of these new rules, the Dewan alluded to the
+fact that the constitution now given did not insure a full popular
+representation, and stated that numerous practical difficulties stood in
+the way of widening the representation. Finally he concluded by observing
+that, "It is His Highness' sincere hope that the privilege he has now been
+pleased to grant will be exercised to the fullest extent, and in the most
+beneficial manner possible, and that it will be so appreciated by all as
+to enable His Highness gradually to enlarge the circle of electors, so as
+to give wider effect to the principle of representation in the
+constitution of this Assembly."
+
+To this, the first elected Assembly that ever sat in India, I was returned
+as representative of the South Mysore Planters' Association. On the 11th I
+proceeded to the city of Mysore, and on the 12th of October, 1891,
+attended the preliminary meeting of members, which was held in the
+Rungacharlu Memorial Hall--a fine building with a large hall, which has a
+wide daïs at one end, and a, very wide gallery running along three sides
+of the hall. The meeting was held at 8 a.m. in the body of the hall,
+where I found that a considerable body of people, who I presume were
+mostly representatives, were present. The hall was arranged with benches,
+very much as most modern churches are, and just below the daïs was a long
+table with chairs on one side of it. It was proposed that I, the only
+European present, should take the chair, and I accordingly did so, being
+supported on either hand by two members who had a fluent command of
+English, and what was of more importance to me, of Kanarese, for, though I
+had a colloquial knowledge of that language, I had not such a command of
+it as was necessary for satisfactory public speaking. I accordingly read
+out in English (which a certain number of the audience knew) each, measure
+I proposed, and then informed the audience in Kanarese that one of the
+members would explain the subject in that language, and I found that this
+arrangement answered all practical purposes. The following measures had
+been drawn up by me previously in Bangalore after consultation with some
+leading members of the Assembly, and were printed and circulated amongst
+the members present, and it may not be uninteresting to give some of them
+here.
+
+The first point taken up related to measures for the prevention of famine,
+and, after some discussion, four proposals were unanimously agreed to, all
+of them for the promotion of the digging of wells either by private
+enterprise or through the agency of the State. The next point related to
+fuel and fodder reserves, which it was agreed should be established on the
+lands of all villages, or near all villages, wherever land suitable for
+the purpose could be found. We then turned to a bill I had laid on the
+table with reference to advances to labourers--an important and difficult
+subject--when it was agreed that it should be referred to the Planters'
+Association for consideration. An amendment on the waste land rules for
+planting trees for timber and fuel was then considered and agreed to.
+After this it was resolved that a Government agricultural chemist Ought to
+be appointed, who would be competent to advise on agricultural practice,
+cattle disease, etc., and give lectures on such subjects. We then took up
+the subject of British interference with proposed irrigation works in
+Mysore, and resolved that the Mysoreans should be allowed to have the full
+use of the water of Mysore for irrigation purposes, and be free from any
+interference as long as the water, or what is left of it, is returned to
+its original channel. The subject of extradition was next considered, when
+the representatives resolved that (1) complete reciprocity should be
+granted between British and Mysore territory as regards warrants, and (2)
+that British jurisdiction over railways in Mysore should be given up, or
+at least as regards all matters of theft. It was next decided that at the
+close of the session the representatives should continue in office till
+new members were elected. After this it was agreed that Government
+agricultural banks should be introduced. Then the representatives, having
+sat for about four hours, adjourned till the following day.
+
+On the 13th we met again accordingly at 8 a.m., and on this occasion sat
+in the gallery, which was quite wide enough to accommodate the members. It
+was proposed that I should take the chair, and I did so, and opened the
+proceedings by introducing rules to regulate the discussion. These were
+that the introducer of a proposed measure should be allowed ten, and a
+discusser five minutes; that no one should interrupt or rise to speak
+before the previous speaker had sat down, and that a discusser could only
+be heard once. These rules were agreed to, and I found the last two of
+great advantage in managing the proceedings. The first two, I was glad to
+find, were hardly necessary, as anything in the shape of the British, or,
+worse still, the Irish wind-bag, did not appear to exist amongst the
+members.
+
+The next subject taken up was that of organization, and on the assumption
+that the Government would grant our prayer that the present members should
+not be dismissed at the end of the session, but should continue to be
+representatives till their successors were elected, it was resolved that
+there should be a standing central committee of the Assembly, and also
+district and county committees, and it was agreed that the first should
+consist of twenty-two members--for Bangalore and Mysore city six members
+each, one from each district, and one from each coffee planters'
+association. Seven members to constitute a quorum. The district committees
+were to consist of one from each county, and two from the head-quarters of
+the district, five being a quorum, and the county committees of three
+members. We then agreed to the members who were to form the central
+committee and district committees, and, after that, that the Maharajah
+should be formally thanked for his action on his part as regards the
+Assembly, and that it should be prayed that the measures now asked for
+might be granted. And finally, it was arranged that the standing central
+committee should draw up an address to the Maharajah, embodying the views
+and wishes of the representatives.
+
+The meeting terminated at about 11 a.m., and immediately afterwards the
+central committee sat upstairs in a room at an angle of the building, when
+I was appointed chairman. We first took up the question of funds, and I
+suggested that each member of the Assembly should subscribe one rupee.
+This was agreed to, and I at once put a rupee on the table, and presently
+there were about fifteen added, and a list was made out of those who had
+paid. We then agreed that an address should be presented to the Maharajah
+after the termination of the meetings of the Assembly, and afterwards it
+was arranged that Mr. C. Rangiengar, B.A., Advocate, Mysore, should be
+secretary to the central committee, spend the funds at his discretion for
+printing and advertising, and render an account once a year.
+
+The next day was a _dies non_ as regards the Representative Assembly, but
+by no means so as regards the Rungacharlu Hall, which at eight in the
+morning presented a most interesting appearance, being filled with a large
+assemblage of native ladies who had met together to witness the giving of
+the prizes to the lady students of the Maharanee's College. The Maharajah
+presided on the occasion. Besides prizes for educational proficiency,
+there were others for music and singing, and the winners of these played
+and sang on a platform below, on one side of the daïs. One of the
+musicians, a tastefully-dressed young lady of thirteen, was a
+granddaughter of Mr. Rungacharlu, the first Prime Minister of Mysore. One
+of the prize-takers was a widow--plainly dressed as widows should be--and
+as she came forward there was a loud clapping of hands from the women
+spectators in the gallery. I found, on inquiry, that the reason of this
+demonstration was that she had lately given a lecture which had been much
+appreciated by the students. I have no space to give an account of the
+proceedings, though I hope to do so on some future occasion, and can only
+say that a more interesting and picturesque assemblage it would be
+difficult to imagine.
+
+On the day following, October 15th, the Assembly was formally opened at
+twelve, when the Dewan presided at a table on the raised platform. He was
+backed and flanked by the principal European and native officers of State,
+while on his right sat Sir Harry Prendergast, V.C., the Resident at the
+Court of Mysore. The English representatives, five in all, one of them
+representing the gold mining interests of the province, had seats on the
+platform, and so had as many representatives as there was room for. The
+remainder occupied the body of the hall. The Dewan then opened the tenth
+annual meeting of the Representative Assembly of Mysore, by reading the
+already printed annual administration Report of the Province, and it may
+not be uninteresting to quote the opening sentences of it:
+
+ "Gentlemen,
+
+ "By command of His Highness the Maharajah, I have much pleasure
+ in welcoming you to this Assembly, which meets here to-day for
+ the first time under the election system sanctioned last year.
+ You come here as the duly elected representatives of the
+ agricultural, the industrial, and the commercial interests of the
+ State. Last year, when His Highness was pleased to grant the
+ valued privilege of election, he was not without some misgivings
+ as to how the experiment would succeed, but it is most gratifying
+ to His Highness that, though unused to the system, the electoral
+ body has been able, in the very first year of its existence, to
+ exercise the privilege with so much judgment and sense of
+ responsibility as to send to this Assembly men in every way
+ qualified to speak on their behalf. That men representing the
+ industry and the intellect of the country should have already
+ taken so much interest in the scheme augurs well for the future
+ of the institution. His Highness asks me to take this opportunity
+ publicly to acknowledge the expressions of warm gratitude which
+ have reached him from all sides for the privilege of election
+ granted last year."
+
+The Dewan then proceeded to make his statement of the Revenue and
+Expenditure of 1890-91, by which it appeared that the Revenue for that
+period--the largest ever realized by the State--was 145 lakhs of rupees,
+or, at par,[12] £1,450,000, and the account showed a surplus of 23 lakhs,
+or £230,000; but from this had to be deducted a sum for expenditure on
+new railways, which reduced the surplus, or rather, disposed of it to such
+an amount as to leave a balance of 12-1/2 lakhs, or £125,000. The budget
+was then taken up in detail, and the Dewan showed in the most lucid manner
+the financial position as regards the various heads of receipts and
+expenditure, all of which I shall pass over except that relating to gold,
+which the reader will probably find interesting, for, as the Kanarese
+proverb says, "If gold is to be seen, even a corpse will open its mouth."
+There was, then, an increase in State receipts from gold mining dues to
+the extent of 37,000 rupees in the amount of royalty, while "Premia and
+deposits on leases" brought in 71,000 rupees. The mines in the Kolar gold
+field during 1890 extracted 106,903 ounces of gold. Three of them--the
+Mysore, Ooregum, and Nundydroog--showed a considerable increase in
+production over the previous year. The first increased from 49,238 oz. to
+58,183 oz.; the second from 16,437 oz. to 27,351 oz., and the third from
+6,129 oz. to 15,637 oz.
+
+The Dewan then called the attention of the Assembly to the working of some
+of the principal departments of the State, beginning with the railways,
+and, after giving a very satisfactory account of the progress made,
+concluded this branch of his subject by observing that "As regards our
+main railway policy there will be no pause in the course of development,
+and should our financial condition continue to improve, the next decade
+will see the Province intersected with lines which, in the decade
+preceding the rendition, were only thought of as remote possibilities." He
+next remarked on other public works, and showed that in the last ten years
+no less than 471 miles of entirely new roads had been opened up, while 218
+miles of incomplete roads, which had been inherited at the time of the
+rendition, had been brought up to standard. Then he turned to irrigation,
+and stated that the large irrigation works commenced in former years were
+advancing towards completion. And here the Dewan alluded to a matter of
+the greatest importance, and to which I shall again return further on. It
+appears that the Supreme Government had actually put a stop to certain
+irrigation works begun by the Mysore Government on the ground that these
+would lessen the supply of water from Mysore to British territory. As to
+this the Dewan now observed on "The difference which had arisen with the
+Madras authorities as to the rights of Mysore to the full use of its
+drainage areas." The case had been laid before the Government of India,
+and the Dewan said that "the basis for a solution of the difficulty has
+been arranged with the Madras Government in a way that is likely to remove
+to a considerable extent the check that the progress of our irrigation
+works had received in tracts bordering upon the Madras Presidency."
+
+The subject of well irrigation too had not been neglected, and the Dewan
+pointed out that its protective value in times of drought is far superior
+to tank irrigation, and observed that, "During the last famine the only
+oases in the midst of the general desolate appearance of the country were,
+besides the tracts watered by our river channels, those special regions
+favoured with well irrigation." So important was well irrigation, that the
+Government had resolved to make advances to ryots willing to construct
+them, at a low rate of interest, and repayable by easy instalments in a
+long series of years. In the event of water not being found, or found in
+insufficient quantity, the Government had undertaken the risk of failure,
+so that the farmer was placed beyond all risk of loss. And, in order to
+facilitate the progress of such works, a special officer had been
+appointed to give the advances on the spot, so as to avoid the delay
+caused by the usual circuitous official correspondence.
+
+I may here pause for one moment to remark on the great value of the
+Assembly as regards any new measure like the one just alluded to, for it
+often happens that from the scarcity of newspapers, and the inability of
+the poorer ryots to purchase them, measures of great value are not taken
+advantage of, or only are so after a long delay. Now an assembly like that
+of Mysore provides an excellent means for distributing information on all
+Government matters, and in one part of his address the Dewan particularly
+requested the representatives from two important districts to explain
+fully to the people certain matters, the particulars of which I cannot,
+for want of space, give here.
+
+The Dewan then went into the interesting subject of Forests, and it was
+satisfactory to notice the progress that had been made in planting, and
+that sandal wood had year after year been yielding an increased revenue.
+The transition from forests to elephants was natural, and during the year
+70 had been caught. Some died after capture and others were liberated. Of
+the 44 retained, 41, of which 14 were tuskers, were sold for 50,705
+rupees. Having fully discussed the elephants, the Dewan turned next to
+education, and here he was able to record marked progress in every
+direction, and especially in female instruction. There were now 97 girls'
+schools in the province, and an important change had been made as regards
+their immediate supervision, which was now exercised by local committees.
+"The committees," said the Dewan, "have been given large powers of
+management, and the initiative rests, in almost all cases, with them,
+subject to the approval of Government." The object of this of course was
+to interest the people in the subject, and the Dewan observed that "Female
+education cannot become firmly established in the country until the people
+begin to look upon the education of their girls, whether children or
+adults, as necessary, and as obligatory as that of their boys. The
+Government have thought that the best way of securing this result in the
+infancy of female education is to leave as much as possible to the
+intelligent and sympathetic guidance of local committees." After alluding
+to the results of the archæological survey, and dwelling on the fact that
+during the past year 1,500 inscriptions were secured, some of which were
+of great value and interest, the Dewan then took up the subject of excise,
+and went into the reforms he proposed to institute as regards that
+department. The census of Feb. 26th, 1891, was next alluded to, and by
+this it appeared that, including the civil and military' station of
+Bangalore, the population returned was 4,943,079 as compared with
+4,183,188 in 1881, and 5,055,412 in 1871. The increase during the last
+decade was thus very considerable, but Mysore has still some progress to
+make before it can bring up its numbers to the census return of 1871,
+nearly a million of persons having been swept away in the disastrous
+famine of 1876-77. The municipal elections were next alluded to, and it
+was announced that the cities of Bangalore and Mysore were to have an
+extension of the electoral system. The important subject of the reform of
+religious and charitable institutions (there had been several
+representations made as regards these in previous years by members of the
+Assembly) was next taken up, and it was announced that a specially
+qualified officer had been appointed to "inquire into the subject on the
+spot, and to carry out the needed reform in the case of each institution
+under the general and special orders of Government, and, when once all
+institutions are thoroughly reformed and placed upon a sound and efficient
+footing, the future management of them on the lines laid down will, as
+heretofore, have to be carried on by the local executive authorities."
+After alluding to some contemplated reforms in the Civil Service of the
+province, the Dewan concluded his able address by alluding to the
+apprehensions of famine which had been consequent on the failure of the
+rains, and congratulating the members on the fact that owing to good rain
+having fallen only a fortnight ago, the threatened danger had now passed
+away.
+
+After the conclusion of the Dewan's address I then rose, and, as chairman
+of the preliminary meetings of representatives, alluded to the subject of
+the organization of committees which we desired to carry into effect, and
+urged that, as far as possible, members should avoid going into petty
+local grievances, and devote their attention to those large general
+questions which affect the whole province. After I had sat down a
+translation of the Dewan's address was then delivered in Kanarese, for the
+benefit of the representatives who did not understand English, and the
+Assembly afterwards adjourned till the following morning.
+
+After the Assembly had adjourned the members of the central committee met
+in a private room, and we agreed on the terms of the address to the
+Maharajah. Then we returned to the Hall, as it had been thought advisable
+to take up several matters which had not been discussed at our first
+preliminary meeting, and it was again proposed that I should take the
+chair. The first proposal made was that members, instead of being annually
+elected to the Assembly, should be elected for three years, and this was
+unanimously carried. A leading native member next rose and proposed that
+no girl under ten years of age should be given in marriage. Then ensued a
+scene of excitement that baffles description. The representatives who, the
+moment before, had been quite calm and collected, and who looked so
+passive that it seemed that nothing could have aroused them from a
+condition of profound composure, became suddenly electrified. A burst of
+tongues arose simultaneously all over the Assembly. Several members got up
+and tried to speak at once, and one of these (I think I see him now), a
+tall, stout, elderly man with a voice of thunder, and his appearance much
+accentuated by an enormous bamboo pen which he had thrust behind his ear,
+entered into an altercation with the proposer of the motion. I had no
+president's bell, and if I had had one I am sure I might have rung it in
+vain, and I thought it best to sit still for a little time, and let the
+representatives liberate their minds. Presently, and the moment I saw the
+first signs of an abatement of the excitement, I rose, and, with a slight
+signal of my hand quieted the audience, and observed that, as this was a
+subject as to which there was evidently much difference of opinion, and as
+it was very desirable that, as regards the measures proposed at our
+preliminary meetings,[13] there should be a complete unanimity of opinion,
+I begged leave to suggest to the meeting that the subject might be
+adjourned, and, if desired, brought up at the next day's meeting of the
+full Assembly. This was agreed to, and a member then proposed that two
+seers of grain (about equal to four lbs.) should be contributed yearly by
+each ryot, and stored up in a public granary against times of famine.
+This, I confess, I thought, and still think, a sensible proposal, as, in
+the first burst of a famine it is very desirable, till trade operations
+from a distance get under weigh, that local supplies should exist, but,
+after some discussion, I found that the proposal met with such small
+approval, that I did not think of putting it to the meeting. It was next
+proposed, and as can easily be imagined, carried unanimously, that where,
+from the failure of the rains, there was absolutely no crop whatever, a
+remission of the assessment should be granted. Finally it was agreed that,
+at the opening of the Assembly on the following morning, I should bring up
+and speak on all the points that had been agreed to at the meetings over
+which I had presided, and the meeting broke up at three o'clock. After it
+was over several of the representatives expressed to me their gratitude
+for the interest I had shown in the affairs of Mysore, and from the
+numerous evidences I subsequently had of the appreciation of the natives,
+I felt most amply repaid for the trouble I had taken.
+
+On the following morning, Friday, Oct. 16th, the Assembly met at eight
+o'clock, and I was called on to proceed with my address as chairman of the
+preliminary meetings, and though I spoke as briefly as possible on each of
+the points which had been agreed to, my speech lasted for one hour and
+twenty minutes. After it was over the Dewan asked if any member desired to
+speak on any of the points I had brought forward, but no one rose to do
+so, which was satisfactory evidence that complete unanimity had existed as
+regards the various points, and that I had correctly conveyed the opinions
+of the representatives. The Dewan then called upon each representative in
+turn to state any grievances, or make known any wants which his
+constituents had desired him to represent, and a great many local wants as
+regards roads, hospitals, telegraphs, etc., were brought forward. The
+subject that excited most interest, and afforded some amusement, was that
+of the age at which girls should be given in marriage, which had been
+brought forward at the meeting of the day previous. Some discussion ensued
+regarding it, when it appeared that the point as to which the
+representatives were really most concerned, was that of elderly men who
+had no children marrying again and again with the hope of getting them,
+regarding which one of the representatives said to me in conversation, "We
+object to old fogies marrying young girls." The point was especially urged
+by one member, who argued in the most serious manner that, if a man when
+in the prime of life had no family there was little likelihood of success
+when he was between sixty and seventy years of age. This remark was
+received with general laughter, and shortly afterwards the Dewan made a
+judicious reply on the whole question, and said that, in his opinion, the
+interference of the Government was inadvisable, and that the question was
+one that ought to be settled by the people consulting privately on the
+subject. Then the Assembly turned to other matters, and finally adjourned
+at midday.
+
+I may here mention that I subsequently had some conversation with natives
+regarding the marriage question, especially as to the age for
+consummation, when I found that the pressure of public opinion, and the
+various discussions on the subject, which had appeared in the newspapers,
+had already produced a considerable effect in delaying the time for
+married girls leaving the paternal roof to join their husbands.
+
+It may perhaps be not uninteresting to mention too that, on the afternoon
+of the day on which I made my speech I fell in with two native gentlemen
+who spoke to me about it. What I found had been particularly appreciated
+(and very naturally so as water is of such vital importance in India), was
+the firm protest I had made against the Supreme Government restricting the
+Mysoreans as to the use, for irrigation, of the waters of Mysore on the
+ground that a more extended use of them would lessen the supply to the
+adjacent British territory. In the course of my speech, I made a very
+telling point by supposing, for the sake of argument, that Mysore had, as
+had been originally proposed, been annexed, and made an integral part of
+the Madras Presidency. In that case, I asked, would the Government have
+limited the supply of the water to the Mysore part of the presidency in
+order to improve the more distant irrigated tracts in other parts of
+British territory? I then argued that the British Government would
+certainly not have done so, seeing that, to have so acted would have
+diminished the means available for contending with famine, for, as I
+fully urged, it is perfectly well known that the further the water travels
+the greater is the waste from percolation and evaporation, and the smaller
+the amount of land it can irrigate. If, then, the British Government would
+not have so acted had Mysore been annexed, what right, I asked, had it to
+interfere with Mysore regarding the use of its waters, and thereby to
+increase the risks of famine in that country? It was no wonder, I
+continued, that an English officer in the Mysore service had been heard to
+say that he supposed Mysore would not be allowed to plant a tree, in case
+it might precipitate some moisture that might otherwise pass over into
+British territory.
+
+I may here mention another remark which the above mentioned native
+gentleman made as regards my speech. "It was not so much the speech as the
+sense of fairness, and frankness, and sincerity which you showed that
+impressed us." This remark showed, as I have often found, that the common
+idea of natives always having recourse to flattery is a mistaken one, and
+it was rather interesting to find the ideas of ancient times repeated by
+one who could have heard hardly anything in the way of public speaking.
+The reader may remember how Quinctilian in effect said that there is no
+instrument of persuasion more powerful than an opinion of probity and
+honour in the person who undertakes to persuade, and how it has been
+pointed out that the powerful effect caused by the speaking of Pericles
+really lay in the confidence which the people reposed in his integrity.
+But it is time now to turn to the proceedings of the Assembly, which had
+been adjourned to Saturday, October 17th.
+
+On that day, then, we met at 8 a.m., and it was proposed by one of the
+representatives that the collection of the land revenues should in future
+be postponed till after the harvest, as the present times of collection
+were inconvenient to the cultivators and often compelled them to borrow
+money, or mortgage their crops in order to find money to meet the
+Government demands. The change asked for was warmly urged by the speaker,
+who gave very convincing reasons, which I have no space to repeat here, in
+favour of the proposed alteration. After this speech was over the Dewan
+turned to the head revenue officer and consulted him, and also two English
+officials of great experience. I did not look at my watch, but I am sure
+the consultation did not last five minutes. The Dewan then turned to the
+Assembly and said, "This proposal is granted," and the decision was
+received with loud applause. The chief revenue and settlement officer
+afterwards told me that this was the most important point ever gained by
+the Assembly.
+
+I may pause here to remark that what I saw and heard at the Assembly,
+combined with what I previously knew of the Mysore Government, satisfied
+me that a more perfect form of government does not exist in the world.
+Here, as we have just seen, was a most important measure gained for the
+country after what was really a very short consultative meeting between
+the ruler and the ruled. The ruler--in other words the Dewan--was sitting
+like a judge on the bench, patiently listening to and taking notes of the
+various wants of the people as the representatives came
+forward--occasionally consulting with his officials--granting some things,
+absolutely refusing others, and announcing sometimes that the subject
+brought forward would be taken into consideration, while the
+representatives seemed to be perfectly satisfied that the ruler would
+willingly do, and was willingly doing, the best he could for the common
+interest. I may mention that I was particularly struck with the dignified,
+gentlemanly and friendly manner of the Dewan when consulting his English
+officials, and there was evidently a mutual appreciation existing, which I
+had afterwards distinct knowledge of when I subsequently heard some of
+these officials alluding, in private conversation, to the Dewan. I have a
+great dislike to the idea of being thought guilty of flattery, but I
+cannot refrain from recording the remarkable fact that (and how rarely can
+this be said of any public man), while I have heard much in favour of the
+Dewan, I have never heard a single deprecatory remark made concerning his
+administration of the province, either by natives or Europeans. Mysore is
+indeed extremely fortunate in having such a man as Mr. Sheshadri Iyer,
+since made Sir K. Sheshadri Iyer, K.C.I.E., at the head of affairs. He has
+already been granted an extension of the usual period of office (five
+years), and it is to be hoped that the very doubtful practice of selecting
+a new man for this important office, even though there may be a valuable
+one at the helm, may be put aside for at least some years more.
+
+The Assembly sat on the two following days, and was concluded by the
+presentation of an address to the Maharajah, thanking His Highness for
+having instituted an elected Assembly, and praying that the various wants
+brought forward might meet with favourable consideration. In all, the
+Assembly, inclusive of the preliminary meetings of the representatives,
+sat for eight days, and though there was much earnestness in discussion,
+and much difference of opinion, not a single case of an exhibition of ill
+feeling occurred, with the exception, as we have seen, of the occasion
+when the marriage question was brought forward, though that may be called
+an exhibition of warm and excited feeling rather than ill feeling.
+
+As the reader will remember, the representatives have no power whatever,
+except, and a very important exception it of course is, of ventilating in
+public, and in the presence of the Dewan and the leading officers of
+State, whatever grievances and wants they may desire to call attention to,
+and the machinery for this ventilation is now so complete that the
+requirements even of those inhabiting the most inaccessible corners of
+the province can be readily made known to the Government. And now this
+question naturally arises. When, if ever, is it probable that this
+Assembly will demand for itself some direct power of controlling, or
+directing the Government? As far as I could see at the time, or can see
+now, the Assembly is never likely to ask for any power whatever, and I
+confess that I was much struck with the fact that, though I had many
+private conversations relating to the Assembly, both with natives and
+Europeans, I never expressed myself, nor did I ever hear anyone express, a
+desire that the Assembly should have any power. But after a little
+reflection, the explanation of the absence of any such demand seems to be
+extremely obvious, for if we look into the history of all parliamentary
+institutions such as we have, we shall find that they have arisen
+primarily from misgovernment, and I say primarily because such
+institutions in the United States and in our colonies are merely
+inheritances from the forefathers of the English founders of these
+countries. The insuperable difficulty, then, in the way of those who
+desire to create parliamentary institutions in India is, that there is no
+misgovernment on which to start them, and that is why the Indian National
+(so called, for there is nothing really national about it) Congress have
+found it advisable, as a preliminary step, to try and persuade the people,
+with the aid of lying and seditious pamphlets, that they are misgoverned.
+If indeed I were the absolute monarch of Mysore I could certainly, I feel
+sure, create Parliamentary Institutions, but only in one way that I can
+think of. I should misgovern the country and worry and oppress the people,
+and at the same time keep the Assembly going, and after a time I should
+thus create a desire on the part of the representatives to have some means
+of keeping me in check. But at present there is no one to keep in check.
+The Government is really too good for the creation of any desire for
+change. For the ruler of Mysore is not only desirous of meeting the people
+half way, but even of anticipating their wants, and the people have a
+ready means of making their wants known. And, when making known these
+wants, their representatives are not only free from the expense and
+annoyances to which Members of Parliament are exposed, but have a most
+enjoyable time of it as well, for the Assembly is held at the time of the
+great annual festival of the Dassara, when there are wonderfully
+picturesque processions, illuminations, and displays of fireworks. In
+fact, were it not for these attractions, I feel sure that it would be a
+difficult matter to get the representatives together, because, though they
+are of course easily able to find many wants, there are no grievances so
+real as to make the people generally take much, or indeed any, interest in
+the proceedings of the Assembly, and in this connection I may mention the
+following confirmatory facts.
+
+On the morning following the breaking up of the Assembly I left Mysore to
+make a tour in Coorg to visit the plantations in that district, and drove
+first of all sixteen miles to breakfast at a Travellers' Bungalow on the
+main road. While breakfast was being prepared I went for a stroll, and
+fell into conversation with the first native I met, who, I found, was,
+with the aid of a number of labourers, working a plantation of palms and
+fruit-trees at a short distance from the bungalow. I expressed a wish to
+see the plantation, and, when on our way there, told him that I had just
+been attending the Representative Assembly at Mysore. Just imagine my
+feelings, when he told me that he had never heard of it, nor indeed when
+he did hear of it did he ask me a single question about it. And yet we
+were only sixteen miles from the capital, and on one of the main roads of
+the province. He was, too, a man of fair intelligence and, though we
+conversed in Kanarese, he told me that he knew some English, which proved
+that he was a man of a certain degree of education. On my return to my
+estates I found that, though the natives had heard of the Assembly
+(probably because the native representative lived within a few miles of my
+house), no one seemed to take any interest in its proceedings, and I do
+not remember having been asked a single question with reference to it. The
+explanation, of course, of this state of things is that the people are
+perfectly contented, and satisfied with the steady progress they see going
+on around them. There is therefore no demand[14] for representative
+institutions, or the acquisition of power by the people, for while they
+see abundant signs of progress, there is no oppression, and therefore
+there are no real grievances. But, though there is no such demand, I must
+caution the reader against supposing that I do not attach much importance
+to the Assembly as a highly valuable means of bringing the people and
+their rulers into friendly touch with each other, and as a most useful
+means of inter-communication regarding every fact that it is important for
+the ruler and the ruled to know. Such an assembly is indeed of the highest
+value, and I have no doubt that a similar kind of assembly would be
+valuable in many parts of India. And such assemblies will in the future be
+far more necessary and valuable than such institutions would have been in
+the past, because, in former times, the rulers, not being nearly so much
+burdened with office and desk-work as they now are, had far more leisure
+time to mix with the people, and hear from them the expression of their
+wants or grievances.
+
+I have alluded previously to the lying and seditious pamphlets which have
+been circulated by the so-called Indian National Congress (and I say
+so-called because, as we shall see, there is really nothing national about
+it), and allude to them again partly in order to point out that they are a
+most cheering evidence of the universal good government in India, because,
+had it been really ill governed, there would have been no occasion to
+issue the pamphlets in question. The fact is, that the agitators of the
+Congress found it necessary to create a case as a ground-work for
+demanding representative institutions for India, and began by imitating
+the action of the Irish agitators. And here, for the benefit of those who
+have not had time to study Indian affairs, it may be as well to give a
+brief description of the Indian Congress, more especially as those who
+know but very little of India may confound it with the kind of assembly we
+have in Mysore, and which I have suggested for adoption in other parts of
+India.
+
+When I was passing through Poona in the year 1879, I was called upon by
+seven leading members of the native community who knew of the interest I
+had taken in Indian affairs, and in the course of our conversation they
+made some remarks on the desire of the educated natives for some share of
+political power. I then explained to them that, as it was clear that India
+was entirely unfit for representative institutions, the only result would
+be that power would be transferred from a limited class of Englishmen to a
+very limited class of natives, which would be of no advantage to the
+country whatever. My remarks were followed by a dead silence which was
+broken by one of them saying, in a desponding tone, "you have educated us,
+and you have made us discontented accordingly," thus illustrating very
+forcibly what I suppose Solomon meant when he said, "He that increaseth
+knowledge increaseth sorrow." But, however that may be, the utterance of
+the native in question explains the origin of the Indian Congress which
+was started in 1885 by a small number of the educated classes who began to
+climb the political tree with considerable vigour, illustrating as they
+did so the native proverb which tells us that "The higher the monkey
+climbs the more he shows his tail." And, in fact, the members of the
+Congress showed theirs so completely when they climbed to the top of their
+political tree at Madras in 1887, that their proceedings would be hardly
+worth noticing were it not that they might be the means of prejudicing the
+proper claims of the natives to consultative assemblies like the one we
+have in Mysore. With people less advanced as regards common sense than the
+natives of India, and also less suspicious of the educated classes, the
+Congress wallahs, as they are sometimes called, might have done some
+mischief, but the only harm they have really done, and I consider it no
+small harm, is to lower the educated natives in general in the ideas of
+those who have not had an opportunity of knowing the best of them, and so
+appreciating their admirable abilities and calm common sense. For when the
+public knows, as all those who have paid any attention to the subject do
+know, that the members of the Congress are now selling pamphlets which are
+intended to bring the Queen's Government into hatred and contempt, its
+opinion of the educated natives of India is not likely to be a high one.
+And in order to make quite sure that the Congress is still selling the
+pamphlets in question, I suggested to the secretary of the Athenæum in
+June, 1892, to purchase for the library of that club (and he accordingly
+did so), from the Indian Congress office in London, a copy of the Congress
+proceedings with which the pamphlets in question are bound up. And it may
+not be uninteresting to note here that Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, M.P., as a
+leading member of the Congress, is therefore one of the sellers of the
+pamphlets. It is, however, only fair to add, as an excuse for Mr.
+Dadabhai Naoroji and his misguided associates, that they have, after all,
+only followed on the track of the Irish agitators, and no doubt consider
+that the preaching of sedition against the Government to whom they owe so
+much is the proper course to pursue when aiming at political power. And as
+an extenuation of their action it should also be considered that the
+members of the Congress, who at first were acting in a perfectly
+legitimate manner, eventually fell under the guidance of a retired member
+of the Indian Civil Service--a certain Mr. Hume--who seems to have lodged
+some of his own extravagant ideas in the heads of the raw and
+inexperienced members of the Congress, and who is supposed to be the
+author of the seditious pamphlets. And now let me give a brief account of
+the Congress, and its aims and views.
+
+The first Congress, which met in Bombay in December, 1885, consisted of
+seventy-eight persons, who came from twenty-five places. They were neither
+elected nor delegated, and how they came together does not appear in the
+published proceedings of the Congress. The principal resolution passed on
+the occasion related to the reforms of the various Indian Councils.
+
+The second Congress, which was composed of 440 persons, who were partly
+elected and partly delegated, and of persons who could produce no evidence
+of being one or the other, met in Calcutta in December, 1886, and (p. 10
+of Report of 1887) "passed a series of resolutions of the highest
+importance," which is undoubtedly true, as the result of them would, if
+carried into effect, practically be to substitute the rule of the Congress
+for that of the Queen. This change was proposed to be effected by
+reconstituting the Provincial, Legislative, and Governor-General's
+Council, enlarging them, and giving "not less than one half" (p. 217 of
+Report of 1887) of the seats to members elected through the agency of the
+Congress. This proposed measure was justly considered by the delegates to
+be the key of the position, as we shall more fully see when we come to the
+consideration of the proceedings of the next Congress.
+
+This, the third Congress, met at Madras in December, 1887, when 604
+delegates (a large number of whom were lawyers and newspaper editors), who
+"were appointed either at open public meetings or by a political or trade
+association," assembled and passed no less than eleven resolutions. The
+second, fifth and eighth of these are worthy of notice, as also are the
+seditious political pamphlets previously alluded to, which, for convenient
+reference, are bound up with the report of the proceedings.
+
+The second resolution (p. 82 of Report of 1887) reaffirms the resolutions
+of the two previous Congresses, which demand the expansion and reforms of
+the various Indian Councils. Here the first speaker (p. 83) was a Mr.
+Bannerjee, a newspaper editor, who in his introductory remarks in support
+of the resolution assured the delegates that "the dream of ages is about
+to be realized." We are not the legislators of the country, he further on
+remarks, "though we hope to be so some day when the Councils are
+reconstituted," and eloquent was the language of the speaker when he
+subsequently dwelt on the fact that the power of making the laws would at
+once give them every reform they could desire. Mr. Bannerjee was succeeded
+by other native speakers, who dwelt warmly upon the advantages of
+representative institutions, and these were followed by Mr. Norton,
+Coroner of Madras, who most highly extolled the resolution. "That," he
+said, "is the key of all your future triumph" (p. 90), and further on in
+his speech he urges them to persevere up to the day "when you shall place
+your hand upon the purse strings of the country and the government," for,
+he continued, "once you control the finances, you will taste the true
+meaning of power and freedom."
+
+And here, after all the talk about the value of representative
+institutions, and just as the Congress seemed to be on the verge of
+recommending parliamentary institutions such as we have, the members
+suddenly wheeled about and practically declared that India was unfit for
+them by deciding (p. 91) that, as the rural districts might not elect
+suitable members, the so-called representatives of the people were to be
+nominated by an electoral college, which was to be composed of members
+sent up from the various district and municipal boards, chambers of
+commerce, and universities. The power of election was thus to be
+conferred, to use Mr. Norton's words, on "a body of men who would
+practically represent the flower of the educated inhabitants." These views
+were much applauded by the delegates, who thus ratified the system of
+nominating the so-called representatives, and which system, I may add, is
+carefully laid down in Clause 2 of Resolution IV. of 1886 (p. 217). Having
+thus most practically declared that India is quite unfit for
+representative institutions in the ordinary sense of the word, Mr. Norton
+proceeded to point out that, as the desired power for reconstituting the
+government is not likely to be obtained in India, they must work on the
+people of England, who at present believe, he says (p. 92), that the
+Indian Government is "being beneficiently carried on." "You must disturb
+that belief," he continued. In other words, he might have said, you must
+do what the Parnellites did, or attempted to do, in England. And
+accordingly the Congress wirepullers have set up an agency in London, and
+have posted placards purporting to be an appeal from 200 millions of India
+to the people of England.
+
+But after all, the desired majority in the Indian Councils, which the
+delegates rightly declared to be the key of the whole position, would be
+insufficiently supported without an army and an armed population at the
+back of it, and all in sympathy with the native soldiers in the English
+service. These wants, however, are carefully attended to in Resolutions 5
+and 8, which we will now briefly glance at.
+
+Read by itself, the Fifth Resolution seems to be harmless, and even
+laudable, for it expresses a desire (p. 123) for "A system of volunteering
+for the Indian inhabitants of the country such as may qualify them to
+support the Government in a crisis." But the writer of the introductory
+article to the Report (p. 48) shows the great value the force would be in
+bringing pressure to bear on the Government, and points out that, with
+250,000 native volunteers, with many times that number trained in previous
+years, and backed by the whole country, and with all the native troops (p.
+49) more in sympathy with their fellow-countrymen than with the English,
+the present system of government would be impossible. And it is further
+pointed out in the introductory article that "This means a revolution--a
+noiseless bloodless revolution--but none the less a complete revolution."
+Then the writer reckons that these volunteers "will be backed by the whole
+country," and this naturally leads to the consideration of the Eighth
+Resolution, for the backing would obviously be of much greater value were
+the whole population armed.
+
+This Resolution (p. 147) demands the repeal of the Arms Act on account of
+the "hardship it causes, and the unmerited slur which it casts on the
+people of this country." Now as any respectable person can obtain a
+license to carry firearms for under 4s., and as cultivators are granted
+licenses gratis in order that they may, free of all charge, defend
+themselves and their crops from wild animals, and as we know further from
+the great number of licenses granted that there can be no difficulty in
+obtaining them, it is evident that there can be no hardship in connection
+with this Act--a conclusion which is further confirmed by the fact that,
+in consequence of the number of guns in the hands of natives, wild animals
+are becoming rarer, and, as I can personally testify, have in many cases
+been almost completely exterminated. And if we consider further that the
+necessity for taking out a license in India can inflict no greater slur
+than is cast on the English in England by their having to take out gun
+licenses, it is evident that the vehemently expressed desire for the
+repeal of this Act is only explicable when read along with the previously
+quoted remarks with reference to the native volunteering and the armed
+population in sympathy with them at their back, and with the detonating
+matter which appears in those seditious pamphlets to which I shall now
+briefly refer.
+
+These pamphlets, or rather translations of them, are printed at the close
+of the Report of 1887, and complete our view of the situation, which may
+be shortly described by saying that, while the delegates in the van
+deliver speeches for English consumption full of expressions of loyalty
+and praises of our rule, the wirepullers in the rear are distributing
+pamphlets amongst the people in which all expressions of loyalty are
+absent, while all the evils the people suffer from are attributed to our
+Government, and the Queen's English officials are held up to execration as
+types of everything that is at once brutal and tyrannical. The second
+pamphlet gives us a dialogue between a native barrister, and a farmer
+called Rambaksh, and between them as much evil is said of us and our rule
+as can well be packed into so short a space. As an instance of the way in
+which the English officials ill-treat the natives, Rambaksh declares that
+because on one occasion he had not furnished enough grass for the horses
+of the collector--Mr. Zabardust (literally a brutal and overbearing
+tyrant), he had been struck by the Sahib over the face and mouth, and that
+by his orders he (Rambaksh) had been "dragged away and flogged till he
+became insensible. It was months before he could walk" (p. 209 of Report).
+Then the India of the present is contrasted with what India would be if it
+were under the rule of the Congress, and an allegorical comparison is made
+between the village of Kambaktpur (the abode of misery) and that of
+Shamshpur (the abode of joy). The moral is that British rule, which is
+typified by the former, is making the people poorer and poorer, that
+through it land is going out of cultivation, that oxen for the plough are
+becoming scarce, that the villages are going to ruin, and that nothing
+nourishes except the liquor shops in which the Government encourages
+drinking, while the very irrigation works we are providing as a protection
+against famine are described as an evil, and a mere pretext for extorting
+more money from the people. The village of Shamshpur (the abode of joy),
+on the other hand, is described in glowing colours, and we need hardly say
+is the home of the institutions to be introduced by the Congress. The only
+conclusion to be drawn from all this by the masses of India is, that the
+sooner they rebel against the existing rule, and substitute for it the
+rule of the Congress, the sooner will they leave the abode of misery, and
+enter the abode of joy, where all the delights to be provided by the
+Congress will be theirs. The imaginary dialogue concludes (p. 214) with a
+demand for money to carry on the work, and the barrister suggests to the
+farmer various injurious means for the collection, which Rambaksh promises
+to carry out. He then tenders payment of some fees previously owing to the
+barrister, who indeed receives the money, but magnanimously declares his
+intention of enrolling Rambaksh as a member of the association, and paying
+in the fees as a contribution from Rambaksh. "Blessed are the earnings of
+the virtuous which go to the service of God," said the barrister, and with
+this pious utterance the dialogue closes.
+
+With the aid of these pamphlets in dialogue form, it appears, from the
+statement in the introductory article of the Report, that the emissaries
+of this Indian League have been gathering in money from the poorest
+classes in India, down even to coolies. No less than 5,500 rupees, it
+appears (p. 11), were collected from 8,000 persons, in sums varying from 1
+anna to 1 rupee 8 annas, and some 8,000 rupees were contributed in sums of
+from 1 rupee 8 annas to 30 rupees. But it is unnecessary to pursue further
+the work of the Congress, and it is sufficient to say that its proceedings
+were lately brought before the House of Commons, and that the action of
+Mr. Hume, in writing and publishing a kind of proclamation of a most
+objectionable character in connection with the Congress, was denounced in
+the House of Commons in strong terms. It is time, however, to close these
+brief remarks on the Indian Congress. It still exists, but in a
+languishing form, and will probably gradually disappear. It has sought to
+bring the Queen's Government into hatred and contempt. The only effect it
+has had is to bring the educated classes of India into ridicule and
+contempt in the minds of those who are imperfectly acquainted with them,
+and perhaps to delay the extension of those Representative Assemblies
+which are so well suited to the requirements of the inhabitants of India,
+and the value of which I trust I have sufficiently shown.
+
+Since this chapter was written I have met with a passage in one of the
+speeches of a member of the Congress which is highly creditable to the
+candour of the Congressionists, and which proves that we are quite right
+in keeping in our own hands all, or nearly all, important executive and
+governing power. The passage occurs in the Fourth Report of the Indian
+National Congress (p. 49), and one of the members said on this occasion:
+
+"But it is a fact, which no one present will call in question, that what
+preponderates in the national character is quiescence or passivity, the
+active virtues being thrown into the background, or remaining in a state
+of dormancy." And further on the speaker says, "The virtues we are sadly
+deficient in are courage, enterprise, the will to do and the heart to do."
+(Cheers.)
+
+These remarks, which were received with assenting cheers, should be read
+in connection with those made on the Queen's Proclamation in the earlier
+pages of this chapter.
+
+I may observe finally that if the above-mentioned qualities are, as the
+native speaker complains, deficient, it is simply because the climate of
+India is not favourable to their production. As an Indian gentleman once
+said to me in London, "Here I am glad to go out for a walk. In Madras I
+find it an exertion to walk across a room." That explains our presence in
+India, and the necessity for keeping all important active work in our own
+hands. The natives are not at all to blame for being deficient in the
+active virtues. We ourselves, our bull-dogs, and our vegetables would
+alike decline without constant renewal by fresh importations from England.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] The landed qualification varies from 100 rupees to 300 rupees, and
+the house and shop qualification from 13 rupees to 18 rupees. This
+arrangement has evidently been made to suit the wealth or poverty of
+particular parts of the country. This seems to be rather an inconvenient
+system, and it is difficult to see why the lower rates of qualification
+should not be made universal.
+
+[12] For all practical spending purposes in India the rupee may be
+reckoned at par. It is only when it requires to be turned into gold for
+the purchase of articles in England that its gold value must be taken into
+account.
+
+[13] The meeting now held was, I am aware, quite out of order, but as the
+Assembly had taken a new departure some laxness was permissible at first.
+
+[14] On looking at the Government Report of the proceedings of the
+Assembly for 1891 (which I may observe was not published till the year
+following), I find that, though 340 members were elected, only 262
+attended. No less than seventy-eight members failed to put in an
+appearance, and the only probable explanation of this that I can give is
+that these members felt that they had nothing in particular to represent
+to the Government, and therefore thought that they might much better
+remain at home.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT.
+
+
+After the numerous books that have been written on Sport in India, a
+chapter on this subject might at first sight seem superfluous. So might,
+at first sight, another novel full of what has been written thousands of
+times before about love. And yet we never tire of hearing or reading of
+either, and naturally, for both appeal to the imagination, and carry the
+mind far away from business or carking cares, or, in other words, that
+proverbial smoky chimney with which every house is provided. And if the
+mere reading of love or sport makes men and women feel better because it
+takes them away from themselves (we should have no mirrors in our rooms),
+what must the reality of either be? For both dart through the system with
+electric and delight-yielding force, and produce effects which, to those
+who have not experienced them, are wellnigh incredible. And, as regards
+big game shooting in particular, the effects are so astonishing that one
+almost ceases to believe in them till another experience proves over again
+that sport, or even the prospect of sport, can effect miracles, or at
+least that it can cause an alteration in the system through the action of
+the mind. And, some eighteen months ago, I realized this most vividly when
+feeling much out of sorts, and indeed unfit for anything. For just at the
+time of my deepest depression, news came in that a tiger had killed two
+cattle in my plantation, and, what made the news much more acceptable,
+two trespassing cattle--animals which are the plague of a planter's life.
+The news acted like a charm. I at once felt slightly better, better still
+when I arrived at the spot and saw the traces of the cattle having been
+dragged along the ground, and the bodies of the slain--one more than half
+eaten and the other untouched--and almost well when I returned to the
+bungalow to make preparations for hunting up the tiger. There is no tonic
+half so good as news of a tiger, and I feel that even news of a bear would
+rival in a great many cases all that a doctor could do for me. But, though
+tiger shooting is a valuable and delightful sport, it is equalled if not
+eclipsed by stalking on the mountains amidst the beautiful and splendid
+scenery of the Western Ghauts, when you traverse the forest-margined open
+lands rifle in hand, feeling that everything depends upon yourself, and
+followed by a tried and experienced shikari on whose keen sight and
+coolness you can thoroughly rely. There are natives of course and natives,
+just as there are Europeans and Europeans, but there are natives who have
+been gifted with the greatest daring, coolness, and the promptest presence
+of mind, and who are capable of much personal devotion to those who know
+how to treat them. I was fortunate enough to have one of these in my
+service, and to no sporting scenes in life can I look back with greater
+pleasure than when I was able, with my trusted native follower, to spend
+delightful mornings and evenings, and at certain times whole days, in
+stalking bears, bison, and sambur in the Western Mysore mountains. Danger,
+too, there was at times, and quite sufficient to give a pleasing amount of
+adventurous feeling to the sport. Indeed, without this moderate degree of
+danger the sport would have been of quite a different kind, for is it not
+evident that all sport is to be divided into two widely different
+classes--sport in which you are liable to be attacked, and sport where
+the attack is all on one side? It is, in short, the danger, or the
+possibility of danger, which is the vital elixir of big game shooting, and
+which gives one, too, an opportunity of knowing oneself, and gauging one's
+presence of mind, or the want of it, as the case may be. But what, after
+all, is the amount of danger? That depends very much on the experience of
+the sportsman. You may make big game shooting as dangerous as you please,
+and by following up a wounded bear or bison in a careless manner meet with
+an accident, but if proper precautions are taken, the danger of following
+up these animals is by no means so great as is generally supposed. But,
+though that is so as regards bears and bisons, I must caution the reader
+against supposing that there is not considerable risk in following up
+wounded tigers on foot, and there can be no doubt that, as Sir Samuel
+Baker says, following a wounded tiger into the jungle on foot is a work of
+extreme danger. But even this may be largely diminished if proper
+precautions are taken, though it must be admitted that, from the great
+difficulty of distinguishing a tiger lying amongst dried forest leaves,
+there must be a considerable amount of risk, though the amount of it is
+rather difficult to determine, but I may mention that though I suppose
+upwards of forty tigers have been killed in the neighbourhood of my
+plantation, only two natives have been killed when out shooting. Besides
+these accidents, one man recovered from thirteen lacerated wounds, and
+another was deprived of his ear and cheek by the blow of a wounded tiger's
+paw. As regards the comparative risks to life of tigers, bears, and
+panthers, I have only been able to meet with one return which throws any
+light on the subject--a return which confirms the native view as to the
+bear being more dangerous than the tiger, and the panther much less
+dangerous than either. The return in question is to be found in the "North
+Kanara Gazetteer," and was supplied by the late Colonel W. Peyton, who
+wrote the section on Wild Animals. From this it appears that in North
+Kanara, during the twenty-two years ending 1877, 510 tigers were killed
+and 44 persons killed by them, one of whom was Lieutenant Power, of the
+35th Madras Infantry. Between the years 1856 and 1882 51 bears were killed
+and 22 persons killed by them, one of whom was Lord Edward Percy St. Maur,
+second son of the Duke of Somerset. Between the years 1856 and 1877 805
+panthers were killed and 22 persons killed by them. From these returns it
+would appear that the bear is about four times as dangerous as the tiger,
+that the tiger is about three times as dangerous as the panther, and that
+the bear is about fourteen times as dangerous to man as the panther. As
+regards comparative destructiveness to animal life, I may observe in
+passing that the tiger seems to be more troublesome than the panther, and
+that Colonel Peyton records between 1878 and 1882 4,041 deaths of cattle
+killed by tigers against 1,617 killed by panthers. The bison (_gavoeus
+gaurus_) would appear to be very seldom dangerous to man, if I may judge
+by the fact that in his long experience Colonel Peyton does not record a
+single death from the gaur, though he observes that it frequently charges
+when attacked. In my part of Mysore I have heard of but one death, which
+occurred in the case of a native who was tracking a bull which had been
+wounded by one of my managers. The wild boars, I may here add, seem to be
+now, from being much hunted, no doubt, more dangerous than they were in
+former years. Within the last two years in my district five persons were
+severely wounded by them, of whom three died. But it is natural that all
+wild animals should become more dangerous the more they are hunted, and,
+rather to my amusement, my old shikari, to whom I have previously alluded,
+complained in a querulous and aggrieved tone that every animal--even the
+sambur deer--seemed to charge one nowadays. And this is a fact worth
+recording, and if wild animals are declining in numbers, it is some
+comfort to think that the sport to be had from the remainder will improve.
+But it is time to close these rather desultory remarks, and treat the
+subject in a systematic manner, and I now proceed to say (1) something as
+regards the natural history of Mysore, and (2) something as to the big
+game shooting of the Province. I may here mention that all the anecdotes
+given will either be interesting from a natural history point of view, or
+told with the view of illustrating points likely to be of use to the
+inexperienced sportsman.
+
+As the author of the Gazetteer of the Province, in his opening sentence on
+the fauna of Mysore, says with much truth, that "Nothing less than a
+separate treatise, and that a voluminous one, could do justice to the
+marvellous wealth of the animal kingdom in a province under the tropics
+marked by so many varied natural features as Mysore," I need hardly say
+that I have only space to make a cursory allusion to the subject. The
+varieties of animals, reptiles, birds, fish, and insects are indeed very
+numerous, and though Mr. Rice informs us that he has only made an attempt
+to collect the names of the main representatives, he enumerates no less
+than 70 mammals, 332 birds, 35 reptiles, 42 fishes, and 49 insects, though
+only the leading families of the last are given, and many kinds of fish
+have not been identified. But, though I cannot, as I have said, go at any
+length into the subject, I can at least, give the names of the animals and
+birds which are of more or less interest to sportsmen, and perhaps touch
+upon some which are mainly of interest to the naturalist. There are then
+to be found in Mysore, elephants, tigers, panthers, hunting leopards,
+bears, wolves, jungle-dogs, hyenas, and foxes. Amongst the graminivorous
+animals I may mention the _gavoeus gaurus_, commonly called bison (a
+name to which I shall adhere as it is the one in common use), the sambur
+deer, the spotted deer, the hog deer, and the barking deer or jungle
+sheep. There are four kinds of antelopes, the nilgei, four-horned
+antelope, the antelope, and the gazelle. Of the birds, I may mention 12
+varieties of pigeons, 2 of sandgrouse, 2 of partridges, 8 of quail,
+peafowl, jungle-fowl, spenfowl, bustard, floriken (a kind of bustard),
+woodcock, woodsnipe, common snipe, jacksnipe, painted snipe, widgeon, 4
+kinds of teal, and 5 of wild ducks. I may mention that there are 9 kinds
+of eagles, 20 kinds of hawks, and 13 varieties of owls. As regards
+reptiles, crocodiles are the only ones that sportsmen take any interest
+in, and they are to be found in many of the rivers of Mysore. Fish of
+various kinds are to be found in the numerous large tanks in Mysore,
+though I may add, that some of these pieces of water would elsewhere be
+called lakes, as they are sometimes upwards of twelve miles in
+circumference. The well-known mahseer abounds in the rivers of the Western
+Ghauts of Mysore, and gives excellent sport, and in the opinion of some
+anglers, superior to salmon fishing. I have said in my first chapter on
+coffee, that the life of a planter to any one fond of nature and an open
+air life is an agreeable one, so agreeable that, though from accidents of
+fortune no longer dependent on coffee, I still find it the most pleasant
+life in the world, and return to it annually with pleasure, and I think
+that the mere enumeration of the varied forms of animal life, which are so
+interesting both to the sportsman and the naturalist, will go far to
+justify my conclusions. Having thus glanced at a part of the fauna of the
+province, I now proceed to the big game shooting section of my chapter,
+but, before doing so, I may mention that it is stated in the "Mysore
+Gazetteer" (Vol. II., p. 13) that, according to old legends, the lion was
+once to be found in the Province.
+
+Of elephants, and elephant shooting, I have had no experience. In Mysore
+and in British India they are reserved by the State which, from time to
+time, captures the elephants by driving them into large inclosures, and
+there is a record of one of the sales of captured elephants in my second
+chapter. But the reader need not regret my want of experience here, as it
+would be difficult for any one to add to the admirable and exhaustive
+account of elephants and their ways which is to be found in the late Mr.
+Sanderson's[15] admirable work. His death is really much to be lamented,
+for he was not merely a destructive sportsman, but an intelligent and
+sympathetic observer of the wild animals he lived amongst, and I think I
+am only repeating current opinion when I say that a more admirable and
+interesting work of its kind never was written. Mr. Sanderson, I may
+mention, was specially employed by Government to superintend the capture
+of herds of elephants, and also to hunt man-eating tigers, and tigers of
+obnoxious character.
+
+Tigers, as to which I shall have, I am afraid, rather too long an account
+to give, are fairly numerous in the forests of the Western Ghauts, and
+some other parts of the country, if I may judge by the fact that rewards
+were paid for 68 in 1874, and for 100 in 1875, but in former times they
+were much more numerous in certain parts of the province, a fact which is
+testified to by General Dobbs, who when a young man was in civil employ in
+the Chittledroog division of Mysore in 1834. He mentions in his
+"Reminiscences of Life in Mysore"[16] that his division was infested with
+wild beasts and, to reduce their numbers, he obtained from one of the
+officials a plan of a pit 12 feet long, 12 feet deep, and 2-1/2 feet wide,
+closed with brushwood at both sides and one end. Wooden spikes were fixed
+at the bottom, and the top of the pit was covered over with light
+brushwood. A sheep or goat was then tied inside at the closed end, where
+there was standing place left for it. As tigers usually spring on their
+prey they are thus sure to fall through the light brushwood into the pit.
+"In a short time," writes the general, "48 royal tigers were thus
+destroyed, four of which were brought to me on one morning. Mr. Stokes,
+the superintendent of the Nuggur division, obtained from me the plan of
+these pits, and in an equally short time caught upwards of 70 tigers. Now
+comes a circumstance which I can vouch for, but cannot explain. In a short
+time the success in both divisions terminated, and never again did a tiger
+fall into one of these pits, though numbers of tigers continued to infest
+the country." One result of the success obtained is worth recording. The
+balance of nature had been destroyed; the tigers to a great extent lived
+on wild pigs, and these, after the destruction of the tigers, multiplied
+so rapidly that the general records that there was an increased
+destruction of extensive sugar plantations. And I may note in passing,
+that the balance of nature may equally be destroyed from the other end of
+the line, and tigers made much more destructive than they otherwise would
+be. This is remarkably so near the western passes of Mysore, for never
+were tigers more numerous or destructive than they have recently been in
+my neighbourhood, and this is clearly to be traced to the great
+destruction[17] of deer, pigs, and bison by the natives in the immediate
+vicinity of the great forests, a subject to which I shall afterwards have
+occasion to allude.
+
+The sudden spread amongst the tigers of the news about these pits is
+really very remarkable. We know that animals and birds are taught by
+example and experience to avoid certain dangers--that birds, which are at
+first killed in considerable numbers by telegraph wires, gradually learn
+to avoid them, and that hares which are at first excluded by rabbit
+netting in the course of time take to jumping it, but it is certainly
+impossible to explain by anything we know as regards the spread of
+experience amongst animals as to how the news could spread amongst the
+tigers, over a tract of country about half as large as Scotland, for traps
+were set in two out of the four divisions into which Mysore was then
+divided.
+
+It has often been a subject of remark that tigers, without any motive that
+we can even guess at, avoid certain parts of the country which, to us,
+seem to be equally favourable to them. This is remarkably so in my
+district in Mysore, parts of which, apparently quite as suitable for
+tigers as other parts, have never been known to hold one. It is also
+remarkable that they invariably cross from one range of hills to another
+by almost exactly the same route, at least such is my experience. These
+tiger passes as they are called by the natives are well known to them.
+There is one about a mile and a half to the north of my bungalow, and
+another at about the same distance to the south, and between these two
+points I have never heard of the track of a tiger being seen except on one
+occasion.
+
+It seems singular that, as so much has been written about tigers, there
+should be any dispute as to the way in which the tiger usually seizes its
+prey, but I find that Mr. Sanderson differs widely from Captain Forsyth,
+and Captain Baldwin and others, and says that, though the tiger does
+occasionally seize by the nape of the neck in the case of his having to
+deal with very powerful animals, his usual method is to seize by the
+throat; and another sportsman of great experience tells me that, though he
+has seen hundreds of kills, the seizure was always by the throat. In my
+part of the country it is so much the usual method for the tiger to seize
+by the nape of the neck, that a native, when asked if he is sure that it
+was a tiger and not a panther, always puts his hand to the back of his
+neck, and if he says that the animal was seized by the throat, we
+invariably assume that the seizer is a panther. As Mr. Sanderson was a
+most careful observer, I cannot doubt the correctness of his experience,
+and as little can I doubt the experience in my neighbourhood. But this
+apparent discrepancy may easily be explained, and I regard it as probable,
+or even quite certain, that tigers may vary their method of attack in
+accordance as they live mainly on game or mainly on village cattle. In the
+case of a bison, a wild boar, or of a large and powerful village buffalo,
+Mr. Sanderson admits that the seizure is by the nape of the neck, and that
+no doubt is the rule with the forest tigers, such as those that have been
+killed near my estate, and which have lived mostly upon game, but I can
+easily conceive that tigers that have lived on village cattle would attack
+in a different way.
+
+There is also another difference between Mr. Sanderson and other sportsmen
+as to the tiger killing animals with a blow of its paw. Mr. Sanderson does
+not in the least believe that the paw is so used, but Captain
+Williamson[18] considers the paw as "the invariable engine of
+destruction." "I have seen," he says, "many men and oxen that had been
+killed by tigers, in most of which no mark of a claw could be seen." I
+have not paid much attention to this subject, but I do recollect one
+instance of a bullock that had been killed by a blow of the paw, as I
+remember being struck by the fact that there was no apparent cause of
+death, but on a closer examination I found a wide bruise, evidently from
+the tiger's paw, on the side of the head. A friend of mine of great
+experience tells me that he has known of animals being killed by a blow
+of the paw. That men are commonly killed by a blow of the paw on the head
+I have little doubt. Captain Williamson mentions a case that occurred in
+his presence, and I knew of a doctor who had examined seven bodies, and in
+each case the skull had been fractured by a blow of the paw. General
+Rice,[19] when giving an account of the seizure of Cornet Elliot, mentions
+that he had a narrow escape from a blow of the tigress's paw, which he
+guarded off with his uplifted rifle. The stock of the rifle was marked
+with the claws, while the trigger and guard were knocked completely flat
+on one side, so that the gun was useless until repaired. There is no
+doubt, then, that the tiger can, and does sometimes, use his paw with
+deadly effect, though I have little doubt that he prefers to use his
+teeth, as the shock of a blow to the paw must, in the case of a bullock at
+any rate, be very considerable.
+
+The carrying power of tigers is very great, and has often been remarked
+on, but it has been doubted whether they often carry off an animal without
+some part of it dragging on the ground. Mr. Sanderson gives some instances
+of their doing so; and I have known of one instance in my neighbourhood
+where a tiger after killing a bullock took it into the jungle and carried
+the carcase along the trunk of a tree which had fallen across a ravine.
+But considering its size, the dragging power of a panther is much more
+remarkable, and it seems to carry off a bullock as easily as a tiger does.
+On one occasion a panther killed a donkey close to my bungalow, and
+carried it off, and had even attempted to jump up the bank of an old ditch
+with it, which was five or six feet high, but had failed in the attempt
+and abandoned the carcase. But why the panther did not drag the donkey
+down to another part of the jungle, where it could easily have dragged the
+carcase into it, is difficult to conceive, unless we suppose that these
+animals have not, after the failure of one plan, mind enough to try
+another. Perhaps this is so, or that they take the pet in a case of
+failure and go off in disgust. I imagine that this kind of feeling must
+influence tigers, for I once found an uneaten carcase of a bullock wedged
+between two rocks. A tiger had killed, high up on a mountain side, and
+taken the carcase into the nearest ravine, evidently with the view of
+dragging it towards the water further down the hill. On his way he had to
+pass through a narrow passage between two rocks, and here the carcase
+stuck fast, and he had in vain tried to pull it through, but it had never
+occurred to him to pull it out backwards (which he might easily have done
+when the carcase was only slightly wedged) and try another route. But,
+after all, we must not be surprised, at this, as even the human animal
+does not always readily find the solution of a fresh difficulty. Tigers,
+it is well known, are good swimmers, and seem to have no difficulty in
+taking the carcase of a bullock with them, if I may judge by the fact,
+which was told me by a friend, that a tiger once swam eighty yards across
+a river in the northern part of Mysore, taking with it the carcase of a
+newly killed bullock.
+
+Tiger shooting in the Western Ghauts is always carried out without the aid
+of elephants, and it is seldom that one can obtain, even for the first
+shot, a fairly safe position. Colonel Peyton, whom I have previously
+quoted, says that a man is not safe under sixteen feet from the ground,
+but it is seldom that such an elevation can be obtained, as the country is
+so steep that, though you have a fair drop on the lower side of the tree,
+a tiger from the upper side may easily spring on to you, and is then
+generally on your level, or even higher. Of course you select a tree
+where, in theory, the tiger must come on the lower side, but tigers will
+often take most eccentric courses, and last year, after having taken up a
+position on a tree which had a drop of eight feet on the lower side, and
+where it was assumed by all of us as certain that the tiger would pass
+lower down the hill, it came on the upper side, on rather higher ground
+than the cleft I was sitting on, and so close that I could have touched it
+with a spear, and had I not fatally crippled it at the first shot, it
+might easily have jumped on to me. But I entirely agree with Colonel
+Peyton that it is always best for several reasons to get into a tree, even
+though it may not be a high one, or indeed into a scrubby tree so low that
+your feet are only some five feet from the ground. In the first place, you
+can command a wider view, then you are concealed, and can let the tiger
+pass your line, and as the tiger could pass under your feet you are not in
+his way, and there would be little chance, if you reserved your fire till
+he had passed, in his either attacking you or being driven back on the
+beaters. Colonel Peyton, whom I quote with great confidence, is in favour
+of a bamboo ladder with broad rungs to sit on, and which will enable you
+to have your feet eleven feet from the ground. To illustrate the risk of
+sitting on the ground, I may mention the following incident:
+
+Many years ago news was brought that a tiger had killed cattle some six or
+seven miles off. The distance was considerable, the news came late, and it
+was, I think, about three in the afternoon when I reached the spot. The
+beaters were all ready and impatient, no doubt, owing to being kept
+waiting so long, and as I did not wish to delay them, and had no ladder,
+and there was no suitable tree, I took a seat on the ground behind a bush
+which lay on one side of, and about twenty yards from, a depression in the
+land through the bottom of which, by all the laws of tigers, the tiger
+ought to have passed to the main forest beyond. I had no sooner seated
+myself than I saw, from the lay of the ground, that if the tiger should
+happen to break at a point in a line with my bush he would probably gallop
+on to the top of me before it would be possible to make more than a snap
+shot. I at once left the spot and climbed a small tree on the opposite
+side of the depression, and this enabled me to have my feet some five feet
+from the ground. Presently the beat began, and with a roar, and an evident
+determination to charge anything in his way, a very large tiger broke
+cover at full speed and went exactly over the very spot of ground I had
+been sitting on. At the pace he was coming at I do not indeed think he
+could have stopped himself, and I hardly think I should have had time to
+fire, and I have often wondered what would have happened had he galloped
+on to myself and my man. However, as it was, I was all right, fired just
+as he passed the bush and knocked him over with one shot, and put another
+into him as he got half up and struggled into the jungle, apparently with
+his back broken, and lay down about a few yards aside of it. And now by a
+curious coincidence we just missed what must have been a very serious
+accident, and this is well worth mentioning, as it confirms what another
+writer has said as to the care that should be used in approaching a tiger
+supposed to be dead.
+
+After the beat was over the beaters rushed up, and one of the natives, who
+had no doubt seen the tiger from a point on the hill above, said, "His
+back is broken, and he must be dead; let us go in and drag him out."
+Feeling that it would be better to wait a little longer to make quite
+sure, I said, just to quiet them, "Stand the people in line and count them
+for the division of the reward." I had not counted more than five when up
+got the tiger close to us with a startling roar, and I then experienced
+what Colonel Peyton has said, namely, that there are very few even of the
+stanchest sportsmen who will not draw back a pace or two at the sudden
+roar of a wounded tiger. On this occasion I removed more than that, for I
+at once seized a rifle and ran several yards up the hill to gain the
+advantage of the ground, and I need hardly say that there was a slight
+scatter amongst the unarmed natives. But as the tiger did not charge out,
+I saw that he was probably off, and at once ran down the side of the
+jungly ravine to head him, and at the first break in the jungle got up
+into a tree. The tiger almost immediately appeared on the opposite side of
+the ravine, going steadily along, and showing no signs of being wounded
+whatever, and I fired at, but missed him, partly on account of my awkward
+position in the tree and partly from excitement. Then I ran on to the next
+open break in the jungly ravine, and again got up into a tree. By this
+time the beaters came up in the rear of the tiger, who refused to go
+further down the ravine, or was unable to do so, and the natives sent to
+me to go up and attack the tiger in the jungle, to which I replied by
+requesting them to be good enough to forward the animal to me. However, as
+he refused to move, and it was getting late, I went up the ravine, and
+they pointed out the tiger, which was lying on its side. I fired a shot at
+it, when it got up, then I fired another at once, and it fell and died
+almost immediately. This was by far the largest tiger ever killed in our
+district, and an old sportsman who had seen much of shooting during a long
+residence in India told me that he was sure he had never seen a larger
+skin, and did not know that he had ever seen one as big. As evidence of
+size, he attached, I may mention, great importance to the width of the
+skin of the tail just at its junction with the body. The paws of this
+tiger, too, were remarkably larger than those of other tigers. I found
+that the first bullet had taken effect in the neck, which it had no doubt
+grazed with sufficient force to paralyze the tiger for a time, and Colonel
+Peyton records a similar case where great risk had been incurred from
+approaching a tiger apparently dead, but where the spine had been merely
+grazed.
+
+What I have previously mentioned illustrates one danger from sitting on
+the ground, and I may give another instance which occurred to me in 1891.
+I had gone after a tiger, and my shikari had prepared an excellent seat on
+a tree at an absolutely safe height. The tiger, however, had shifted his
+ground, it appears, to an adjacent jungle. This consisted of one long and
+rather deep ravine, with several spurs at which the tiger might break. It
+had several times previously happened that tigers had come up the bottom
+of this ravine, and I had once killed one there from a tree in the jungle,
+but the trees so situated are difficult to ascend, and we did not wish to
+make a noise nor to waste time by making a ladder, so I determined on
+sitting on the ground in the jungle, about twenty yards from the bottom of
+the ravine, and made myself perfectly comfortable. While keeping an eye on
+the bottom of the ravine up which the tiger was expected to pass, I was
+suddenly startled by a roar from some little distance behind us. My old
+shikari at once saw the danger we were in, and looked extremely disturbed,
+and no wonder, for he saw at once that the tiger had been driven back by a
+stop at one of the spurs, and might come down on us from behind, so that
+we should have had no chance of seeing him till he was almost on the top
+of us, and as a matter of fact he did pass down into the ravine rather
+higher up and just out of our sight, and from this we failed to dislodge
+him. On the whole, for every reason, I am much against sitting on the
+ground. You are liable to be run into sometimes, as we have seen, and at
+others you are not high enough up to command the ground, and there is a
+greater chance of driving a tiger back on the beaters. There are, however,
+occasions when one must sit on the ground, and if you have occasion to do
+so, it is of course advisable always to try and get about twenty or
+thirty yards on one side of the course the tiger is likely to take, and
+always let him pass your line of fire before firing. It is also of great
+importance to have as your second man one who can remain absolutely
+motionless when a tiger is advancing towards him. To illustrate the
+importance of this I may mention the following incident:
+
+I was posted one day in a tree, when the tiger charged back through the
+beaters with a roar, and I had at once to get down and run to another
+point of the jungle to cut him off. I then tried to get up a tree on the
+grass land near the edge of the jungle, and next tried another a little
+further off, but could not got up into it, and when the beat recommenced
+there was nothing for it but to sit down beside a bush about one hundred
+yards from the jungle, and on ground on almost exactly the same level as
+the tiger would have to traverse. But this bush was so small that it only
+partially concealed me, and the entire body of my native second gun-bearer
+was exposed to view. This man fortunately had a most remarkable power of
+sitting absolutely motionless under any circumstances which required
+stillness. I also was fully prepared to remain quite still, and arranged
+myself so as to fire at the tiger when he was exactly in front of me. It
+was interesting to observe what followed. The tiger was evidently an old
+hand. He had anticipated our plan, and charged back through the beaters,
+as we have seen. He had also evidently anticipated the alterations we
+should probably make, and when the beat recommenced he cautiously emerged
+from the jungle and looked up (it is a rare thing for a tiger to do this)
+into the tree near the edge of the jungle into which I had tried to climb.
+He seemed then to be quite satisfied that all danger was at an end, and
+strolled leisurely towards us. As he was passing the point which put the
+whole bush between me and him, I cautiously levelled my rifle, which I
+already had in almost exact position to fire, so that when he came into my
+full view I had the sight on the second stripe behind the shoulder. By a
+curious coincidence he stood quite still when he came into my full view,
+and, as he was only about twenty yards away, presented a very fine sight.
+But I reserved my fire till he had moved forward a pace or two, and then I
+fired, and on he bounded. Then followed one of those picturesque,
+exciting, and somewhat amusing scenes, which can only occur in tiger
+shooting on foot. For the leisurely proceedings of the tiger had given the
+beaters time to get to the end of the cover just as I was firing at the
+tiger, and as I ran round the hillside to the other side of a ravine which
+ran down the hill, they ran forward so rapidly and plunged so suddenly
+into the jungle, that the tiger came out just below me. I fired at him,
+and so did one or two of the natives who had run up to join me, and the
+tiger fell dead in the air in the middle of a long bound. But running and
+excitement are not favourable to accuracy of aim, and the tiger, on this
+occasion, was struck by only one ball, and, strange to say, in the sole of
+the foot, and the only bullet-mark on his body was from my first shot at
+him. My account of the incident may be valuable to an inexperienced
+sportsman, and illustrates also the peculiar disadvantage of sitting on
+the ground, because if the tiger had walked straight up to me, and I had
+fired at him in the face, which I should have been obliged to do, he
+would, if not killed outright, probably have either gone back amongst the
+beaters, or charged me.
+
+I have alluded to my second gun-carrier on this occasion as being a man
+who had the greatest power of remaining still under all circumstances, out
+shooting, when it was necessary to do so, and I may also mention that he
+was a man who combined the greatest coolness with the greatest daring. He
+was of a Hindoo peasant family, entered my service as a workman, rose to
+be a duffadar or overseer, and for many years has been head overseer on my
+coffee estates, and he is as good as a planter as he is as a shikari. I
+could give many instances of his cool daring. On one occasion a wounded
+tigress--it was the cold weather season, when everything was still green
+about the edges of the jungle--went into a ravine which was flanked by a
+great bed of ferns about five feet high. The natives looked at this bed
+into which the tigress had disappeared with considerable doubt, and one of
+them said, "How is anyone to go in here?" "I will show you," said Rama
+Gouda quietly, and he picked up several large stones, threw them into the
+ferns, and then plunged into them. I afterwards killed the tiger on foot
+in the ravine, but of course he ran the risk of coming upon it in the
+ferns. But the coolest thing I ever knew him to do was when a manager of
+mine wanted to fire at a tiger as it was approaching him. It was in the
+days of the muzzle-loaders, and as Rama Gouda knew that to speak would be
+fatal, he quietly but firmly put both his fingers on the caps when my
+manager presented the gun at the tiger, and kept them there till the tiger
+had reached the proper point for action. Then he withdrew them, and my
+manager killed the tiger. It is contrary to all rule, on account of the
+beaters, to fire at a tiger till he has passed you, and as the manager and
+Rama Gouda were seated on the ground, if the tiger had been fired at face
+to face an accident might have occurred. On only one occasion did I ever
+see him disturbed, and that was when he took up a position at a beat for
+big game. Presently he heard a hiss, and on looking round found a
+reared-up cobra about to strike at his naked thigh. He saved himself by a
+jump on one side, but he showed by his eye when he mentioned the
+circumstance that he had been somewhat commoved.
+
+The natives have an idea that a tiger will not attack a group of from
+four to five people massed together, and in 1891 four or five unarmed
+natives proposed that I should sit on an absolutely bare piece of ground,
+and that they should sit round me, and that the tiger should be driven up
+to us. But this offer, and more especially as I had only one gun, I
+declined, with thanks, unless they could find a small bush or piece of
+rock to sit behind, and as neither could be found, I took up a position on
+a steep hillside and on a scrubby tree, which I thought safe enough, as I
+assumed that the tiger would pass on the lower side of it, but it
+approached close on the upper side, and on rather higher ground, and could
+easily have sprung on to me, as it was not more than fifteen feet distant,
+thus again illustrating how difficult it is in a hilly country to get into
+a reasonably safe position. Altogether, the risks of tiger shooting in a
+hilly country where elephants cannot be used, and where you may have to
+run to cut off a wounded tiger or follow one into the jungle, is attended
+with risk even to the most experienced. The amount of that risk is
+difficult to determine, but I may say generally it is such that while
+bachelors, or married men of independent means whose families are well
+provided for, in short, people whose lives are of no cash value, may
+freely go into the jungle on foot after wounded tigers, and generally
+throw themselves in the way of the animals, I do not consider it right for
+a married man, whose family is dependent wholly or partially on his
+exertions, to go after tigers on foot, or without the aid of elephants,
+for though a man may resolve to stick to safe positions, they are often
+difficult and sometimes impossible to find, and the excitement soon does
+away with all feelings for one's personal safety.
+
+Though I have no doubt that it is, generally speaking, true that a tiger
+will not attack a group of four or five people, I am not at all sure that
+this is correct as regards a wounded tiger, and a tiger I had wounded once
+sprang into a party of I should say at least twenty people, and killed
+one of them--at least the poor man died in the course of a few hours. I
+always regretted that I did not obtain and preserve his belt. At the back
+of it was the iron catch with which to hitch his wood-knife, and the
+tiger's tooth had grazed one side of the iron, and cut it as if one had
+worked at the iron with a steel file. Another instance too occurred of a
+tiger attacking a party, or at least one of a party which was approaching
+a tiger. Several tigers, it appeared, had been marked down, and the jungle
+in which they were was surrounded by nets. This was done in Mysore on the
+arrival of the Russian princes some years ago, but one of the tigers had
+managed to elude the shooters, and, as the native magistrate of the
+district was anxious to have it killed, a sporting photographer who was
+there undertook to look it up. As they approached the thicket in which the
+tiger was concealed the tiger rushed out with a sudden bound, aimed a blow
+with its paw at the leading native, tore his scalp right off and flung it
+on to a bush, bit the man in the arm, and retreated into the thicket with
+such suddenness that no one had time to fire. The poor man afterwards
+died.
+
+The great danger from following up wounded tigers on foot in the jungle
+arises from the extraordinary difficulty of seeing the animal when it is
+lying amongst dry fallen leaves, into which the body partially sinks, and
+this is more particularly the case if there is a flickering sunlight
+coming though the branches of the jungle trees. In one case of this kind,
+though I could see the tiger when it half raised itself up--it had been
+wounded in the back--I failed to pick it up the moment it sank back into
+the leaves; and my shikari told mo of another similar case he had seen
+when there was a similar flickering light. But even without that source of
+confusion to the sight a tiger is extremely difficult to see, as difficult
+as a hare in a ploughed field, or perhaps more so. On one occasion Rama
+Gouda said to me, when we were attacking a wounded tiger, or rather
+tigress in the jungle, "There is the tiger." "What!" I said, "that thing
+looking like a stone?" The light was bad. We both supposed it to be dead,
+but I said, "I suppose I had better take a shot at it," and did so, and,
+when the smoke cleared away, found that the tiger had removed. Then a
+native went forward and gently parted the reeds with his hands, and showed
+me the tigress--which had moved about twenty yards--on her side, and
+evidently in a dying condition. She was now only a few yards from me, and
+I fired at her, and she rolled over and died. As it happened, I do not
+think that I ran much risk, but one never can exactly tell how much
+vitality a dying tiger has, and in the case previously alluded to I have
+no doubt that the tiger must have died immediately after he made his fatal
+attack on the party.
+
+It is owing obviously to their great power of concealment that tigers are
+so very rarely ever seen by accident, and Mr. Sanderson says that during
+some years of wandering in tigerish localities he has only come upon them
+accidentally about half a dozen times, and my own experience, and that of
+other sportsmen to whom I have spoken, quite confirms this. But I am
+persuaded that a native can see a tiger much more readily than a European,
+and the former have, I think, much better distinguishing power. For
+instance, a European has great difficulty in seeing a green pigeon in a
+green tree till the bird moves, while a native seems to have no such
+difficulty. My own sight is, or rather was, very good, but I found on one
+occasion, when I was stalked by a tiger, that it was most provokingly
+defective as compared with that of a native. The incident occurred in this
+way. In cloudy weather, during a break in the monsoon, I was beating a
+ravine for game, and had sent my second gun-carrier with the beaters. As
+the beat was drawing to a close, I heard a sambur deer belling at the head
+of a ravine, about a few hundred yards from the termination of the jungle
+we were beating. As I thought I might get a shot at it, I went across the
+grassland in the direction of the sound, and up to within about ten yards
+of the edge of the jungle, the fringe of which at that point projected a
+little. I could see nothing, but as the people were coming my way in any
+case, I remained where I was. The first person to arrive was a very plucky
+Hindoo peasant--a keen sportsman and splendid stalker--and when he almost
+touched me he at once pointed and said "There is a tiger." I put my rifle
+to my shoulder, and said to him "Where?" "There," he said, and as he put
+his hand on my shoulder I could feel it trembling with excitement. Alas, I
+could not make out the tiger; but, after all, that was not so very
+wonderful, as the day was dark, and the underwood fringe rather thick, but
+the tiger actually managed to back gradually away without my being able to
+see him. He had evidently been stalking the sambur, which had uttered the
+note of alarm I had heard, and no doubt seeing that there was something at
+the edge of the jungle, had crawled to the edge, and there lain down
+within ten or twelve yards of me.
+
+Tigers seem to recover easily from wounds, and so completely, that no
+trace of a bullet having entered the body can be found. On one occasion I
+shot a tiger, and when the skin was being removed we perceived a lump on
+the inner side of it. This we opened, and found that it contained a bullet
+which a brother of mine had fired into the tiger about a year before. We
+had no difficulty in identifying the bullet, as no other rifle in the
+country had anything like it. The tiger was perfectly well and fat, and
+had not a mark on it of having been previously wounded, and yet the bullet
+had gone close to mine, which proved fatal to the tiger. In 1891 I killed
+a tiger, which had evidently, from his action, been hunted before. He was
+in unusually good condition, and yet had a piece of lead in him, which
+appeared to be a fragment of an express bullet. But a friend of mine tells
+me that he has often found old bullets in tigers. It is a surprising thing
+that tigers and panthers seem often to be little influenced by wounds, and
+I have heard of one case of a panther, for which a sportsman was sitting
+up, which returned to the kill after being wounded and fired at several
+times. A friend of mine was once out small game shooting on the Nilgiris
+when a tiger seized one of his dogs. He at once put a ball cartridge into
+his smooth bore, had a beat, and wounded the tiger. On the following day
+he returned to the spot with his rifle, and again beat the jungle, when he
+killed the tiger, which had returned and finished the dog, and then found
+that the bullet of the day before, which had struck the tiger in the
+chest, had travelled nearly the whole length of the body. I recollect once
+shooting a spotted deer which had a matchlock ball lying up against its
+liver, and pressing on it, but the deer, though it had good horns, was
+rather a stunted animal.
+
+I have previously remarked that, in the opinion of Colonel Peyton, even
+the stanchest sportsman when on foot in the jungle, is liable to be
+startled by the sudden roar of a wounded tiger close at hand, and so much
+so as even to draw back for a pace or two, but he says that the effect is
+only momentary. In 1891 I again had an opportunity of observing the
+effects on myself and others of the roar of a wounded tiger in the jungle,
+but on this occasion, though I confess I was very considerably startled,
+and generally commoved for a moment, as I had expected to find the tiger
+dead, I did not step back a pace, nor did the stanchest of the natives who
+were with me, though a certain number climbed right up to the tops of
+trees. As it happened, there was, after all, no danger, for the tiger had
+been damaged in the back, and I soon dispatched it. The effect of the roar
+of a tiger is really very remarkable, and of this the animal itself seems
+to be well aware, for the tiger I have just alluded to--evidently an old
+hand, from the trouble he had given us and the cunning he had
+displayed--remained in the open, or came out into the open as the beaters
+approached, then roared at them and afterwards retreated into the
+jungle--a narrow ravine in which he seemed determined to remain, though
+shots were fired into it, and in which I think he would have remained had
+not the beaters charged into it in a body in the most plucky manner. A
+friend of mine also met with a similar instance, where a tiger came
+out--confronted the beaters and roared at them. The beaters may see the
+tiger, and quite close, and yet not be much disturbed, but a roar even a
+good way off has on them a disturbing effect, though it is difficult to
+see why the nerves should be affected more easily through the medium of
+the ears than the eyes. I may here mention that, when the sportsman has a
+damaged heart, the roar of a wounded tiger, at least if the shooter is on
+foot in the jungle, is apt to produce a slight flutter of that organ,
+though that, too, like the effect alluded to by Colonel Peyton, is
+momentary. Having had for some years a rather damaged heart, I was
+interested in experimenting as regards the effects of tigers on its
+action, but could come to no very distinct conclusion. I was once in an
+extremely insecure position on a conspicuous cleft of a bare tree, with my
+feet not more than seven or eight feet from the ground, when the tiger
+galloped into the arena as it were in the most sudden manner, and passed
+within fifteen feet of me. I knocked him over with a ball in the back at
+the second shot--the first, from the awkward position I was placed in,
+having either missed, or done him little harm. The tiger then lay on his
+side, with his head turned backwards and resting on his shoulder. He kept
+his eye on me, and I kept mine on him, and I did not fire again, as my
+second gun native (we had never expected the tiger to be where we found
+him, and were on our way home) had seated himself on another tree. In a
+low tone he said to me "Load, load!" but the moment I took my eye off the
+tiger to do so he began to wriggle into the jungle, and I only got a snap
+shot at his hind leg. Now when the tiger roared, which he did as he
+approached me, and he lay watching me, I felt no sensation of the heart,
+though I felt a distinct flutter when loading and when the tiger was
+wriggling away. On the following day, however, I felt my heart to be
+rather the worse, but I attributed this to exposure to the sun. On another
+occasion, which occurred shortly afterwards, I shot a tigress so close
+that I could have touched her with a spear, and she was on rather higher
+ground than myself, but on this occasion neither when I fired, nor when
+she fell, and turned her head to me and showed me all her teeth, did I
+experience any heart effect whatever. I must say, though, that I had my
+attention strongly turned to the necessity of not allowing myself to be
+excited, in case it should be bad for my heart, and the power of the will
+must no doubt have much effect in controlling the action of the heart.
+Anyone who has anything the matter with his heart should take digitalis
+before going out, and also take a few doses of this tonic with him, as
+well as some very strong beef-tea. He should also endeavour to go after
+the tiger in the morning or late in the afternoon, and lie in a cool place
+in the jungle in the heat of the day, as I am quite sure, from my own
+experience, that exposure to much sun heat is bad for the heart. As heart
+disease, from the excitement of life, is becoming more common, these hints
+may be useful.
+
+Since writing the preceding, I went out after a tiger near my house,
+where I was placed on a tree quite out of the reach of a tiger--in fact it
+was too high, and showed me the great disadvantage of being more than say
+fifteen feet from the ground. The beat was a peculiar one, and I was
+posted just inside the jungle. The beaters were rather long at their work,
+and I had fallen into a reverie, from which I was aroused by three roars
+of a tiger just behind me, and the roars were not charging roars, but of a
+character which meant, in tiger language, that people had better look out.
+Now the tiger was below me, and I was as absolutely safe as a man at home
+in his armchair, and yet I felt my heart throb quickly. The explanation of
+this no doubt was that I had forgotten to take my dose of digitalis before
+starting. Being in the jungle I was under great disadvantages from having
+to shoot through the underwood, and, though I knocked over the tiger, and
+there was plenty of blood to prove it, we lost him.
+
+This tiger is known as the lame tiger from being so in the right fore
+leg--the result of an old wound probably--and some ten days after my
+wounding him a curious coincidence happened. A young married lady, who was
+at the time on a visit to my bungalow, had expressed a great wish to see a
+tiger, and, when leaving for Bangalore in her bullock coach between nine
+and ten o'clock one night, very nearly saw the lame tiger. He was standing
+in the road some miles from my house, at a sharp bend where the road
+deflects abruptly to cross a Nullah, and waited till the coach got within
+ten or fifteen yards of him, whereupon, after delivering three moderate
+growls, he limped down off the road, and stood for a moment looking at the
+coach and bullocks.
+
+All sportsmen must regret the necessity for tying out live bait for
+tigers, but this is really a fully justifiable proceeding, as thereby an
+immense amount of pain is saved to animal life in general, and an immense
+sum of money to the native population. The destruction of cattle by
+tigers is really enormous, and, I believe, far exceeding that reported to
+Government, and it is so mainly because the tiger is only allowed to eat a
+fraction of what he kills, as the moment that news of a bullock being
+killed reaches the village, the low class natives at once proceed to the
+spot, drive away the tiger, and carry off the beef. And this is only
+prevented when an English sportsman is within reach, in which case the
+cattle owners prevent the people from touching the carcase. It is often
+very annoying when tying out baits for tigers, to find them destroyed by
+panthers, as the panther, of course, from his habit of climbing trees, and
+concealing himself in the foliage, and from a kind of general facility
+that he seems to have for getting out of the way, is a difficult animal to
+find, in fact so much so, that I latterly would never go out after one,
+unless it had killed quite close at hand. In 1891 I was once much annoyed
+to find that a new kind of bait with an additional attraction had been
+quite ruined by a panther. This attraction consisted of a goat picketed in
+an open-topped (that was the mistake, it ought to have been closed) wooden
+cage which was placed in the branches of a tree, on the edge of the
+jungle, and about fifteen feet from the ground, while a bullock was
+picketed on the ground in the open land, about twenty yards away. The
+theory was that the, to a tiger, attractive aroma of the goat would be
+widely diffused, and that he might, too, further attract the tiger by his
+cries. News (false as it afterwards turned out to be) was brought in that
+a tiger had killed the bullock, and I toiled up on to the mountain some
+seven miles away from my bungalow, merely to find that a panther had
+killed the bullock and that my goat was hanging dead by the neck outside
+the cage just like a carcase in a butcher's shop. The panther had seized
+the goat, killed it, and jumped out of the cage with it, and had either
+not sense enough to cut the rope with his teeth, or had his suspicions
+aroused from finding the animal tied. To show that the suspicions of an
+animal can thus be aroused, I may mention the following incident, which is
+also especially interesting as showing the great skill of the tiger as a
+stalker and the singular power he has of stepping noiselessly on dry
+leaves, and his power to do mischief after being apparently shot dead. But
+before doing so I may mention rather an interesting circumstance. Besides
+the bait killed by the panther, I had two bullocks tied out in the
+neighbourhood, and as I did not care much for that part of the country,
+ordered them to be released and brought home with us. I was much struck
+with the earnest and business-like air with which these poor animals,
+which had spent some miserable nights in the jungle, expecting every
+moment to be killed by a tiger, trotted along, on a line often parallel
+with the party, and it somewhat reminded me of a picture I had seen in an
+illustrated paper, of the hunted deer amicably trotting home with the
+hounds and huntsmen. The fact was that they were determined to get home in
+good time, for fear, I suppose, of being shut out of the cattle shed, and
+though, just as they neared the shed, the remainder of the herd, which had
+been out grazing in the neighbourhood, appeared within twenty yards, the
+liberated baits got first into the shed. And now for my story showing how
+easily the suspicions of the tiger are excited.
+
+A near neighbour of mine--at least he lived ten miles off---was much
+annoyed by tigers which, from the continuous nature of his large block of
+evergreen forest land, he could only get at by sitting over a bait. On one
+occasion he had tied out a bullock, in a piece of land of a few acres
+which he had cleared in the middle of the forest, and concealed himself on
+a tree. It was during the day, and the ground was covered with dried
+leaves which are so brittle in the hot weather that even the scratching,
+or walking of a bird can be heard some way off. Presently a large
+tiger--my friend knew that he was about--made his appearance and commenced
+a stalk so elaborate and careful that my friend declared it would have
+been worth 1,000 rupees to a young sportsman to have witnessed it. He put
+every paw down so carefully, gradually crushing the leaves under it, that
+my friend, though quite close to the tiger, could not hear a sound.
+Between the tiger and the bullock was the butt, about four feet high, of a
+felled tree, with long projecting surface roots, and this saved the tiger
+much trouble, for he got on to one of the roots, and carefully balanced
+himself on it, and so without noise was able to walk quickly along till he
+came to the butt which he seemed to wind round like a snake, and he then
+got on to a corresponding root on the other side, and walked along that.
+In short, he approached so gradually and noiselessly, and his colour
+against the brown dry leaves was so invisible, that he got quite close to
+the bullock before it perceived him. The moment it did so it charged, but
+the tiger, avoiding the horns, swung round the back of the bullock, and
+then sat up and put both its paws on its neck evidently to drag it down,
+but it then perceived that the animal was tied, and at once turned and
+sprang into the forest with such rapidity that my friend did not fire. He
+however sat patiently on, and after a considerable time the tiger
+reappeared, went through the whole stalking performance as carefully and
+exactly as before, and was seen and charged by the bullock as before. But
+this time the tiger was in earnest and seized the bullock. There was a
+struggle, the rope broke, and the bullock dropped dead, and then the tiger
+stood for a few seconds, a magnificent figure in the bright sunlight,
+looking all round as it were for signs of danger. Whether the tiger saw or
+smelt my friend is uncertain, but it suddenly lay down behind the bullock,
+interposing the carcase between itself and my friend, and resting its
+head on the body. As it is always more or less precarious to fire at the
+head of an animal where it may suddenly move my friend waited to get a
+body shot, but as the tiger had evidently no intention of moving he fired
+at the head and the tiger was apparently shot dead on the spot. But my
+friend, who was an experienced sportsman, waited a little, and in the end
+thought it safe to fire another shot before going up to the tiger. He did
+so, when the tiger sprang up and went off into the forest at full speed,
+and fell and died at some little distance away. The first bullet had
+struck the tiger below the eye, but had been deflected, and was found
+lodged in the jaw. My friend thinks that it would have proved fatal to the
+tiger, but that is doubtful, as tigers make such wonderful recoveries from
+wounds.
+
+In tying out baits it is very important to use a chain instead of a rope,
+as the tiger will commonly cut the latter and carry off the carcase, and
+it is sometimes desirable, or even necessary in some cases, to sit over
+the carcase and await the return of the tiger. The latter is always the
+case where there are great continuous forests, where tigers cannot be
+isolated, or successfully pursued, unless one has an army of men and many
+guns. This form of sport, which Mr. Sanderson speaks highly of, I can
+imagine may be very interesting, but it is also very tiresome and
+tantalizing. A great many years ago I remember trying it for two nights,
+but without any success, and never again tried it till some years ago,
+when I made an attempt in one of the forests at the foot of one of the
+passes leading down to Mangalore. My people had no experience in the
+matter either, still we might have been successful had the carcase been
+chained. I took down a small herd of cattle from my plantations, and
+ordered some baits to be tied one evening, and early the following morning
+went round to look at them. In the first case we found that the rope had
+been cut and the bullock carried off and deposited in a depression in the
+ground about fifty yards away. The carcase was untouched. In the next case
+we found that the rope, which was a very strong jungle creeper as thick as
+a large-sized rope, had not been cut, but that the animal had been killed,
+and merely a few steaks as it were eaten from the rump. In the third case
+we found that the bullock, which had evidently been the first one seized,
+was about half eaten. In the fourth case the bullock, which was an old
+one, had not been touched. I think my people made a great mistake in tying
+out so many cattle so close together--they were not one hundred yards
+apart--still this certainly made matters more sure from one point of view,
+as a tiger crossing the country might have missed one bait, whereas he
+could hardly have missed four, but his having killed three baits made our
+proceedings a little mixed. I first ordered the surviving bullock to be
+taken home, and two of the carcases to be dragged away to a considerable
+distance, and resolved to sit over kill number two, as it was the best
+animal, and in the most convenient position, but unfortunately I ordered
+two of my people to take a seat on a tree near the place where number one
+had been killed and carried off, and the tiger, which went there first,
+looked up and saw them and growled. His suspicions of course were aroused,
+and the result was that he did not come at all to the kill I was sitting
+over--at least while I was there. After it was too dark to see to shoot I
+went home, and returned the following morning, when I found that the tiger
+had returned, cut the rope, and carried off the bullock to a distance of
+about two hundred yards, and eaten a good deal of it. I organized a small
+silent beat of a section of the forest, but nothing came of it. My head
+man then resolved to prepare a watching place in a tree near the carcase,
+and this time I resolved to follow Mr. Sanderson's advice, and begin to
+watch quite early in the afternoon. My man finished his arrangements by
+about midday, and, after breakfasting at home, I returned with him to the
+spot at about three o'clock. Horror of horrors, the carcase was gone
+again. My head shikari--the Rama Gouda, whom I have previously noticed as
+being such a cool and daring fellow--was enraged beyond measure. He at
+once, without saying a word, cut a creeper from the nearest tree, and
+without even a gun in his hand set off on the trail, but not, I observed,
+before gun-bearer number two, also a daring fellow, had looked at him with
+an inquiring eye, as much as to say, "are you not a trifle rash?" I
+followed Rama Gouda, though I was not quite sure of the prudence of our
+proceedings, and presently we perceived by the chattering of a squirrel
+that the tiger was moving along close to us. Then we came to the carcase,
+of which there was now only about half left, and from the tracks about it,
+and the quantity of flesh eaten, Rama Gouda was satisfied that the tiger
+must have watched him making his preparations and then carried off the
+carcase the moment he had left. Rama Gouda now lashed the creeper to the
+bullock's horns, and, with the aid of the second man, proceeded to drag it
+back to the watching place he had prepared, and which was about one
+hundred yards away. By this time, the hinder part of the bullock had been
+eaten and only the fore part was intact and the carcase smelt horribly.
+There was something so ludicrous in the whole thing that I could not, and
+much to Rama Gouda's surprise, help laughing. The unfortunate animal had
+first been driven thirty miles from his home into these remote forests,
+then killed, then his remains were carried off as we have seen, and then
+again carried off, and now what was left was being dragged back again to
+the watching place. Rama Gouda soon arranged matters to his satisfaction
+by restoring the remains to their original position, but certainly not to
+mine, for there presently arose a most asphyxiating stench, which seemed
+to fill the entire air, and reminded one of what soldiers must often have
+experienced in our eastern campaigns. We waited till it was too dark to
+see to shoot and then went home, and early next morning I had to start for
+the coast, and thus ignominiously ended the only attempt of the kind I
+ever made. The tiger was evidently an old hand and was playing a regular
+game of hide and seek with us. The great error made was the neglect of Mr.
+Sanderson's advice as to chaining the bait in the first instance. Some
+tigers always carry off the carcase each time they visit it, and a friend
+of mine told me that when he was once sitting over a carcase, the tiger
+made a sudden rush, picked up the carcase in the course of it, and made
+off so suddenly that he had no time to fire.
+
+I can easily understand that, as Mr. Sanderson says, there is a
+considerable charm and interest connected with this method (and in some
+cases it is the only method) of pursuing tigers, but I can see that it
+requires much experience, caution, and patience, and I would particularly
+advise those interested in this matter to consult Mr. Sanderson's valuable
+work.
+
+I have often found in conversation that people are surprised to find that
+tigers eat tigers when a suitable opportunity for doing so presents
+itself, but considering that man still, in some parts of the world, eats
+his fellow man, it seems to me extremely natural that a tiger should eat a
+tiger. I have, however, only met with one instance which occurred in my
+neighbourhood, and in this case I am strongly inclined to think that the
+eaten tiger was first of all killed. The incident occurred in this way.
+Shortly before my arrival in India one winter, my manager wounded a tiger,
+but I do not think very severely, as the tiger not only travelled at least
+two miles, but ascended a mountain up to a considerable elevation. Along
+one side of the mountain is a rather long strip of forest, which is a
+favourite place for tigers either to pass through or lie up in, as it is
+quite out of any village-to-village route, and had the tiger been hard hit
+he would certainly have remained there. But not only did he not do so, but
+skirting the jungle, or passing through it, he climbed up a steep ascent,
+evidently with the view of going into the next valley, and near the top of
+the ascent his living history ends. Knowing from the direction taken by
+the wounded tiger that he would probably be in the jungle on the mountain
+side, my manager had it beaten on the day following, when a tiger came out
+which he took to be the wounded tiger, and which he killed. It then turned
+out that it was not the wounded tiger, but a fresh tiger with the wounded
+tiger, or nearly all the meat of it, inside him, and all that was
+recovered was the head and the skin of the chest, which I saw after my
+arrival, and which was sent in to Government for the reward, and by the
+size of the head it must have been a fine tiger. When I visited the jungle
+in 1891, I carefully cross-examined the natives in the matter, and they
+said that they could not say whether the tiger had died from wounds or
+whether he had been killed by the tiger that had carried off and eaten the
+body, but they were positive that it was a tiger that had eaten the body,
+from the tracks, for the body had been taken down to water, on the margin
+of which no other tracks but those of a tiger were visible, and these were
+clearly defined. They could also be distinctly traced from the place in
+the open grassland whence the body was carried. Taking all the
+circumstances into consideration--the distance travelled, the steepness of
+the ground, and the fact that the tiger passed a favourable jungle for
+lying in, I am strongly of opinion, in fact, I consider it almost certain,
+that the wounded tiger must have been dispatched by the other tiger, which
+was hungry and could not resist the smell of the blood. There is nothing
+remarkable in a tiger eating a tiger found dead, and I have read and heard
+of instances of this, and also of tigers fighting, and the vanquished
+tiger being eaten.
+
+It is a common idea that tigers cannot climb trees, but this has arisen
+from the fact that they have seldom occasion to do so. Mr. Sanderson
+mentions the case of a tigress having been seen to climb a tree in a wood
+on the Nilgiri Hills, and though he has never seen a tiger in a tree
+himself, deprecates the idea of there being anything impossible in the
+matter, and if we come to consider that the large forest panther, which
+commonly ascends trees, is really often nearly as heavy as a small-sized
+tigress, there is nothing at all improbable in the tiger doing so. I
+myself have never seen a tiger in a tree, but one of my managers did, who
+once went out after a tiger which he had wounded. He then ran on to cut
+him off, and tried to get up into a tree, but not succeeding in the
+attempt, went and took a seat some way off on the hillside. The tiger
+presently emerged from the jungle, went to the tree and began roaring and
+scraping at the ground, and he must have either smelt traces of the
+manager or seen him trying to get up into it, and concluded he was there.
+However, he deliberately went up the tree paw over paw, and got into a
+cleft of it and looked about in the tree, and then came down backwards,
+and was shot in the act of descending. I sent and obtained measurements of
+this tree, the stem of which was 16-1/2 feet up to the first branch. The
+tiger climbed up so far, and looked around in the tree. Another case was
+told me by Rama Gouda, to whom I have previously alluded, of a wounded
+tiger going up a tree to get at a beater, whom he nearly reached. In the
+case just mentioned, the tiger rose on its hind legs and deliberately went
+up paw over paw, but in the second, started with a spring up the stem of
+the tree, and then ascended in the same way as the first tiger did.
+
+There is a common idea that jackals attach themselves to tigers, and are
+useful in warning them of danger, and I have been informed by an
+experienced sportsman that they always howl when they find a bait tied out
+for a tiger, and, it is supposed, with the view of informing any tiger
+within hearing that there is a bullock all ready for him. I have never
+heard but one confirmatory instance of the former, which was told me by a
+planter on the Nilgiri Hills, who was opening some new land in quarters
+occasionally visited by tigers. One evening, after the day's work was
+over, he went out accompanied by a kangaroo dog, and took a seat on the
+hillside to enjoy the view. Immediately below him ran a jungly ravine, and
+behind him the hill rose sharply. He had no gun with him, not expecting
+any game so close to his new abode, and now, to his dismay, a large tiger
+emerged from the shola at a point between him and his bungalow. As the
+grass was long at that season, the tiger did not perceive my friend (and,
+as I have previously shown, tigers, and I believe all animals, do not
+readily perceive any non-conspicuous object which is not in motion), who,
+as may be supposed, sat as close and still as possible, and beckoning to
+the dog, held him fast by the collar. The tiger lay down in the grass, and
+was presently followed by another tiger, which lay down in front of the
+first and rolled over on its back. This was pretty well for a beginning,
+but presently, one after the other, emerged three smaller tigers, which
+also took their seats in the grass. Here then was a nice family to have
+between one and one's dinner. The sun presently set, and the prospect of
+darkness was not encouraging. My friend naturally waited for the tigers to
+go, and no doubt devoutly hoped that they would not come his way, but time
+seemed to them to be of no importance, and they showed not the slightest
+disposition to move. Presently there came on to the ridge of the hill
+above a jackal, which looked down upon the party and then set up a most
+unearthly howl. The three smaller tigers, evidently young and
+inexperienced animals, took no notice of the protestations of the jackal,
+but the two larger tigers at once got up and took a long steady look at
+him, and the jackal moved restlessly about and seemed to redouble his
+efforts to attract the attention of the tigers. The larger tigers now
+seemed satisfied that some danger was at hand, and to the immense relief
+of my friend, walked down into the jungle, followed by the three smaller
+tigers. After waiting a little my friend got up and proceeded homewards,
+and, he said, "I am not ashamed to own that, after passing the place where
+the tigers had disappeared from view, I fairly ran for the house." The
+most interesting experiences one hears of tigers and other wild animals
+are, as may be supposed, not from sportsmen engaged on shooting
+expeditions, and who have killed much game, but from pioneer planters and
+others whose business lies in tigerish localities, and that is why Mr.
+Sanderson's book is so particularly interesting. My friend told me when I
+last met him that he had only killed two tigers, but that he had had
+occasionally some unexpected interviews with them. One of these was
+interesting as showing that a tiger does not like the rearing of a horse.
+My friend was riding across the country one morning when he came suddenly,
+at the edge of a shola, on a tiger, which at once crouched as if to
+spring. The horse, an Australian, wished to turn, but my friend, being
+afraid that the tiger might then spring on him, turned his horse's head
+towards the tiger and touched him with the spur. This caused the horse to
+rear, and the moment he did so the tiger turned tail and ran off. We have
+seen that man does not relish the roar of a tiger, and it may be
+interesting to record one instance where a single tiger was commoved and
+put to flight by the yell of a single man. He was a planter on the
+Nilgiris, and the brother of a friend of mine, and was in the habit of
+going out at the end of his day's work with a book and a gun, and seating
+himself on the hillside to look out for sambur deer. On one occasion he
+was thus sitting in the long grass when he heard something coming through
+it. This turned out to be a large tiger which came into view suddenly, and
+quite close, as may be supposed from the fact that the planter was sitting
+in long grass. The tiger at once crouched, and the planter was afraid to
+raise his gun, as it was probable that the animal might spring at him
+before he was ready to fire. Tiger and man thus looked at each other in
+silence. Mr. B. had heard of the effect of the human eye, and he threw
+into his the fiercest glare he could, but found that the tiger returned
+his glance quite unmoved. Then he thought he would try the effect of the
+human voice, and gathering himself together uttered the most awe-inspiring
+yell he could command. The tiger at once rose to his legs and turned his
+body half round. This was encouraging, and he emitted another yell, when
+the tiger went off.
+
+There can be no doubt that tigers, like men, are often very undecided how
+to act, and it would be interesting if we could penetrate their state of
+mind. Shall I attack, or shall I do nothing? and in the end, after long
+deliberation, the tiger will determine on doing nothing, and walk off. Of
+his state of mind the following is an instance. On one occasion I left my
+pony on the side of a hill just outside the forest, and went for a stalk
+over the mountain above. I could see nothing, and thought it would be well
+to take a seat and wait in case any game might turn up. I had not been
+seated more than a few minutes when one of my people, pointing downward,
+said, "There is a tiger," and we could see him at the foot of the hill
+about quarter of a mile away, walking steadily across a piece of open
+land to the forest beyond. Just as he disappeared my horse-keeper came up
+alone, and evidently in a most agitated state, and no wonder, for we had
+no sooner got out of his sight when, a tiger appeared from the jungle and
+lay down on the ground just above the pony and crouched. The horse-keeper
+had another man with him, but he not unnaturally said that he was afraid
+to come and tell us, as he thought that there was safety in numbers, and
+that the tiger might attack the pony if it was left with only one man. The
+tiger must have thus remained in a state of low doubt for at least half an
+hour. Finally he got up and left them, and, from the direction he took,
+was evidently the identical tiger which we had seen from the hill top.
+
+Tigers, like wolves and other animals, form plans, communicate them to
+their companions, and conjointly carry them out. A friend of mine was once
+the subject of an excellent instance of this. He was out stalking one day,
+and with his glass was scanning the country carefully, when he made out a
+long way off, in a piece of open grassland which was surrounded by forest,
+three tigers looking in his direction. They evidently saw that there was
+something on the hillside, but the distance was, for them, too great to
+make out what. After steadily looking at him some time the tigers
+evidently formed their plan of operations, and plunged into the forest
+towards him. The tigers had taken my friend and his man for game of some
+kind, and had determined on a united stalk and drive, and, when they
+appeared, two remained at the edge of the jungle, while the third made a
+circuit evidently with the view of coming upon the supposed game from
+above. But presently they discovered their mistake and went off.
+
+These forest tigers are rarely dangerous to man unless attacked, and in
+my part of the country they never are so. However, there is no rule
+without an exception, and when making this assertion to some natives in my
+neighbourhood many years ago, one of them said, "I am not so sure about
+that. A tiger ate an aunt of mine not far from here some years ago." But
+that is the only instance I ever heard of in my neighbourhood, and even by
+tradition there were no instances of deaths from tigers, and it is also
+remarkable how in some cases tigers, when there is plenty of game, live
+for years near cattle without touching them. I was particularly struck
+with this in the case of a family who lived quite isolated at the crests
+of the Ghauts, and the head of it told me that, though tigers were often
+about they never touched his cattle. There is an amusing story told in "My
+Indian Journal"[20] (a charming book which everyone should read who is
+interested in India) of a native who was ready enough it appears to track
+down tigers to be shot by others, but who by no means wished that any of
+his family should interfere. On one occasion Colonel Campbell found him
+belabouring his son with a stout bamboo, and on inquiry learned that the
+said son had killed a tiger. The father said it was all very well for
+people who lived in the open country, but with him the case was quite
+different, as he lived on sociable terms with the tigers in the jungle,
+had never injured them nor they him, and while there was peace between
+them he could go amongst them without fear, but now that his rascally son
+had picked a quarrel with them, there was no knowing where the feud might
+end.
+
+I have mentioned a case of tigers not interfering with cattle when there
+was plenty of game, but I should add that this was many years ago, when
+the natives had not so many guns as they have now. The rice-fields have
+been abandoned and the house of course deserted, and of recent years the
+tigers have changed their ways, for, ten years ago, I killed a tigress
+close to the site of the abandoned house, in the neighbourhood of which it
+had been killing cattle.
+
+I have said that forest tigers are rarely dangerous to man, and by that I
+mean the tigers inhabiting the long range of forests stretching along the
+south-western side of India at varying distances from the sea, but in the
+interior of Mysore very dangerous man-eaters have existed, and I have been
+shown places which people made up parties to cross. One man-eater, at
+least--for it was assumed that the deaths were the work of one
+animal--killed, I am informed on good authority, about 500 people. Two
+tigers were killed at one time, and after that the slaughter of human
+beings ceased, though it was never ascertained which was the culprit.
+There is no man-eater at present in Mysore. Mr. Sanderson says that bold
+man-eaters have been known to enter a village and carry off a victim from
+the first open hut. The boldest attempt I ever knew of was mentioned to me
+by my Nilgiri planter friend, and it occurred in this way. In the middle
+of the night there were loud cries of "Tiger!" from a hut near his house
+which was occupied by some of his people. He always kept a loaded gun near
+him at night, and at once rushed out and fired, when two men came up to
+the bungalow and declared that a tiger had begun to claw the thatch off
+the roof of the hut in order to get at them. This was alarming to the
+planter, as, if proved, many of his people might have left the place, and
+he told the men to sleep in his veranda, and that he would see in the
+morning if their story was true. He then went to bed and rose very early
+the following morning, before anyone was about, and found that the story
+was quite true, and saw the tracks of the tiger. These he carefully
+obliterated, and then went back to bed. Then when he rose at his usual
+time he roused the men and asked to be shown the track of the tiger. This
+of course they could not do, and he laughed off the whole story, and
+treated it as a fanciful illusion. I find many stories in sporting books
+of the great courage and determination often shown by natives in
+connection with tigers, but my Nilgiri planter friend told me one which
+was really astonishing. A tiger one day had carried off a Toda cattle
+herd, and his friend or relative was determined to recover the body, and
+was about to proceed single-handed and unarmed into the jungle with this
+view. My friend saw that he could not prevent him, and as he did not like
+to let him to go in alone, went with him. They went in accordingly, and
+presently heard the tiger crunching the bones of his unfortunate victim,
+but when the tiger heard them approaching he retired, and the Toda
+recovered what was left of the body. There can be no doubt, however, that
+the death of one of a party does exercise a chilling effect on the zeal of
+the natives, or at least on a considerable proportion of them, but after
+all this is not surprising, as I have found a similar coldness coming over
+my own proceedings when a tiger has retorted with effect on his pursuers.
+On the occasion I am now alluding to an unfortunate report had spread that
+a tiger I had wounded had left the jungle in which we found him, and
+whither he had retreated. I had wounded the tiger in the evening, and we
+went to look him up next morning, and the beaters, influenced no doubt by
+the report in question, went into the jungle in a body in a careless
+manner, and without sending men up trees to keep a look out ahead.
+
+The tiger waited till the whole party was within springing distance, and
+then with a tremendous roar which I clearly heard at my post some way off,
+charged, and buried his deadly fangs in the back of an unfortunate Hindoo
+peasant who was leading the way. The poor fellow was carried out of the
+jungle in an evidently dying state, and a caste dispute arose over him,
+the particulars of which I have given in my chapter on caste. After doing
+what we could for him we placed him on a rough litter and he was carried
+to the rear. I confess that after such an exhibition of temper on the part
+of the tiger and the nature of the jungle I, being Europeanly speaking
+single-handed, was not so very comfortable at the idea of approaching him,
+but luckily a toddyman who had run up a tree (these men are wonderful
+climbers) when the tiger charged, and was afraid for some time to come
+down, now emerged from the jungle, and reported that he could see the
+tiger from the tree he had climbed into. This of course much simplified
+matters, and I at once proceeded into the jungle, but only about ten
+people, mostly my own followers, cared to accompany me. As it happened, we
+after all ran no risk whatever, as the tiger was dead, though he was lying
+with his head on his paws in such a life-like position that we fired a
+shot into him to make sure. When we were skinning him the poor man
+expired. In the same jungle, I think about a year afterwards, an English
+visitor at my house wounded a tiger, which went into one of those reedy
+and cactus-grown bottoms which make tiger shooting on foot so dangerous. I
+then declared that none of my people should go into this, and that they
+might return the next day and see if the tiger was dead (by no means an
+absolutely safe proceeding even then as we have seen). Much to my
+amusement a lean toddy drawer of mine, an excellent shikari, went a few
+yards into the swampy ground, got on to a small boulder of rock, squatted
+down, took out his betel bag, threw some betel into his mouth preparatory
+to chewing, and then held out his long skinny arm and forefinger and said,
+"Look! A tiger made a meal of a man close to this last year. Let everyone
+therefore be careful and get up into trees, and mind what they are
+about." The next day the tiger was found dead quite close to the rock he
+had been squatting on. A most remarkable instance of courage on the part
+of a native occurred when a brother planter of mine was out tiger shooting
+on the Ghauts to the north of my abode. A tiger flew at a Hindoo
+peasant--a first-rate plucky sportsman, and as the tiger charged, the man
+struck at it with his hacking knife (a formidable weapon in the hands of a
+man who knows how to use it, and used to cut underwood, and thick boughs
+of trees), with the result that the tiger's skull was split open and the
+animal killed on the spot. The native was thrown backwards with great
+force, and his head came in contact with a stone. He got up, and by this
+time was surrounded by the people, when, holding out his hand, he said,
+"Look here," and then paused. Everyone expected some remark about the
+tiger, but, amidst general laughter--for the natives have a keen sense of
+humour--he continued, "There will be a bump on my head to-morrow as big as
+a cocoanut." And now, as we have heard so much of the courage of man, it
+is time that the dogs should have their turn, and I will conclude these
+reminiscences with an account of how a dog saved the life of the brother
+planter to whom I have just alluded. I was so much interested in the story
+that I wrote down the particulars in my diary at the time and read them
+over to my informant to make sure they were right. I give the account
+verbatim as I took it down at the time.
+
+Mr. A. told me that he once wounded a tiger which afterwards sprang on
+him, knocked him down, and seized him by the hand and arm. With Mr. A. was
+a large dog, half mastiff and half polygar (a savage and rare native
+breed), which at once attacked the tiger, and diverted its attention from
+Mr. A. After driving off the dog the tiger again returned to Mr. A. and
+commenced to worry him, but was again attacked by the dog. The dog was
+thus driven off about three or four times by the tiger. The tiger was all
+this time losing strength from his wounds, and the last time he returned
+to Mr. A., died on him. The dog was uninjured. Now comes the most curious
+and interesting part of the story.
+
+The dog, which was not affectionate generally, and indifferent to being
+noticed, belonged to Mr. A.'s brother, and had previously taken no
+interest in anyone but his master, but after this event, he refused to go
+home with his master, and stuck closely to the wounded man, and when some
+carbolic was applied by Mr. A.'s brother which caused pain to the wound,
+the dog began to growl and showed signs of displeasure. The dog would not
+allow anyone to come near Mr. A. except his own special servant, and lay
+under the bed with his nose sticking out, and keeping close guard. When
+Mr. A. was carried to the doctor some thirty-five miles away the dog went
+too, and on the doctor applying carbolic, and setting the bones, which
+caused pain, the dog at once seized the doctor by the leg. (Evidently
+looking on him as tiger No. 2, I suppose.) In about three months Mr. A.
+was quite cured, and after that the dog lost all interest in him, and
+returned to his master; and if he met Mr. A. by chance, merely
+acknowledged him by the faintest wag of his tail. A year afterwards this
+dog, happening to meet the doctor, whom he had not met since, at once flew
+at him and seized him by the trousers.
+
+One great danger attending the bite of a tiger is that of blood-poisoning
+from the frequently foul state of the animal's jaws, and it is, of course,
+of great consequence to cleanse wounds as soon as possible and apply
+carbolic. An engineer in the northern part of Mysore a good many years ago
+was bitten on the thigh by a tiger, and so little hurt that he walked home
+and went on with his business as usual, but a few days after he was
+suddenly taken ill and very soon died. Of course there may happen to be no
+foul matter about the tiger's mouth, and a Hindoo peasant wounded when I
+was out with no less than thirteen wounds in the arms--several of them
+double wounds as the man had thrust his locked arms into the tiger's mouth
+to keep him off--completely recovered. He goes by the nickname of Tiger
+Linga Gouda, and I always make a point of sending for him when I visit
+Mysore. On one occasion I was showing the marks of the wounds to a lady,
+and said that there were thirteen wounds. "Thirteen," echoed Linga Gouda,
+"There were fifteen, and you have forgotten those two on the head, and I
+slept on your bed too," he added with an air of great satisfaction--in
+fact he seemed to attach more importance to that than to anything
+connected with the transaction. I had given him up my bed because it was a
+broad one, and so most convenient for resting his lacerated arms. The
+natives were certain that he would die, and I felt a great triumph in
+bringing him round. The great thing with wounds of that kind is of course
+to cleanse them well, and apply carbolic if you have it (I had none on
+this occasion) and afterwards cover the wounds with damp lint, which
+should be kept constantly moist by frequent applications of water. This
+was done in the case I have alluded to. The arms, of course, swelled
+greatly, and the heat arising from them was very great, hence the need for
+the constant application of water. The flow of blood from the arms was
+checked by a tourniquet.
+
+I never but once heard of a mad tiger. This animal was made over in an
+inoculated condition by a friend of mine to the Garden in Bangalore. He
+had caught it when out tiger shooting, and, when on the way to Bangalore,
+he had chained it outside his tent where it was attacked and bitten by
+what turned out to be a mad Pariah dog.
+
+Before concluding this chapter I must say a few words, which perhaps
+ought to have been said at an earlier period, as regards one of the most
+important points of tiger shooting--i.e., that of taking up such a
+position as will enable you to fire to right or left without moving your
+body, or rather I should say without moving it more than in a most
+infinitesimal degree, for, as I have previously shown, it is movement of
+any kind which alone readily attracts the attention of an animal. It is
+evident that, if you sit facing the point from which the tiger is
+expected, though you can readily fire at him without moving if he passes
+to your left (and, as has been shown, you should not fire till he is just
+passing you) you cannot do so if he passes to your right without turning
+your whole body half round in that direction--a movement which might catch
+the eye of the tiger. To surmount this difficulty Sir Samuel Baker has
+invented a small stool with a revolving top, which is no doubt air
+excellent thing if there is time to erect a suitable platform on which to
+support the stool, but it often happens that positions have to be taken up
+in a hurry, and that you have to sit on the fork of a branch, or on the
+ground behind a bush or rock, where the tiger may pass on either side. In
+such cases the shooter should sit facing nearly full face to the right, as
+he can, with hardly any perceptible movement of his body fire readily to
+his left, and he should instruct his man with the second gun to point with
+his finger in order to indicate the side on which the tiger is
+approaching.
+
+In all the books I have read about tigers I have never met with an
+allusion to tigers purring like cats from satisfaction, but a brother
+planter informs me that he heard a wounded tiger, that had killed one of
+the natives who was following him up, purr for several minutes, as he
+described it, "like a thousand cats." The evening was closing in when the
+accident occurred and as the jungle was thick nothing could be done. On
+the following morning the man and the tiger were found lying dead
+together.
+
+Of all sports tiger shooting affords the most lasting satisfaction, and it
+is especially interesting when one lives in tigerish localities where one
+has more leisure and opportunity for going into all the details of this
+delightful sport, and where a knowledge of the people and their language
+makes the sport so much more agreeable, and one's acquaintance with the
+ground enables one to take an active and intelligent part in regulating
+the plan of operations when a tiger has killed. Then in the case of an
+animal so destructive it is seldom possible to feel any commiseration,
+though I have done so on certainly one, or perhaps two occasions. Against
+many sports something may be said, but that is impossible as regards tiger
+shooting. The tying out of live baits may be objected to, but after all
+the tooth of the tiger is to be preferred to the knife of the butcher.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[15] G. P. Sanderson's "Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India,"
+1878.
+
+[16] "Reminiscences of Life in Mysore, South Africa and Burmah." By
+Major-General R. S. Dobbs. London, Hatchards, Piccadilly, 1882.
+
+[17] _Vide_ Appendix C.
+
+[18] "Oriental Field Sports." By Captain Thomas Williamson, London, 1807.
+
+[19] "Tiger Shooting in India; Experiences 1850 to 1854," by William Rice,
+1857.
+
+[20] "My Indian Journal." By Colonel Walter Campbell. Edinburgh, Edmonston
+and Douglas, 1864.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+BEARS--PANTHERS--WILD BOARS--JUNGLE DOGS--SNAKES--JUNGLE PETS.
+
+
+The Indian black bear (_ursus labiatus_), we are informed by Jerdon, is
+found throughout India and Ceylon, from Cape Comorin to the Ganges,
+chiefly in the hilly and jungly districts. The bear, unlike the tiger,
+which has sometimes five cubs, appears never to have more than two cubs,
+and I have not been able to hear or read of their ever having more. We
+have no means of knowing how often they breed, but I imagine that they
+must seldom do so, and that that is why they are so soon almost
+exterminated. As I never kept a game diary on my estate (which I now much
+regret), I have no idea how many have been killed from it, but I am sure
+we have killed a smaller number of bears than of tigers, and yet the bear
+is now rarely seen or heard of in my neighbourhood, while we hear as much
+of tigers as ever, and indeed quite recently a great deal more, for last
+year they were apparently more numerous than they have ever been in the
+tiger range of my district; and I say apparently, because, from the
+destruction of game, the tigers have naturally been compelled to live more
+upon cattle. It is alleged by the natives that the tigers kill and eat the
+bears. Mr. Sanderson notices this in his work, and gives one reported
+instance of it, but I have never known of one in my part of the country. A
+friend of mine, formerly in the employ of the Mysore State, told me that
+he knew of two cases in the North-Eastern Division, of tigers killing
+bears, but in neither case did they eat them. In the first case the bear
+and tiger had met at a watering-place, and in the second in the jungle.
+Mr. Ball, in his "Jungle Life in India,"[21] tells us that he once came
+across the remains of a bear which the natives said had been killed by a
+tiger, and that a native shikari had sat over the carcase with the hope of
+getting a shot at the tiger. We have no returns as regards bears in
+Mysore, but in the adjacent Bombay districts--Kanara and Belgaum--Colonel
+Peyton tells us, in the "Kanara Gazetteer," they are fast becoming rare,
+except near the Sahyadris, and even there are no longer numerous. In
+Belgaum, between 1840 and 1880, he tells us that no fewer than 223 bears
+were killed. The steady decline of the numbers of the bears is shown by
+the fact that 137 were killed between 1840 and 1850, 51 between 1850 and
+1860, 32 between 1860 and 1870, and 3 between 1870 and 1880. In Kanara 51
+bears were killed between 1856 and 1882, so we have a total then of 274
+bears for these two districts alone. As regards big game, the first comers
+obviously have the best of it.
+
+Colonel Peyton tells us that the bear is, of all animals, most dreaded by
+the natives. There can be no doubt, he says, that an untouched bear will
+often charge, while a tiger will rarely do so, and there are numerous
+instances of people having been mauled and sometimes killed by them. I
+imagine, though--in fact, I am sure--that this must often occur from the
+bear constantly keeping his head down, evidently smelling and looking for
+things in or on the ground. All other game animals have some motive for
+looking ahead and around--deer and bison for their enemies, and tigers for
+their prey. But the bear lives on insects and fruits, and flowers and
+honey, and as he is not apprehensive of being attacked by any animal, has
+no motive for keeping a lookout, and so does not do so. He may thus, and
+no doubt often does, run into a man, under the mistaken idea that the man
+is running into or attacking him, and then the bear, naturally, does the
+best he can. I can give a remarkable confirmation of this view.
+
+One day, in a break in the monsoon, when the game lies much out of the
+forest, I was out in the mountains with my manager for a general stalk,
+when we saw, some way ahead of us, a bear walking along. We quickly formed
+a plan of operation, and it was arranged that I should make a circuit and
+get between the bear and a jungly ravine he appeared to be making for, and
+that my manager should follow on the track of the bear, which would thus
+be pretty certain to be overhauled. The bear was pottering along as bears
+do, and I had no difficulty in getting between him and the jungle he was
+approaching, and the moment I did so I advanced a little towards him. When
+the bear got within shooting distance--about fifty yards--I stooped down
+and moved a little on one side so as to get off his direct line, with the
+view of getting a side shot, but just as I did so he accidentally altered
+his route, thus bringing himself again head on to me. Then I manoeuvred
+again to get out of his line, but the bear also altered his line, and as
+by this time he was getting rather too close--i.e., about ten yards
+off--I stood up and took a steady shot at his head and dropped him dead.
+Now, strange to say, I do not believe that the bear ever saw me at all,
+and he could not wind me, as the south-westerly wind was blowing strongly
+from him to me, and yet, as the grass at that season was by no means long,
+he had no more difficulty in seeing me than I had in seeing him, and he
+probably would have walked right up to me. This instance is, I think,
+interesting, and goes far to explain the numerous accidents in connection
+with bears. Still there can be no doubt that, as Colonel Peyton says, an
+unwounded and untouched bear will deliberately attack people when there is
+no occasion for his doing so, and that too, under circumstances where no
+other animal would make an attack, and of this the following little
+incident will serve as an illustration.
+
+On one occasion a bear was reported on a jungly hill about a mile from my
+bungalow, and as I was young and inexperienced then, I said that I would
+lie on the ground till I heard the beaters, and then stand behind a tree.
+I was alone, and had only a single barrelled rifle, which I laid on the
+ground beside me. As the cover was rather a large one, I had no reason to
+expect anything till I could at least hear the beaters in the distance,
+and I lay leaning on my elbow and thinking of I cannot now remember what,
+when on chancing to look up I saw a large bear standing at the edge of the
+jungle about twenty yards away. The moment I moved he charged, and I at
+once seized my rifle, sprang up and charged the bear at an angle (there
+was no time to fire), and made for the jungle from which he had emerged. I
+just missed his nose, and he followed me for a few paces as I ran towards
+the jungle from which he had come, which I did knowing that he would not
+be inclined to go in that direction. Then, having thus cleared me out of
+the way, he turned, and resumed his original route, and as he was
+disappearing into the next jungle I fired at him, but the charge must have
+had a discomposing effect on my shooting, for I missed the bear
+altogether. Now, as the beaters were far away and not within hearing,
+there was no occasion for the bear to have attacked me, and there was
+ample room for him to have altered his line. In fact, unless closely
+pressed by beaters, no other unwounded animal would have so acted. It will
+be observed that the bear, after having pursued me for a few yards, turned
+and went on his way, but had I not been nimble--in other words, had I been
+completely invested by the bear and thrown down--he might, as the natives
+would phrase it, have made my wife a widow. It is commonly supposed that,
+when making an attack, the bear stands on its hind legs, and thus gives
+the sportsman a good chance of killing him with a shot in the chest, but
+this is not my experience, and, though instances of the kind may have
+occurred, I should not advise the sportsman to count on any such delay in
+the proceedings of an attacking bear.
+
+The preceding illustration, I may point out, affords a useful lesson. If
+so suddenly attacked by a wild animal that you have no time to fire,
+always rush towards it, and to one side, so that you may, as it were,
+dodge past it. This will enable you to gain ground on it, and room to turn
+round and fire.
+
+I may observe that Mr. Ball, in his "Jungle Life in India," gives several
+instances of natives being wantonly attacked by bears, and Colonel
+Campbell[22] gives one remarkable instance of two bears attacking a party
+of his people, who were on the march through the jungle in Belgaum in
+charge of his horses, one of which was so severely wounded by one of the
+bears that the life of the horse was despaired of for some days. The
+Colonel was determined to be avenged on the bears, had them marked down,
+and, with the aid of his friends, bagged them both, but not before one of
+the bears had thrown down one of the party, who ran a great risk of being
+killed. The determination of the bear in following up his assailant was
+in this instance very great.
+
+I may here observe that some little caution is required in approaching,
+and looking into caves, and examining the entrances for tracks of bears,
+and the person doing so should be fully prepared for a sudden charge out
+of the cave, and be ready to jump on one side. No cave should be
+approached with the assumption that it is not at all likely that a bear
+will be at home, and especial care should be taken in the case of a cave
+with a drop in front of it over which a person might be hurled by a bear
+charging suddenly out. To get a bear out of a cave is often no easy
+matter, and different caves require, of course, different treatment. In
+some cases the bear may be poked out with the aid of a long pole, and when
+this is done the operation is both interesting and amusing, but care must
+be taken to see that you have a man who understands bears, and knows by
+the character of the growl when the bear really means to charge out into
+the open, and also that the man with the stick can readily get out of the
+way, which he cannot do in the case of every cave. The native with a long
+pole, or rather stick, usually commences with a quiet nervous sort of
+poke, which awakes the bear out of his midday slumbers and causes him to
+rush at the stick with a furious growl. But this is merely a
+demonstration, and the experienced native does not expect a charge, though
+I need hardly say that he is well prepared to get out of the way. Then the
+native commences to poke away in a more pronounced style, and at the same
+time excites himself by calling in question the purity of Bruin's mother,
+his female relations, and even those of his remote ancestors, to all of
+which the bear responds by growls and rushes at the stick. At last his
+growls and rushes at the stick become fierce and menacing, and all of a
+sudden the experienced Hindoo, who by some instinctive knowledge is able
+to gauge the charging moment, drops the stick and scuttles out of the way,
+and the bear dashes headlong from the cave to be killed, or to make good
+his escape, as the case may be. Poking a bear out of a cave is rather a
+severe trial of one's nervous system, and if anyone doubts that he has
+only to try it for himself, as it will perhaps show the individual that we
+seldom rightly estimate the amount of nerve which we often expect natives
+to show. I think I was never more startled in my life than I was one day
+when I put my ramrod (it was of course in the muzzle loading days) into
+the very narrow mouth of a cave in which I thought there was little chance
+of Bruin being at home. A she-bear however was within, and all the fiercer
+as she had cubs, but luckily she did not charge out, and I need hardly say
+that I promptly drew back. Sometimes a cave may be so deep and tortuous
+that the bear cannot be got out with the aid of a pole, and to meet such
+cases I had stink balls made, as bears have very fine olfactory nerves and
+seem particularly to object to disagreeable smells. These balls were
+composed of asafoetida, pig dung, and any other offensive ingredient
+that suggested itself to me at the time, and made up into about the size
+of a cricket ball and then dried in the sun. The ball was, when required
+to drive a bear out of a cave, impaled on the end of a long pole and
+surrounded by dried grass, or any other inflammable material which was at
+hand, and this being ignited the pole was thrust as far as possible into
+the cave. This I found to be a highly successful plan, and I may mention
+in passing that I have met with no account in the many sporting books I
+have read of this being done previously. Sometimes large fires are lit in
+the mouth of a cave with the view of smoking a bear out, but this is
+rather a cruel process which I do not recommend. In some cases of
+peculiarly shaped and situated caves it is, however, the only practicable
+plan, but where adopted the bear should not be put to more inconvenience
+than is necessary to drive him out. A large fire should be lit at the
+entrance, and when the cave has got filled with smoke all the blazing
+fragments of wood should be removed from the entrance, and in doing this
+the people should talk loudly and make as much noise as possible, and
+afterwards retreat to a distance from the cave leaving the sportsman with
+his spare gun-carrier to sit just above the entrance to the cave. The bear
+finding that, as he erroneously supposes, every one has gone away, and
+being naturally desirous of quitting such uncomfortable quarters will,
+after a short time, come cautiously out and may thus be easily shot. It is
+very important to have a couple of bull-terriers when out bear shooting as
+they are most useful in bringing a wounded bear to bay.
+
+In considering these remarks upon the various ways of getting bears out of
+caves it may be useful to show how not to attempt to get a bear out of a
+cave, and the connecting circumstances will also be useful to anyone who
+may be overtaken by a hill fire.
+
+On one occasion many years ago news was brought in that a bear had been
+marked down into a small and very narrow mouthed cave on a bare hillside,
+and I accordingly proceeded to the spot. The whole mountain was at that
+time covered with long grass, and as the cave was closely surrounded by
+it, and the bear if poked out in the usual way would rush into the grass
+and thus give a bad chance to the shooter, I devised what I thought, and
+what at first appeared to be, an excellent plan for meeting the
+difficulty. This was to set fire to the whole hill just below the cave,
+and my theory was that, as the cave was a small one, the heat of the fire
+and the smoke would cause the bear to quit the cave after the fire had
+passed over it. The wind was, when we lit the fire, blowing from east to
+west and I perched myself on a pile of rocks rather above, and to the
+east of the bear's cave as, when leaving it, he would naturally go in a
+direction opposite to that of the fire, in which case he would pass within
+easy shot of my position. With this, distinctly original conception I was
+highly pleased and watched the progress of the terrific conflagration that
+ensued with interest and satisfaction. How it roared and leapt as it
+consumed the long dried grass, and how soon would the bear be likely to
+make its appearance! It reached the long grass around the cave and
+proceeded to sweep along the hill, away from me, and flying before the
+easterly wind. Presently there was a dead lull. A few seconds more and the
+whole position was reversed. I had quite forgotten that, at that season of
+the year, and that hour of the day, the east wind dies down, and the
+westerly sea breeze comes in, and in an instant I was caught in my own
+trap. First of all I thought I would screen myself behind one of the rocks
+and remain where I was, but I was of course speedily enveloped with masses
+of smoke, and then I thought I would get down and run; first of all,
+however, I peeped over the rock, but merely to perceive a terrifying mass
+of roaring red flames rushing towards me, and this finally determined me,
+and I stuffed my handkerchief into my mouth and held on. As I had of
+course leggings and was fully clothed I had much the best of it, but my
+shikari with his bare limbs got a pretty good roasting. But the fire
+seemed no sooner to have reached us than it was swept onwards quite away,
+and I was astonished at the pace it travelled, which one can have no idea
+of when one witnesses these conflagrations, as one usually does, from a
+distance. Beyond feeling as if my lungs were on fire for a day or two
+afterwards I experienced no ill effects from my temporary roasting, but
+the experience I had was quite sufficient to show me the amount of
+inconvenience a bear must suffer from being smoked out of his cave, and,
+as I have previously pointed out, no more fire should be lit at the
+entrance of a cave than is necessary to make it desirable for the bear to
+leave it, which, as I have shown, he will soon do, if the people retire to
+a distance. As for our bear, he probably knew far more about these hill
+fires and the sudden changes of wind than I did, and had not the slightest
+idea of coming out for some time, and I therefore had to introduce to his
+notice one of my stink balls, which had the effect of bringing him out. By
+way of a change I had intended fighting it out with the bear without
+firing, and told a native to attack the bear with my spear when he
+emerged, while I proposed, if he lodged his spear, to attack with the
+bayonet of my Enfield rifle. But the spear came into contact with a bone
+in the bear's back, and thus the point was broken off, and seeing that my
+man had not lodged his spear I fired and killed the bear. From my
+subsequent experience of the great power of the bear I am now glad that
+the spear was not lodged.
+
+Bear shooting from caves I have found to be a most interesting and
+sometimes most entertaining and even amusing sport, while it is attended
+with a sufficient amount of danger for all practical purposes. You never
+get a laugh out of a tiger shikar, but you sometimes do in connection with
+bears, and the following is at once an instance in point, and will besides
+illustrate the danger of approaching a cave which is perhaps rarely
+inhabited by bears, as also the surprising promptness of the bear in
+action. And I say surprising, because from his shambling gait, general
+deliberation of movement, and the clothing of long black hair which hides
+the powerful form and limbs, his activity and quickness of movement when
+aroused is astonishing to those who have no experience of bears. But to
+proceed with my story.
+
+One day, when returning from shooting in the mountains, we happened to
+pass a bear's cave which was rarely inhabited--at least on former
+occasions when we examined it we had found no traces of bears, nor had one
+ever been marked into it that I was able to hear of, though the cave had
+the reputation of being occasionally used by bears. The cave was in a
+beehive-shaped pile of rocks standing on, or rather projecting from, a
+steep hillside. From the upper side it is easily approached, but to get at
+the mouth of the cave you have to step down, as it were, from the roof of
+the beehive on to a ledge of rock about six feet wide, below which there
+is a drop of ten or twelve feet. From the absence of any signs of bears
+about the roof of the cave I assumed that the cave was as usual
+uninhabited, but I thought I would gratify my curiosity by looking into
+it, so I got down on to the ledge, and was imprudent enough to leave my
+guns with the people on the roof above. As there were no signs of bears on
+the ledge or at the entrance, I told one of the natives to go in and take
+a look at the cave, but he had only penetrated a few feet from the
+entrance, which was about five feet high, than with three furious growls a
+bear charged headlong, and drove the intruder out with such force that he
+was shot clean over the ledge, and alighting (luckily) on his side, rolled
+some way down the steep hillside at the bottom of the drop. Bruin then
+with wonderful readiness knocked down the other man, who had not presence
+of mind enough to get out of the way, and after inflicting a scalp wound
+on the back of his head, dropped over the ledge, and got off unharmed
+amidst several shots which were fired at him by the people above, who of
+course from their position could not see the bear till he had got to a
+considerable distance. In the confusion that had occurred amongst the
+people left on the roof of the cave, who were as much unprepared for a
+bear as I was, some one had jostled my principal shikari--a testy and at
+times rather troublesome old man, but a most keen sportsman--and, to the
+great delight of every one, his shins had in consequence been barked
+against a sharp piece of rock. All the sympathy that ought to have been
+devoted to the wounded man he diverted to himself by the tremendous fuss
+he made about his injured shins, and this, and the chaff he had to sustain
+in consequence, quite rounded off the affair, and we all went home in high
+good humour, and the wounded man for years afterwards used to show his
+ear-to-ear scar with considerable satisfaction. Some people might have
+objected to the escape of the bear, but I confess that I did not grudge
+him the victory he had earned so well, and we consoled ourselves further
+with the reflection that we would get the better of him next time. Before
+concluding the subject of bears, I may give another incident which was
+rather amusing, and the narration of which may be of use as illustrating
+one or two points which are worthy of notice, and especially the advantage
+of having a good dog with one.
+
+On a mountain-side about five miles from my house is a rather large cave
+of considerable depth--so deep, at least, that the longest sticks would
+not reach to the end of it, and as we could get the bear out in no other
+way, I lit a large fire at the entrance, and, after some time, sent all
+the people away to a distance, and, with a single man to hold a second
+gun, sat over the mouth of the cave. The result that I anticipated soon
+followed, and, imagining that we had given up our project in despair, and
+being naturally desirous of leaving such uncomfortable quarters, Bruin
+presently appeared looking cautiously about. The smoke prevented my taking
+a very accurate shot. However, I fired, and wounded the bear somewhere in
+the throat, though not fatally, and he plunged into a jungly ravine close
+to the cave, pursued by my bull terrier, an admirable and very courageous
+animal, which attacked the bear, and detained him sufficiently long to
+give me time to run to the other side of the ravine, and so get in front
+of the bear. A hill-man accompanied me, armed with a general officer's
+sword which I had brought out--why I really forget now, for it was
+anything but sharp, which I now regret, as it would have been interesting
+to see the effect of a really sharp sword on a bear's back. The bull
+terrier now rejoined me, and, in company with two additional natives who
+had run after us, I got on a piece of rock about three feet high. The man
+with the sword stood on my right, and the two natives--who were
+unarmed--on my left, and in this order we awaited the arrival of the bear.
+Sore and angry, he presently emerged from the jungle at a distance of
+about twenty-five or thirty yards further down the slope of the hill. I
+fired at and hit him, and he then turned round, took a look at us, and
+charged. As he came on I fired my remaining shot. Then the man with the
+sword struck the bear a tremendous blow on the back (which I think would
+have stopped the bear had the sword been sharp), and in a second more old
+Bruin had thrown the whole of us off the rock on to the ground behind it.
+There we were then--four men, a wounded bear, and a bull terrier, all
+mixed up together. However, the man with the sword laid about him most
+manfully, and the bear, either not liking the situation, or being
+exhausted with his wounds and efforts (more likely the latter), retreated
+into the ravine out of which he had emerged. Into this we presently
+followed him, and after another shot or two he expired, and I have the
+skin at homo with the mark of the sword-cut on the back. It had cut
+through the shaggy hair, and only penetrated the skin sufficiently to
+leave a scar. The man who had shown so much pluck was a young farmer from
+the adjacent village, and I at once offered him the sword with which he
+had defended me. But he seemed to think he had done nothing, and
+positively declined it, saying that his neighbours would be jealous of his
+having such a fine-looking thing. I had, however, a knife made after the
+native fashion, and afterwards gave it to him in commemoration of the
+event.
+
+In Mysore there are two kinds of panthers. One, the largest of the two, is
+called by the natives the Male Kiraba, or forest panther, and confines
+itself generally to the forest regions, while the smaller kind haunts the
+neighbourhood of villages. The black panther, which is of rare occurrence,
+is merely an offshoot of the other varieties. The panther, in consequence
+of its tree-climbing habits, and general aptitude for suddenly
+disappearing, is of all animals the most disappointing to the sportsman,
+so much so, indeed, that I soon gave up going out after them. Though it
+has great strength, and from the amazing suddenness of its movements,
+great means at its disposal for making successful attacks on man, it
+seems, unlike the tiger, bear, and wild boar, to have no confidence in its
+own powers, and though in one sense showing great daring by attacking dogs
+even when they are in the house and quite close to people, is, when
+attacked itself, of all animals the most cowardly--a fact which the
+natives are well aware of, and which is proved by the small number of
+people killed by panthers in proportion to the number of them accounted
+for. The only way of insuring success when hunting panthers is to have a
+small pack of country-bred dogs of so little value that when one or two of
+them may chance to be killed by the panther the matter is of little or no
+consequence. The pack will soon find the panther, and perhaps run him up a
+tree, and thus give the sportsman a good, or rather certain chance of
+killing the animal. In this way a manager of mine was very successful in
+bagging panthers. I have some reason to suppose that the panther, when
+severely wounded, sometimes feigns death, and give the following incident
+with the view of eliciting further information on the subject.
+
+Two natives in my neighbourhood once sat up over a kill, and apparently
+killed a panther--at least it lay as if dead. They then with the aid of
+some villagers, who afterwards arrived on the scene of action, began to
+skin the panther, and the man who had wounded it took hold of the tail to
+stretch the body out when the panther came suddenly to life, and bit the
+man in the leg. One of the people present then fired at the panther,
+apparently killing it outright. The man, who had been only slightly
+bitten, then again took the animal by the tail, a proceeding which it
+evidently could not stand, for this time it came to life in earnest, and
+inflicted a number of wounds on the man at the tail. The natives then
+attacked it with their hacking knives, and finally put an end to it. The
+dresser of my estate was sent to the village, which was about six miles
+away, to treat the wounds, but the unfortunate man died. I may add that
+this is the only instance I have known of a man being killed by a panther
+in my neighbourhood.
+
+I now turn to an animal which is really dangerous, and I think more daring
+than any animal in the jungles--the wild boar--and whatever doubts the
+panther has of its own powers, I feel sure that the boar can have none--in
+fact its action is not only daring, but at times even insulting. To be
+threatened and attacked in the jungle one can understand, but to be
+growled at and menaced while on one's own premises is intolerable. I never
+but once heard the deep threatening don't-come-near-me growl of the wild
+boar (and in the many sporting books I have read I never met with any
+allusion to it), and that was some years ago, within about ten or fifteen
+yards of my bungalow, and the incident is worth mentioning as showing the
+great daring and coolness of the wild boar.
+
+One evening at about seven o'clock, and on a clear but moonless night, I
+went into the garden in front of my house. This is flanked by a low
+retaining wall some three or four feet high--a wall built to retain the
+soil when the ground was levelled--and below this a few bushes and plants
+had sprung up close to the bottom of the wall. In these I heard what I
+supposed to be a pariah dog gnawing a bone, and, in order to frighten it
+away, I quietly approached within a few yards of the spot, and made a
+slight noise between my lips. I was at once answered by a low deep growl,
+which I at first took to be the growl of a panther, and I then walked back
+to the bungalow and told my manager to bring a gun, telling him that there
+was either a large dog (which on second thoughts appeared to me most
+probable), or some animal gnawing a bone. We then quietly approached the
+spot where we could hear the gnawing going on quite plainly about five
+yards off. By my direction he fired into the bushes, and we then stood
+still and listened, and presently heard what was evidently some heavy
+animal walk slowly away. On the following morning I sent my most
+experienced shikari to the spot, and he reported that the animal was a
+wild boar, which had been munching the root of some plant, and the soil
+being gravelly, the noise we had heard proceeded from the chewing of roots
+and gravel together. This boar then had not only refused to desist from
+his proceedings when I was within five yards of him, but had even warned
+me, by the low growl afore mentioned, that if I came any nearer serious
+consequences might ensue. On the following day I assembled some natives
+and beat a narrow jungly ravine below my house, at a distance of about,
+fifty yards from it, and there came out, not the boar, but his wife with a
+family of five or six small pigs. She was shot by a native, and the young
+ones got away, but the boar either was not there, or, more probably, was
+too knowing to come out. He did not, however, neglect his family, but in
+some way best known to himself, collected them together, and went about
+with them, as, a day or two afterwards, he was seen with the young pigs by
+my manager, and their tracks were also to be seen on one of the paths in
+my compound, or the small inclosed park near my bungalow. This boar
+afterwards became very troublesome, ploughed up the beds in my rose garden
+at the foot of my veranda stops, and even injured a tree in the compound
+by tearing off the bark with his formidable tusks. But, daring though he
+was, he was once accidentally put to flight by a slash of an English
+hunting whip. The boar, it appears, was making his round one night when my
+manager, hearing something moving outside his bath-room, and imagining it
+to be a straying donkey--we keep some donkeys on the estate--rushed out
+with his hunting-whip, and made a tremendous slash at the animal, which
+turned out to be the boar, so startling him by this unexpected form of
+attack, that he charged up a steep bank near the house and disappeared.
+This boar was afterwards shot by one of my people in an adjacent
+jungle--at least a boar was shot, which we infer must have been the one in
+question, as since then my garden has not been disturbed. The boar is more
+dangerous to man than any animal in our jungles, and I have heard of three
+or four deaths caused by them in recent years in my district. The natives,
+however, say that, till he is wounded, the tiger is less dangerous than
+the boar, but that after a tiger is wounded, he is the more dangerous of
+the two; and I think that this is a correct view of the matter. The boar
+has a most remarkable power of starting at once into full speed, and that
+is why his attacks are so dangerous. In countries inhabited by wild boars
+it is very important to be always on the alert. As an illustration of
+this, and also of the great power of the boar, and of his sometimes
+attacking people without any provocation on their part, I may mention the
+following incident.
+
+When I was walking round part of my plantation one morning with my
+manager, and we chanced to stand in a path for a few moments (I forget now
+for what reason), my dogs went down the hill into the coffee, and appear
+there to have disturbed a boar. Luckily for myself, I always keep a sharp
+look out, and my eye caught a glimpse of something black coming up amongst
+the coffee. In a single second a boar appeared in the path some twenty
+yards away. The path sloped downwards towards me, and at me he came, like
+an arrow from a bow. As there was no use in my attempting to arrest the
+progress of an animal of this kind, I stepped aside and let him into my
+manager, who, luckily for himself, was standing behind a broken off coffee
+tree, which stood at a sharp turn in the path some yards further on. The
+result was very remarkable. The boar's chest struck against the coffee
+tree and slightly bent it on one side. This threw the boar upwards, and,
+of course, broke the force of the charge, but there was still enough force
+left to toss my manager into an adjacent shallow pit with such violence
+that his ear was filled with earth. I was now seriously alarmed, as I had
+no weapon of any kind, but luckily the boar went on. His tusk, it
+appeared, had caught the manager--a man of about six feet, and thirteen
+stone in weight--under the armpit, but had merely torn his coat. We
+organized a beat the same afternoon, and killed the boar, which was
+suffering from an old wound, and this no doubt accounted, in some degree,
+for his sudden and gratuitous attack. Tigers often attack the wild boar,
+and there are often desperate battles between them, and well authenticated
+instances have been known of the boar killing the tiger. I have never met
+with one in my neighbourhood, though I once aided in killing a tiger which
+had been ripped in several places by a boar. As it is impossible in
+jungly districts to ride the wild boar, he is invariably shot, except
+when, in the monsoon rains, he is occasionally speared. At that season the
+wild pigs make houses, or rather shelters, for themselves by cutting with
+their teeth and bending over some of the underwood, and under these they
+repose. When such shelters are discovered, a man approaches them
+cautiously and drives his spear through the shelter into the boar's back.
+I have never seen this done, but have often heard of its being done where
+I lived in former days, during the rainy season.
+
+Boar's head pickled in vinegar and garnished with onions makes a good
+dish, especially after harvest, when the pigs are in good condition, but,
+from what I have known of the habits of the wild boar, I do not think I
+should ever be inclined to partake of it again, and certainly not when
+cholera is about. A neighbour of mine told me that when he was once
+beating a jungle for game the natives backed out of it with great
+promptness, having come upon wild pigs in the act of devouring the dead
+bodies of some people who had died of cholera. I may mention that it was
+customary in former times, and doubtless is so still to some extent, to
+deposit the bodies of cholera victims anywhere in the jungle, instead of
+burying them in the ordinary way. An official of the Forest Department
+told me that, passing one day near the place where the carcase of an
+elephant lay, he had the curiosity to go and look at it. To his
+astonishment he found the flanks heaving as if the elephant were still
+alive, and while he was wondering what this could mean, two wild boars,
+which had tunnelled their way in, and were luxuriating on the contents of
+the carcase, suddenly rushed out. From what I have hitherto said it seems
+plain that wild boar is not a safe article of food, unless, perhaps, when,
+it inhabits remote jungles where foul food can rarely be met with. I have
+never made any measurements of wild boars, but Colonel Peyton--a
+first-rate authority--writing in the "Kanara Gazetteer," says that some
+are to be found measuring forty inches high, and six feet long.
+
+The jungle dog (_kuon rutilans_) is a wolfish-looking-dog of a golden
+brown colour, with hair of moderate length, and a short and slightly bushy
+tail. It hunts in packs of seven and eight, and sometimes as many as
+twenty and even thirty have been reported. In my neighbourhood I have
+never actually known them to attack cattle or persons, but Colonel Peyton
+tells us, in the "Kanara Gazetteer," that they grew very bold in the
+1876-77 famine, and killed great numbers of the half-starved cattle which
+were driven into the Kanara forests to graze, and since then a reward of
+10 rupees has been paid for the destruction of each fully grown wild dog.
+Colonel Peyton alludes to the native idea that these dogs attack and kill
+tigers, but says that no instance of their having killed a tiger is known.
+At the same time it is, he says, a fact that the tiger will give up his
+kill to wild dogs, and will leave a place in which they are present in
+large numbers. Some years ago I beat a jungle in which a tiger had killed
+a bullock, and in which another tiger had on a former occasion lain up,
+but the tiger was not there, and a number of jungle dogs were beaten out.
+We afterwards found the tiger in a jungle about a mile away, and he had
+evidently abandoned his kill, for no other reason, apparently, than
+because of the presence of the dogs. An old Indian sportsman tells me of a
+very widespread native tradition as to the action of these dogs previous
+to attacking a tiger. Their belief is that the dogs first of all micturate
+on each others' bushy tails, and, when rushing past the tiger, whisk their
+tails into his eyes and thus blind him with, the objectionable fluid,
+after which they can attack him with comparative impunity. A forest
+officer informs me that the Gonds have a somewhat similar tradition, and
+that they believe that the dogs first of all micturate on the ground
+around the tiger, and that the effluvium has the effect of blinding
+him.[23] The late Mr. Sanderson, in his "Thirteen Years amongst the Wild
+Beasts of India," mentions an instance reported to him by the natives of
+their finding a tiger sitting up with his back to a bamboo bush, so that
+nothing could pass behind him, while the wild dogs were walking up and
+down and passing quite close to him, evidently with the view of annoying
+the tiger, and the position then taken up by the tiger seemed to show that
+he was apprehensive of an attack. From his experience of the great power
+of the wild dog, Mr. Sanderson entertained no doubt that they could kill a
+tiger, though he knows of no instance of their having done so. The old
+Indian sportsman above alluded to told me of a case where a tiger had been
+marked down by native shikaris, and where they afterwards found wild dogs
+eating the carcase of the tiger, which they had presumably killed, but I
+cannot find any account of the dogs having been seen in the act of killing
+a tiger, though I can easily conceive that a hungry tiger, and an equally
+hungry pack of wild dogs may have come into collision over a newly killed
+animal, and that the dogs may then in desperation have killed the tiger.
+
+A Coorg planter who has had opportunities of observing the habits of those
+dogs, tells me that when hunting a deer they do not run in a body, but
+spread out rather widely, so as to catch the deer on the turn if it moved
+to right or left. Some of the dogs hang behind to rest themselves, so as
+to take up the running when other dogs, which have pressed the deer hard,
+get tired. He once had a bitch the product of a cross between a Pariah and
+a jungle dog. When she had pups she concealed them in the jungle, and in
+order to find them she had to be carefully watched and followed up. She
+went through many manoeuvres to prevent the discovery of her pups, and
+pottered about in the neighbourhood of the spot where she had concealed
+them, as if bent on nothing in particular. Then she made a sudden rush
+into the jungle and disappeared. After much search her pups were found in
+a hole about three feet deep, which she had dug on the side of a rising
+piece of ground. The bitch did not bark--the jungle dog does not--and the
+pups barked but slightly, but the next generation barked as domestic dogs
+do.
+
+Many years ago I met with a very singular and puzzling circumstance in
+connection with jungle dogs. I had offered a reward of five rupees for a
+pup, and one day several natives from a village some three or four miles
+away, brought me a pup--apparently about six or eight months old. This, it
+appears, they had caught by placing some nets near the carcase of a tiger
+I had killed, and on which a pack of these dogs was feeding. They drove
+the dogs towards the nets, which they jumped, but the pup in question was
+caught in the net. My cook now appeared on the scene and declared that the
+pup belonged to him, and that he had brought it from Bangalore, and on
+hearing this I declined, of course, to pay the reward. As I had never, and
+have never, seen a jungle dog pup, I neither could then, nor can now,
+undertake to say whether the pup was a wild one or not, though it seemed
+to me that it might have been a kind of mongrel animal with a good deal of
+the pariah dog in it. The natives then requested the cook to take the pup
+and pay them five rupees for their trouble. This he declined to do, and
+they then said they would take it back to the carcase of the tiger and let
+it go. This they did, and the pup was never heard of again, and I assume
+that it must have rejoined the wild dogs. As my cook had no conceivable
+motive for falsely asserting that the dog was his, I can only assume that
+the animal had strayed away and joined the pack of wild dogs.
+
+There is no reward for killing wild dogs in Mysore, as is the case in the
+Madras Presidency, and I should strongly advise that one should be given,
+as from the great destruction of the game, on which they at present live,
+these animals will soon become very destructive to cattle, and possibly,
+or even probably, dangerous to man. And it is the more important to attend
+to this matter at once, because I find, from Jerdon's "Mammals of India,"
+that the bitch has at least six whelps at a birth, and he mentions that
+Mr. Elliot (the late Sir Walter) remarks that the wild dog was not known
+in the Southern Maharatta country until of late years, but that it was now
+very common; and he adds that he once captured a bitch and seven cubs, and
+had them alive for some time. No one has any interest in killing these
+jungle dogs, and until a reward is offered for their destruction, they
+will go on increasing at an alarming rate.
+
+I now pass on to offer some remarks on snakes, and especially on the great
+number of deaths said to be caused by them, and I say said to be caused by
+them, because I have good reason to suppose that the immense number of
+deaths (sometimes returned at 17,000 or 18,000 for all India) reported as
+being caused by them, are really poisoning cases which are falsely
+returned as being due to snake bite. When mentioning this surmise on
+board of a P. and O. ship to two civilians, they demurred to the idea, and
+I then asked them if they had ever known within their own cognizance of a
+man being killed by a snake--i.e., either seen a man fatally bitten, or
+who had been fatally bitten. They never had, and that too during a service
+of about twenty-four years. I then, out of curiosity, made inquiries
+through all the first-class passengers, and at last met with one lady who
+had a gardener who had been killed by a snake. I also got my English
+servant to make a similar inquiry in the second-class, and no passenger
+there had known of a case, though one of them had been engaged in
+surveying operations for ten years. My attention has been particularly
+called to this subject in consequence of my own long experience, which
+stretches back to the year 1855, and, though cobras have been killed in
+and around my house, and in the plantations, I have not only never known
+of a death from snake bite on my estates, but have, since the date
+mentioned, never heard of but one case in my neighbourhood, and that was
+of a boy who was killed by some deadly snake about four or five miles from
+my house. I made inquiries in Bangalore on this subject. Now Bangalore is
+a place which always had a bad reputation as regards cobras. The
+population is large, and there are, of course, numerous gardens, and many
+grass cutters are employed, and the occupations there of a large number of
+people are such as to make them liable to risk from snake bite; and yet,
+in the course of the year, there had only been, three cases of snake bite.
+How is it then that such an infinitesimal number of the cases reported on
+occur within the cognizance of Europeans? And unless some competent
+observer is at hand to determine the cause of death, what can be easier
+than to poison a man, puncture his skin, and then point to the puncture as
+an evidence that the death was caused by snake bite?
+
+Of one thing I feel certain, and that is, that the cobra is a timid snake,
+that it is not at all inclined to bite, and unless assailed and so
+infuriated, will not bite, even if trodden on by accident, as long as the
+snake is not hurt, which, of course, it would not be if trodden upon by
+the bare foot, and that is why, I feel sure, I have so rarely heard of a
+man being bitten by a snake during my long experience in India. I can give
+a remarkable confirmatory instance, which happened at my bungalow some
+years ago. My English servant had got his feet wet one morning, and had
+placed his shoes to dry on a ledge of the bungalow just above the place
+where the bath-room water runs out. At about three in the afternoon he
+went in his slippers round the end of the bungalow to get his shoes, and
+trod on a cobra which was lying in the soft and rather muddy ground
+created by the bath-room water. He had stepped on to about the middle of
+the snake's body, but probably rather nearer the tail than the head. The
+cobra then reared up its body, spread its hood, hissed, and struggled to
+get free, while my servant held up his hands to avoid the chance of being
+bitten, and he said that he could see that the afternoon sun was
+illuminating the interior of its throat, but he was afraid to let it go,
+thinking that it would then be more able to bite him. This, however, he is
+quite positive it never attempted to do, and after some moments of
+hesitation he jumped to one side, and the snake, so far from offering to
+bite when liberated, went off in the opposite direction with all speed. I
+am sure that wild animals perceive quite as readily as tame ones do the
+difference between what is purely accidental, and what results from malice
+prepense. The snake must have perceived that its being trodden upon was a
+pure accident, and, as it was not hurt, did not bite. A Brahmin once told
+me of a somewhat similar case, where his mother, seeing what she supposed
+was a kitten in a passage of the house, gave it a push on one side with
+her foot. It turned out to be a cobra, which spread its hood and hissed,
+but never offered to bite her. Colonel Barras, the author of some charming
+natural history books, told me that he quite agrees that the cobra is
+disinclined to bite, and pave me a practical illustration of this which
+had fallen within his own observation. On one occasion, when some of my
+coolies were crossing a log, which was lying on the ground, my overseer,
+just as they were doing so, observed that under a bent-up portion of the
+log there was a cobra. He waited till all the coolies had crossed over and
+moved on, and then stirred up the cobra and killed it. I mention these
+instances to show that it is probably owing to the fact of the cobra not
+being at all an aggressive snake, and not being given to bite unless
+attacked, or hurt, that no death has occurred on my estates, or in my
+neighbourhood during such a long period of time.
+
+But there is probably another reason, which has not, that I am aware of,
+been taken into account by previous writers, and that is that snakes keep
+a much better look out, and perceive the approach of people from a much
+greater distance than is usually supposed. I was much struck with this
+fact on two occasions this year. In one case I was walking along a foot
+road in my compound, and on going round a bend of the road saw, about
+thirty yards away, a snake in the road with its body half raised, and
+evidently in an on-the-look-out attitude, and the moment it perceived me
+it lowered its body and went off through the long grass. In the other case
+I saw a snake on bare ground upwards of 100 yards away which had evidently
+seen me, for it made off in the way which a disturbed snake always does. I
+was this year surprised to hear tigers and snakes classed together as to
+running away by a toddy-drawer--a class of people who are often out in the
+jungle at dusk, and sometimes later. I had made a new four feet trace of
+about a mile long along a beautiful ridge which connects my estate with an
+outlying piece of the property, and unfortunately mentioned to my wife
+that at the end of the path tigers crossed over occasionally (it was a
+tiger pass as the natives call it), and she objected to go there late in
+the evening. Being desirous of going to the end of the path one evening, I
+called to a toddyman in my employ and told him to accompany us, telling my
+wife that he was a timid creature and not likely to incur any risk he
+could avoid. I mentioned to him the apprehension of the lady, when he
+said, "Tigers and snakes run away," and he seemed to have no apprehension
+as regards either of them, though part of the land in which he cut toddy
+trees was on the tiger pass. And I may mention that I this year wounded a
+tiger within fifty yards of the pass, and on the following morning saw the
+tracks of a tiger and tigress (the track of the latter is easily to be
+distinguished as it is longer and narrower than that of the male) in the
+jungle adjoining the end of the foot road alluded to.
+
+As many Europeans kill all snakes they meet with, it is well to mention
+that the tank snake--a large snake often from nine to ten feet long--is
+not only harmless but useful, as it lives so largely on rats and mice, and
+is in consequence sometimes called the rat snake. On one occasion a
+manager shot one of these snakes near my house, and it had a rat in its
+mouth when killed, and such snakes, so far from being killed, ought to be
+carefully protected. I was this year rather interested in observing the
+proceedings of one of these snakes when followed up by two dogs of mine in
+the open. First of all, it made for a clump of two or three scrubby trees,
+and, apparently first fastening itself by the neck to a stump, lashed out
+with its tail. Then when the dogs came closer it again made off through
+the grass, but on being overtaken by the dogs must have either bitten one
+of them, or lashed it with its tail, as the dog gave a sharp cry and
+retreated. On a previous occasion one of these snakes bit a dog of mine,
+and it was not in the slightest degree affected. These snakes travel at a
+fair pace, and I found by trotting along parallel to one that it can move
+at the rate of the moderate jog trot of a horse, and apparently keep up
+this pace with ease. But, though it would be easy for me to write more
+about snakes, the reader has probably heard enough of them, and I hope has
+learnt some facts of practical importance by the way, and I shall now
+offer a few remarks on jungle pets.
+
+It is commonly supposed that wild animals naturally or instinctively dread
+man, but it seems to me that, though no doubt a certain degree of dread of
+man may have been, after having been acquired by experience, transmitted
+to the offspring, wild animals require to be taught to dread man by their
+parents, for we find that if animals are caught when very young and are
+not confined in any way, they not only do not dread man, but eventually
+prefer his society to that of their own species.
+
+The first instance I have to notice of this is in the case of a spotted
+deer stag which belonged to a neighbour of mine. This animal, which had
+been caught when a fawn, used to accompany the coolies in the morning and
+remained with them all day, but in the evening it went into the jungle
+regularly and disappeared for the night, and again turned up at the
+morning muster with unfailing regularity. It thus roamed the jungle all
+night, and remained with man all day. At last it became dangerous to man,
+as tame stags often do, and had to be shot.
+
+Another still more extraordinary instance was in the case of a pet of my
+own--what the natives call a flying cat, but in reality a flying squirrel
+(_Pteromys petaurista_)--an animal that sleeps all day and feeds at night
+(though on one occasion, mentioned in a previous chapter, I saw one
+feeding on fruit at about seven one morning), and is in habits somewhat
+like the bat, though clearly of the squirrel order. Its wings, if indeed
+they may be called such, consist merely of a flap of skin stretching from
+the fore to the hind legs. When at rest this flap, as it folds into the
+side, is not very noticeable, and the animal presents, when on the ground,
+or on the branch of a tree, the appearance of a very large, grey furred
+squirrel. It cannot, of course, rise from the ground, but, when travelling
+from tree to tree, it spreads its flap, or perhaps rather sets its sail,
+by the agency of osseous appendages attached to the feet, but which fold
+up against the leg when the animal is at rest, and starts like a man on
+the trapeze--descending from one point to rise again to about a similar
+level on the next tree, but when the flight is extended (Jerdon, in his
+"Mammals of India," says he has seen one traverse in the air a distance of
+sixty yards) the squirrel reaches the tree very low down. When clearing
+the forest these squirrels often emerged from their holes in the trees and
+gave me good opportunities of observing their movements, and I feel sure
+that I have seen them traverse distances of at least 100 yards. One of
+these squirrels was brought to me when it was about half grown, and came
+to consider my house as its natural home. It soon discovered a suitable
+retreat for the day in the shape of an empty clothes-bag hanging at the
+back of a door, and in this it slept all day. It came out at dusk, and
+used often to sit on the back of my high backed chair as I sat at dinner,
+and then I gave it fruit and bread. After dinner away it went to the
+jungle, and I seldom saw anything more of it till very early in the
+morning, when it used to enter the house by an open swing window, get on
+to my bed, and curl itself up at my feet. When I rose my pet did so too
+and betook itself to the clothes-bag, and there spent the day, to go
+through the same round the following night. This very pretty and
+interesting animal met with the common fate of defenceless pets, and was
+killed by a dog as it was making its way to the jungle one evening.
+
+A third instance I may give as regards the way in which wild animals
+readily become domesticated, and eventually seem to prefer the society of
+man to that of their own species. In this case my pet was a hornbill, a
+bird of discordant note, and with a huge beak, and a box-like crowned
+head. This creature was also totally unrestrained, but showed a most
+decided preference for the society of man. One day it joined some of its
+species which made their appearance in the jungle near my house, but soon
+got tired of or disgusted with them, and speedily returned to the
+bungalow. It used to swallow its food like a man taking a pill, and it was
+surprising to observe the ease with which balls of rice of about the size
+of two large walnuts were dispatched. On one occasion it flew off with my
+bunch of keys, but was luckily seen by my servant, who gave the alarm. The
+bird threw back its head the moment it alighted on the first convenient
+branch, and it was only from the ring sticking in the front of its beak
+that it was prevented from swallowing the entire bunch. Finding my people
+close upon it, the bird flew away to a piece of forest some hundreds of
+yards away, where it seemed to take a most aggravating pleasure in
+dangling my keys from the tops of the loftiest trees, and it was some time
+before it let them drop, which I conclude it at last did merely because it
+could not swallow them.
+
+Now, though none of the pets I have mentioned were made miserable by
+restraint, and evidently must have found themselves perfectly happy in the
+society of man, it is very remarkable that, though all of them must have
+had (and the bird certainly had) frequent opportunities of making the
+acquaintance of their species as they roamed the jungle at night, they
+regularly returned to the society of man. I can only conjecture that the
+force of habit must have, as it were, chained them to the place they had
+become accustomed to. It is difficult to guess at any other reason than
+the force of habit, but it is just possible that the following fact may
+have something to do with their neglect of their own species. It is well
+known that a great many animals and birds refuse to, or cannot, propagate
+their kind when in a state of confinement. Now these pets of mine, and the
+stag which belonged to my neighbour, were not indeed confined in any
+sense, but it is just possible that the altered conditions under which
+they lived may have acted on their animal desires, and so have rendered
+them indifferent to the society of their species. Or perhaps it is
+conceivable that, in consequence of their living in or about an inhabited
+dwelling, they may have contracted bodily impurities which may have been
+perceptible to their wild congeners.
+
+I had here intended to close this chapter, but a few lines more must be
+devoted to guns, or rather to a gun, for the general opinion in India now
+seems to be that only one gun is necessary for shooting shot and ball--at
+least for all shot shooting and ball shooting in the jungly countries.
+That gun is the widely-known Paradox, which, up to 100 yards, is as
+accurate as a double rifle, and even at 150 yards makes very fair
+practice. This gun was a good many years ago recommended to me by Sir
+Samuel Baker, and I found it to be such an excellent weapon that I now use
+no other. The great advantage of the Paradox is that the gun is a good
+shot gun, and gives a pattern quite equal to the best of cylinder guns,
+and of course comes up to the shoulder so readily that the sportsman can
+take snap shots as well as with any other fowling-piece. The immense
+advantage of this in a jungly country, and in one with long grass, must be
+readily apparent to anyone accustomed to shoot in such regions, where you
+often require to be able to fire as sharply as you do at a snipe rising
+just within range.
+
+I am informed by Messrs. Holland and Holland, of 98, New Bond Street (the
+makers of the Paradox guns), that the Paradox system of ball and shot guns
+was the invention of Colonel Fosbery, V.C. Originally it was intended for
+the ordinary 12-bore guns, but its principle has now been applied to
+smaller weapons, such as those of 20 bore, and also to heavy guns of 8 or
+10 bore for attacking elephants, bison, and other very large game. Guns of
+the two last-named bores are from two to three pounds lighter than rifles
+of similar bores, and the increased handiness caused by the diminution of
+weight is of course of immense advantage. Messrs. Holland and Holland
+inform me that they have made many experiments with the 8-bore Paradox
+against the 8-bore rifle, and in every case have obtained higher velocity
+and greater penetration with the Paradox. The new 10-bore is almost a 9,
+and practically is big enough for any game. It shoots 8 drams of powder,
+and a fairly long conical bullet, and its weight is about 12-1/2 lbs.
+Messrs. Holland and Holland have invented a new steel bullet for these
+guns, and with this the penetration is very great. The 20 and 16-bore
+Paradox guns weigh from 6-1/2 lbs. to 7 lbs., and are largely used on the
+Continent for shooting wild boar, bears, and other large game. Nearly all
+these guns are made with hammers, because as a rule sportsmen travelling
+in wild countries prefer to have the old-fashioned hammer guns, which are
+so universally understood, instead of a hammerless gun, which cannot be so
+easily repaired should it break down in any part. Messrs. Holland and
+Holland inform me that for the ordinary 12-bore Paradox weighing 7 lbs.
+the usual charge of 3 drams is all that is necessary for soft-skinned
+animals such as tigers, leopards, and bears, but they also make a heavier
+12-bore, weighing from 8 lbs. to 8-1/2 lbs., and shooting 4 or 4-1/2
+drams of powder, but generally recommend the usual 7 lbs. Paradox, and,
+from my experience of the latter with tigers, I do not think one could
+desire a better gun for all jungle shooting, though I need hardly add that
+for antelope shooting on the plains a long range rifle is desirable.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] "Jungle Life in India, or the Journeys and Journals of an Indian
+Geologist," by V. Ball, M.A. London, Thos. De La Rue and Co., 1880.
+
+[22] "My Indian Journal," by Colonel Walter Campbell. Edinburgh, Edmonston
+and Douglas, 1864.
+
+[23] In Jerdon's "Mammals of India" it is stated that in Nepaul the wild
+dogs, whose urine is said to be peculiarly acrid, sprinkle it over bushes
+through which an animal will probably move with the view of blinding their
+victim. Jerdon certainly disbelieves the native story of their capturing
+their prey through the acridity of their urine. It seems to me not
+improbable that the wild dogs may have become aware of the offensive
+character of their urine, and in passing near a tiger might discharge some
+of it with the view of annoying the tiger and driving him away, and also
+perhaps as a mark of contempt, and that this probably was the origin of
+the widely spread story I have alluded to in the text.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE INDIAN BISON.
+
+
+Though at the risk of being thought sentimental, I cannot say that I
+approach the subject of bison shooting with much satisfaction, except,
+perhaps, in the thought that what I am about to write may be the means of
+prolonging in some degree, however infinitesimal, the existence of the
+race of these splendid animals, for I am afraid that nothing that anyone
+could write would prevent their numbers from being steadily diminished,
+and diminished, too, in some cases even by people who call themselves
+sportsmen; for one rather well-known writer has not only killed cow
+bisons, but actually published the fact--a thing that he certainly would
+not have done had the custom of shooting them not been common in some
+parts of India. I am happy to say that I never saw a dead cow bison, and
+in my part of Mysore, in the course of upwards of thirty-seven years'
+experience, I have never heard of more than two or three cows having been
+killed. Anything more foolish and barbarous than the killing of cow bisons
+cannot be conceived, for there is not a more harmless and inoffensive
+animal in the jungle than the bison--harmless because it seldom
+attacks[24] crops (I have never known of more than one instance of their
+doing so), and inoffensive because, if not molested, it never attacks man;
+and Mr. Sanderson, in his admirable work entitled "Thirteen Years amongst
+the Wild Beasts of India," declares that even solitary bulls, which are
+supposed to be dangerous, even if not molested, are not really so, though
+in the event of a native coming suddenly on a bull in the long grass, he
+admits the bison may spring suddenly up and dash at the intruder to clear
+him from his path. He has a most sympathetic chapter on these noble
+animals, and has enjoyed from an elephant's back the best opportunities of
+observing them, as the bison does not fear the elephant, in whose company
+indeed it is often found to be, and after having thus observed a herd of
+bison grazing, he says that he has "often left the poor animals
+undisturbed." Laterly he never thought of attacking herd bison, as it is
+often difficult to get a shot at the bull of the herd, and confined his
+shooting to those old solitary bulls which have been turned out of the
+herds by younger and more vigorous animals. These ought alone, indeed, to
+be the object of pursuit, and it is one usually carried on under such
+circumstances and amidst such splendid scenes that the sport is very
+attractive, and the pursuit of the solitary bull, writes Mr. Sanderson,
+can never, he imagines, pall on the most successful hunter. Perhaps this
+is true, but after having killed, say six solitary bulls, I think that a
+sportsman ought to be content for the rest of his life. A young forest
+officer lately told me that, having killed about that number, he had
+announced to his friends his intention of not killing any more. Shortly
+afterwards he fell in with two bulls who were engaged in a fierce battle
+with each other, and he might easily have shot one or perhaps both of
+them, but he had strength of mind to resist the temptation, a fact which,
+if known, would certainly entitle him to advancement in the service.
+
+I have said that the bison, unless molested, will never attack man, and I
+was so confident of this that I once sent a highly valued European in my
+employ, to photograph a solitary bull, merely sending with him a native
+with a gun, and with instructions to fire in the event of the photographer
+being attacked. I selected a small piece of open swampy grass ground in a
+detached piece of jungle through which solitary bulls often passed, and
+knowing the direction of the wind at that season of the year, had no
+difficulty in avoiding any chance of the bull winding the photographer.
+The camera was placed on the edge of the jungle, and presently a bull came
+slowly grazing along the swamp, when he unluckily looked up to find the
+photographer just taking the cap off, within about ten paces. Never was
+there anything more annoying, and the thing would have been a magnificent
+success had my man been provided with the instantaneous process. But he
+was not, and the bull turned and fled through the mud with a most
+tremendous rush, having, I suppose, taken the lens for the glare of the
+eye of some new kind of tiger. The sudden change in the appearance of the
+bull was described to me as being most remarkable, for as he grazed
+quietly along he appeared to be one of the most harmless and domestic of
+animals, while the moment the sight of the camera fell on his astonished
+vision he was at once transformed into the wildest looking animal
+conceivable.
+
+It is difficult to believe that big game in remote spots can perceive
+whether a man means to harm them or not, but it is remarkable that when on
+his way to the jungle alluded to, the photographer passed two sambur deer
+in the long grass, and at no great distance away, and saw them still lying
+there on his return. A bear was also rolling and grunting in the jungle
+close to him as he was waiting for the bull. On his return to the hut (put
+up for the occasion about a mile away) he was amused to find the native
+servant I had sent with him seated between two roasting fires which he
+imagined, and perhaps not without reason, would prevent his being attacked
+by a tiger. During the absence of my amateur photographer either a tiger
+or panther had passed close to the hut.
+
+The photographer returned to the swamp on the following morning, but no
+bull arrived, and I gave up the attempt to obtain a photograph of a bison.
+But it is time now to describe the bison.
+
+The Indian bison (_Gavoeus Gaurus_, sometimes called the Gaur) is the
+largest member in the world of the ox tribe. It is quite free from mane or
+shaggy hair of any kind. The cows are of a dark brown, while in mature and
+old bulls the colour approaches to black. The legs from the knee downwards
+are of a dirty white (I once saw two bison with apparently blue legs, the
+colour being caused by standing on ashes, and this gave them a very
+remarkable appearance), and so is the forehead. The bison has no hump. It
+has a marked peculiarity in the shape of the back from the dorsal ridge
+running with a slight upward slope to about the middle of the back and
+then dropping suddenly towards the rump. Mr. Sanderson has never shot a
+bull more than six feet in height at the shoulder (if measured at the top
+of the dorsal ridge the height would of course be more), but Jerdon the
+naturalist, quoting Elliot (the late Sir Walter, a very careful observer)
+mentions six feet one-and-a-half inch as the height of one. I have
+generally found that an average sized bull is six feet, but I once killed
+one that was seven feet, and a neighbour of mine who has seen a great deal
+of bison shooting has killed one of similar height, and he informs me that
+he is positive that he has seen a larger bull than either of these very
+exceptional animals.
+
+Bison herds generally number about twelve or fourteen, and I have never
+seen one of more than twenty-three, but at certain seasons they
+congregate in considerable numbers and again separate into small herds.
+They lie at night in a compact circle so that if attacked by a tiger they
+are ready to oppose at once a good front to the enemy. They seem to be
+quite aware that if they were to lie scattered about a tiger might
+suddenly spring upon one of them.
+
+The bison has never been kept long in captivity, and there is only one
+instance of its having been so, and that is in the case of a bull bison
+now in possession of His Highness the Maharajah of Mysore. The history of
+this animal, and more especially of the warm friendship that sprung up
+between it and a doe sambur deer, is extremely interesting. I took down
+the following from my neighbour Mr. Park, and read over to him the account
+I now give.
+
+It appears then that Mr. Park when out shooting some years ago, caught a
+male calf bison which was supposed to be about three days old. About a
+week afterwards a young doe sambur, which was being pursued by jungle
+dogs, rushed into one of the labourer's huts and was secured. It was then
+resolved to keep the deer as a companion for the bison, and the two were
+kept together, though they were never shut up. They were first of all fed
+on milk, and then allowed to graze, and soon became quite inseparable
+companions. They were fed at twelve o'clock and at four in the afternoon,
+and seemed to know their feeding time exactly. When about two years old it
+was resolved to fit the bison with a nose rope, and for this the nose had
+of course to be bored. He was tied up to a tree to be operated on and,
+after the hole was bored, he was liberated, when he rushed all over the
+ground adjacent to the house bellowing with rage--the only time, I may
+add, Mr. Park ever heard him bellow. After this he was regularly led out
+to graze by a man who trained him, by pulling the nose rope, to go in one
+direction or another. After this he was fed on gram (a kind of pea). When
+thus led out to graze the sambur sometimes remained behind, but seemed to
+have no difficulty in finding the bull even though it had been taken to a
+considerable distance. It would hold up its nose to catch the scent and
+then go off on the track. When the bison occasionally missed the doe he
+would wander about in search of her, but seemed to have no power of
+following her by scent--a power which she evidently possessed and
+practised. When the doe bathed in the river and splashed up the water with
+her fore feet the bull would stand upon the bank watching her proceedings
+with evident interest and curiosity, but did not himself bathe, nor appear
+to have any desire to go into the water. The bison, however, seemed to
+enjoy the cooling effect of the heavy monsoon rains, and no doubt thought
+that a shower bath of some hundreds of inches was quite enough for the
+rest of the year.
+
+When the bull was about three years old it was presented to the Maharajah
+of Mysore, and sent off to the nearest railway station some sixty miles
+away. Some time after he had left, the doe discovered his absence, and
+then, in her usual way, went about holding up her nose in order to
+discover the direction in which he had gone. Presently she hit off the
+route and, setting off in pursuit, overtook her old companion after he
+gone about five or six miles, and, though the doe had not been given to
+the Maharajah, she was allowed to accompany the bull. When the doe
+overtook the bull he showed the greatest signs of pleasure at her arrival,
+and the two travelled happily along to Mysore.
+
+I saw the bison at Mysore in 1891, when it looked remarkably well and
+happy, though the doe was not with it at the time. I was since glad to
+hear from a friend, who had seen them last October, that these strange and
+inseparable companions are in excellent health. It was very fortunate that
+the doe accompanied the bull, as I think it probable that the latter
+would have pined away and died, as the bison seems hitherto always to have
+done in captivity.
+
+Bison are often attacked by tigers, and I once found the remains of one
+that had been killed by a tiger. It had been killed on the grass land
+between two and three hundred yards from the jungle, and I was much struck
+by the fact that the tiger had separated the head from the body and
+carried it into the forest, where I found the skull. It appeared to be
+that of a fair sized bull. But the largest bulls are sometimes killed by
+tigers, though I imagine that this must be rare, or we should not find
+very old bulls in a country where tigers are plentiful. A tiger I believe
+sometimes tires out a bull by inducing him to charge again and again till
+he is quite worn out, and sometimes, I am informed by an experienced
+sportsman, two tigers will join in attacking a bison, and have been known
+to hamstring it. I have been told by a toddyman who lived on the edge of
+the forest region, that in a valley near his house he had seen a tiger
+worrying a bison and inducing it to charge for nearly a whole day and
+ultimately killing it. But sometimes the bison succeeds in driving off the
+tiger, which then slinks away. About two years ago an interesting
+illustration took place of this, which was witnessed by a neighbour of
+mine, who found that when stalking a bull bison he had a fellow stalker in
+the shape of a tiger. The incident was at once rare and interesting--in
+fact, so far as I know, quite unique--and I asked my friend to write me an
+account of it for publication in my book.
+
+"When I was returning," writes my friend Mr. Brooke Mockett, "one day in
+the beginning of the monsoon of 1891, from visiting a plantation of mine
+near the Ghauts, I deflected somewhat from my route to visit an adjacent
+range of minor hills, and presently entered a shallow valley, on the
+opposite side of which the forest land was fringed with some scrubby
+bushes mingled with ferns, outside of which was a stretch of open grass
+land. As I entered the valley I saw on the opposite side of it a solitary
+bull bison grazing along towards the open grass land. This, at the rate he
+was moving, he would soon reach. I therefore took up a position so as to
+get a shot at him when he got fairly into the open land, where he would be
+immediately below and opposite to me. Two Hindoo ryots--always called
+goudas in Manjarabad--from a neighbouring village were with me, and were
+keeping a sharp look out. We were all quite concealed in the long grass.
+Presently one of them whispered, 'Look, look, there is a tiger stalking
+the bison,' and, after peering into the bushes for a few seconds, I at
+last made out the tiger, which was about 200 yards further along the
+valley to the east of the bison, towards which it was stealthily creeping.
+I at once decided not to interfere at present, but to leave the animals
+alone and watch the result. The tiger struck me as being a small one, and
+the goudas thought so too. It was probably the same one that had some
+weeks before killed a three-parts-grown bison, the remains of which we saw
+when on the way to the spot. The bull was a magnificent animal, and just
+in his prime. It was a most exciting scene; the ponderous bull grazing
+quietly along the valley in utter ignorance of danger, and feeding so
+industriously that he never once lifted his head from the ground, while
+the tiger crawled towards him in a manner that was exquisite to see. Belly
+to the ground, its movements resembled rather those of a snake than an
+animal as it wound its way through the scrub, gliding through the ferns,
+and taking advantage of all the bushes. Occasionally it sat up to peer
+cautiously at the bull, and then sinking down it again glided on. Except
+now and then, when the bushes were low, I doubt if it could see the bull,
+nor could the latter scent the tiger, for the bull was feeding down the
+valley in the teeth of the strong monsoon winds, and the tiger was
+following in its tracks.
+
+"As the two goudas sitting with me in the long grass observed the
+movements of the tiger, they could not contain their indignation. No doubt
+they thought of the many cattle they had recently lost, and, connecting
+the present revelation of the tiger's mode of proceeding with the
+slaughter of their buffaloes, they relieved their feelings by uttering
+_sotto voce_ the most virulent abuse of the tiger, its wife, and its
+female relations in general, and every fresh movement of the tiger drew
+from them some extremely powerful and untranslatable epithets. The
+temptation to fire at the tiger was very great, but I refrained, as every
+moment brought them nearer to me, and it seemed certain that the fight
+must come off just below the ground I was seated on.
+
+"The scene was now an extremely exciting one, for the animals were about
+200 yards from us, the bull having fed to within fifty yards of the open
+grass, and the tiger having crept so close to him that every moment we
+expected something to happen. We saw the tiger crawl right up to the bull,
+and it seemed to get actually within a yard of it, and yet it did not
+spring. A few seconds more passed, and then the bull, suddenly becoming
+aware of the tiger's presence, made a rapid rush forward into the open
+grass land outside of the scrub. Then he pulled up at a distance from it
+of about sixty yards, and faced round in the direction of the tiger. Had
+he liked, he might have gone away altogether; but, far from showing fear,
+he was furious, and looked superb as he shook his head and snorted with
+rage. Then for about two minutes he stood as still as if carved of stone,
+evidently straining all his senses to discover the tiger, after which he
+made a terrific charge up to the edge of the scrub, where he pulled up and
+again snorted, and shook his head. If ever a bison meant business he did,
+and could he have seen the tiger he would have certainly tried to kill it,
+but it was hiding in the scrub and was invisible to him, though we could
+just make out its golden red skin.
+
+"The sight of the infuriated bull within a few yards was altogether too
+much for the tiger, which now turned and commenced to sneak off with
+astonishing rapidity, keeping completely out of the bison's sight, and
+looking like the most abject wretch imaginable. My goudas became frantic
+at this, and seeing that there was now no chance of a fight between the
+bull and the tiger, I rushed along the hill with the view of trying to get
+a good shot at the latter, but this I found would be impossible, so I
+rested my rifle on a stamp, and, as he moved through the scrub, took a
+long shot, which knocked him off his legs, and we saw him partly roll and
+partly scramble into the dense jungle below. A shout of 'The bull is
+going,' from the goudas, made me look back, and just as he was starting I
+hastily fired my second barrel into his shoulder and dropped him dead. We
+then went to look for the tiger, but, most unfortunately, the rain, which
+up to this time had kept off, descended in torrents, and the whole country
+became enveloped in dense mist. We found the spot where the tiger had been
+knocked over, and the goudas soon discovered cut hair (by the bullet), a
+sure proof of a hit. We could see where he had rolled down, the slope to
+the thick forest, crushing the ferns, and tearing up the ground with his
+struggles, but the blood was of course washed away by the tropical rain
+torrents. Within the forest, which was almost impenetrable, all was dark
+as night, and as no track could be seen, and we were soon all drenched to
+the skin, it was impossible to do anything more, and I was compelled to
+give up the pursuit. Why the tiger, after getting so close to the bison
+did not attack, it is impossible to say, but the men who accompanied me
+were of opinion that, owing to the bison being partly hidden by the
+scrub, the tiger could not gauge its size till quite close to it, and then
+was afraid to attack such a large bull."
+
+I think that their surmise is correct, and as I have before suggested, I
+think that these very large bulls are but rarely attacked by tigers, for
+my experience shows that solitary bulls are easily stalked, to within
+quite close distances, and, were the tigers easily able to kill them, I
+feel sure that a solitary bull would very seldom be found.
+
+I have said that the bison is a harmless animal, but this of course is
+only when you keep away from it, and a wounded bison should be approached
+and tracked up with caution, and in no case should a single tracker follow
+up a wounded bull. He should always have a companion to keep a general
+look out in case of the bull suddenly charging the tracker when he is busy
+following the trail. On one occasion a manager of mine went out shooting,
+wounded a bull, and then went round to a point to cut him off, and sent in
+the only man he had to follow up the track and drive the bull on. He
+waited for some time and then shouted, but received no answer, for the
+poor tracker was dead. He had evidently been charged by the bull when he
+was busy tracking it, and was taken by surprise. By a curious coincidence
+my manager had dreamed the night before that he had gone out with this
+tracker, that he had been killed by a bull, and that the body was found
+extended in the position in which it was ultimately found on the following
+day.
+
+Close to the place where the man was killed we had a capital illustration
+of the need for keeping a good look out when tracking. When out shooting
+one evening with a friend, we wounded a solitary bull (which I have reason
+to suppose was the same bull that killed the tracker), and on the
+following morning took up his track, which led down into a spot in the
+forest where, from some trees probably having been blown down in former
+years, there was a little thicket of small trees and underwood. Into this
+the bull had gone, and we soon found where he had been lying, and were
+proceeding to take up the track again, when one of our men, who stood a
+little way behind, and luckily, was looking about, said "There's the
+bull." He had evidently heard us coming, got up, gone ten yards away, and
+was waiting for a favourable moment to charge, and, had he done so when we
+were in the thicket, he probably would have killed one of the party. My
+friend, who was an old hand, and of course saw the danger at a glance,
+cleared out of the thicket with wonderful alertness, and the rest were not
+slow to follow his example. We then passed round the upper side of the
+thicket, and came down upon the bull in the more open forest, and soon
+killed him. Just as we had done so, news came that a herd of bison was
+grazing on a ridge about half or three-quarters of a mile or so away, and
+as our pursuit of them elucidates some points of practical importance, I
+give a short description of the stalk and its accompanying circumstances.
+
+The herd of bison, it appears, were just outside a jungly ravine which ran
+up from the main forest through the grass land. The jungle terminated just
+below a ridge of hill, along which we approached the spot. Overhanging the
+hollow were some rocks which afforded us a convenient place to creep
+behind, and presently we lay down there, looking at the herd, which was
+below us, and about a hundred yards away. And then we found (as Mr.
+Sanderson so often did that he at last gave up attacking herd bison) that
+it was impossible to fire at the bull, as he was screened by the cows. How
+long we lay watching I cannot exactly tell, but as the day got hotter the
+bison began to move, and then we had a chance of firing at the big bull.
+The herd, bull included, then entered the jungly ravine, and presently
+reappeared a little further down and on the right of the ravine with a
+calf which had evidently been left in the ravine, and filed along the
+slope. The bull, however, had remained behind. Now comes a point of great
+importance in following up big game, and which, curiously enough, has
+never been noticed hitherto, at least I have not been able to meet with
+any reference to it in the many big game shooting books I have looked at.
+If an animal is wounded, it is a common practice to follow it up at once,
+the result of which is that it will often go off to a considerable
+distance (which is often highly inconvenient) and frequently be lost. But
+if, instead of following the startled animal at once, a perfect silence is
+maintained, and you remain where you are, the animal, the moment it is
+inside the jungle, will stand to listen, and if it can neither hear nor
+see anything, will probably lie down to recover from the shock, and if it
+does so, will very probably not rise from the spot for a considerable
+time. You have thus an opportunity of getting ahead of your quarry and
+coming back to the margin of the forest from a direction opposite to that
+from which it naturally expects danger, and it will thus have to pass you
+again in order to get further into the forest, and you will then, as I
+have known from experience, get another shot. On this occasion it was of
+great importance to get between the wounded bull and the main forest
+towards the foot of the Ghauts, and we accordingly resolved to go down the
+grass land on the outside of the jungly ravine, enter it a good way down,
+and lie up to rest for some time, and then look up the wounded bull.
+
+And now I received a lesson that I shall never forget. We had taken our
+early toast and tea, and had intended returning to breakfast, but we had
+been decoyed by the sport so far from home, and the weather was so hot,
+that we could not face the task of toiling back in the heat of the sun,
+and besides, we had our wounded bull to look up. The prospect of remaining
+all day without food was not pleasant, but luckily I had a few small
+biscuits in my pocket. Then we were afraid to drink the water, as at that
+season it is not considered to be wholesome. "Ah," said my friend, after
+fumbling in his pocket, "we are all right. I have got one peppermint
+lozenge. We will divide it into four parts, and it will last the day."
+This was my first introduction to the great practical value of the
+peppermint lozenge in taking away the sensation of thirst, and in hot
+climates I now never go without them. But they should be made at a good
+chemist's, as the peppermint then has none of that nauseous, or, at any
+rate, very disagreeable, smell which accompanies ordinary peppermint
+lozenges. They are also very useful in travelling, and in India I always
+carry them, as, if kept out longer in the morning than usual, they at once
+banish hunger and thirst, and are, besides, very refreshing, and I feel
+sure would be invaluable in the case of troops marching in hot weather,
+and where good water is not to be had. They are also very useful when
+going out after a tiger, and when news of one is brought in my first order
+is to put up two peppermint lozenges. Another point of value I may here
+mention. Always, if there is a chance of your being kept out late, take a
+lantern and matches. We experienced the evil of the neglect of this
+precaution when returning home. You may have starlight outside the forest,
+but darkness within, and a lantern is, of course, a great aid, and it is
+so even when there is moonlight, as you may be either on the wrong side of
+a ridge or have to pass through dark bottoms. But now as to the pursuit of
+the bull.
+
+After resting for several hours we took our way up the ravine in the
+direction of the point at which the bull entered it. And here we made a
+cardinal mistake, for we went together, whereas had one of us remained on
+the grass land outside, we should almost certainly have got the bull. We,
+however, omitted to take this precaution, and proceeded up the ravine to
+within about fifty yards of the spot where the bull entered, when up he
+got close to us, but without our being able to see him, and went out of
+the ravine on to the grass land and down into the main forest beyond, into
+which we had neither time, strength, nor inclination to follow him. The
+preceding will be a good lesson to any young sportsman, firstly, as to the
+value of not following up a wounded animal at once, and, secondly, as to
+taking every kind of precaution when you do. How often is sport spoiled
+from the want of appreciating the truism that a wall is no stronger than
+its weakest point. The importance of carefully guarding and refusing to be
+decoyed away from the pass into the main forest is of such consequence
+that I proceed to enforce it with another illustration.
+
+One day I found a fine bull grazing on the margin of a piece of detached
+jungle some five or six acres in extent; I got between him and the main
+forest, to which he would of course fly, fired at him, and he went at once
+into the ravine, or rather jungle-clad hollow, in front of him. I then ran
+to the only pass from it into the main forest, and told the two people who
+were with me to follow on the track of the bull, at which I should thus
+have been able to get another shot in the event of his having strength
+enough to leave the five or six acres of jungle he had entered. I waited
+for a considerable time, and at last went up the hill with the view of
+seeing what my people were about, and called out, to be answered by one
+man on the top of a hill on the other side, and by another from the top of
+a tree, who said that the bison had attacked them, and that one of them
+had run out of the jungle and the other up a tree. I called out to the
+man on the grass land to go and fetch a dog and some people from the
+village, and again returned to my pass, for had the bull once got down
+into the main forest-which led to the foot of the Ghauts, we should
+probably have lost him. After rather a long interval some natives appeared
+with a dog, and I told them to drive the ravine, and soon there ensued a
+series of charges, accompanied by the barking of the dog, and a general
+state of confusion, from, which it was evident that the bison had lots of
+go in him. Still I clung to the pass. At last my patience was worn out,
+and I went to look up the bull in the jungle. Horror of horrors! he made
+off in the very direction of the pass into the main forest, and had it not
+been for the dog we should probably have lost him, but I at once set on
+the dog, and this had the desired effect of making the bull turn, when he
+came towards us, looking for some one to charge. When he was a few yards
+from me I gave him a shot which turned him aside, and as he deflected he
+presented a good shot, and was soon killed.
+
+The jumping, or rather bounding power of the bison is wonderful, and I was
+accidentally caused to ascertain it in this way. One evening, just at
+sundown, I found a bull in a very unexpected place, high up on a mountain,
+with very precipitous sides. He was on the edge of a piece of jungly,
+swampy land, about half an acre in extent, and when I fired at him he went
+into this, and I sent my second gun man round to drive him out. He soon
+appeared, took one look at me at a distance of about fifty yards, and then
+charged with wonderful suddenness. I was young and active then, and ran
+sideways to the only tree--a small one on the open land--but I had just
+time to save myself, for the bull, having struck or grazed the tree with
+his shoulder, fell at my feet, and as he rose, his horn caught my coat
+about the armpit and tore a hole in it. He galloped towards me with his
+nose up, but lowered his head as he approached me, evidently to clear me
+away. He, of course, was up again in a second, and disappeared over the
+crest of the hill. The ground I was standing on sloped only slightly
+upward towards the point at which the bison emerged, there being at the
+spot a length of about eighty yards of comparatively flat land, which, of
+course, accounted for the swampy ground, which, by the way, had been
+partly created by the natives having at some remote time formed a small
+tank there. Well, the following morning I went to the spot with an English
+sporting companion, and said, "This is the place where I was charged."
+"But," he said, and so said the natives with him, "there has never been a
+bison here at all," and as there had been some rain the day before, the
+tracks would, of course, have been plainly visible. As it turned out, we
+happened to be standing between the tracks, and on measuring the distance
+between them, we found that the bull had covered twenty-one feet from
+hind-foot to hind-foot, and that, too, on ground which, as we have seen,
+sloped but very slightly.
+
+I cannot conclude this chapter without urging sportsmen to use every means
+in their power which can aid in the preservation of these harmless and
+interesting animals; and I trust that every effort may be made not only to
+obtain a Game Preservation Act for India, but to have a special clause
+inserted in it with reference to cow bisons, and the imposition of a heavy
+line for killing one of them. Is not the intelligent preservation of game
+one of the most prominent signs of advancing civilization?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] In Jerdon's "Mammals of India," Roorkee, 1867, p. 304, however, I
+find that it is stated that the bison do ravage the fields of the ryots,
+but Mr. Sanderson has no mention of their doing so, and he had the best
+opportunities for observation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GOLD.
+
+
+Gold mines are as uncertain as women, and yet from either it seems
+impossible to keep away. Perhaps it is this very uncertainty which
+constitutes the chief charm of both. But, however that may be, it is
+certain that about gold in general, whether visible or prospective, there
+is such a degree of attractiveness that, as the Kanarese proverb puts it,
+if gold is to be seen even a corpse will open its mouth; and I feel sure
+as I write, that in this chapter at least I can count not only on
+attention, but on a general attitude of expectancy in the mind of the
+reader. And from one point of view he will be fairly satisfied, for the
+history of gold mining in Mysore has quite a romantic cast, and in the
+hands of a skilful novelist, there might be extracted from it much
+literary capital. The foremost fact indeed which I have to give has almost
+a sensational flavour, and at first sight seems a mere dream. We often
+read of fields of golden grain, but that corn should ever, by any process
+of nature, have on its ears grains of gold, seems beyond belief. And yet
+the fact of grains of gold being found on the ears of the rice plants is
+probably the very earliest tradition connected with gold, and it is not
+improbable that the circumstance may have been one of the means of calling
+attention to the existence of gold in Mysore. An account of this tradition
+is to be found in the "Selections from the Records of the Mysore
+Government,"[25] and from them it appears that Lieutenant John Warren,
+when he was employed in surveying the eastern boundary of Mysore in 1800,
+was told by a Brahman that "In prosperous years when the gods favoured the
+Zillah of Kadogi (a small village on the west bank of the Pennar river,
+Hoskote Talook, 15 miles from Bangalore) with an ample harvest now and
+then grains of gold were found on the ears of the paddy (rice plants)
+grown under the tank lying close to the north of that village." And in
+this connection I may mention that, when visiting the Kolar mines last
+January, I found, in the course of a conversation with the head man of the
+village of Ooregum, that he was aware of this tradition, and that grains
+of gold were said to have been seen on the rice plants at a village about
+fifteen miles distant from his own. The explanation of this is extremely
+simple, as the rice plants are usually grown in nurseries and transplanted
+in bunches of several plants, after which the fields are flooded, and in
+heavy floods (and this accounts for the gold having been found in the
+years which are prosperous from the abundant rain) the plants would often
+be quite submerged. With the water no doubt came grains of gold, which
+were deposited on the rice plants, and as these grew, the grains of gold
+would naturally rise with them, and thus often be found adhering to the
+roughly-coated grain.
+
+After the attention of Lieutenant Warren was called to the subject, he
+seems to have taken some trouble in investigating it, and having heard a
+vague report that gold had been found in the earth somewhere near a small
+hill about nine miles east of Budiakote, offered a reward for information
+regarding this, and shortly afterwards a ryot of the village offered to
+show him the place, which was close to his village. He visited the spot
+in question on February 17th, 1802, "when the women of the village were
+assembled, and, each being provided with a small broom and vaning basket,
+and hollow board to receive the earth, they went to a jungle on the west
+of the village. Here they entered some small nullahs, or rather breaks in
+the ground, and removing the gravel with their hands, they swept the earth
+underneath into their vaning baskets, by the help of which they further
+cleared it of the smaller stones and threw it into the hollow board above
+mentioned. Having thus got enough earth together, they adjourned to a tank
+and placed the hollow boards containing the earth in the water, but just
+deep enough for it to overflow when resting on the ground, and no more.
+Then they stirred the earth with the hand, but keeping it over the centre
+of the board, so that the metal should fall into the depression by its own
+weight, and the earth wash over the edges. After a few minutes' stirring,
+they put the metallic matter thus freed of earth into a piece of broken
+pot, but only after examining it for gold, which they did by inclining the
+board and passing water over the metallic sediment which adhered to it.
+They thus drove the light particles before the water, leaving the heavier
+metal behind just at the edge where it could easily be seen, however small
+the quantity." Lieutenant Warren, having afterwards heard that gold was
+extracted from mines near Marikoppa, three miles from Ooregum, visited
+four of the mines, the descent into which was made by means of small foot
+holes which had been made in their sides. The first was two feet in
+breadth and four in length with a depth of about thirty feet, and in
+distance fifty feet (of galleries I presume), the others were from thirty
+to forty-five feet deep. "The miners extracted the stones (how we are not
+informed) and they were passed from hand to hand in baskets by the miners
+who were stationed at different points for the purpose of banking the
+stones. The women then took them to a large rock, and pounded them to
+dust. The latter was then taken to a well and washed by the same process
+as that used when washing the earth for gold, when about an equal quantity
+of gold was found to that procured from an equal quantity of the
+auriferous earth."
+
+The only people, writes Lieutenant Warren, who devote their time to
+searching-for gold are Pariahs, who work as follows. "When they resolve on
+sinking a mine, they assemble to the number of ten or twelve from
+different villages. Then they elect a Daffadar, or head man, to
+superintend the work, and sell the gold, and they subscribe money to buy
+lamp oil, and the necessary iron tools, then partly from knowledge of the
+ground, and partly from the idea they have, that the tract over which a
+peacock has been observed to fly and alight, is that of a vein of gold,
+they fix on a spot and begin to mine."
+
+Such, then, was the condition of gold mining in Mysore about the end of
+the last and the beginning of this century, but in ancient times mining
+was carried on by the natives to very considerable depths, and I am
+informed by Mr. B. D. Plummer, who has had ten years' experience of mines
+at Kolar, and worked the Mysore and Nundydroog mines, that the old native
+workings went down to a depth of about 260 feet. These, which were all
+choked up, were followed down to the bottom, and valuable lodes were found
+at about 150 to 260 feet. Nothing was found in the old native workings,
+but remains of old chatties (earthenware pots) and the wooden props put in
+to secure the sides. The native workings, in the opinion of Captain
+Plummer, were evidently carried on with skill and efficiency, and appear
+to be of great antiquity. Large quantities of water were found, requiring
+pumping machinery working day and night for its removal. How the natives
+in olden times got rid of the water is not known. It is supposed that
+they must have done so by chatties, and by hand, with the aid of large
+numbers of people. As no native iron tools[26] were found in the cases of
+the two above-mentioned mines, it is evident that they were deliberately
+abandoned, either from excess of water in them, or some unknown cause. As
+the lodes they worked at the depths they reached were rich, it is probable
+that the miners could no longer contend with the difficulty of removing
+the large quantities of water. I am informed by Mr. Plummer that the main
+lodes where the natives have formerly worked have, in nearly every case,
+proved successful. Mr. Plummer has examined other districts in the
+province, extending more than 100 miles north of Mysore city, and thinks
+that there is a very large mining future for the Mysore country. I am
+informed by one of the mine managers that from the quantity of charcoal
+found in the old native workings, it is probable that the natives first of
+all burnt the rock so as to make it the more easy of extraction, just as
+they now burn granite rock in order the more easily to split off the
+stone.
+
+As the facts connected with these mines were brought very fully to the
+notice of the Government at such an early date, it at first sight seems
+strange that we have to skip over a period of about seventy years till we
+again meet, in the "Selections" previously quoted from, any further notice
+of the mines; but the neglect of them was evidently owing to the similar
+neglect of coffee and other industries, which might have been pushed
+forward at a much earlier date, and most certainly would have been, had
+the Government taken pains to see that the information so frequently
+obtained was published in an available and readable form, instead of being
+buried in the various offices of the State. That more efforts were not
+made in this direction was probably owing to the fact that the Government
+officers did not perceive the widespread effect that the introduction of
+European capital would have on the agriculture of the country, and,
+consequently, on the finances of the State--a subject referred to in my
+introductory chapter, and to which I shall again allude in the chapter on
+Coorg--while they were under the erroneous impression that Europeans would
+probably be a cause of annoyance to the Government and the people. We find
+a characteristic survival of the last idea in the "Selections," and in
+Clause X. of the conditions under which, in 1873, the first leave to mine
+was granted by the Government of Mysore, it is declared that, "In the
+event of the grantee causing annoyance or obstruction to any class of the
+people, or to the officers of Government, the chief commissioner reserves
+the power of annulling the mining right thus granted." But such
+apprehensions, I need hardly say, have long since passed away, and
+certainly within my long experience they never existed in Southern India
+in the case of the planters who, as a body, have always been encouraged by
+the State, and have always got on well with it and the people, though, of
+course, as in all countries, there are occasionally individuals who cannot
+bring themselves into harmony with any person, or condition of things.
+
+And now, before proceeding with my narrative of gold mining in Mysore, I
+pause for one moment to note the rather remarkable fact that it seems
+impossible to find in old records or inscriptions any reference to gold
+mining in Mysore.[27] As to this I have made diligent inquiry, from the
+librarian of H. H. the Maharajah, from a member of the Archæological
+Survey of Mysore, and in every quarter that occurred to me. I was informed
+by a European resident at Bangalore that, at the Eurasian settlement near
+that city, there is a stone pillar with an inscription said by tradition
+to relate to gold mining, but I can hardly suppose it possible that this
+could have escaped the notice of the officers of the Archæological Survey.
+One of the officers of this department informed me that, in consequence of
+the absence of traditions regarding gold mining, he inferred that mining
+in Mysore must have been carried on from very remote times. But it is time
+to proceed with the history of mining in Mysore.
+
+It appears, then, from the "Selections," that a Mr. Lavelle on the 20th of
+August, 1873, applied for the right to carry on mining operations in
+Kolar. Two years previously he had examined portions of the Kolar district
+(without any grant it would seem, from no mention of one being made), and
+found three auriferous strata, in one of which he sunk a shaft to the
+depth of eighteen feet, and found gold increase in quality and size as he
+went downwards. In the event of a mining right being granted he proposed
+to begin work again in November. After some correspondence came a letter
+from the chief commissioner, dated September 16th, 1874, submitting
+conditions (which must be regarded as final) as the basis of an agreement
+(to be afterwards legally drawn up) to be entered into between the
+Government and Mr. Lavelle. It is unnecessary to recapitulate all the
+conditions; suffice it to say that the right to mine in Kolar was to
+extend over twenty years, and that a royalty of ten per cent. on all
+metals and metallic ores, and of twenty per cent. on all precious stones,
+was to be paid. On September 20th, 1874, Mr. Lavelle accepted the terms,
+but what he did or did not do as regards mining does not appear in the
+"Selections," and I find it merely stated therein that on March 28th,
+1876, leave was given him to transfer his rights to other parties. It,
+however, appears from a statement made by Mr. Lavelle in 1885 to the
+special correspondent of the "Madras Mail,"[28] that a small syndicate was
+formed, and some work carried on in the native style, though little
+success seems to have been met with, and the work was abandoned. About a
+year afterwards it was again recommenced by Mr. Lavelle, who in the
+meanwhile had been prospecting in other parts of Southern India, and he
+succeeded in once more attracting attention to the Kolar field, and
+subsequently various companies were formed, but so disappointing were the
+results obtained that all were practically closed in 1882, except the
+Mysore mine, which was working to a small extent. In February, 1883, the
+Nundydroog mine was ordered to be closed, and almost every other mine was
+in a state of collapse. Caretakers were put in and only a little work
+done. Early in 1884, when only twelve or thirteen thousand pounds of their
+capital were left, the Mysore shareholders were convened. Some were for
+closing at once and dividing the remaining capital, but, acting on the
+advise of Messrs. John Taylor and Sons, of 6, Queen Street Place, London,
+it was, fortunately for the province of Mysore, determined to spend it on
+the mine. The shares were then as low as tenpence. The company began to
+get gold about the end of 1884, and the prospect improved so much that the
+Nundydroog mine in May, 1885, was enabled to raise money on debentures,
+and so to again carry on work. If the shareholders of the Mysore company
+had not persevered, it is almost absolutely certain that the whole of the
+Kolar gold field would have been permanently abandoned. This is just one
+of those cases which cheer the sinking hopes of shareholders, and attract
+vast sums of money to gold mines; and no wonder, when we find the chairman
+of the Mysore company apologizing lately because he could not declare a
+dividend of more than fifty per cent.; that up to the end of 1892 the gold
+sold by the company realized £1,149,430 2s. 1d., and that the total sum
+paid in dividends amounted to £602,156 10s. 6d.
+
+The Mysore mine had been sunk to a depth of about 200 feet when it was
+proposed that the project should be abandoned. Just below this depth the
+miners struck the Champion lode on which the Mysore, Ooregum, Nundydroog,
+Balaghaut, and Indian Consolidated Companies are working. The Mysore mine
+has now been sunk to a depth of over 1,200 feet, Ooregum 850 feet, and
+Nundydroog over 860 feet. The lode is not richer per ton, as is commonly
+supposed, on greater depths being reached. The yield per ton is probably
+about the same, though from larger quantities being taken out, and the use
+of the rock drill, which causes a large extraction of country rock, the
+product per ton of quartz is apparently smaller. The specimens now found
+are as good as ever.
+
+The circumstances of the Champion lode are briefly these. In the interior
+of a surrounding of granite there is a great basin of hornblende rock of
+schistose character, and through this, at an angle of about forty-five
+degrees, runs the lode. This is not of continuous thickness. In some
+places it is four or five feet wide, in others runs down to an almost
+vanishing point, and then again thickens. In the case of the mines now
+working on this lode, the basin of hornblende is more than two miles in
+width, and is possibly many thousands of feet in depth, so there seems to
+be a reasonable prospect of there being a long future before the workers
+on the Champion lode.
+
+The Kolar gold field is about seven miles in length, and averages about
+two to three miles in width. There are in all fourteen mines, but two of
+them are practically stopped. The general appearance of it is at present
+by no means attractive, as the land is rocky and sterile, and unfavourable
+to the growth of trees, but, from the appearance of some of the Baubul
+trees, I feel sure that if large pits for the trees were dug, and filled
+with soil from the low-lying ground, a great deal might be done to
+beautify the field, by planting here and there groups of Baubul and other
+hardy trees indigenous to the locality. As I thought it would be
+interesting, and perhaps useful, to give some idea of life on the fields,
+I asked one of the ladies resident there to supply me with some notes for
+publication, and her observations on the situation from a social and
+general point of view are as follows.
+
+"You ask me for some notes on the field, and I may begin by telling you
+that we usually rise about half-past six, when the menkind go off to their
+offices, or underground, as the ease may be. We have tiffin between twelve
+and one, and dinner at half-past seven. Breakfast is generally at about
+eight, and the managers commonly have theirs sent down to the office.
+
+"In the afternoon, that is to say, when the five o'clock whistle blows, we
+play tennis, or else go down to the Gymkana ground to watch the cricket.
+Sometimes there is a gymkana in which we all take great interest,
+particularly in those races called ladies' events, when the winners
+present their prizes to the ladies who have nominated them. The great
+drawback to the gold fields at present is the absence of some general
+meeting-place or club, but it is hoped that by next year this want will
+be supplied, as the Ooregum, Nundydroog, and Champion Reefs Companies have
+combined to build a hall, which is to contain a billiard-room, card-room,
+library, etc., and there is to be a tennis court in the compound.
+
+"One of the great pleasures is gardening. The plants that grow best are
+jalaps, sunflowers, roses, cornflowers, nasturtiums, verbenas, and
+geraniums, all of which, with the exception of the two first-named plants,
+require water constantly. The creepers that grow best are passion-flowers,
+and a small kind of green creeper with convolvulus flowers, the name of
+which I do not know. Honeysuckle also grows, though but slowly. Trees have
+recently been planted in the various compounds, and also along some parts
+of the road leading to the bungalows, but owing to the shallowness of the
+soil, and the roots so soon reaching the rock, they seldom grow to any
+size. Some casuarinas in the Mysore mine camp have grown to about twenty
+feet in height, but these have now struck the rock, and most of them are
+dying.
+
+"We have occasional visitors, many of them being shareholders in the
+various mines, bringing with them introductions from England, and wishing
+to inspect all the works, stamps, etc., on the surface, and very often
+going underground. Several ladies have been taken down the mines lately,
+but they do not seem to care for it much, for though of course it is
+interesting, still the fatigue of going down so many feet on ladders is
+great. The mines, too, in many parts are dirty and wet, and amongst other
+disagreeables are the cockroaches, which are enormous, and the stinging
+ants. Ladies too, I find, are as a rule disappointed at not seeing more
+'visible gold.' I believe they cherish generally some idea of picking up a
+nice little nugget to keep as a souvenir of their expedition.
+
+"None of the mines have any 'cages,' as they are called, so if one does
+not want to go down by the ladders, one can only go in the box in which
+the quartz comes up, and as this is only two feet square and four feet
+deep, the journey by it would be decidedly uncomfortable. At every eighty
+feet, I may mention, you come to a small wooden platform (or level) where
+you can rest, and from which branch off the cross cuts and drives, or
+narrow passages. The depths of the different mines vary a great deal,
+Mysore being as low as 1,400 feet, the greatest depth sunk at present,
+while the least depth sunk is about 300 feet. Ladies going underground
+have to wear suitable attire. Skirts would be quite useless. A long coat,
+or short skirt reaching to the knees, and knickerbockers, is the most
+comfortable dress for the occasion. Very strong boots should be worn.
+
+"Many of the miners and people employed in the gold fields have joined the
+Volunteers. There is now quite a strong corps of about 100 men, some being
+Eurasians, but the majority are either English or Italians. Once a year
+some 'bigwig' comes from Bangalore to review them. There is a
+sergeant-instructor on the field, and the adjutant comes very frequently
+to see them drill, etc.
+
+"Round the various large tanks about six or eight miles away from the
+mines excellent snipe shooting is to be had, and duck and teal are also to
+be found. Spotted deer and bears are sometimes shot by sportsmen from the
+mines, but for those one must go further away. The fishing is not
+considered to be very good, but perhaps those who fish do not know how to
+set to work. The natives sometimes bring very large tank fish round for
+sale.
+
+"Driving and riding are not very enjoyable, owing to the terribly bad
+state of the roads. When the railway to the mines is opened, which it soon
+will be, I am happy to say, the roads will be better. At present the heavy
+machinery for the mines, boilers, etc.--sometimes taking sixty bullocks
+to draw them--cut up the roads dreadfully. These will of course come by
+rail directly the line is open for traffic. The supplies, vegetables,
+fruit, etc., come from Bangalore three times a week, each mine keeping a
+'Supply boy' (servant), who goes in from Kolar Road (our railway station,
+seven miles from the mines), and returns the following day. We get mutton
+and beef from the local butcher, and also good bread from the bakery on
+the field. Our butter comes from Bangalore, and from there we obtain,
+peas, potatoes, French beans, tomatoes, cauliflowers, vegetable marrow,
+and lettuces, and also fruit, such as apples, peaches, grapes, plantains,
+custard apples, melons, and sometimes pine-apples. Servants on the whole
+are good. Most of them come from Madras. Wages are much higher on the gold
+fields than in Bangalore--head butlers, 16 rupees; ayahs, 12 to 14 rupees;
+chokras, 10 to 11 rupees; cooks, 11 to 14 rupees; and gardeners, 10 to 16
+rupees a month. Many of them leave domestic service and take work in the
+mines, where they get higher wages very often."
+
+As the elevation of Kolar is about 2,700 feet above sea level, the climate
+is for many months of the year extremely agreeable, and it would, so far
+as my experience goes, be difficult to find a more exhilarating and more
+exquisitely-tempered atmosphere than that of Kolar in the month of
+January--at least such was my conclusion when I stayed with my friends at
+the field last January. Nor did I hear anyone there complain of the
+climate, which, from the appearance of my host (who looked as if he had
+never left England) and others on the mines, must be a very healthy one,
+and in proof of this I may mention that Mr. Plummer, whom I have
+previously quoted, told me that the European miners had as good health as
+miners have in England. Cholera has on several occasions broken out
+amongst the coolies, but this was rather a proof of the want of attention
+paid to sanitation and water supply, as none I believe has occurred since
+an improved water supply has been introduced by all the companies now
+pumping it up from depths of 200 feet from the bottoms of abandoned
+shafts. There was a remarkable confirmation of the connection between
+cholera and water supply and sanitation one year, and the first company
+which paid attention to these points had no cholera amongst its people,
+while most of the other mines had more or less of the disease. I may
+mention here a fact to which I have alluded in my chapter on coffee
+planting in Mysore--namely, that Europeans in Mysore have been so little
+liable to cholera that in sixty years there has only been one death from
+it amongst the European officials of the province, and one doubtful case
+amongst the planters.
+
+As regards mining and the extraction of gold, there is little to be said.
+I inspected the works and the rock drills. These work through the agency
+of compressed air, and at a cost of 15 rupees a day for coal for each
+drill, the same tool which is used in drilling by hand. It is doubtful
+whether hand-drilling is not cheaper, but the latter is far slower, and
+hence does not pay as well, rapid progress being absolutely essential.
+When working with rock drills, a shaft can be sunk 10 to 20 feet a month,
+against 7 to 8 feet by hand, and a level may on the average be driven 45
+to 50 feet a month by rock drills against 10 or 12 feet by hand. When,
+however, a large surface for operating on is exposed, hand-drilling may be
+profitably employed. This is interesting as illustrating the fact that
+where labour is cheap machines seldom pay, and this is particularly worth
+mentioning for the benefit of those who have thought that it would be
+useful to introduce agricultural machinery into India. After looking at
+the rock drills I inspected the gold extraction works. The processes here
+need not detain us long. The quartz is first broken by stone-breakers
+like those used in England. The broken stone is then placed in an iron
+trough (battery box), and is pounded by iron stampers, which of course are
+worked by machinery. In front of this trough is a fine sieve. Water is
+incessantly run into the trough, and as it overflows, carries with it all
+the quartz which has been pounded sufficiently to pass through the sieve.
+The water, mingled with this finely powdered quartz, then falls on to a
+sloping plate of copper coated with quicksilver, which amalgamates with,
+and so detains, the gold. The deposit thus formed is scraped off the
+sheets of copper at intervals of about eight hours, and formed into balls
+of various sizes, which consist of about one-half gold and one-half
+quicksilver. The latter is subsequently separated from the gold by
+processes which I need not describe, and the gold is afterwards formed
+into bars for export.
+
+I inquired particularly as to the rates of wages. These are, for coolies
+working underground, from 7 to 8 annas a day (with the rupee at par one
+anna is equal to 1-1/2d., and 8 annas would therefore amount to 1s.).
+Those who work rock drills in mines, 12 annas to a rupee a day; ordinary
+coolies working aboveground, 4 to 8 annas; and women, 2 to 4 annas a day.
+The working population on the field numbers about 10,000, while 20,000
+more, who work for varying periods of the year, reside in the neighbouring
+villages.
+
+I was much struck with the fact that no advances whatever are given to
+coolies by the companies, as is the case with men working on plantations,
+and I would particularly call the attention of planters to this, as it
+proves what I have elsewhere stated--namely, that where labour rises to a
+comparatively high rate no advances are necessary, and I feel sure that if
+planters would resolve to reduce gradually the amount of advances, they
+might ultimately be altogether dispensed with.
+
+My next subject of inquiry relating to labour was as to the probable total
+amount paid for it, and, from an estimate made for me by a very competent
+authority residing on the mines, I believe that the following account is
+substantially correct. The amount of wages paid monthly to native
+labourers and the small number of Eurasians working on the mines is about
+2 lakhs of rupees. To natives who fell and bring in timber for fuel about
+80,000 rupees monthly are paid. On quarrying and carting granite, and in
+building, about 30,000 rupees a month are spent; on the carriage of
+materials from the railway about 15,000 rupees, and probably from 5,000 to
+10,000 rupees on local products such as straw, grain, oil, mats, bamboos,
+tiles, etc. Now, if we take no account of the last two items, and deduct
+10,000 rupees from the second and third, we shall have a fair estimate of
+three lakhs of rupees a month as the amount spent on the Kolar gold field
+in wages, which, taking the rupee at par (and I think I am justified in
+doing so, as for expenditure in India by labourers it goes about as far as
+it ever did), amounts to £360,000 a year. And this great sum is earned by
+people who either have land and work for occasional periods of the year on
+the mines, or by labourers, who, when they have saved enough money from
+their wages (which they could do with ease in a year), will acquire and
+cultivate a small holding. A large proportion of this sum of £360,000 a
+year--probably two-thirds of it--goes to improving the status and
+condition of the agricultural and labouring classes, and I need hardly add
+that this not only leads to an improvement of the resources of the State,
+but enables the people the better to contend with famine and times of
+scarcity, and thus still further improves the financial condition of the
+Government. And it is largely in consequence of the great sums brought
+into Mysore by the planters and the gold companies that the revenues of
+Mysore are in such a nourishing condition, and that year after year the
+annual budget presents an appearance more and more favourable.
+
+And here this question naturally arises. What can the Government of Mysore
+do to stimulate the employment of labour in mining, and thus still further
+strengthen the financial position of the State? I am prepared to show that
+it can do much to stimulate the opening of new mines, and also to
+encourage many of those now in existence which have not as yet been able
+to pay dividends.
+
+The reader will see by a glance at the map that the auriferous tracts of
+Mysore (to which I shall presently more particularly allude) are of great
+extent, and, judging from the report of the geological surveyor employed
+by the Government, and especially from the existence of numerous old
+native workings, there is no reason why prizes even greater than the best
+of those already obtained should not exist. Now one of the greatest
+obstacles in the way of rapid progress lies in the fact that before mining
+can be got fairly under weigh much preliminary work has to be done, and
+the shareholders have therefore a long time to wait before any paying
+return can be obtained. But if the preliminary work, such as the providing
+of water, the collection of building materials, and the making of roads,
+etc., were carried out before a company was formed, mining could be begun
+at once, and results rapidly arrived at, and the frittering away of money,
+both in England and India, that at present necessarily occurs, would be
+averted. Now the country has already been largely explored, and the
+Government is therefore in a position to know the places where favourable
+results will probably be obtained, and as the State, besides the other
+advantages I have previously pointed out, gets a royalty on the gold, it
+has a natural interest in doing its utmost to select the most favourable
+sites for new mining operations. Such sites then should, with the aid of
+experienced mining advisers, be selected by the Government, which itself
+should execute the preliminary works previously specified, and then
+advertise the blocks, so selected and prepared, for sale in the London
+market. For such prepared blocks purchasers could readily be found, and if
+the price they paid merely covered the bare cost of the preliminary works,
+the expenditure of capital that would thus be stimulated, with all its
+consequent direct and indirect advantages to the province, would amply
+repay the Government for its trouble and outlay.
+
+But the State may give yet another stimulus to mining, which, I feel sure,
+would prove of great advantage to the State. The present royalty is five
+per cent. on the value of the gold produced, and from this source the
+Government last year received 5 lakhs and 18,000 rupees. Now the
+prosperous companies which are paying good dividends do not feel this to
+be a very serious burden, but it is a serious burden--every shilling of
+expenditure indeed is--to a company which has not begun to pay dividends,
+and I would suggest that, till a company is able to pay dividends,
+one-half of the royalty, or, better still, the whole of it, might be
+remitted. This sum would by no means be lost to the State, for does not
+the milk that is left in the cow go to the calf?
+
+The measures I have proposed would be of such obvious advantage to the
+State that, were I a shareholder, or intending investor, in mines in
+Mysore, I should have no hesitation in suggesting their adoption, but it
+may be as well to mention that I am neither.
+
+I drove one afternoon with my host to the court on the field, and had some
+conversation with the magistrate regarding thefts at the mines, and it
+certainly appears that a special Act is required to check the stealing of
+gold. Sponge-gold (i.e., gold from which the quicksilver has been
+evaporated), quartz, or gold amalgam, if found in the possession of any
+person, renders the individual liable to prosecution, if the possession of
+gold in any of these forms cannot be satisfactorily accounted for. But the
+individual cannot be called to account for having ordinary pure gold in
+possession. Now in a man's possession at the mines there has been found
+all the means of separating the gold by quicksilver, and it is therefore
+quite clear that gold stolen in either of the first three mentioned forms
+may, after having been deprived of its concomitant impurities, be held by
+an individual to any amount, and even by a workman earning 6d. a day,
+without his being liable to be called upon to account for its possession.
+Some Act to meet this kind of case is then clearly required--an Act
+similar to our Mysore Coffee-stealing Prevention Act, which provides that
+any person not a planter is liable to be called upon to account for coffee
+in his possession.
+
+A difficult point occurs where quartz is found in a hut occupied by
+several people, as it is impossible to charge any one person with being in
+illegal possession of the article. There are numerous evidences of gold
+stealing, and certainly some summary process ought to be established with
+the view of checking these thefts. I may add that the Government is much
+interested in this matter, as five per cent. of the gold belongs to it,
+and is handed over in the shape of royalty. Those who are most concerned
+should bring the matter annually before the members of the Representative
+Assembly. Even in England remedies for, or mitigations of, evils are not
+provided without much continuous parliamentary hammering.
+
+After discussing the subject of gold stealing with the magistrate, I
+called on the manager of the Mysore mine, and afterwards went with my host
+to a lawn tennis party at the house of the doctor of the mines, who is
+employed by the various companies. He has a comfortable bungalow, which
+is at a considerable elevation above the level of the valley, and commands
+an extensive view of the surrounding country and of the distant hills.
+Above the house, and at some little distance on one side of it, stands the
+hospital, and on a knoll just below, the building of the new Roman
+Catholic church was in progress, and the walls were nearly finished. From
+the doctor's bungalow a good general view of the whole field can be
+obtained, and I was particularly struck with the number of buildings to be
+seen in all directions. I was told that from this point as many as thirty
+tall chimneys can be counted.
+
+There is a great want of water in the field, for purposes connected with
+the separation of the gold from the quartz, and tanks are being provided
+to store it. I venture to suggest that a considerable distance of the
+catchment area on the sides, and especially at the back, of the tanks
+should be honeycombed with pits, as the water, which is often largely lost
+from falling in heavy deluges, would thus percolate into the ground, and
+so find its way into the bed of the tank by degrees. I may mention that a
+great effect has been produced in the case of a tank on one of my coffee
+estates by thus digging pits to catch water that would otherwise run
+directly down into the tank, to be largely lost by the overflow during
+heavy rains, and a similar effect has been produced on the property of a
+neighbour. In fact, the effect produced by such pits on the supply of
+water in tanks is far greater than one could have imagined to be possible,
+and I may therefore, in passing, call particular attention to the
+advisability of such pits being made near tanks used for agricultural
+purposes. On the margins of the tanks, and in parts of the bed where
+sufficient soil exists, trees should be planted, with the view of
+diminishing evaporation from the surface of the water.
+
+When the railway is completed, soil might easily be brought into the
+field oil trucks, and the pits dug for trees should be filled with it. The
+planting of trees in and around the field would certainly be beneficial in
+many obvious ways, and would improve the climate and probably affect, not
+perhaps the amount, but the distribution of the rainfall. I would suggest
+that if earth closets were used by the people, and the used earth spread
+around the trees, there would be a great improvement in their growth. This
+would at once improve the sanitation of the field and beautify it at the
+same time.
+
+The reader has now probably learned enough of this rising settlement,[29]
+and I have only to add that on the day following I returned to Bangalore,
+after having had a most pleasant and interesting time of it with my
+friends on the Kolar field.
+
+I next pass to a brief mention of the other auriferous tracts in Mysore,
+which were surveyed in 1887 by Mr. R. Bruce Foote, Superintendent of the
+Geological Survey of India, who, in connection with his investigations
+between February 2nd and May 7th of that year, travelled no less than
+1,300 miles in Mysore in marching and field work. A full report of his
+work appears in the "Selections,"[30] and this is accompanied by a map in
+which Mr. Foote has sketched out the distribution of the auriferous rocks.
+In the "Selections" alluded to there, is also a "Report on the Auriferous
+Tracts in Mysore," by Mr. M. F. Lavelle, and "Notes on the Occurrence of
+Gold and other Minerals in Mysore," by Mr. Walter Marsh, Mining Engineer.
+But in the brief remarks I have to make I shall confine my attention to
+Mr. Foote's Report.
+
+Mr. Foote informs us that the chief gold-yielding rocks of Southern India
+belong to one great geological system, to which, from the rocks forming it
+occurring very largely in the Dharwar country, he two years previously
+gave the name of the Dharwar System, as he saw the necessity of separating
+them from the great Gneissic System, with which they had formerly been
+grouped. In his long tour in Mysore he found that every important
+auriferous tract visited lies within one or other of the areas of the
+Dharwar rocks, or forms an outlying patch of the same. These Dharwar
+rocks, it appears, are the auriferous series in Mysore, the ceded
+districts, and the Southern Maharatta country.
+
+Mr. Foote groups the auriferous rock series of Mysore into four
+groups--the central, west-central, western, and the eastern--the last
+group being formed by the Kolar gold field, which was not included in the
+tracts Mr. Foote was called upon to visit. He then gives a systematic
+account of his examination of the country, beginning with the central, and
+ending with the western group.
+
+He examined ten auriferous tracts or localities in the central group,
+beginning with the Holgen workings near the southern border of the
+province, and ending with the Hale Kalgudda locality near the northern
+border, and reports more or less favourably on five out of the ten
+localities in question. For brevity I use the numbers into which he has
+divided the localities he regards as more or less promising. Of part of
+number three, he says that his examination, though but a cursory one, led
+him to regard it "very favourably," and of another part, he says that the
+whole outline indicated, which is seven miles long by about a mile wide,
+is deserving of very close examination, and the reefs of being prospected
+to some depth. As regards number five, he reports the existence of old
+native workings occupying a considerable area, and which showed evidence
+of much work being done. Fine reefs are to be seen pretty numerously, and
+he desires to draw attention to this promising tract. With reference to
+number eight, he says that "taking all things into consideration this
+tract is one of the most promising I have seen." Of number nine he says,
+"with regard to this gold-yielding locality, it is one of very great
+promise and worthy of all attention from mining capitalists," and as
+regards number ten, he reports that, though not so favourable as the two
+numbers previously mentioned, it is yet deserving of the closest
+investigation.
+
+The west-central group was examined by Mr. Foote in the same order,
+i.e., from south to north, and he tells us that the auriferous
+localities in this group occur all in small detached strips or patches of
+schistose rock scattered over the older gneissic series. They are really,
+he says, remnants of the once apparently continuous spread of schistose
+(Dharwar) rocks which covered great part of the southern half of the
+Peninsula. Mr. Foote examined in all fifteen localities, and they do not,
+from his account, seem to present appearances as favourable as those of
+the central group, and he only recommends that attention should be paid to
+six of them. As regards the first locality mentioned, he says that, though
+the results from washings and other indications were not very favourable,
+the field was deserving of further close prospecting, as the nature of the
+country is favourable. Of locality number five, he says that it contains a
+considerable number of large and well defined reefs, to which a great
+amount of attention has been paid by the old native miners, and thinks
+that they are deserving of the closest attention at the present time by
+deep prospecting on an ample scale. Of number seven he finds it impossible
+to form any positive opinion, though he adds that the size of the old
+workings show that the old miners found the place worth their attention
+for a long period. He advises that number eleven should be prospected and
+tested. Locality thirteen he considers to deserve close prospecting, and
+he makes much the same remark as to number fourteen.
+
+The western group, Mr. Foote tells us, is far poorer in auriferous
+localities than either of the others, and they are scattered widely apart.
+He examined in all seven localities. Of the first locality examined, he
+says that the geological features are all favourable to the occurrence of
+gold, and that the locality is worthy of very careful prospecting. In
+locality number two, such a good show of coarse grained gold was got from
+the sands of a stream that he thought a portion of the land from which its
+water came ought to be closely tested in order to trace the source of the
+gold found in the stream. When writing on locality number three, Mr. Foote
+observes that the elevated tract of the auriferous rocks of which the
+Bababudan mountains form the centre is one well deserving great attention
+both from the geologist and the mining prospector, it being an area of
+great disturbance, the rocks being greatly contorted on a large scale and,
+the north and south sides at least of the area, much cut up by great
+faults. The whole of the auriferous areas here, he says, are deserving of
+close survey, for even the best of them are very imperfectly known, and
+much of what was known to the old miners in former generations has been
+forgotten. "From the fact," writes Mr. Foote, "that in my hurried tour I
+came upon no less than five sets of old workings that had not been brought
+under the notice of Messrs. Lavelle and Marsh (reports of whose
+investigations are given in the "Selections"), I quite expect to hear that
+many other old abandoned workings exist in wild and jungly tracts which
+bound in the hilly and mountainous parts of the country." In locality
+number five such fine shows of gold were obtained, and there was such a
+good looking old mine, and quartz reefs of great size, that Mr. Foote
+considered the place deserving of "very marked attention from earnest
+prospectors."
+
+It is evident, from what Mr. Foote has said, that there is much to be done
+in the way of exploring and testing the Mysore province for gold, and I
+hope that what I have written may be the means of attracting further
+attention to the subject.
+
+At the close of his report Mr. Foote mentions the fact that "a great dyke
+of beautiful porphyry traverses the hills east of the Karigatta temple
+overlooking Seringapatam. The porphyry, which is of warm brown or
+chocolate colour, includes many crystals of lighter coloured felspar, and
+dark crystals of hornblende. The stone would take a very high polish, and
+for decorative purposes of high class, such as vases, panels and bases for
+busts and tazzas, etc., it is unequalled in South India, and deserving of
+all attention. If well polished it fully equals many of the highly prized
+antique porphyries. The dyke is of great thickness and runs for fully a
+mile, so is practically inexhaustible. Blocks of very large size could be
+raised, and from the situation of the dyke on the side of two steep hills,
+it would be very easy to open up large quarries if needful." As this dyke
+is close to a railway it may be worthy of the attention of capitalists.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] Printed for the use of the Government, and kindly lent to me by the
+Dewan of Mysore.
+
+[26] Mr. Bosworth-Smith, _vide_ p. 36 of his Report, says that, up to
+1889, only three finds of iron tools had been met with in the old native
+workings.
+
+[27] In Mr. Hyde Clarke's paper entitled "Gold in India," London,
+Effingham Wilson, Royal Exchange, 1881, it is stated that "Dr. Burnell
+brings direct proof as to the abundance of gold, by his successful
+decipherment of a remarkable inscription in the Tanjore temple. Dr.
+Burnell is thus enabled to state that in the eleventh century gold was
+still the most common precious metal in India, and stupendous quantities
+of it are mentioned. He considers, too, that this gold was obtained from
+mines, and that the Moslem invasion interrupted their workings." It does
+not, however, appear, at least in Mr. Hyde Clarke's paper, that the
+inscription deciphered by Dr. Burnell makes any reference to gold mining.
+
+[28] "The Kolar Gold Field in the State of Mysore." Reprinted from the
+"Madras Mail," December, 1885; Madras, the Madras Mail Press. London,
+Messrs. H. S. King and Co., 1885.
+
+[29] Those who desire detailed information are referred to Mr. P.
+Bosworth-Smith's "Report on the Kolar Gold Field and its Southern
+Extension." Madras, Government Press, 1889. Mr. Bosworth-Smith writes as
+Government Mineralogist to the Madras Presidency.
+
+[30] "Selections from the Records of the Mysore Government. Reports on
+Auriferous Tracts in Mysore." Bangalore. Printed at the Mysore Government
+Press, 1887.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+CASTE.
+
+
+In Krilof's fable of "The Peasant and the Horse," the latter murmurs at
+the way his master throws oats broad-cast on the soil. "How much better,"
+argues the horse, "it would have been to have kept them in his granary, or
+even to have given them to me to eat!" But the oats grow, and in due time
+are garnered, and from them the same horse is fed the year following. The
+horse, as we have seen, was unable to comprehend the working and the
+meaning of his master's acts; and, in the same way, we often see that man
+equally fails to comprehend the nature and effect of things around him.
+And thus it is, and for long has been, as regards the institution I am now
+about to consider. People in general have ignorantly murmured at the
+institution of caste; and, having ever looked at it with highly-civilized
+spectacles, and having seen especially a number of the inconveniences it
+has caused to the educated population of the towns, it has been argued
+that caste is the curse of all India. But it seems to me that an
+attentive, unprejudiced examination tends to prove that in former times it
+was exactly the reverse, and that at the present moment, as far as all the
+ignorant rural population is concerned, it may be considered, with
+reference to the state of the people, as a valuable and useful
+institution.
+
+And here, at the outset, I wish it to be clearly understood that an
+immense divergence has taken place between the town and country
+populations of India. The former have advanced with rapid strides on the
+paths of enlightenment and progress, while the latter, it is hardly too
+much to say, have remained almost universally stationary. To argue,
+therefore, from one to the other is not only impossible, but absurd; and
+it is merely a waste of time to point out, at any length, that what may be
+admirably suited to one set of people may be a positive nuisance to
+another. With reference, then, to this question of caste, instead of
+treating India as a whole, I shall divide it into town and country
+populations. In the first place, I shall treat of the effects of caste on
+the country populations, amongst whom I have lived; and, in the second
+place, I shall offer some considerations regarding the effects of the
+institution amongst the people of the towns.
+
+And, first of all, as to its effects on the rural population.
+
+In these observations on caste I shall not commence with any attempt to
+trace its origin, nor shall I endeavour to enumerate the countless forms
+it has assumed amongst the peoples of the great peninsula. My aim is to
+direct the attention of the reader not to the dry bones of its history so
+much as to the living effects of the institution. It is certainly a matter
+of interest to know something of the peculiar customs of the various
+tribes and races; but it is to be regretted that people generally have
+rested content with information of that sort, and have seldom attempted to
+investigate those points which are, I conceive, mainly of use and
+interest. What Indians may or may not do--what they may eat, what they may
+drink, and what clothing they may put on--are not matters on which
+inquirers should bestow much time. The information most needed, and which
+has not yet, or only in the most imperfect sense, been acquired, is as to
+what caste has done for good or evil. It shall be my endeavour to solve
+that question; and I imagine the solution would be in a great measure
+effected if I could, in the first instance, answer the following
+questions:
+
+1. How far has caste acted as a moral restraint amongst the Indians
+themselves?
+
+2. How far advantageously or the reverse in segregating them socially from
+the conquerors who have overrun their country?
+
+On the first of these points I may observe, without the slightest
+exaggeration, that very few of our countrymen indeed have had such
+opportunities as myself of forming a correct opinion; for very few
+Englishmen have been so entirely dependent on a native population for
+society. For the first four or five years of my residence in
+Manjarabad[31] there were only three Europeans besides myself, and we were
+all about twelve miles apart. The natural consequence was that the farmers
+of the country were my sole companions; and, as I joined in their sports
+and had some of them always about me, terms of intimacy sprang up which
+never could have existed under any other circumstances. And further, when
+it is taken into consideration that I have employed the poorer of the
+better castes in various capacities on my estates, and a large number of
+the Pariahs, or labourer caste, it seems pretty clear that I ought to be a
+tolerably competent judge as to whether caste did or did not exercise a
+favourable influence on the morals of the people. Now, as regards one
+department of morals, at least, I unhesitatingly affirm that it did, and
+that, as regards the connection of the sexes, it would be difficult to
+find in any part of the world a more moral people than the two higher
+castes of Manjarabad, who form about one-half of the population, and who
+may be termed the farming proprietors of the country. Amongst themselves,
+indeed, it was not to be wondered at that their morality was extremely
+good, as, from the fact of nearly everyone being married at the age of
+puberty, and partly, perhaps, from the fact of their houses being more or
+less isolated, instead of being grouped in villages, the temptations to
+immorality were necessarily slight. Their temptations, though, as regards
+the Pariahs, who were, when I entered Manjarabad, merely hereditary serfs,
+were considerable; and there it was that the value of caste law came in.
+Caste said, "You shall not touch these women;" and so strong was this law,
+that I never knew of but one instance of one of the better classes
+offending with a Pariah woman.[32] Some aversion of race there might, no
+doubt, have been, but the police of caste and its penalties were so strong
+that he would be a bold man indeed who would venture to run any risk of
+detection. To give an idea of how the punishment for an offence of this
+kind would operate, it may be added that, if one of the farming classes in
+this country, on a case of seducing one of the lower, was fined by his
+neighbours £500, and cut by society till he paid the money, he would be in
+exactly the same position as a Manjarabad farmer would be who had violated
+the important caste law under consideration. Here, therefore, we have a
+moral police of tremendous power, and the very best proof we have of the
+regularity with which it has been enforced lies in the fact that the
+Pariahs and the farmers are distinguished by a form and physiognomy almost
+as distinct as those existing between an Englishman and a negro. Caste,
+then, as we have seen, protects the poor from the passions of the rich,
+and it equally protects the upper classes themselves, and enforcedly makes
+them more moral than, judging from our experience in other quarters of the
+globe, they would otherwise be.
+
+Having thus briefly glanced at caste law, as controlling the connection of
+the sexes, let us now look at it from another point of view, which I
+venture to think is, as regards its ultimate consequences, of even still
+more importance. If there is one vice more than another which is
+productive of serious crime, it is the abuse of alcohol; and there is no
+doubt that, to use the words of an eminent statesman, "if we could
+subtract from the ignorance, the poverty, the suffering, the sickness, and
+the crime now witnessed among us, the ignorance, the poverty, the
+sickness, and the crime caused by the single vice of drinking, this
+country would be so changed for the better that we should hardly know it
+again." Regarding it, then, in all its consequences, whether physical or
+mental (and how many madmen and idiots are there not bred by
+drinking?[33]), it is difficult to estimate too highly the value of caste
+laws that utterly prohibit the use of those strong drinks that are
+injurious in any country, but are a thousand times more so under the rays
+of a tropical sun. And when we come to consider that a large proportion of
+the population of India are absolutely compelled to abstain from the use
+of alcohol, and that these being the very best, or at least equal to the
+very best, of the community, must always have exercised a large influence
+in discouraging the excessive use of intoxicating drinks, it is impossible
+to refrain from coming to the conclusion that this single fact is more
+than sufficient to counterbalance all the evils that have ever been said
+to arise from caste.
+
+On two very important points, then--the connection of the sexes and the
+use of alcohol--it is evident that caste laws have produced some very
+favourable and valuable results; but I do not think we can accurately
+gauge their value unless we compare the state of morality existing in
+Manjarabad with the state of morality existing in one of our home
+counties; and the comparison I have to make, if not very soothing, is, I
+am sure, very interesting. Take any one of our counties in Great Britain,
+for instance, and compare it with Manjarabad as regards the points I have
+particularly referred to, and it will be found that Manjarabad has an
+immense superiority. The crimes and misery arising from drinking are
+hardly to be found at all in Manjarabad, while the morality of the sexes,
+I should think, could hardly be surpassed. Now, there is nothing very
+surprising, considering that the people in this country are so heavily
+weighted, that this should be the case; on the contrary, it is the natural
+result of the circumstances of their worldly situation. But, supposing
+that the worldly situation as to the means of support and the
+opportunities of marrying were equal, it seems to me perfectly plain that
+the people who have a large proportion of the better classes total
+abstainers, and who have their society so controlled that the rich cannot
+gratify their passions at the expense of the poor, must be in the
+possession of a superior morality.
+
+Before closing this branch of the subject, I may allude briefly to what
+has been so often attacked by the opponents of caste: I mean the
+prohibition of the marriage of widows. This rule exists in Manjarabad, but
+I am not aware that any great moral evil arises from it, as a widow can
+always contract to live with a man, the difference being that the
+ceremonies performed are of an inferior kind. This is not allowed to be a
+marriage, but, in fact, it is a marriage, though of a kind held in rather
+low estimation. On customs like these, which in a great measure neutralize
+the evils arising from the restrictions on re-marriage, it seems to me
+that our information is very scanty, and I am not aware how far the
+practice alluded to prevails in other parts of India.
+
+Having taken into consideration the advantages of caste in acting as a
+moral restraint amongst the Indians themselves, I now purpose to inquire
+how far caste has acted advantageously, or the reverse, in segregating the
+people socially from the conquerors who have overrun their country.
+
+If the advantages of caste are striking and plainly apparent as regards
+the moral points I have alluded to, they seem to me to be infinitely more
+so when we come to consider the happy influence this institution has had
+in segregating the Indians from the white races. And here I cannot help
+indulging in a vain regret that the blessings of caste have not been
+universally diffused amongst all inferior races. How many of these has our
+boasted civilization improved off the face of the earth? How much has that
+tide of civilization which the first conquerors invariably bring with them
+effected? How much, in other words, have their vice, rum, and gunpowder
+helped to exterminate those unhappy races which, unprotected by caste,
+have come in contact with the white man? Nor in India itself are we
+altogether without a well-marked instance of the value, for a time at
+least, of an entire social separation between the dark and white races;
+and the Todas, the lords of the soil on the Nilgiri Hills, furnish us with
+a lamentable example of what the absence of caste feeling is capable of
+producing. We found them a simple pastoral race, and the early visitors to
+the hills were struck with their inoffensive manners, and what was falsely
+considered to be their greatest advantage--freedom from caste
+associations. But what is their condition now? One of drunkenness,
+debauchery, and disease of the most fatal description. Had the
+much-reviled caste law been theirs, what a different result would have
+ensued from their contact with Europeans! Caste would have saved them
+from alcohol, and their women from contamination: they would thus have
+maintained their self-respect; and if, at first, separation brought no
+progress nor shadow of change, it would have at least induced no evil, and
+education and enlightenment would in time have modified these caste
+institutions, which, to a superficial observer, seem to be productive of
+nothing but evil.
+
+We have now seen that social contact with whites, without any barrier
+between them and the inferior races, is not, in a moral point of view, a
+very desirable thing in any part of the world. But if there is a moral
+consequence, we may also point to a mental one, which exercises an immense
+influence: I mean the overwhelming sense of inferiority which is so apt to
+depress casteless races. I believe, then, for savages, or for people in a
+low state of civilization, it is of the greatest importance that they
+should have points of difference which may not only keep them socially
+apart, but which may enable them to maintain some feeling of superiority
+when coming in contact with highly-civilized races. Nor is it necessary
+that the feeling of superiority should be well founded. An imaginary
+superiority will, I believe, answer the purpose equally well. "We don't
+touch beef, nor would we touch food cooked by Englishmen or Pariahs," seem
+but poor matters for self-congratulation. But if these considerations
+prevent a man from forming a poor opinion of himself, they should be
+carefully cherished. On these points, at least, a feeling of superiority
+is sustained, and therefore the tendency to degradation is diminished. But
+if on all points the white man makes his superiority felt, the weaker
+people speedily acquire a thorough contempt for themselves, and soon
+become careless of what they do, or of what becomes of them. Their mental
+spring becomes fatally depressed, and this circumstance has probably more
+to do with the deterioration and extinction of inferior races than most
+people would be inclined to admit.[34] Nothing, then, I believe, chills
+the soul and checks the progress of man so much as a hopeless sense of
+inferiority; and, had I time, I might turn the attention of the reader to
+the universality of this law, and to the numerous instances that have been
+collected to prove the depressing and injurious effects that even nature,
+on a grand and overwhelming scale, seems to exercise on the mind and
+spirit of man--how it makes him timid, credulous, and superstitious, and
+produces effects which retard his progress. But to advance further on this
+point, however interesting it may be, would only tend to distract the
+attention of the reader from the subject with which we are mainly
+concerned.
+
+If the remarks hitherto made are of any value, they undoubtedly tend to
+prove that all inferior races have a tendency, in the first instance, to
+adopt the vices rather than the virtues of the more civilized races they
+may come in contact with. Assuming, then, as I think we have every right
+to do, that this statement is universally true, it is evident that the
+social separation maintained by caste has been of incalculable advantage.
+On the other hand, however, a number of disadvantages have been indicated
+by various writers; but only one of them seems to me at all worthy of
+serious attention. It has been asserted that this segregation has impeded
+advancement, that it has prevented the Indians learning as much from us as
+they otherwise might, and that it has impeded the mainspring of all
+advancement--education. Here, I apprehend, the argument against caste, as
+far as rural populations are concerned, utterly fails, and, in a province
+contiguous to my own, a most signal instance to the contrary can be
+pointed to. Few people have more proudly segregated themselves than the
+Coorgs; nowhere is the chastity of women more jealously guarded; and yet
+they were the first people in India who desired and petitioned for female
+education. And how, then, can it be for one moment asserted that the
+tendency of caste is to check the progress of the people?
+
+Having thus glanced at some of the effects of caste institutions as they
+affect the rural population, we will now consider caste as it affects the
+people of the towns. Following, then, the same order, and directing our
+attention to the same points selected for consideration when treating of
+the rural classes, let us ask how far caste has operated with the
+townspeople as regards the connection of the sexes and the use of alcohol.
+And here we shall find that the subject may be dismissed in almost a
+single sentence; for caste laws, as regards these points, can never act as
+a moral restraint, because the possibility of enforcing them cannot and
+does not exist. Nor need I waste time in proving that people in towns,
+whether in India, or any other part of the world, may readily do things
+which could never escape the prying eyes of a country society.
+
+Then, as regards the segregation from foreigners, it is evident that we
+need employ little time, for such of the town populations as have
+maintained a fair state of morality amid the evils of large cities, are
+not likely to be materially affected by the bad habits and customs of the
+white races; and as for those who have never led a steady life, it would
+not much matter with whom they mixed. But caste not only brings with it no
+good as far as the town population is concerned, but its continuance is
+fraught with a multitude of painful and vexatious evils, which meet us at
+every turn, for it hampers the actions, and clogs those efforts at
+progress which are the natural result of intellectual advancement. And
+here I cannot do better than quote the words of a Parsee gentleman, whose
+unceasing efforts to aid the progress of India entitle him to be placed
+in the very highest rank of those who spend much time and labour to
+produce effects which they can never live to see the fruits of. These
+remarks of his, which I am now about to quote, were made at the close of a
+paper on caste, which I read at a meeting of the East India Association,
+and are quoted from the report published in the journal of the
+Association. After fully granting that, in the condition of society
+existing at the time the system of caste was established, it may have done
+a great deal of good, Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji proceeded to remark on the way
+the present system of caste interferes with progress among the higher
+classes, and then gave several instances to illustrate his observation.
+"The great struggle," he said, "which is now going on in Bombay about the
+widow-marriage question is an apt illustration of this; and, also, the
+fear of excommunication prevents a large body of natives from coming to
+this country, and profiting by their visit. It is often said, 'educated
+Hindoos ought not to care for this excommunication;' but those who say
+that, little think what excommunication means. A man who is excommunicated
+may not care for it for his own sake, but he has his family to consider.
+What is to be done with daughters? They cannot marry if their father is
+excommunicated, and the result is, therefore, most serious to them. I knew
+of one instance of a native gentleman who, being excommunicated from his
+caste for having visited England, had, on the death of his child, been put
+to the very painful necessity of having the body carried by his servant,
+without anyone accompanying him."
+
+It would be impossible, I think, to furnish two better instances of the
+evils of caste to people desirous of shaking off in any way the habits of
+their forefathers; and a more melancholy picture than that of this
+unfortunate man setting out with his dead child without a single friend
+to accompany him it would indeed be difficult to find. Many other
+illustrations might, of course, be given; but enough has been said
+already, and we may safely consider it as a settled question that, as far
+as the people of the towns are concerned, the sooner caste is abolished
+the better.
+
+I may here be permitted to remind the reader that we have considered the
+effects of caste, as regards the country population, in two very important
+particulars: first of all, as to the morality of the sexes, which is
+controlled to such a large extent by caste law; and secondly, we have
+looted at the effects of caste as controlling the use of alcohol, and
+consequently limiting the crimes and evils that can in most countries be
+traced to drinking. On both of these points we have compared an Indian
+county with any county in Great Britain, and saw reason to think that
+morality, as regards the points under consideration, is better in
+Manjarabad than in any British county. And, by facts which may be brought
+from many quarters of the globe, we have seen that it is a universal law
+that inferior races have a tendency to adopt the vices rather than the
+virtues of superior races, and that, therefore, caste laws which enjoin
+social separation are of the highest value. We have seen, too, the value
+of caste in keeping up feelings of superiority and self-respect. We have
+also seen that these caste laws can exist without retarding the progress
+of the people, or their desire for education. And, finally, taking all
+these points into consideration, we concluded that there were no
+drawbacks, and many striking advantages, connected with caste as far as
+the country populations are concerned.
+
+In the next place, we looked at the circumstances of the people of the
+towns, inquired as to how caste has affected them for good or evil, and
+came to the conclusion that not only does no good arise from caste, but
+that it is plainly and unmistakably an unmitigated evil.
+
+Keeping these conclusions firmly in mind, let us now advance to the
+consideration of a third question, which naturally arises out of those
+facts which I assume to have been established.
+
+That question is--How far has caste acted beneficially, or the reverse, in
+helping to retard our interpretation of Christianity? Pursuing the same
+order as before, let us ask, in the first place, whether caste has, as
+regards the country populations, acted beneficially in this as well as in
+the other points we have looked at. But, before attempting to answer this
+question, it may be as well to offer a few general remarks which tend to
+show that, independently of any question of caste, it is hopeless to
+expect that any ignorant and generally unenlightened race can possibly
+derive any benefit from adopting the formulas and dogmas of a pure faith.
+
+To illustrate this old and well-established truth, let us point to four of
+the many instances which may be adduced as decisively confirming it--the
+history of Christianity in Europe, of Islam amongst the Indian Mahomedans,
+and the history of Christianity in Abyssinia and India. As to the first,
+to use the words of Buckle, "after the new religion had received the
+homage of the best part of Europe, it was found that nothing had really
+been effected." Superstition was merely turned from one channel into
+another. The adoration of idols was succeeded by the adoration of saints,
+and for centuries after Christianity had become the established religion
+it entirely failed to produce its natural fruits, because ignorance
+imperatively demanded superstition in some shape or other. To some it may
+seem, at first sight, a curious circumstance that the same remarks may be
+applied to the history of Mahomedanism in India. The idols were broken and
+the one God declared. But how long was it before the people, like the
+Israelites of old, fell away from the grand central doctrine of
+Mahomedanism--the unity of God? How long was it before the adoration of
+idols was followed by the adoration of saints? The exact coincidence,
+however, is no more striking than that given causes produce fixed results
+with an Eastern as well as with a Western people. When we turn, thirdly,
+to Abyssinia, what do we find? How have the dogmas of Christianity fared
+there? The Abyssinians did not rise to the level of the dogmas and
+principles of Christianity--that we all know. They simply reduced it to
+their own level. Look, lastly, at our native Christians in India. I
+believe it is quite certain that, in the general opinion of Englishmen,
+they are, to say the least, very far from being the best class in India;
+in fact, I do not think it too much to say that most Europeans hold them
+to be about the worst class of people in India. I confess that I do not
+share this opinion altogether. The fact probably is that, in consequence
+of their extreme ignorance and generally debased state, they are, in the
+rural districts, neither better nor worse than the classes from which they
+are principally drawn. In our cantonments, however, and especially in
+those where European soldiery abounds, there is every probability of their
+being worse than the classes from which they have sprung; and I have
+little doubt that the low estimation in which the native Christians are
+held is owing to the fact that our countrymen have generally come in
+contact with the specimens that have been nurtured amidst the scum of our
+Indian towns. Were we to believe the assertions of our English
+missionaries, very different conclusions would, of course, be arrived at;
+but unless they can show that the lowest and most ignorant classes of
+natives, who from their habits, and from having nothing to lose, are under
+great temptations, form an exception to all specimens of humanity in other
+quarters of the globe, I am afraid there can be little reason to doubt
+that the opinions I have expressed are fairly correct. I doubt very much,
+in fact, from my intimate knowledge of the lower classes of natives--and
+it is from these, as I said before, that our converts are mainly
+derived--whether they are capable of comprehending our religion at all. Of
+one thing I think we may be quite certain, and that is, that the moment
+the missionary's back is turned, these people return to their devils in
+the event of any danger or sickness arising. This might be arrived at
+deductively with perfect accuracy, and arguing solely from our knowledge
+of humanity under certain conditions; but I may mention that in Ceylon
+instances of people reverting to their devil-worship are common amongst
+the native Christians, and instances might, no doubt, be soon collected in
+India, if anyone thought it worth the trouble. While alluding to
+missionary assertions, I may mention that the credulity of these gentlemen
+seems only to be equalled by the credulity of the British public. If they
+would only extend their belief in the goodness of natives a little
+further, one might be tempted to sympathize with this amiable weakness.
+But the peculiar part of their statements lies in the fact that their
+converts have got all the virtue and morality in India, while the
+respectable classes of the community seem, by their account, to be very
+badly off in these respects. The most curious instance, however, of
+missionary credulity that I have met with is to be found in the evidence
+of Mr. Underhill, given before the Committee on Colonization (India) in
+1859. And it certainly is a surprising result of conversion to find that
+the wives of the converts become not only more beautiful, but also more
+fertile, than their heathen sisters. Two heathen natives had been heard to
+testify to these facts, and it is wonderful to observe the complacent air
+of satisfaction with which these statements are accepted by the witness,
+who added that this difference evidently arises from the more chaste and
+regular modes of life in which they fall.[35]
+
+I have said that the native Christians are probably neither better nor
+worse than the lower classes from which they are drawn, and the painfully
+truthful remarks given in the note below[36] seem to show that, whatever
+may be the case now (and I believe that the low-class converts are
+somewhat better than they were then), the converts to Christianity must
+have been originally a very indifferent set of people. Christianity,
+however, if it did not make these classes much better, at any rate made
+them no worse. When we turn, however, to the middle-class farmers, it is
+evident that to have converted them, unless that conversion had been
+preceded by enlightenment, and a more advanced civilization than they had
+hitherto enjoyed, would have inflicted on them an incalculable injury, by
+depriving them of restraints which, as we have seen, are in some
+particulars of immense importance. To become a Christian, the first thing
+required of a man is that he should give up caste, and deliver himself to
+the sole guidance of his conscience; that he should give up a powerful and
+effective moral restraint; that he should abandon a position which carries
+with it feelings of self-respect and superiority, and resign himself to
+the degrading reflection that he may eat from the same platter and drink
+from the same vessel as the filthiest Pariah; and that this would be
+degrading there can be little doubt. Were he an educated and enlightened
+man, he would be sustained by feelings which would raise him above the
+influence of such considerations. But, in the absence of enlightenment,
+sad would be his fate, and melancholy the deterioration that would
+inevitably ensue. The way in which that deterioration would take place,
+the way in which he would become careless of what he did, or of what
+became of him, has been sufficiently indicated in the previous pages of
+this chapter; and to give in detail the principal reasons against a change
+of faith which involved the abolition of caste, would only be to repeat
+what I have already said as to the effect of the institution in
+controlling the morality of the sexes and the use of alcohol. Not only,
+then, I repeat, would a change of dogma be as unimproving and superficial
+as changes of that sort always are with unenlightened people, but a number
+of positive evils would follow from the necessary abandonment of the
+restrictions of caste; and we may therefore conclude that, as regards the
+whole population, the effect of caste in helping to prevent the adoption
+of our interpretation of Christianity is of incalculable advantage.
+
+When we turn to the town populations the case is widely different. We have
+seen that for them the practical advantages of caste can hardly be said to
+exist at all, and therefore a change of religion which involved its
+abolition would, as regards any part of the society, at least produce no
+evil. Here, at least, we are on safe ground. But this is not all. We see
+that with the better classes education and enlightenment have borne their
+natural fruit, and demanded a pure faith, which has already sprung up in
+the shape of Deism. Enlightenment, then, will produce a pure faith, which
+will in time react on society, and push it forward with accelerated speed.
+Now, it cannot be denied that caste laws do retard the free and unfettered
+adoption of a pure faith; and if we assume that a pure faith will in turn
+become a cause, or even an accelerator, of progress, then it is certain
+that, as regards the peoples of the towns, caste, as retarding the
+adoption of the most advanced principles of religion, is an undoubted
+calamity.
+
+We have now looked at the bearings of caste on three very important
+points--its moral bearing amongst the Indians themselves, its effects in
+maintaining a social separation between the white and dark races, and its
+effects in retarding the adoption of a religion which involves the entire
+abolition of caste laws. In the first place, we looked at the effects of
+caste laws on the rural populations, and came to the conclusion that on
+all these points caste has operated, and continues to operate,
+advantageously. In the second place, we looked at its effects on the
+peoples of the towns, and came to the conclusion that caste confers on
+them no advantages, while it is often productive of serious evil.
+
+Let us now glance for one moment at the causes of the general outcry which
+you everywhere hear against caste institutions, and at the same time
+suggest the line of conduct that the people of the towns ought to adopt
+with reference to this question.
+
+And here I need not occupy much space in indicating the causes of that
+abuse of caste which has always been so popular with my countrymen. In
+fact, if we admit the truth of the facts and arguments hitherto adduced,
+these causes are so apparent that the reader must have already anticipated
+the solution I have to give. Caste, as we have seen, is a serious evil to
+the peoples of the towns. Now, it is amongst towns and cantonments that
+our principal experiences of this institution have been acquired, and the
+educated natives of the Indian capitals, feeling all the evils and
+experiencing none of the advantages of caste, are naturally loud in its
+condemnation. Hence the cry arising from all Europeans and a trifling
+section of the Indians, that caste should be abolished from one end of
+India to the other. But how is it that no response comes from these
+country populations amongst whom I have lived? How is it that these
+shrewd-headed people[37] are so insensible to the evils of caste, and that
+you never hear one word about it? The answer is extremely simple. They
+have never felt these evils, because for them they do not exist. If they
+felt the pressure of caste laws as do the people of the towns, the outcry
+would be universal, and the institution speedily done away with. Need I
+add that when the people of the country are as advanced as the people of
+the towns, that then, and not till then, will the pressure, which is now
+confined to the latter, be universally felt; that then, and not till then,
+will this institution, being no longer suited to the requirements of the
+age, be universally discarded.
+
+Let us now say a few words as to the line of conduct that should be
+adopted, as regards caste, by those who are desirous of freeing themselves
+from the restrictions of that institution.
+
+In the first place, the opponents of caste should not weaken their case by
+talking nonsense; and, in the second place, they should remember, above
+all things, that, to use a common saying, "if you want a pig to go to
+Dublin, the best thing you can do is to start him off on the way to Cork."
+I shall now enlarge a little on both of these recommendations.
+
+To illustrate my first suggestion--and to this suggestion I shall again
+have occasion to allude further on in this chapter--a few sentences may be
+devoted to glancing at some of those remarkable conclusions which sound so
+well in the observations one often hears when anything is said about
+India. The tendency of caste, you will hear it gravely urged, is to
+elevate the upper classes on the highest possible pinnacle, and keep the
+Pariah grovelling in the dust. "What," continues the speaker, "keeps the
+Brahmin at the top and the Pariah at the bottom?" Why, let me ask in turn,
+is a cow's tail long, and a fox's tail bushy? Is it in this nineteenth
+century that we are to try and din into people's ears that the upper
+classes in India were at the top of the social scale, and the Pariah at
+the bottom, centuries before caste, in its present shape, ever existed,
+and that the relative position of the two races would continue with little
+change if caste was to be abolished to-morrow morning? "What," gravely
+asks another, "has prevented the peoples of India uniting into one grand
+nation, and destroyed all hopes of political fusion?" Nor, to many, would
+the absurdity of the question be apparent till you asked them what has
+prevented all Europe becoming one nation; or, to take things on a smaller
+scale, till you asked what prevented the Highland clans forming themselves
+into a nation. In short, whenever a man is in difficulty, and at a loss to
+account for anything connected with the state of the people of India, he
+takes refuge in caste, combined, perhaps, with what is called native
+prejudice, though what that last means I do not pretend to explain. Now,
+it is not improbable that some of my readers may have heard of Holloway's
+pills, and we know, in fact, that thousands believe that medicine to be an
+efficacious remedy for every constitutional ailment. Only swallow
+Holloway, and you are a cured man. Well, the abolition of caste, with an
+incredible number of people, is, in like manner, confidently pronounced to
+be a universal remedy for all the political and social complaints of
+India. Remove that, and you will at one stroke secure social liberty,
+national unity, the removal of idolatry, and, some even are rash enough to
+affirm, the universal adoption of Christianity. Such, then, are a few
+examples of the nonsense you will hear commonly talked about caste, and I
+think I need not waste time in pointing out that the opponents of caste
+must take very different ground if they wish to obtain a hearing from the
+peoples of India.
+
+In the second point to which I have called the attention of the reader I
+alluded to the general law of opposition, and used a common saying which
+exactly illustrates the probable result of violent and ill-judged attacks
+on caste. In fact, so apparent is this, that the reader must have already
+anticipated the line that, in my opinion, the opponents of caste should
+follow. What the opponents of caste should preach is, not the abolition
+of that institution, but toleration for the educated and advanced members
+of the community who, finding caste an impediment and a burden, wish to
+discard it. They should admit that this institution has been, and is at
+the present moment, of value amongst the rural populations, but they
+should, at the same time, point out that times are changing, and that the
+peoples of the towns ask for some toleration, not because caste is
+necessarily a universal evil in itself, but because it is, as far as they
+are concerned, highly inconvenient. This is the way--and, if this plan
+does not answer, I feel sure no other will--that the evils of caste are to
+be mitigated, and I urge these views accordingly on the serious attention
+of all enlightened Indians.
+
+The reader will have observed that, when pointing out the advantages of
+caste in repelling our interpretation of Christianity, I have assumed that
+the adoption of Christianity necessarily involves the entire abolition of
+all those social distinctions that make up what we call caste. Such have
+been the terms on which Christianity has been offered to the peoples of
+India by our English missionaries; and I, for one, do most sincerely
+rejoice that their hide-bound interpretation of the Protestant faith has
+been as promptly as it has been decidedly rejected. But why should
+caste--which, as I have shown, can be proved to have produced such
+favourable results as regards drinking, and as regards the morality of the
+sexes--why should this institution, which in these respects can be proved
+to have produced better results than Christianity has over done in Great
+Britain--why should this be swept away because you wish to introduce the
+religion of Christ? It has been alleged to be entirely incompatible with
+Christianity; and were this so, there would, of course, be no more to be
+said. But this I wholly deny. It is, of course, incompatible in some
+respects with exalted conceptions of the most advanced Christianity; but
+there is no reason why Christianity should not be allowed to exist
+alongside of abnormal social growths, and why, in short, Christianity
+should not be stretched to tolerate caste, in the same way that it was
+allowed by the apostles to exist alongside of evils with which the
+institution of caste cannot, for iniquity or for general ill effects, be
+for one moment compared. Christianity was not held by the apostles to be
+an impossibility because the professors of that faith bought and sold
+slaves; it was not held so by their descendants for hundreds of years; and
+will those interpreters of Christianity whom we have sent to India venture
+to assert that the Americans had no right to the name of Christians until
+the close of the late war? Slavery was driven out at length, or at least
+in a great measure driven out, by Christianity; but Christianity,
+remember, had first of all to be introduced; and taking into consideration
+the acts of the apostles, the way in which they yielded to the customs and
+prejudices of their converts, and the resolution they came to "not to
+trouble those of the Gentiles who were turning to God," on what grounds do
+our missionaries rest their claim to debar from the advantages of
+Christianity those people who, wishing to retain their place in society,
+desire to become Christians? This is not the first time that these
+questions have been asked. They were asked at great length by Mr. Irving
+in his "Theory and Practice of Caste." Hitherto they have been asked in
+vain; and owing to the indifference of people in this country, and to the
+slavish submission of the laity to the opinion of the missionaries, a
+system of attempting to propagate Christianity has been allowed to exist
+which has been of incalculable mischief. But I think we may even go
+further than this. I think it may be asserted that the line taken up, as
+regards caste, by our missionaries has acted more prejudicially to the
+interests of Christianity than if we had deliberately dispatched
+emissaries to India with the view of preventing the people from adopting
+the religion of Christ. These may seem harsh, and I have no doubt they
+will prove to be unwelcome, expressions of opinion. They will hurt, and I
+am afraid will shock, the feelings of many a good and worthy man. I regret
+that this should be so, but I cannot help it. In any case good must arise.
+If I am right, as I firmly believe myself to be, the cause of
+enlightenment and Christianity will be advanced; and if I am wrong, and it
+can be proved that the missionaries are right, they will have as great,
+and it may even be a greater claim to public support than they ever had
+before. But it must be clearly understood that, as an individual desirous
+of propagating truth, I have a right to demand an answer. If that answer
+is satisfactory, well and good. If it is not satisfactory, or if no answer
+be supplied at all, I would then propose to ask the public here to
+consider whether it would not be better to withhold all their
+subscriptions from our English, or at least transfer them to such missions
+as will consent to attempt to propagate Christianity on the widest
+possible base.
+
+In considering this important subject I shall, in the first place, glance
+at Bishop Heber's "Letter on Caste;" Bishop Wilson's "Circular;" the
+"Report" of the Madras Commissioners; and the "Statement" of the Tanjore
+German missionaries. This may seem a formidable list of documents to
+commence with, but it is my intention to make only the most cursory
+allusion to each, as to consider these papers at any length would occupy
+far too much space. Having thus stated the difference of opinions, as
+regards caste, between the Germans and the Protestant missionaries, I
+shall then proceed to inquire whether caste can or can not be traced to an
+idolatrous source; whether it was in any way necessarily wound up with
+religion; and whether, further, it is at all necessary that, supposing it
+to have been at any time wound up with religion, there should therefore
+be at the present day any necessary connection between the religions of
+the peoples and their caste customs.
+
+In Bishop Heber's "Letter" of March 21st, 1826, he says that, "with regard
+to the distinctions of caste as yet maintained by professing Christians,
+it appears that they are manifested--(a) in desiring separate seats at
+church; (b) in going up at different times to receive the Holy
+Communion; (c) in insisting on their children having different sides of
+the school; (d) in refusing to eat, drink, or associate with those of a
+different caste."
+
+On the first of these points the bishop observes, with great justice, that
+points of precedence have constantly been granted in Christian churches to
+people of noble birth and of great fortune, and that in the United States
+of America these distinctions were always maintained between the whites
+and the negroes. He also points out that a Christian gentleman conforms to
+those rules because, if he neglected them, he would lose influence with
+his own degree in society, and that a native of the better classes acts
+exactly on the same principle. And on this point he concludes that
+distinctions of caste in church may still be allowed, provided that due
+care is taken to teach the natives that in the sight of God they are all
+equal.
+
+With reference to the second point the good bishop says nothing, because,
+I surmise, he concluded the going up at different times to receive the
+Sacrament was included in his remarks on precedence in church.
+
+As regards the schools, and amongst the children, he observes that caste
+must, as to taking places, etc., not be taken into account, "but," he
+adds, "even here caution should be observed to disgust no man needlessly."
+
+As to the fourth point, he was decidedly of opinion that, as regards
+private meals and social intercourse, we had no right to interfere
+whatever.
+
+After alluding to the objections raised by some zealous missionaries to
+the processions in marriages and other matters, he intimates pretty
+plainly that he has some fears that recent missionaries have been more
+scrupulous in these matters than need requires. He then concludes by
+saying that "God forbid we should wink at sin; but God forbid, also, that
+we should make the narrow gate of life narrower than Christ has made it,
+or deal less favourably with the prejudices of this people than St. Paul
+and the primitive church dealt with the almost similar prejudices of the
+Jewish converts."
+
+The bishop then framed a set of questions as regards caste observances, to
+which he required particular answers; but, in consequence of his untimely
+death, and of the short tenure of office held by his successors, Bishops
+James and Turner, no further official action was taken till the middle of
+1833, when Bishop Wilson's "Circular"[38] dealt the most fatal blow to
+Christianity that it has ever received in India. For this "Circular"
+imperatively declared that the distinction of castes, as regards all the
+relations of life, must be abandoned, "decidedly, immediately, and
+finally." And in order that this mandate might be intensely galling to the
+upper class vegetarian Christian, it was especially ordered that
+"differences of food and dress" were to be included in those overt acts
+which were to mark out for condemnation the Christian who still clung to
+the habits of his fathers in these innocent and, as regards food,
+healthful restrictions. To cling to these differences of food and dress,
+and to abstain from alcohol, was to cling to caste; and it was especially
+ordered that the children of native Christians should not be admitted to
+the Holy Communion without a full renunciation of all those social
+differences which might distinguish them from other members of the society
+in which they lived. This was quite sufficient. "The 'Circular' was read
+in the churches of Tanjore. It was received by the native Christians with
+great displeasure, and they showed their views by seceding in a body."
+
+Turning now to the Report of the Madras Commissioners, which was written
+in 1845, we shall at once see the cause and root of this violent attack on
+social usages. For the Commissioners commence their Report by stating that
+the institution of caste and the divisions of society were things of
+priestly invention, and that, in fact, the whole of Hindoo society, as we
+at present see it, originated in, and is maintained by, Hindoo idolatry.
+And they further allege that the tyranny of this institution is such as to
+be perfectly unaccountable on any other supposition. How any body of
+priests had the power to issue and enforce mandates regarding the
+extraordinary diversities as to food and dress that we see prevailing
+throughout India, where the council sat that issued these decrees, and
+where the members of this council came from, they give no account. They do
+not seem to have even thought of such questions, and, for evidence of
+these astounding assertions, they refer us to what they call "the laws of
+Manu,"[39] and to Halhed's "Gentoo Hindoo Code." Caste and idolatry,
+then, according to them, are not only inextricably wound up together, but
+caste itself was caused by, and is a part of, idolatry; and we are,
+therefore, plainly told that it is impossible that a man should abandon
+the one without abandoning the other, and that, in other words, the two
+institutions must stand or fall together. Leaving this part of these
+assertions to be commented on further on, I now pass on to the statement
+and arguments of the Tanjore German missionaries.
+
+Shortly after Bishop Heber's "Letter," which I have referred to at the
+commencement of these remarks, he drew up a number of questions regarding
+caste practices amongst native Christians, to which he required special
+answers. These "Articles of Inquiry," as they are termed, were sent to the
+Tanjore missionaries, and by them a statement in reply was furnished. They
+were asked for their opinion in 1828, and though no date is affixed to
+these statements, I conclude that they probably replied towards the close
+of that year.
+
+They commence by observing that the distinctions of caste had been
+observed since the establishment of the mission by the Rev. Mr. Schwartz,
+soon after the year 1762, and that he himself had been guided, partly by
+his own discretion, and partly by the example of the clergy of the
+Tranquebar Mission, which was started in the year 1705, by those good and
+amiable men of whom I have given some account in another part of this
+work. These successors of Schwartz, then, observed that they had
+persistently imitated the conduct of that able and good man; but that,
+while they took care to imitate his caution, and forbearance, they seized
+every opportunity of softening the mutual prejudices arising from
+distinctions of caste; and they also observe that, in consequence, those
+distinctions of caste have gradually lost a great deal of their
+importance.
+
+Alluding, in the next place, to the assertion that castes had been
+invented and entirely originated by the Brahmins, the authors of the
+statement observe that, in the opinion of the most intelligent natives who
+were not of the Brahminical order, the social distinctions which
+constitute caste existed long before the Brahmins came into the country at
+all; and they assert, further, that though the Brahmin priests blended
+those social distinctions with their idolatry, and framed a convenient
+legend to account for their divine institution, the whole thing was a mere
+fiction, which had been invented with the view of adding to the power of
+an ambitious priesthood. But the missionaries of Tanjore asserted,
+further, that even if the legend of caste was a true one, and that caste
+had been a part of idolatry, still those who abandoned the worshipping of
+idols and superstitious rites were not therefore to be required to abandon
+such practices as had nothing of idolatry about them at all, and they
+distinctly declared that no rites of an idolatrous or even mixed nature
+were tolerated amongst their converts.
+
+The missionaries then pointed out that their high-caste converts simply
+retained these privileges and social customs because they would lose the
+respect of their neighbours if they abandoned those marks of station which
+they had inherited, and which they looked upon entirely as a civil
+prerogative. It was also pointed out that high-caste priests gained ready
+access to the houses of the better classes, and had, therefore, bettor
+chances of spreading Christianity than Pariah priests, whom no good-caste
+native would allow to cross the threshold of his house.
+
+At church those of the upper classes sat on one side, and those of the
+lower on the other, and the higher and lower castes went up at different
+times to the communion-table.
+
+In the schools no difficulty was experienced, and high and low caste
+children sat quite indiscriminately.
+
+As regards social intercourse, they observe that none of their converts
+have any objection to partake of food prepared by another caste, as long
+as that caste is of superior rank to them, but that no one would touch
+food prepared by a man of lower caste than himself. The distinction of
+caste was also preserved as regards marriages, though these, of course,
+were always solemnized in the church.
+
+Finally, these good and sensible men regret the tendencies of caste, but
+seem to consider that more good was to be done by letting it alone, and,
+in short, letting it die a natural death, than by forcibly opposing the
+prejudices of the people. And they very justly observe, that to oblige a
+man of high caste to eat with the lowest is doing force to common delicacy
+and to natural feelings of sense, and may be sometimes of serious
+consequence to bodily health.
+
+I may here mention that about thirty-five years ago, Dr. Graul, the head
+of the Leipsic Missionary Society, visited India, remained there three
+years at the various missionary stations, and was firmly convinced that to
+interfere with the social customs of the native Christians would be at
+once unjust and impolitic. As regards the exact action of the Roman
+Catholics at present, I have no information to lay before the reader, but
+I know that they always had the wisdom to interfere as little as possible
+with the prejudices of the people, as long as they did not involve
+idolatrous rites.
+
+Having thus laid before the reader an outline of the views of the
+supporters and opponents of caste, I shall now offer the conclusions I
+have arrived at, partly from my own observations and partly from the
+writings of others. I shall
+
+1. Inquire into the origin of caste.
+
+2. I shall inquire into the sanitary uses of caste, more especially as it
+concerns the approaching the communion-table promiscuously, as to the
+sitting together in church or other places, and as to its effects as
+regards general social intercourse.
+
+3. I shall inquire whether there are not some compensating advantages, as
+regards caste institutions, which tend in a great measure to neutralize
+the prejudicial effects that arise from people's sympathies and feelings
+being confined to the members of their own caste, instead of being evenly
+distributed over the human race, considered as a whole.
+
+And, first of all, as to the origin of caste--a point which seems to have
+been thought of no little importance by our caste-condemning missionaries.
+I confess that I, for my part, do not attach much importance to this
+question of the origin of caste, and think it of far more importance to
+ascertain its present bearing and effect. But, as many have raised the
+question, and asserted that caste had an idolatrous origin, and was the
+invention of an idolatrous priesthood, it may be worth while to gather
+together such facts as we can lay our hands on regarding this somewhat
+obscure subject. And it seems to me that the first thing we have to do is
+to clear away the rubbish which has been piled upon it in common with
+most Indian institutions--to ask what is evidence, and what is not. Our
+missionaries have asserted that caste can be clearly traced to an
+idolatrous origin, and that the institution is entirely unaccountable on
+any other supposition, and they pointed to the Code of Manu in proof of
+that assertion. But, on referring to Mrs. Manning's valuable work on
+"Ancient and Mediæval India," we can find no evidence that caste
+originated in any special way whatever. And we are told, on the authority
+of Mr. Muir, that the sacred books of the Hindoos contain no uniform or
+consistent account of the origin of caste, and that the freest scope is
+given by the individual writers to fanciful and arbitrary conjecture. The
+story that the castes issued from the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of
+Brahma was simply an allegory, which, in the course of time, hardened into
+a literal statement of fact. The Brahmins, of course, came out of the
+mouth of Brahma; and, considering that they were the authors and compilers
+of all the principal books relating to castes and customs, it would have
+been extremely odd if they had not exalted their own order, and indulged
+in a tone of Oriental exaggeration which was eminently calculated to
+deceive, not perhaps, their successors, but the Englishmen who went to
+India. But the most curious thing is, that it never seems to have occurred
+to our missionaries to suspect that what they took as evidence of facts,
+and of a state of things really existing, was, in reality, only evidence
+of what an order or set of people could write, with the view of exalting
+themselves, and depressing the rest of the society amongst which they
+lived. The Brahmins chose to assert that the castes were of divine origin.
+They wrote that down and handed it on. We came to India, and finding these
+statements ready to hand, have simply swallowed them down, and added them
+to the number of illusions existing as regards India. But the facts really
+are, that castes and orders of men sprang up, we don't exactly know how.
+Brahmin writers described the castes, or at least part of them, and, in
+the course of time, the writings were said to have caused the castes,
+instead of the castes having caused the writings.
+
+But whatever may be the facts as regards caste, we know that caste can
+exist without idolatry, and idolatry without caste; and that though the
+Brahmins, with their usual desire to incorporate everything in life with
+religion, gathered caste into their garners, and endeavoured to increase
+and extend it, still there is fair evidence for asserting that these two
+institutions have no necessary connection, and that, as it was perfectly
+possible to wind them up together, so it is perfectly possible to unwind
+them and produce again an entire separation. In a word, it is perfectly
+possible for a man to retain caste, not as believing it to be part of his
+native idolatrous religion, but as believing it to be (what it really was
+till the Brahmins seized hold of it and attached it to their faith) a
+civil institution which had sprung up in remote times, and had been
+inherited by him, just as rank and station are inherited in this
+country.[40] And that caste can exist without religion, and alongside of a
+religion as opposite to Brahminism as Christianity is, we have the most
+indisputable evidence supplied by the late Sir Emerson Tennent, in his
+"History of Christianity in Ceylon."
+
+"Caste," he wrote, "as it exists at the present day amongst the Buddhists
+of Ceylon, is purely a social distinction, and entirely disconnected with
+any sanction or pretensions derivable from their system of religion. Nor
+is evidence wanting that, even at a comparatively modern period, such was
+equally its aspect amongst the natives throughout the continent of India,
+by whom caste was held not as a sacred, but as a secular discrimination of
+ranks. The earliest notice of India by the Greek historians and
+geographers enumerates the division of the people into Brahmins,
+Kistrayas, Vaisyas, and Sûdras; but this was a classification which
+applied equally to the followers of Buddha" (who preached that, in the
+sight of God, all men were equal) "and of Brahma, nor were the members of
+either section held ineligible for the offices of the priesthood." And, in
+the note below, the reader will find additional evidence which will show
+him that caste in Ceylon, just as it originally was in India, can and does
+exist merely as a division of ranks, and that it need not at all be
+necessarily connected with any idolatrous rites or worship.[41]
+
+Having thus shown how caste did not originate, it may, perhaps, not be
+altogether superfluous if I hazard a few remarks as to the way in which it
+did probably originate.
+
+The common idea of caste is that it is simply a combination of troublesome
+and fanciful restrictions, imposed upon the various peoples of India by
+those of the upper classes who desired to keep themselves above the
+jostling of the crowd. But this institution (if that be a correct term for
+it) arose naturally and regularly out of the circumstances of the times,
+and where these circumstances no longer exist, it will as naturally
+disappear; and that the last must happen we have seen from, the fact that
+altered circumstances have already caused the commencement of its removal
+amongst the people of the towns. But the general circumstances which gave
+birth to caste require a few words of explanation, and the following
+solution seems not an unnatural one.
+
+We know, as a certain fact, that peoples to whom we have given the names
+of Dravidians and Aryans entered India from the north and north-west;
+that they increased and multiplied, overspread the whole of India, and
+reduced the aborigines to serfdom. We also know that these tribes from the
+north, who were, comparatively speaking, fair, very naturally regarded the
+black, ugly, carrion-eating aborigines with disgust. Hence, naturally,
+must have arisen the opinions as regards Pariahs which all the superior
+castes hold to this day. Even to have food touched by people of such
+abominable habits must have been repulsive, and therefore the separation
+into men of caste and men of no caste, or, in other words, into browns and
+blacks (for the word for caste means colour), followed as a matter of
+course. Caste, then, seems naturally to have arisen from the idea that to
+associate in any way with people of bad habits and grovelling ideas is an
+intolerable degradation. The superior races, therefore must have
+considered it a matter of importance to retreat as far as possible from
+the habits of the aborigines; and when we take into consideration the
+influence of religion, the natural ambition of the priestly classes, the
+splitting up into sects, and the fondness of the Hindoo mind for subtle
+distinctions, the rest easily follows. But, though numerous castes arose
+amongst the invaders, the main line of demarcation, is still the original
+one of race--between the races of the north and the aborigines whom they
+found in possession of India. The base, then, of caste, we may rest
+assured, was simply the result of a people, or rather of peoples, wishing
+to keep themselves uncontaminated when coming in contact with a debased
+population.
+
+This was exactly the case with the Jews. They were simply a very strongly
+guarded caste, with a number of regulations as to what they were and were
+not to eat, and with rules which prohibited them intermarrying or
+associating with peoples with whom they came in contact. Many of those
+rules may seem to us ridiculous and fanciful, but they were calculated to
+prevent the Jews from any chance of adopting the manners and customs of
+the peoples around them; and the Indians, having had similar views,
+naturally adopted similar means. Such then is a brief generalization of
+the causes which led to caste laws, which were, no doubt, carried in some
+instances to a ridiculous length, but which were founded in common sense,
+and were admirably adapted to carry into effect the opinions of the
+superior races.
+
+We have now, in the second place, to consider caste with reference to the
+approach of native converts to the Lord's table, the sitting apart of the
+various castes in church, and the effects of caste as regards what is
+called social intercourse.
+
+The whole difficulty of the caste question, as regards the Sacrament, lies
+in this, namely, that a high-caste vegetarian objects to drink wine at the
+same time and after a low-caste meat-eater. And here I find a great
+difficulty in finding words or illustrations that will at all convey the
+feelings of a high-caste vegetarian at the very idea of drinking after a
+low-caste carrion-eater. If from the lowest, filthiest, and most poisonous
+dens in London, you were to take a man, reeking with beer and tobacco, and
+with his clothes crawling with vermin, and presenting, in short, every
+appearance of foulness, dirt, and disease; if you were to take that man
+and place him between two ladies at the administration of the Holy
+Communion, I do not say that they would there and then refuse the
+Sacrament on these terms, but I think we may be pretty sure that, from
+sanitary motives, if from no others, they would in future take the
+Sacrament in a place where they would not be liable to such contact. Their
+feelings and senses would be shocked by such contact as I have imagined,
+but their sensations would merely bear the same proportion to the
+sensations of a high-caste vegetarian Hindoo who had to drink after a
+Pariah that a trifling cause of disgust would bear to the most intolerable
+and lasting degradation. Now, to people in this country, this may seem an
+extraordinary thing; but they will think it less extraordinary when I tell
+them that, if I could not take the Sacrament unless amongst Pariahs, I
+would never take it again, unless perhaps, I were to put myself bodily
+into one of Professor Tyndall's cotton-gauze air-cleansers, and drink the
+sacramental wine after it had been boiled at a temperature of 212 degrees,
+and passed through a filter. And when I talk of the lowest castes as
+carrion-eaters, I must tell the reader that I am not in the slightest
+degree guilty of exaggeration, and that they are carrion-eaters in exactly
+the same sense that vultures are carrion-eaters. In fact, these men never
+get any meat unless that of animals that have died of disease; and as in
+these climates decomposition is extremely rapid, the reader can imagine
+the result of coming in contact with a man who has, perhaps, a few hours
+before been eating a mass of diseased and half decomposed meat. And in
+case the reader should not be able to imagine what the result is, I may
+mention the following circumstance. A few days after I had killed a bison
+I had occasion to point out some pieces of sawn wood which I wished to be
+removed from the jungle to my house, and I accordingly took with me a
+native overseer, and two coolies to carry the timber. When I was pointing
+out the pieces to them, I smelt a strong smell of putrid meat, which
+seemed to fill the air so entirely that I at once concluded that a tiger
+must have killed some animal and left the carcase near the spot. My
+overseer and myself looked about everywhere, but at last happening to pass
+the coolies, I at once perceived that the smell arose from their breath,
+and on questioning them, I found that before coming to work they had been
+feasting on decayed bison flesh. In fact, after killing a bison, we could
+never go near our coolies for some days afterwards. But to see a party of
+these men sitting like vultures around the carcase of some animal that has
+just died of some abominable disease is quite enough to inspire even an
+unprejudiced European meat-eater-with the most wholesome horror; and the
+reader need not, I think, be surprised at the feelings of disgust which
+these men's habits inspire amongst the respectable classes of the
+community. But independently of all feelings of disgust, there are
+sanitary considerations which are of infinitely more importance, for it so
+happens that, at a time when the weather is hottest and the season most
+unhealthy, a larger number of animals die; and I have very little doubt
+that this eating of rotten meat causes amongst the Pariahs a large
+quantity of disease, and especially of cholera, which they would not fail
+to disseminate with fatal certainty amongst all classes, were the native
+Christians compelled to take the Sacrament indiscriminately. And, in my
+own experience, I have observed that cholera has passed through districts,
+that the upper classes have been free from it, but that amongst the lower
+the victims were many. And the same sanitary reasons that apply to the
+Sacrament apply equally well to the mixing of castes indiscriminately in
+the churches; for it might so happen, as it frequently does, that fever
+and cholera may be prevalent amongst the lower castes, while the higher
+may be at that time comparatively free from such diseases. So that, when
+we take all these points into consideration, we shall find that the German
+missionaries were perfectly right in placing the men of the higher caste
+on one side of the church, and those of the lower on the other, and that
+they were equally right in allowing the higher castes to approach the
+Sacrament at a different time from the lower. I may here remark that I
+once mentioned this taking of the Sacrament in a sort of order of
+precedence to a clergyman in a country parish, when he told me that
+exactly the same sort of thing occurred in his parish, and that the lord
+of the manor invariably took the Sacrament first, and, if I recollect
+rightly, the parish clerk last; and a special instance of this in a Scotch
+parish was mentioned to me not long ago.
+
+The same sanitary considerations will also naturally be of value when we
+come to consider that indiscriminate social intercourse which the
+missionaries so much insist upon as one of the necessary signs of grace. I
+do not, of course, say that it is not advisable, and that it would not be
+desirable to see a little more intercourse between class and class than
+exists at the present. But between all the better classes there is a much
+greater degree of intercourse than our missionaries would have us believe;
+and it is not true that one caste will eat only the food prepared by a
+person of his own caste. I cannot, of course, say what may be the case as
+regards other parts of India; but, as regards my own district, each caste
+will eat of the food prepared by any of the castes higher, or at least
+purer, than its own. For instance, a Gouda, who will not allow that the
+Lingayet caste is better than his own, will eat of food prepared by a
+Lingayet, while a Lingayet will not eat of food prepared by a Gouda. And
+the explanation of this is, that the Lingayet is a vegetarian, and meat
+might have been boiled in the Gouda's pots, while there would be nothing
+to offend the Gouda customs in the pots of a vegetarian host. But in these
+matters I entirely agree with the good Bishop Heber, who said that we had
+no right to interfere in their private life, or to meddle in any way with
+their social customs, as long as there was no idolatry in them.
+
+Turning now to the third point I proposed to consider, I have a few
+remarks to make regarding the only (from a Christian point of view) solid
+objection that can, I conceive, be made to the institution of separate
+orders of men; namely, that the tendency of caste is to shut up the
+bowels of compassion towards all the world outside of a man's particular
+class. And here I confess that I am very much in want of information, and
+can think of no unprejudiced individuals to whom to apply for the facts as
+really existing in other parts of India. As for books, when I look into
+them for any information, I am at once met by quantities of unlimited
+condemnations, or a host of contradictory statements. And, as an instance
+of the latter, I may mention that in Kerr's "Domestic Life of the Natives
+of India" we are informed, at page 31, that "alms are given to the poor
+without distinction of caste," while at page 343 of the same volume we are
+told that "to extend kindness and hospitality to one of a different caste
+is regarded as sinful." But in matters of this sort we want the experience
+of individuals who have actually lived amongst the people, as much as
+anyone can who is not actually one of them. As for my own part of the
+country, I can answer for it that caste has no such effect as has been
+alleged to arise from it regarding the extension of hospitality and
+kindness to people of various castes; and, as a confirmatory illustration,
+may mention that I have found members of every caste assembled at the
+house of a toddy man to inquire how he was, and to see whether they could
+do anything for him. These toddy-drawers rank at least third amongst the
+castes in Manjarabad, and though none of the members of the farmer castes
+above them would eat of food prepared in a toddy-drawer's house, yet there
+were numbers of both these castes present. This feeling would not, that I
+am aware of, go as far as one of the carrion-eating Pariahs, but I am
+quite certain that it would extend to any other caste but theirs in the
+country. But on this point I do not offer any decided opinion, as, for
+what I know to the contrary, acts of kindness and hospitality may, no
+doubt, often have been extended even to the lowest. And I may also
+mention here that I have slept in the veranda of a farmer's house, in
+which members of the family slept close to some of my people, who were of
+the toddy-drawer caste above alluded to, and who, I am sure, were quite as
+welcome as members of their own caste would have been. But as regards all
+these matters concerning the inner life of the people, we know nothing,
+unless we actually live amongst them, and sleep in their houses, and, in
+fact, see the people at home; and as it is extremely difficult to find
+anyone who has done anything of the kind, it naturally follows that it is
+almost impossible to find anything like reliable sources of information
+regarding native habits throughout India. You may, it is true, stuff your
+very soul with information of some sort or other, if you go about asking
+questions, but if you do you will find yourself much in the same
+predicament that Johnson found himself in his tour to the Hebrides; and
+the reader may recollect that the worthy doctor very soon found that
+nothing could be more vague, unsatisfactory, and uncertain than the
+answers of an unsophisticated simple people, who were not much in the
+habit of being asked questions of any sort. However, the reader may, in
+the meantime, reasonably infer that the conduct of the people in the rural
+districts of India, and situated under similar circumstances, would not
+materially differ, as regards matters of caste, from the practice as
+existing in Manjarabad. And should that turn out to be the case, it is
+plain that those notions, as regards the practice of caste, which have
+been so industriously circulated in England, are almost entirely false.
+
+I have said that I proposed inquiring, further, whether there are not some
+compensating advantages in this division of the people into castes which
+tend, in a great measure, to neutralize the prejudicial effects that arise
+from people's sympathies and feelings being more or less confined to
+members of their own caste, instead of being distributed over the human
+race considered as a whole. Now, it is perfectly true that the tendency of
+caste is to weaken the claim that humanity in general has on an
+individual; but though the claim of society in general is weakened, it
+must be remembered that the claims of each caste on the members of it are
+strengthened. And though this fact may militate against an enlarged and
+Christian philanthropy, the aggregate force of claims will be found to
+amount to a much larger sum than if one part of a society had no more
+claim on a man than another. A man of one caste would not, for instance,
+perhaps feel that a man of another caste had much claim on him; but he
+would distinctly and strongly feel that a member of his own caste had. And
+every caste acting on the same principle of supporting and helping its
+members, I am convinced that the aggregate force of assistance rendered
+must be greater than in a country where there is little or no caste
+principle. This may seem a rash assertion, and of course it is one that it
+is impossible, as far as I am aware, to prove. But the fact that there is
+not a poor-house from one end of India to the other, seems to me a
+significant and satisfactory circumstance; and the only way I can account
+for there being no need of such a thing is,[42] that caste feeling must
+often come in where all other aids fail. Nor are we in this country
+without instances of the value of caste feelings, and both the Jews and
+the Scotch may still be pointed to as illustrations of what I mean. A
+Scotchman still has a sort of caste feeling for a Scotchman, and would do
+things for a man, as a Scotchman, that he would not do for people of
+either English or Irish descent. This principle may now have lessened, and
+is, no doubt, daily lessening. But when I started in India, I very soon
+experienced the benefit of this caste feeling; and, as one illustration to
+the point, I may mention that, before my estates came into bearing, I was
+attended in a long and serious illness by two Scotch doctors (one of whom
+attended on me for six weeks incessantly), both of whom resolutely
+declined any remuneration whatever. I cannot, of course, positively assert
+that these gentlemen would not have attended me on the same terms had I
+been an Englishman, but, from my general experience with other doctors, I
+am sure that these gentlemen must have been not a little influenced by
+caste feeling. And I have no doubt whatever that the way the Scotch get
+on, wherever they go, is to be attributed, in no small measure, to the
+existence of the same feeling. It may seem to many of my readers that to
+use the term caste as a principle which impels one Scotchman to help
+another is not exactly correct; and I must admit to having some doubts on
+the subject myself. The case of the Jews, however, admits of none; and, if
+ever there was a caste of people in the world, in the strict Hindoo sense,
+they are certainly an unmistakable example. And what are the results of
+caste feeling with them? As to other parts of the world I have no precise
+information; but in England I have ascertained from the best authority
+that caste feeling has produced some extremely favourable results. In the
+first place, Jews are seldom or never found in our workhouses; and all
+cases of poverty are carefully investigated by a visiting committee, or
+board of guardians, and relief or employment is always afforded to every
+Jewish pauper. Then, again, no Jewish child ever was, and no Jewish child
+is now, without the means of obtaining elementary instruction; and it
+would be difficult to find an English Jew unable to read and write. Means
+are taken to secure the attendance of all poor children, and a sound
+middle-class education is afforded, while the study of the Hebrew language
+is compulsory. There were only, when I obtained my information on the
+point, about twenty Jewish (principally foreigners) convicts in England,
+and no female convict was to be found.
+
+Another of the principal complaints brought against caste is the fact that
+it has a tendency to keep one caste fixed below another; but even here we
+shall find some compensating considerations which are of great value. For,
+if caste in this respect has a keeping-down tendency, it has also a
+levelling one. It may keep one order above another, but within the limits
+of that caste order it has a levelling tendency, and in one respect the
+poorest of each class feel themselves on a level with the richest. Nor is
+a poor man of good caste made to experience the bitter sense of
+degradation which falls to the lot of a gentleman who, from poverty and
+misfortune, has fallen out of his original class into another far below
+him. The Indian may descend into the most humble spheres, but if he
+attends to the regulations of his caste he is always a member of it, and
+his feelings of self-respect are maintained by the fact that, however
+poor, it is quite possible that his daughter may be married by a man of
+wealth and position. But in this country, where a man has gone a long way
+down the hill, when he has descended--as many gentlemen especially do in
+our colonies--into the lower ranks of life, he loses all connection with
+people who are of his own rank by birth. I do not, of course, mean to
+allege that this want of caste feeling is to be lamented with us, but I am
+merely stating facts which seem to me to show the number of ways in which
+this much-reviled caste system can be proved to have compensating
+advantages which tend to counterbalance the drawbacks of the situation.
+
+Before concluding this chapter, it may be useful to make a few remarks as
+to the way in which caste laws act as regards the social condition of
+people who have by wealth raised themselves above the general average of
+their order; and I shall at the same time notice a few instances that
+have fallen within my observation as to the way in which caste laws of
+the most stringent nature are occasionally set aside by universal consent.
+
+The old idea we entertained of caste was that, to use the words of
+Tennent, "each class is stationed between certain walls of separation,
+which are impassable by the purest virtue or the most conspicuous merit;"
+or that, to come to more recent times, and to use the words of the late
+Mr. Wilson, in his speech before leaving for India, "in India you see
+people tied down by caste, and, whatever their talents or exertions may
+be, they cannot rise." Now the history of many families that have risen to
+eminence entirely belies this assertion, and the evidences are so numerous
+that I need not weary the reader by quoting them. But one instance I may
+perhaps mention, as the circumstances seem to me somewhat extraordinary,
+and a reference to them here may induce some one to make more particular
+inquiries in the locality alluded to. Buchanan notices that "in Bhagulpore
+there were certain families who, from having adopted a pure life, had
+within the memory of man risen from the lowest dregs of the people to the
+highest ranks of the nobility." In this instance, however, I cannot help
+suspecting that the families must have risen on something more substantial
+than their pure habits. But in matters of this sort we are very much in
+want (as indeed we are on almost every Indian subject) of more detailed
+and particularly substantiated evidence. As regards the subject of low
+castes raising themselves in the social scale, I know of no instances that
+have fallen within my own observation, but I have obtained information
+from other parts of Mysore, the truth of which I have no reason to doubt,
+although I would advise the reader to receive what I have to say on this
+point with the same caution that he should receive all information which
+is even in the smallest degree removed from the experience of personal
+observation. With this caution, I may then observe that, from information
+I have received, I have ample reason to believe that in the interior of
+Mysore there are many families of Pariahs who are as well off, in point of
+cattle, cash and land, as the average of the farmer caste, notwithstanding
+that the forefathers of these Pariahs were merely the servants of the
+farmer tribe. Nor is this all. Many instances, I believe, may be pointed
+out of members of the farmer tribe being the tenants of the once-despised
+Pariah. The Pariah, it is true, does not reap all the advantages from his
+altered circumstances that might be expected in other countries, but it is
+a mistake to suppose that wealth does not tell in India as it does
+elsewhere.[43] The well-to-do Pariah (and in the Nuggur division of Mysore
+I am told there are many such) receives that respect which is invariably
+paid to those who have much substance. He no longer stands respectfully
+without the veranda of a farmer of ordinary position, but takes his seat
+in the veranda itself, and on terms of perfect equality. But the farmer
+will not eat with his visitor, nor give him his daughter in marriage. This
+to us would be a disagreeable reflection, no doubt; but, in their present
+political state, I cannot see that the happiness or prosperity of the
+people is in any way affected by these facts, nor am I aware that any one
+has attempted to prove that the natural comforts of the people have been
+in any way lessened by these social separations.
+
+Turning now to glance at the way in which caste laws are sometimes set
+aside, it is impossible to avoid suspecting that the instances given of
+caste feeling in these respects, though perhaps true in themselves, are
+not fair examples of what would universally occur in cases of emergency
+even with the most caste-observing people in India. From the instances
+given (and those most commonly given refer to natives preferring to die of
+thirst rather than take water from the hands of a person of inferior
+caste), people are led to believe that under no circumstances will a
+breach of caste take place, or be overlooked if it does take place, by
+members of the caste. But the illustration I have to give seem to point to
+a contrary conclusion, and if that is the case with people whom I know to
+be extremely strict, it seems very probable that we have adopted some very
+exaggerated notions as to the rigidity of caste laws. And what has
+contributed not a little to these delusions is, that tricky servants
+frequently make caste a most convenient pretence for avoiding to do this
+or that, or as an excuse wherever an excuse is for any purpose convenient.
+But however all this may be, the reader may form his opinions from the
+following cases.
+
+The first I have to give of violation of caste law is certainly the most
+extraordinary that I ever heard of. The act was, indeed, a remarkable and
+touching tribute of regard, or I may even say of affection, on the part of
+a native overseer of the farmer caste in Manjarabad, and was a better
+monument than any that could have been erected to one of the best and most
+unselfish men I have over met. When Mr. W----, my late manager, unhappily
+died on the estate, this overseer in question, understanding that it was
+considered by us as an honour to the deceased, volunteered to make one of
+the carrying party. This extraordinary determination was absolutely
+forbidden by the caste potail, or head man, who was present; but Rama
+Gouda[44] showed the same coolness and resolution that he always did in
+the case of a bear or a tiger, and simply saying, "Let my caste go
+to-day," he made one of the carrying party in spite of every remonstrance.
+Hundreds of all castes were present, but so strong were their feelings of
+regard for Mr. W----, that no notice whatever was taken of the offence
+which was so publicly committed. The repugnance of all castes, except the
+very lowest, to touching the body of a European, is very well known to
+everyone who has been in India, and so fearful was the caste head man of
+sanctioning, even with his presence, this violation of caste law, that he
+immediately went home.
+
+In the next instance I have to give, one of the Lingayet caste
+(vegetarians, and abstainers from intoxicating drinks) was wounded by a
+tiger, and there was a caste question raised, as to whether, under the
+circumstances, he should take wine. The occurrence came about in this way.
+Some miles from my house I once wounded a tiger, somewhat late in the day,
+and, owing to the broken nature of the ground, and a general confusion
+that seemed to take possession of the people, it seemed impossible to
+bring the affair to a satisfactory conclusion, so I went home. The
+following morning I returned to take up the track of the tiger, but it was
+unluckily reported that the animal had quitted the jungle we had left him
+in, so the party (I having been posted at a point where the tiger would
+probably break cover, in case the report should prove false), it appears,
+blundered carelessly into the place where the animal had been last seen
+the evening before. Now, this particular spot was full of a long sort of
+reed that grows in swampy ground, so that the people could not see far
+before them, and, to make a long story short, it seems that the tiger
+bided his time, sprang suddenly into the party, and gave one of them a
+fatal bite in the loins. The moment I heard the three roars, I expected
+that something disagreeable must have occurred, and, on arrival at the
+scene of events, I found a fine young fellow of the Lingayet caste lying
+bathed in blood, and my people vainly endeavouring to stanch the wounds.
+He was half swooning away from loss of blood, and I offered him some wine
+to keep up his strength. This, however, he refused to take, unless the
+head man of his village, who happened to be present, would consent. The
+head man, evidently wishing to shirk the responsibility, shook his head
+doubtfully; but the members of his caste all called out--"It's no matter;
+let him drink;" and he drank accordingly. While this was going on, I had a
+rough stretcher made, and, doing up his wounds as well as we could, sent
+him off on the way to his village. While we were attending to the wounded
+man, rather an amusing incident occurred. It appears that when the tiger
+charged, one of the party, a toddy-drawer, at once climbed up a tree, and
+when the party retreated, carrying off the wounded, he was afraid to come
+down. His absence had not been remarked, and when we were engaged in doing
+up the wounded man, the toddyman, who had taken heart and come down, slunk
+quietly out of the jungle, and startled some of the party not a little, as
+they thought that it was perhaps the tiger coming down on them again.
+However, this toddyman reported that the tiger was still almost in the
+same spot where he had been lying when he made his attack: and I then
+proposed we should go into the jungle, and see how we liked the look of
+him. But the tiger had given such indications of temper that the main body
+of the people seemed to have no desire to see him again, and I think that
+only ten (and those mostly my own people) accompanied me. As I was,
+Europeanly speaking, single-handed, this may have seemed an imprudent
+course, and no doubt it was not altogether unattended with danger; but it
+luckily turned out that the tiger was stone dead, though he was lying in
+such a natural position that we had some doubts as to whether he might
+not be shamming, even when we got within fifteen yards of him. As we were
+skinning the tiger, the wounded man (who had by that time only been
+carried a few hundred yards) expired: so, observing that it was "written
+on his forehead,"[45] we took up our man and our skin, and went home.
+
+These instances of infringement of caste rules will show the reader the
+way in which they are sometimes abandoned; and I could mention other minor
+points where I have seen them occasionally abandoned. But not only are
+these rules thus, on urgent occasions, summarily set aside, but within a
+very short distance I have observed an alteration of custom. For instance,
+on our side of the river which separates our county from the next, neither
+the farmers nor the toddy-drawers will eat of an animal that has even been
+touched after death by a Pariah; whereas, on the other side of the river,
+the Pariahs who came out shooting not only touched, but carried a couple
+of wild boars we had killed. And yet the people on one side of the river
+are exactly of the same caste as those on the other. But the fact seems to
+be, that many of the minor points of what is called caste law have arisen
+from some accident, and in the course of time have hardened into local
+customs.
+
+And here, before bringing this chapter to a close, I find it impossible to
+refrain from again alluding to the numerous instances where caste has been
+made the common scapegoat of every Indian difficulty. What is the meaning
+of this? What is the meaning of that? Why won't the natives do this, and
+why won't they do that? Caste--and caste is the common refuge; and with
+most of our countrymen who have tried to introduce new customs or a new
+religion, caste has ever been a handy and convenient peg on which to hang
+any difficulties they may meet with, or any problem they cannot readily
+solve. In short, it is hard to say what difficulty has not been disposed
+of in this fashion. Let us glance at two instances to illustrate my
+meaning.
+
+For the first instance, I cannot select, perhaps, a better example than
+that afforded by the Rev. G. U. Pope, in the notes he has made when
+editing a second edition of the valuable work of the Abbé Dubois. And, in
+alluding to these footnotes, it is impossible to repress some feeling of
+annoyance that the valuable work of the Abbé should, in an evil hour, have
+fallen into the hands of a writer who has thought fit often, in a few
+brief and contemptuous words, summarily to dismiss and overrule those
+conclusions which were the result of a life spent on more intimate terms
+with natives than any I have ever been able to hear of. And Mr. Pope's
+statements are the more calculated to impose on the general reader, as he
+speaks of having had "more than twenty years of a somewhat intimate
+intercourse with the Hindoos;" the fact being that he spent the greater
+part (in fact, all but a few years, as far as I have been able to
+ascertain) as head of the Grammar School on the Nilgiri Hills, where he
+had no more opportunity of having any intercourse with natives than a
+Hindoo would have of gaining experience of the natives of England, were he
+to take up his residence on the Grampians, and interchange a few words
+occasionally with the shepherds of those mountains. But as to what caste
+has done. "Caste," says Mr. Pope, "has prevented the Hindoos from availing
+themselves of the opportunities afforded them of acquiring the sciences,
+arts, and civilization of nations with whom they have come in contact."
+Caste, "the great petrifier," we are again told, is the real cause of the
+stagnation that everywhere abounds. Caste, again, "upholds immutable
+distinctions by arbitrary and absurd laws, which are enforced by
+irresponsible authority, and maintains a standard of right and wrong
+entirely independent of the essential principles of moral science;" and,
+in order that everything may be included at one blow, we are finally told,
+in a note appended to the remarks of the Abbé on the moral and social
+advantages of caste, that "caste, and its offspring custom, are among the
+hindrances to all good in India."
+
+But it is still more curious to observe how men of intelligence and
+observation can be led, by the force of inherited opinion, into statements
+as to the effects of caste which are actually contradicted by their own
+experience. And in Mr. Raikes's interesting work, "Notes of the
+North-Western Provinces," we find an instance of how people will always
+attribute everything to this universal bugbear. Observing on the pride of
+high caste, "which withers whatever it touches," Mr. Raikes informs us
+that the Brahmins and Rajpoots of the rich province of Benares will not
+touch the plough owing to pride of caste. He next tells us that caste is
+little regarded to the north of Allahabad, where, from various causes, the
+demand for labour is greater. All of which, being traced to its true
+cause, simply amounts to this, namely, that where landed proprietors of
+good family are well off they naturally do not care to work, whereas in
+another part of the country where they are not well off, or cannot procure
+labourers, they do work. In the same way, the author, after telling us
+that infanticide has at one time or other been common all over the world,
+tells us that in India it is entirely caused by caste. Now, if we take
+caste to mean family pride solely, it certainly has influenced the matter,
+or at least tended to maintain the evil complained of; but I know of one
+instance, at least, in India where infanticide can be traced to
+satisfactory causes, and amongst a people who have always been observed to
+be remarkably free from what are called caste prejudices. The Toda tribe,
+on the Nilgiri Hills, are polyandrists, and, in order to keep down the
+number of the tribe, they naturally had recourse to female infanticide.
+This they have now abandoned, and my Toda guide very soon told me the
+reason. He said, "Formerly we used to kill the females, because we had
+little more than the produce of our buffaloes to depend on; but now that
+more people have flocked to the hills we can let our lands and get plenty
+to eat." He added, also, that the Government had ordered them not to kill
+their children; but, unless their means had improved, it is plain that a
+Government order would have had little effect. But, as regards this
+subject of infanticide, it seems to be a thing difficult to avoid,
+whenever conditions arise which are favourable to its extension; nor will
+repressive measures alone ever place any very complete check upon it. Like
+every other demand, it rises and falls with the necessities of the
+situation, and can never be originally caused by anything in the shape of
+caste feelings or regulations; and amongst these necessities I, of course,
+include the desire to avoid shame, or the prospect of shame in the family,
+or starvation, as well as the fact that women are an encumbrance to some
+tribes. Some people, I may add, are under the impression that polyandric
+habits, when once established, become necessarily a cause of infanticide.
+But we have no means of knowing that this was ever the case, while the
+Coorgs may be pointed to as a race who once were polyandrous, but who were
+never, that I am aware of, accused of infanticide. The explanation of
+this, I apprehend, is to be found in the fact that their circumstances
+were comfortable enough to preclude any necessity for keeping down the
+population.
+
+It is time now that I should bring this chapter to a close, but, as it may
+be a convenience to the reader, I think it well, before doing so, to sum
+up those conclusions which I assume to have been established; in doing so
+I shall, however, merely take notice of those points which seem to me to
+be of paramount importance.
+
+In the first place, then, we compared the morality of our British
+counties, as regards the connection of the sexes and the use of alcohol,
+with the morality of the Indian county of Manjarabad; and having seen
+that, owing to caste laws, the morality of Manjarabad is superior, I think
+we are justified in concluding that these laws have acted more effectually
+than all the religious instruction that has for centuries been lavished on
+the people of this country; or, to put the case in shorter terms, we may
+assert that, as regards the branches of morality alluded to, caste has
+beaten Christian influences.
+
+In the next place we took into consideration the action of our
+missionaries as regards caste, and having seen that they have always
+insisted on their converts entirely renouncing customs which can be proved
+to produce the most valuable results, we came to the conclusion that it
+has been a fortunate thing for India that its peoples have rejected our
+hide-bound interpretation of Christianity. We then inquired as to whether
+the missionaries had any right to debar from the advantages of
+Christianity those who, wishing to become Christians, yet desired to
+retain their social customs; and, having come to the conclusion that there
+is nothing idolatrous in these customs, we have distinctly asked those
+interpreters of Christianity whom we have in India to tell us by whose
+authority they have ventured to act in a way which, as has been shown, the
+Apostles never did as regards the prejudices of their Jewish converts. And
+generally, as regards the action of our missionaries in this matter, we
+have felt ourselves justified in asserting that our English missions have
+inflicted an incalculable injury on the cause of Christianity by
+presenting it to the people of India as something that must necessarily
+tear the whole framework of their society to pieces.
+
+We then inquired more particularly into the origin of caste, and, having
+seen that it never could have originated in the way our missionaries
+suppose it to have done, we hazarded a conjecture as to the way in which
+it probably did originate, and saw grounds for supposing that the
+distinctions of caste came naturally about, and that they were in
+principle calculated to effect exactly the same ends that the Jewish
+lawgivers had in view when they framed that Levitical law which
+effectually prevented the Jews from mingling socially with the races they
+lived amongst. We then looked at caste from a sanitary point of view, and
+came to the conclusion that in consequence of the carrion-eating habits of
+the lowest castes, and of their liability to transmit the germs of
+disease, the rules which prevented them from coming into contact with the
+higher castes, either in the way of taking the Sacrament, or in any other
+way, are of the greatest value. We next inquired into the effects of caste
+as regards social intercourse, and especially as regards the exercise of
+hospitality amongst people of different castes, and saw reason to think
+that the restrictions of caste, with, perhaps, the exception of the very
+lowest, formed no bar whatever to the exercise of hospitality. Glancing
+subsequently at the action of caste feeling in confining the sympathies of
+individuals more especially to the members of their own caste, we came to
+the conclusion that, though caste had undoubtedly the effect of
+contracting the feelings within a narrow circle, there was to be found a
+compensating advantage in the fact that the claims of caste produced, in
+the aggregate, a greater amount of charity, and, in short, were calculated
+to produce a better general result than would be arrived at in the absence
+of caste feelings. And as illustrations of the advantages of this caste
+feeling, we pointed to the fact of there being no poor-houses in India,
+and especially to the Jews in England, as affording an example of the
+favourable effects of caste feeling. After this, we pointed to the fact
+that, though caste had the effect of keeping one caste or order of men
+above another, it had also a levelling tendency within each caste, and
+produced an important point of equality which no poverty can destroy. We
+then took into consideration some facts which seemed to show that families
+could raise themselves to a higher rank in society by adopting the purer
+habits of the classes above them; and we also saw that the influence of
+wealth does, to a very great degree, elevate a man of low caste in the
+social scale. We next saw reason to suppose that we have hitherto been
+labouring under very exaggerated notions as to the stringency of caste
+regulations, and two instances were given to illustrate the way in which
+caste laws are sometimes set summarily aside. And, finally, we pointed
+out, and gave some illustrations to prove, that with most of our
+countrymen who have either tried to introduce new customs or in any way to
+alter native habits of action, caste has ever been made, and very unjustly
+made, the common scapegoat.
+
+One word more. The absolute good that caste has done may be briefly summed
+up. It has acted as a strong moral police, and as a preserver of order and
+decorum in the community,[46] and it has prevented the spread of bad
+habits and customs, more especially that of drinking, as far as large
+numbers of the people are concerned.[47] On the other hand, caste is said
+to have hindered the progress of the people taken as a whole. But in every
+instance where we have really tried the introduction of any art, the
+removal of any public crime (as suttee and human sacrifice, for instance),
+the improvement of any cultivation, the introduction of education, or of
+new means of moving from place to place, we have either found caste to be
+no impediment at all, or an impediment so slight as not to be worth
+mentioning.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+NOTE.--With the view of obtaining information I briefly allude here to two
+points with reference to caste and its effects--the (1) curious custom of
+the Marasa Wokul tribe in Mysore, and (2) the influence of caste in
+developing improved aptitudes which afterwards descend by hereditary
+transmission.
+
+As to the first, the mother of a girl is compelled to submit to the
+amputation of the terminal joints of the third and fourth fingers of the
+right hand on the occasion of the betrothal of her daughter, and in the
+event of a girl being motherless the mother of the bridegroom-elect must
+submit to the operation.
+
+The custom is alluded to in the well-known work of the Abbé Dubois, and in
+the appendix the editor of the second edition confirms the account given,
+and quotes confirmatory evidence from Colonel Wilks' "Mysore," in which is
+published the legend which is reported to have given rise to the custom.
+Colonel Wilks, early in this century, saw some of the women who had been
+operated on. The tribe in question lives in the north-east of Mysore, but
+after inquiry through the medium of natives in the interior of the
+country, I cannot now learn that the custom is continued. Perhaps, being a
+disagreeable one, it may have been given up. I should feel much obliged
+for any information as to the point in question.
+
+As to the second point, I was informed in 1891 by Mr. Chatterton of the
+Engineering College at Madras, that he had many Brahmins under him in the
+workshops, and that, though more intelligent than other castes, they are
+less efficient, owing to their ancestors never having been practised in
+any mechanical work. The influence of caste was here most perceptible, and
+he could always pick out the work done by boys whose caste had been
+employed in that particular work, and he further informed me that boys
+showed poor proficiency in work out of the line of their particular caste.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Manjarabad is a talook or county on the south-west frontier of
+Mysore.
+
+[32] And that, I may observe, was a case in which a toddy-drawer, the
+third caste in Manjarabad, was concerned.
+
+[33] I observe in the Administration Report for Mysore, 1867-68, that
+nearly all the cases in the lunatic asylum were traced either to drinking
+or bhang-smoking.
+
+[34] _Vide_ Sproat's "Studies of Savage Life."
+
+[35] It may be observed here that there are few who know so little as to
+the sexual morality of the people around them as clergymen. It does not
+become them, of course, to enter into the gossip of the village, nor does
+anyone care to broach such subjects in the first instance; and I may
+mention here that a relative of my own, a clergyman in a country parish,
+told me that if anything went wrong in these respects he was the very last
+person in the world to hear one word about it.
+
+[36] The Abbé Dubois makes the following remarks: "During the long period
+I lived in India, in the capacity of a missionary, I have made, with the
+assistance of a native missionary, in all between two and three hundred
+converts of both sexes. Of this number two-thirds were Pariahs or beggars,
+and the rest were composed of Sûdras, vagrants, and outcasts of several
+tribes, who, being without resources, turned Christians in order to form
+new connections, chiefly for the purpose of marriage, or with some other
+interested motive. Among them are also to be found some who believed
+themselves to be possessed with the devil, and who turned Christians after
+having been assured that on receiving baptism the unclean spirits would
+leave them and never return; and I will declare it with shame and
+confusion that I do not remember any one who may be said to have embraced
+Christianity from conviction and from quite disinterested motives. Among
+these newcomers many apostatized and relapsed into paganism, finding that
+the Christian religion did not afford them the temporal advantages they
+had looked for in embracing it; and I am very much ashamed that the
+resolution I have taken to tell the whole truth on this subject forces me
+to make the humiliating avowal that those who continued Christians are the
+very worst among my flock."--DR. ALLEN'S _India_, p. 522.
+
+[37] I may mention here that Sir Bartle Frere, in his paper on "Indian
+Public Works," said, with reference to opening up districts hitherto
+unpierced by roads, "And here let me observe, in passing, without any
+disparagement of my own countrymen, that I have generally found the
+agricultural and commercial classes of India quite as intelligent on
+points of this kind as the agricultural and commercial classes of our own
+old-fashioned country." But I have always found that the people who have
+had the best opportunities of judging have formed very favourable opinions
+as to the intelligence of the agricultural classes, who are generally
+painted as being entirely indifferent, and even hostile, to the best
+schemes undertaken for their benefit.
+
+[38] In this Circular of Bishop Wilson's, it is surprising to observe the
+contradictions that exist. At one part of the Circular we are told that
+the apostle's language is conclusive: and "Seeing ye have put off the old
+man, and have put on the new man, which is renewed in knowledge after the
+image of Him that created him, where there is neither Greek nor Jew,
+circumcision nor uncircumcision, barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free, but
+Christ is all, and in all," is quoted as evidence of the Divine wishes.
+"So overwhelming," continues the bishop, "is the flood by which all petty
+distinctions of nation, caste, privilege, rank, climate, position in
+civilization are effaced, and one grand distinction substituted." And yet,
+at another part of the Circular, we are told that the distinctions in
+civil society are acknowledged by the Gospel, when they are "the natural
+result of difference of talents, industry, piety, station, and success."
+Another decision of the apostle is quoted in the same Circular, and it is
+this--"There is neither Jew or Greek, there is neither bond nor free,
+there is neither male nor female, for we are all one in Christ Jesus;" and
+so, of course, we are all equal in his sight. And yet this is quoted as
+being a decision in favour of doing away with the civil institutions of
+caste, which are undoubtedly the marks of that "station" which the bishop
+tells us is acknowledged by the Gospel, and in no way different from the
+station that a member of the House of Lords inherits from his
+predecessors. And here, though I do not think that it is advisable to
+cling to isolated texts as evidence of the general conduct of the apostles
+regarding the prejudices of their converts, I may mention that Peter, in
+his first Epistle, says, "Submit yourself to every ordinance of man for
+the Lord's sake." And if we take Dean Alford's interpretation of this, and
+consider it as equivalent to a command, extending to every human
+institution (and I can see no reason why we should not), it is plain that
+our missionaries in India, if they wish to follow the examples of the
+apostles, should yield to the prejudices of caste as long as they do not
+involve idolatrous rites. But it is in the general action of the apostles,
+as illustrated in Acts xv. 19, that the safest guide may, I apprehend, be
+found; and when, with reference to difficulties as regarding the customs
+of their converts, St. James said (Dean Alford's edition), "Wherefore my
+sentence is, that we trouble not them which from the Gentiles are turned
+to God; but that we write to them, that they abstain from pollutions of
+idols, from fornication, and from things strangled, and from blood;" and
+again: "For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you
+no greater burden than [these] necessary things; that ye abstain from
+meats offered unto idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and
+from fornication; from which, if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do
+well;"--when the apostle said thus, I think we ought to feel little doubt
+as to the course we ought to pursue regarding the social customs of the
+peoples of India.
+
+[39] "The name 'Laws of Manu,' somewhat resembles a pious fraud, for the
+'laws' are merely the laws or customs of a school or association of
+Hindoos, called the Mânavas, who lived in the country rendered holy by the
+divine river Saraswati. In this district the Hindoos first felt themselves
+a settled people, and in this neighbourhood they established colleges and
+hermitages, or âsramas, from some of which we may suppose Brâhmanas,
+Upanishads, and other religious compositions may have issued; and under
+such influences we may imagine the Code of Manu to have been composed.
+
+"The Mânavas were undoubtedly an active, energetic people, who governed
+themselves, paid taxes to the kins, established internal and external
+trade, and drew up an extensive system of laws and customs, to which they
+appended real and imaginary awards. This system appears to have worked so
+well, that it was adopted by other communities, and then the organizers
+announced it as laws given to them by their divine progenitor, the great
+Mana. They added passages, moreover, which assert the divine claims of
+Brâhmans and the inferiority of the rest of mankind. Such assertions are
+little more than rhetorical flourishes, for Brâhmans never were either so
+omnipotent or so unamiable as the Code would represent them; nor were the
+Sûdras ever so degraded. In Sanskrit plays and poems, weak and indigent
+Brâhmans are by no means unfrequent; and, on the other hand, we meet with
+Sûdras who had political rights, and even in the Code find the pedigrees
+of great men traced up to Sûdra ancestors."--MRS. MANNING'S _Ancient and
+Mediæval India_, v. i., p. 276.
+
+[40] As an instance that a man can abandon all religious rites whatever,
+and retain his caste unimpaired and unaltered, I may mention that my
+native clerk told me that he had done nothing in the way of religion at
+all for years; but that, of course, made no difference to him in the eyes
+of his neighbours, who didn't care what he did, as long as he did not
+depart from the social customs of his caste. I once said to a native
+shopkeeper in Bangalore, "What religion are you of?" "Oh!" he answered
+with a smile, "no religion at all, sir." But I need not trouble the reader
+with further evidence to show that a man may drop his religion altogether
+without dropping his caste, and that therefore religion and caste have no
+necessary connection with one another whatever.
+
+[41] "Caste, though distinctly denounced by their sacred hooks, and
+ostensibly disavowed by the Singhalese themselves, still exists in their
+veneration for rank, whether hereditary or adventitious. Thus every
+district and every village has its little leader, a preeminence accorded
+to birth rather than property; and, by a descending scale, certain members
+of the community, in right of relationship or connection, assume an
+undefined superiority, and are tacitly admitted to the exercise of what is
+technically called an 'influence.' In the hamlets, so universal is this
+feeling amongst the natives, so habitual the impulse to classify
+themselves and to look up to some one as their superior in the scale of
+society, that the custom descends through every gradation of life and its
+occupations, and in some of the villages the missionaries found it
+necessary to appoint two schoolmasters, even where there was less than
+occupation for one--'influence,' as well as ability to teach, being an
+essential qualification; and if the individual did not possess the former,
+it was most indispensable to associate with him some other who did.[A]
+Again, if a village could not furnish a master competent to teach, it was
+in vain to procure one from a distance; his 'influence' did not extend to
+that locality, and no pupils could he got to attend. Nor was caste itself
+without the open avowal of its force, the children of a Vellala or
+high-caste family being on no account permitted to enter the school-house
+of a lower-caste master. These are obstacles which prevail in all their
+original force even at the present day; and in the purely Singhalese
+districts, such as Matura, the prestige of caste is so despotic, that no
+amount of qualification in all other particulars can overcome the
+repugnance to intercourse with those who are deficient in the paramount
+requisite of rank."--SIR J. E. TENNENT's _Christianity in Ceylon_, p. 286.
+
+[A] MS. account of Baptist Mission.
+
+[42] In the large towns this remark might not, perhaps, be justifiable.
+
+[43] Since this chapter was written, I have received well authenticated
+information of a Pariah, who had acquired both wealth and position, having
+been adopted into a superior caste. The caste was not a rich one, and he
+no doubt paid heavily for his admission into it.
+
+[44] The farmers in Manjarabad invariably tack on the word "Gouda" to
+their names, and it seems to answer for our Mr.
+
+[45] The natives imagine that every man's fate is written in invisible
+characters on his forehead.
+
+[46] Abbé Dubois.
+
+[47] It is satisfactory to learn that caste feelings and regulations have
+a favourable influence with natives, even when they go to a foreign
+country; and it is equally satisfactory to quote the evidence of a
+gentleman who laughs at caste as an absurd custom. Mr. W. Sabonadière, in
+his work of "The Coffee Planter in Ceylon" writes as follows: "The coolies
+who resort to Ceylon are of various castes. Those mostly preferred by
+planters are the low castes, such as Pallans, shanars, and Pariahs, as
+being more accustomed to and fit for hard work; but, as a class, they are
+more given to drink, spend their money more freely, and are more
+quarrelsome than the higher classes, whom their caste forbids to drink
+arrack or spirits, and who are more cleanly in their habits, better
+behaved (as fearing to lose caste), who have land of their own on the
+coast, and are more interested in working regularly and gaining their
+wages to take away with them."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+COFFEE PLANTING IN COORG.
+
+
+The British Province of Coorg consists of a mountainous and jungly tract
+of country with elevations of from about 2,700 to 3,809 feet. The last is
+the elevation of the capital, Mercara, the tableland of which, for a
+stretch of about 26 miles, averages about 3,500 feet. This little province
+lies, as the reader will see by a glance at the map, on the south-west
+border of Mysore, with which, since its annexation, it has always been
+connected, and the Resident of Mysore invariably holds the post of
+Commissioner of Coorg. The population of Coorg is just over 170,000, and
+its area is 1,583 square miles, or about one-fourth of the size of
+Yorkshire. But, though small in extent and population, its Rajah and
+people played an important part as our allies in the war with Tippoo, and
+a full account of the facts is given in the history of Coorg which has
+been published in the "Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer." The history of the
+country, however, which has been gathered up by various European writers,
+is by no means of an alluring character, and indeed, after the beginning
+of this century, a more disgusting record of cruelty and oppression it
+would be difficult to find in the annals of any country. But three things
+at least the record most distinctly proves. The first is (though this
+hardly requires any additional proof) that man, though capable of being
+the best, is also capable of being by far the worst of animals; the second
+is that, Coorg being a sample of most of India in the times preceding
+ours, the Hindoos were perfectly right in leaving few annals behind them;
+and the third is that the blessings of British rule far exceed anything
+that anyone could imagine who had not read something of the condition of
+things in India before we took possession of it, for we have not only
+conferred on the people immeasurable positive benefits, but relieved them
+from the barbarous rule of cruel oppressors. In the case of Coorg there
+can be no doubt that we allowed the Rajahs of that country to carry on
+their work of cruelty and oppression towards their subjects for much too
+long a period of time, and our failure to act can only be partially
+excused by the fact that we were, in connection with the war with Tippoo,
+under great obligation to the ancestor of the Rajah we deposed. However,
+his vile oppression and cruel murders, which exceed anything the reader
+could believe to be possible, could no longer be tolerated, and in 1834 he
+was deposed, and his country absorbed into the British Dominions. Since
+that date the general welfare of the country was of course insured, and
+much of it is now a thriving coffee field which, as I shall afterwards
+show, has been of the greatest benefit to Mysore, and the adjacent British
+territory. Of the history and cultivation of coffee in Coorg, and my
+visits to the province, I now propose to give some account.
+
+After the planting season of 1857 I went with a brother planter for a
+change of air to Mangalore, and from thence we went to Cannanore--a
+military station about 200 miles further down the coast--and, after a
+short stay there, rode up the Ghauts into Coorg, where we found the
+planters busy clearing the forest. Three years before our arrival Mr.
+Fowler had opened the Mercara Estate, and in 1855 Mr. H. Mann, and Mr.
+Donald Stewart had begun work on the Sumpaji Ghaut, while Dr. Maxwell
+opened up the Periambadi Ghaut Estates in 1856, and in 1857 Mr. Kaundinya
+founded a plantation in the Bamboo district which lies on the eastern side
+of Coorg. The first European plantation was, as we have seen, started in
+1854, but for many years previously coffee cultivation had been carried on
+by natives in the Nalknaad District, though it seems to be quite uncertain
+as to when or how it was first introduced, or where the first seeds were
+obtained.
+
+At first all seemed to be going well with coffee in Coorg, and for a good
+many years the fatal mistake of the planters in clearing down the whole
+forest, and leaving no shade over the coffee, was not decisively apparent,
+and from the lands that were thus cleared down on the above-mentioned
+Ghauts, which lie on the western side of the province, from 700 to 1,000
+tons were picked annually when the coffee was at its best. But what in
+"the seventies" represented about £100,000 of valuable property, gradually
+became more and more unprofitable, till at last the estates were
+abandoned, and the land has now become covered with masses of Lentana (a
+crawling, climbing, thorny plant which has become a perfect plague in
+Coorg), amidst which may occasionally be seen the white walls of unroofed
+bungalows, and dismantled pulping houses, which testify to the melancholy
+ending of the work of the planters whom I found so busily engaged when, in
+1857, I first entered Coorg.
+
+Some attributed the failure to the Bug, some to the Borer, and to leaf
+disease, while others blamed the heaviness of the tropical rains, which
+washed away the valuable surface soil, the flight of which towards the
+western sea was much expedited by weeding with the mamoty (a digging hoe),
+which loosened the soil, and so prepared the way for its more rapid
+disappearance. And these causes no doubt hastened the end, but they were
+mainly results arising from one great cause--the neglect to supply shade
+for the coffee, and this again arose from the circumstance that most of
+the pioneer planters came from Ceylon where the coffee is planted in the
+open, and where shade is not required. And this failure, owing to the
+neglect of shade, had a most unfortunate effect, for it was owing to this
+that Coorg naturally acquired such a doubtful coffee reputation in the
+eyes of the uninformed public--a reputation which, as I shall afterwards
+show, arose not from any fault of the country as a coffee field, but
+solely from the fatal mistake of attempting to plant without providing
+shade for the coffee. And this mistake the planters, as we shall see, had
+great difficulty in shaking off, for when they saw the inevitable end
+approaching, and hastened to take up land in the eastern part of Coorg in
+what is known as the Bamboo district (because the jungle lands there
+consist very largely of forest trees interspersed with clumps of bamboos),
+they persisted in carrying their fatal Ceylon system with them, and Mr.
+Donald Stewart, called the Coffee King in Mincing Lane, who was a warm
+supporter of planting in the open, even issued, it is said, an order to
+his managers saying that if he found a single forest tree standing (the
+coffee around even a single tree would have proved him to be wrong)
+dismissal would follow. But nature proved to be too strong for Mr. Stewart
+and those who followed his example, and whole estates in the Bamboo
+district were practically exterminated by the Borer insect. At last the
+planters, warned by a long and bitter experience, gave way all along the
+line, and began to imitate the shade planters of Mysore, and shade is now
+as universal in Coorg as in Mysore, and under its protection the coffee in
+both countries thrives equally well. I may mention here that the Rev. G.
+Richter, who is now the second oldest resident in Coorg, took an active
+part in opening up the Bamboo district, and was for some time a partner in
+one of the estates. He has shown great zeal in endeavouring to introduce
+new products, such as tea, cocoa, ceara rubber, and vanilla. His manual
+of Coorg, I may add, is most interesting and exhaustive.[48]
+
+Besides the first mentioned, and now abandoned coffee district, and the
+Bamboo district, there is the important district of North Coorg, which,
+though it has a smaller number of estates, certainly contains coffee that,
+so far as I am able to judge, it would be impossible to surpass.
+
+There are, in all, at present in Coorg 130 European estates, with a total
+area of 32,323 acres (of which 20,000 are in the Bamboo district), and
+6,207 native estates and gardens, aggregating in all 70,669 acres. The
+average production of coffee from all these sources is estimated by
+competent authorities at from 4,000 to 5,000 tons of coffee per annum, or
+of a probable annual value of from £250,000 to £300,000. The yield from a
+well cultivated estate averages from 3 to 4 cwt. of clean coffee per acre.
+Exceptional properties there are, of course, which give higher returns
+than this, and some could be quoted which give 6 to 7 cwt. on the average,
+while sensational figures might be quoted as regards some remarkable
+estates. But to give an account of such exceptional estates might convey a
+misleading idea of the general return to be obtained from coffee in Coorg,
+though I think it well to allude to the fact that better returns than
+those first mentioned can be obtained, and have been obtained, as it is
+always of value to know what particular pieces of land can do under the
+most favourable circumstances, as this opens up the important question as
+to whether it would not pay better to confine cultivation on an estate to
+a narrow area of the best soils and situations on it--a subject to which I
+shall more particularly refer later on in this chapter.
+
+In the case of well cultivated estates, an expenditure of eighty rupees
+per acre is incurred on superintendence and field labour, and fifty rupees
+an acre on manures and their application, but in many European, and most
+native estates, a total expenditure for superintendence, labour and
+manures of about eighty rupees only is incurred, and the results obtained
+are, of course, proportionately smaller. The native gardens and
+plantations are, as a rule, worked on the principle of taking everything
+that can be got out of the land, and putting nothing into it. Were these
+worked on European principles, it is hardly necessary to say that the
+export of coffee from Coorg would be largely increased.
+
+Cattle manure, bones, oil-cake and fish constitute the manures mainly used
+in Coorg. The first is universally recognized as being the most valuable
+for coffee, but the supply available in the Bamboo district (which
+contains, I may remind the reader, 20,000 out of the 32,323 acres under
+cultivation by Europeans), where grazing is scarce, is so small that
+planters have to depend to a great extent on the three last-named manures.
+Messrs. Matheson & Co., the owners of about 7,000 acres of coffee in
+Coorg, kept for some years in their employ an analytical chemist,[49]
+whose time was devoted to the analysis of soil, and the making of
+experiments on their estates, with the view of ascertaining what was best
+adapted for maintaining and improving their fertility. Salts of various
+kinds were experimented with, but, though the results from them were
+generally favourable, they were found to be too rapidly soluble for a
+climate so subject to heavy falls of rain. In the end, after many
+experiments, he came to the conclusion that the four above-mentioned
+manures were the best for the climate, and that the proportion applied
+should vary with the condition of the coffee. To illustrate this point I
+may add that in Coorg, bones and oil-cake are usually applied in the
+proportion of two of the latter to one of the former. If, however, a field
+has suffered badly from leaf disease (which destroys many of the leaves),
+or is not making wood as rapidly as it ought, it is customary to apply a
+larger proportion of oil-cake, or in some cases, to put down that manure
+without adding any bones. On the other hand, if there is a superabundance
+of wood, and it is desirable to throw the whole energies of the tree into
+the production of berries, then the proportion of bone manure is increased
+and that of oil-cake diminished.
+
+In former times all manures were applied immediately after the crop was
+picked, and on estates where labour is scarce, or comes in late in the
+season, this system is still carried on. But from results actually
+obtained on estates in Coorg, it has now been proved that it is more
+advantageous to apply part of the manure immediately after crop, in order
+to strengthen the tree when the blossom showers fall (which they usually
+do in March and April), and to aid it in perfecting and setting the
+blossom, and a second portion after the heavy monsoon rains are over, in
+order to assist the tree in growing fresh wood, and in maturing the crop.
+The bones, oil-cake, and fish are usually mixed with burnt earth--a cubic
+yard to every five cwt. of the manure--and then scattered on the surface
+of the land around the stems of the trees, and forked in. The burnt earth,
+or indeed almost any good earth, makes an admirable addition to bones,
+oil-cake, and fish, for, though the first two, or the last two, furnish
+complete manure for coffee, they of course cannot ameliorate the physical
+condition of the soil, which, as I have fully shown in the chapter on
+manures, is often of more importance than its strictly speaking chemical
+condition. The burnt earth, in short, takes the place of cattle manure as
+a physical agent, and, for that purpose, I think that the soil, is to be
+preferred to cattle manure, as the former would certainly be cheaper and
+more lasting in its effects in keeping the soil in a loose and easily
+workable condition. On the other hand, it must be considered that cattle
+manure would be more moisture-holding than ordinary earth, though not more
+so than jungle top-soil, and when first applied, would be perhaps more
+opening to the land, than burnt or ordinary earth, but if the red earth
+(Kemmannu), to which I have alluded in my chapter on manures, can be
+obtained, that, I know from experience, would be more cooling, and
+moisture-absorbing than cattle manure.
+
+I now turn to a point of great general interest, and one which furnishes
+another illustration of what I dwelt upon at some length in my
+introductory chapter, the wide-spreading value arising from the
+introduction into India of English capital which, as I have shown,
+develops the agricultural resources of the country in ever-widening
+circles. At first in Coorg the adjacent province of Mysore was the only
+source of labour supply, but the increased prosperity of the labourer
+consequent upon ample employment and enhanced rates of wages, enabled him
+to take up land for the cultivation of cereal crops in the neighbourhood
+of his own village, and hence the supply of labour declined, those who
+came to work in the plantations came later in the season, and altogether
+the labour supply from Mysore became more uncertain every year. Planters
+consequently, as they had in Mysore itself, had to go further afield, and
+now draw labour to a large extent from the Madras Presidency, the
+labourers from which in turn, will now have the means of developing the
+agricultural resources of their native villages. This is a point to which
+the attention of the Government cannot be too often drawn with the view of
+encouraging the opening up, by it, of every means of stimulating the
+employment of labour in India.
+
+Coorg is now fairly well off for labour, and the old labour difficulties
+which used to be experienced have to a great extent disappeared. The
+average cost of Mysore labour--men, women, and children, and including the
+commission of the Maistries (as the men who collect and bring the
+labourers to the estates are called), is from 3 annas 6 pie to 4 annas a
+day (or say 5d. to 6d. a day, calculating the rupee at par, or 2s.).
+In quite recent times the maistries, who obtained large sums from the
+planters to make advances to the coolies, sometimes absconded with the
+money and thereby great losses ensued. But a better class of maistries
+have arisen, and Messrs. Matheson and Co. have now, with the aid of their
+permanent European labour agent, established a system of private
+registration by which the antecedents, status, and resources of the
+maistries are duly recorded. And though the services of doubtful maistries
+cannot as yet be altogether dispensed with, a preference is of course
+given to those of well established reputation, and the class of maistries
+generally is beginning to understand and appreciate the system of
+registration, which has every prospect of becoming general, and will, I
+need hardly add, be of great advantage to planters. But if maistries
+sometimes swindle their employers, the former are often liable to be
+swindled by the coolies to whom the advances have been made, and until a
+system of compulsory Government registration of advances to coolies is
+introduced, as recommended in one of my chapters on coffee planting in
+Mysore, it will be impossible to put our peculiar system of giving
+advances to coolies on a reasonably safe footing.
+
+The plantations in Coorg have suffered, and still suffer considerably from
+leaf disease and Borer, to both of which I have, for practical purposes,
+sufficiently alluded in the chapter on the diseases of coffee. The
+effects of the former, though entailing much injury on coffee in Coorg,
+have not been so fatal as in Ceylon, as the long stretches of dry weather,
+often of four or five months' duration, seem to kill off large numbers of
+the spores, and so mitigate the damage arising from the disease. Messrs.
+Matheson and Co., at the instance of the chemist previously mentioned,
+sent out Strawsoniser spray engines for the purpose of treating afflicted
+trees with various solutions, but, though good effects were noticeable on
+individual trees, it was found that to treat whole estates in this way was
+quite impracticable, both from the cost and the immense amount of labour
+that would be required, and this fatal obstacle to the use of such
+remedies has been amply proved in Ceylon. But in Coorg the Borer is much
+more to be dreaded than leaf disease, and its ravages are such that even
+on the best estates fully twenty-five per cent.[50] of the acreage is
+under supplies (i.e., young plants to take the place of the old ones
+which have died), and the late Mr. Pringle--the chemist--was of opinion
+that the loss of crop from Borer was not less than 2 cwt. per acre per
+annum. Before the introduction of shade the total extermination of an
+estate was far from uncommon, the estate in the Bamboo district opened by
+Rev. H. A. Kaundinya in 1857 being the first to perish, and though, as we
+have seen, owing to the introduction of shade, the Borer has been largely
+brought into subjection, considerable damage still takes place from it.
+Neither trouble nor expense has been spared in order to find an antidote
+to this pest. Rubbing the stems with the view of destroying the eggs of
+the insect, and applying thereto chemical ingredients have both been
+tried, but with very limited results. The late Mr. Pringle's antidote
+consisted of the application of two washes of alkali vat waste, costing
+five rupees an acre each, but, when carried into practice, the results
+were far from what he anticipated. Taking out the bored trees and burning
+them has proved the most effectual way of dealing with the pest, and would
+be productive of still better results if native neighbours would adopt the
+same practice. But as they will not adopt this practice, their plantations
+become nursery grounds for the propagation of the insect. Many planters in
+the Bamboo district pay 1 rupee per hundred for the Borer fly, and this
+results in a large number being caught, but it is not supposed that any
+appreciable effect has been produced from this practice.
+
+There can be no doubt, it seems to me, that the primary cause of the
+existence of so much Borer was owing to the planters having at first
+planted in the open. This must have created an enormous supply of the
+insect, which found a splendid breeding ground in the conditions furnished
+by the planters, as is evidenced by the fact of whole estates having been
+exterminated by it, and it will require many years of judicious shading
+before this insect can be reduced within comparatively harmless limits.
+The reader will observe that I say judicious shading, and I will more
+fully explain what I mean by that expression when, later on in the
+chapter, I give an account of my tour through Coorg in 1891, and make some
+observations on the proper shading of coffee.
+
+Most of the European estates in Coorg and many of the larger native
+plantations are held under what are called "The Waste Land Rules," under
+which land is put up to auction by the State at an upset price of 2 rupees
+per acre (10 rupees is the upset price in Mysore), plus the value of the
+timber, which adds somewhat to the price. As a rule there is now
+considerable competition for land, and as much as 100 to 150 rupees has
+frequently to be paid per acre. The land so purchased is subject to no
+assessment up to the fourth year, but from the fourth to the ninth year 1
+rupee is charged, and after that 2 rupees in perpetuity. The bulk of the
+land suitable for coffee has been taken up, though large extents that
+might be utilized are included in the State forests, and thus are not
+available to the public. Hence there is little room for extension, and
+openings for young men with capital are few and far between, so far as
+obtaining fresh forest is concerned, though of course opportunities
+occasionally occur for purchasing estates, or acquiring shares in them on
+various terms.
+
+And here I would particularly call the attention of the Government to the
+following remarks on the reservation of land in Coorg for State forests,
+much of which, as we have seen, might be utilized for coffee.
+
+When, as in former times in Coorg, the planters used no shade, many good
+arguments existed in favour of making very large reserves of forest land
+in order to prevent denudation, and its injurious effects on climate, and
+on the water supply of the rivers and the country generally. But when you
+merely replace the underwood of the forest with an underwood of coffee
+which completely covers the ground, and again shield this from drying
+winds and the burning sun by a complete covering of trees, either those of
+the original forest or others planted to take their place, the case is
+entirely altered, and from the coffee land thus shaded there is no more
+loss of water and soil (perhaps not so much loss of water, as great pains
+are taken to avert wash) than there was in the original forest, and the
+climatic and conservative effects of forests are therefore entirely
+undisturbed. Wherever, then, lands exist which are suitable for coffee
+planting under shade, they should certainly, in the interests of the
+country generally, and especially of the rapidly increasing population, be
+taken up for coffee, and the State forests be confined to those tracts
+which, from over heavy rainfall, or other causes, are unsuitable for
+coffee planting.
+
+Other products, and especially cinchona, have received a fair amount of
+attention in Coorg, and the land on the Ghauts to the westward, where, as
+we have seen, the coffee plantations have been abandoned, proved to be
+well suited for the production of the commoner kinds of bark, and large
+extents of abandoned or semi-abandoned lands were planted with cinchonas.
+But when the prices of bark fell (whoever takes to growing a drug will
+soon realize the meaning of the phrase "a drug in the market"), the
+cultivation was no longer worthy of attention, and has practically died
+out. Ceara rubber also met with the same fate.
+
+I may here mention that Messrs. Matheson and Co., who held no less than
+7,000 out of the 20,000 acres occupied by Europeans in the Bamboo
+district, went to great expense in introducing coffee seed from Brazil,
+Venezuela, Costa Rica, and Jamaica, with the view of ascertaining whether
+coffee grown from the seed thus imported would be less susceptible to
+attacks of leaf disease. But, though the plants raised from these seeds
+are doing exceedingly well, it was found that they were also liable to be
+attacked by leaf disease, often before they were even out of the nursery,
+and in this respect proved to be neither better nor worse than the Coorg
+variety of coffee. A clearing of fifty acres has been entirely planted
+with coffee raised from Blue Mountain seed, but there is nothing in the
+appearance of the trees to show that they are not indigenous to the
+country.
+
+Liberian coffee has been tried experimentally in several parts of Coorg,
+but I cannot learn that any results have been obtained which would tend
+to encourage its adoption as a substitute for the variety at present
+grown.
+
+It is estimated that the Coorg planters employ at least 30,000 Mysore
+labourers in addition to local labourers and those from the Madras
+Presidency, and of the 30,000 in question Messrs. Matheson and Co. employ
+no less than about 5,000 for six to eight months of the year. The 30,000
+coolies, with their maistries, draw from 12 to 15 lakhs of rupees per
+annum (from £120,000 to £150,000, estimating the rupee at par, and for the
+purposes of a labourer it goes nearly as far in India as when it was so)
+in wages, very nearly the whole of which eventually reaches Mysore either
+in payment for grain or as a surplus income which the labourers annually
+take with them when they return to their homes in Mysore. And as this
+capital is largely employed in developing the agricultural resources of
+the Mysore State, it is evident that anything that its Government could
+do--in the way of railway extension or otherwise--that would stimulate the
+employment of labour in Coorg would be of great advantage to the finances
+of Mysore. It is extremely interesting to follow the labour-spent capital
+of the planters of Coorg to its ultimate destination--to the western
+coast, to various parts of the Madras Presidency, and far away into the
+interior of Mysore, and to observe its effects on the country and its
+financial results. I am not in a position to say exactly what should be
+done in the way of railways for Coorg, but I trust I have sufficiently
+shown that the British and Mysore Governments are equally interested in
+doing all they can, in the way of railway communication and new and
+improved roads, to develop and encourage the planting resources of Coorg.
+
+The last visit I paid to Coorg was in October, 1891, immediately after the
+breaking up of the Representative Assembly at Mysore, a full account of
+which I have given in a previous chapter. I left Mysore on the morning of
+Tuesday, October 20th, and on the first day drove to Hunsur, a town of
+between four and five thousand inhabitants, which lies twenty-eight miles
+to the west of Mysore city. At this place are the extensive coffee works
+and manure preparing establishment of Messrs. Matheson and Co., by whose
+manager I was most hospitably and agreeably entertained. Rather an
+interesting incident in connection with a panther had once occurred at his
+house, and as this illustrates what I have previously mentioned as to the
+(to man) innocuous character of this animal, it may not be uninteresting
+to give an account of what occurred. The circumstances were these.
+
+One night my hostess, some time after retiring to rest, heard a noise in
+the open veranda which runs round the side of the bungalow just outside
+her bedroom. She got up, and, taking a lamp in her hand, went round a
+corner of the building in the direction of the noise, and just as she
+turned the corner in question there fell upon her astonished vision the
+spectacle of a panther, which at the moment was busily engaged in
+devouring the family cat. When the panther saw the lady he tried to make
+off along the veranda (which at that point was shut in at the side by a
+trellis-work), but at the moment of his flight the cook, who had also
+heard the noise, appeared at the opposite end of the veranda with a lamp
+in his hand. The panther then turned back in the direction of the lady,
+who stood spell-bound with the lamp in her hand, and as the cook,
+apparently equally spell-bound, remained stationary with his lamp, the
+panther, being thus as it were between two fires, lay down under a table
+which was placed against the wall of the veranda. At last he got up, made
+a move in the direction of the cook, and then changing his mind, rushed
+past the lady, and thus made his escape. Panthers seem to be numerous
+about Hunsur, and I heard another interesting story of their boldness,
+which I have not space to give, from a neighbour of my host.
+
+After staying for a day at Hunsur, I drove, on October 22nd, to Titimutty,
+a small village on the frontier of Coorg, where I was met by Mr. Rose, of
+Hill Grove Estate, who drove me to his plantation near Polibetta, which is
+in the Bamboo district previously alluded to as containing about
+two-thirds of the European plantations in Coorg. Shortly after leaving
+Titimutty we drove through coffee on both sides of the road, and, though I
+spent four days in the district, and was constantly on the move, I was
+never once out of sight of coffee, as the plantations lie in a continuous
+block, and, as they are all thoroughly shaded, sometimes by the original
+forest trees, and sometimes by trees planted for shade, the general effect
+is that you are travelling through a forest of which coffee is the
+underwood--a forest lying on gently undulating ground from which nothing
+can be seen of the surrounding country. As the bungalows of the planters
+are of course surrounded by coffee and shade trees, they have necessarily
+an extremely shut-in appearance. But this rather _triste_ effect might be
+obviated (and I have with good effect obviated it in the case of a
+bungalow which lies in the centre of an estate of my own in Mysore) by
+cutting vistas here and there through the shade trees through which peeps
+may be had of distant hills. This may seem to be a point of little
+practical value, but, as I have shown in a previous chapter, the amenities
+of an estate are of value, and are likely to become more so when the
+desirable nature of shade coffee property is more widely known. The
+bungalows in the Bamboo district are very comfortable, most of them having
+tennis grounds, and if the vistas I have suggested were cut out, their
+attractiveness would be much enhanced. But if the Bamboo district has not
+the scenic advantages of plantations in other parts of Coorg and in
+Mysore, these are much compensated for by the close proximity of one
+plantation to another, and I was told that at certain seasons there was
+generally a well-attended lawn tennis party on every day of the week.
+There is besides, in the centre of the district, a comfortable club where
+balls and dances are occasionally given. In short, the Bamboo district has
+features of its own which make it entirely different from any planting
+district in India. From being so much shut in, it might, at first sight,
+be supposed to be not a very healthy district, but I heard no complaints
+on that score, nor, from the appearance of the planters, would it have
+occurred to me that the district was at all unhealthy. On the evening of
+my arrival there was a dinner-party, at which four ladies were present,
+and later on there was music and singing, and all the accompaniments of a
+pleasant social life. So much do coffee districts vary in India, that the
+party was to me a startling surprise, which the reader may easily
+understand when I mention that, after leaving the most northerly
+plantation in Coorg and entering my district of Manjarabad, there is only
+one resident lady to be found there, and it is not till you reach the
+northern district of Mysore, some sixty miles further, that ladies, in the
+plural, again commence, though even there they do not exist to a very
+serious extent.
+
+On the afternoon of the day of my arrival I walked round my host's estate,
+which carried an excellent crop, and also visited a neighbouring property.
+On the following morning I drove to the Dubarri estate, and walked round
+part of it, and in the afternoon visited the club--a comfortable, and in
+every respect suitable, building which, as I mentioned, is occasionally
+used for dances. I also visited the co-operative store, which contained a
+large supply of various articles. The church, which was close to the club,
+had been recently built, at a cost of 5,000 rupees, but, when I saw it,
+the interior was not quite finished. I may mention that in the Bamboo
+district there is a resident doctor who is employed by the various
+estates. Later on in the afternoon I rode from the club with Mr. William
+Davies to the Mattada Kadu estate (Messrs. Matheson and Co.'s property),
+of which he is manager, and rode through coffee all the way to the
+bungalow. I was most kindly entertained by Mr. Davies, who had a party of
+the neighbouring planters to meet me at dinner, after which we had much
+talk on the subject in which we were all mutually interested. On the
+following morning I awoke early, and was rather surprised, shortly after
+daylight, to hear the names of the coolies called over from the
+check-roll, as, though early hours were kept in the old days in Mysore, we
+have now become considerably later, owing, I surmise, to feeling that in
+these labour-competing days we are not as completely master as we once
+were. After a small breakfast I rode through the estate, guided by Mr.
+Davies, who was accompanied by two of his guests of the night before, and
+we then passed into the Nullagottay estate (all Messrs. Matheson's), after
+which we entered into Whust Nullagottay, and went to the bungalow from
+which (there is always an exception) there is a fine view of the
+Brahmagiri Hills. After a very short stay we again mounted, and presently
+passed into the Whoshully estate, and finally arrived, after riding
+through that property, at about midday at Mr. Robinson's bungalow, where
+we had breakfast. Mr. Rose came over in the afternoon, and we rode home to
+Hill Grove through Messrs. Matheson's estate which had been bought from
+Mr. Minchin, besides visiting the Hope estate. I thus rode through coffee
+for nearly the entire day. On the following day I went over another
+adjacent property, and on the day after, Monday, October 26th, started for
+Mercara, the capital of Coorg. I drove by way of Siddapur, paid a short
+visit to Cannon Kadu estate, and arrived at Abiel, Mr. Martin's estate,
+at about midday, rode round his estate in the afternoon, and then drove on
+to Mr. E. Meynell's charming home--the Retreat--which is about a mile from
+the town of Mercara.
+
+I was particularly struck with the arrangements of this house, as it was a
+thoroughly English-looking home in every respect, and I only wish I could
+give a plan of it as a model for a residence in the hill and planting
+districts of India. The front veranda was inclosed with glass, and lined
+with flowers in pots, and from the centre of this projected a
+conservatory, at the end of which was the front door. You thus, after
+driving up to the house, walked through a conservatory into the inclosed
+veranda, and this not only gave a very pretty effect, but was practically
+useful by keeping carriages, with their attendant dust and disagreeables,
+at a sufficient distance from the veranda. My hostess very kindly
+permitted me to see the kitchen arrangements. These, as well as the
+storerooms, were in a wing projecting from the back of the bungalow. The
+kitchen, which consisted of a separate room, with a single door, was
+furnished with a Wilson range, and there was no door between the kitchen
+and the scullery. The latter was at the outside edge of the wing, and was
+entered by its own door--an arrangement, by the way, that might be
+practised with advantage in this country, as a connecting door is liable
+to admit smells from the scullery into the kitchen. The reader will, I
+trust, excuse the mention of these apparently trivial matters, but as I
+strongly suspect that much of the ill-health in India is due to the dirt
+and horrors of the Indian cook-room, which is usually at a little distance
+from the bungalow, and turned into a general lounge for the servants, I
+think it well to show that, with a little contrivance and attention, as
+great a degree of order and cleanliness may exist in India as in any other
+portion of the globe.
+
+On the following day I called on Mr. Mann, son of one of the pioneer
+planters of 1855, and inspected an interesting coffee garden of four acres
+which is close to his bungalow in Mercara. Some of the coffee trees were
+planted thirty and others forty years ago, and they have given for many
+years fifteen hundredweight an acre on the average, and though many of the
+trees were evidently suffering from the effects of overbearing, there
+seemed no reason why they should not continue to bear good crops for an
+indefinite period of time. Estimating the value of the coffee at 80s. a
+hundredweight, the produce of an acre would be worth £60, of 100 acres
+£6,000, and allowing one-half for expenses--a very liberal estimate--there
+would be a clear income of £3,000 a year from 100 acres of such coffee. As
+100 acres of land so situated--it was flat, lay in a hollow, and was well
+sheltered--could not be obtained, it might seem that an account of this
+garden could be of no practical value. But the garden in question raises
+one very important point in the mind, and that is whether it would not be
+better to abandon all inferior soils and situations on an estate, and
+concentrate all the labour and manurial resources on a more limited area,
+every operation on which could be carried out exactly at the right moment.
+This is a highly important question which I state here for the
+consideration of planters.
+
+After spending two pleasant days at the Retreat, I bade my kind host and
+hostess good-bye (I have thanked Mr. Meynell, who I may mention represents
+Messrs. Matheson's large interests in Coorg, in the preface for the
+valuable information he subsequently sent me as regards planting in
+Coorg), and went on my way towards my home in Mysore, and stayed first at
+the Hallery estate, which is about six miles from Mercara, and is the
+property of my friend Mr. Mangles. The approach to the bungalow through
+the coffee is very pretty; the building stands at the head of a slope,
+and commands a fine and extensive view of the country and the distant
+hills. The amenities here had been well attended to: below the front of
+the bungalow terraces edged with balustrades had been cut, and formed into
+flower gardens, and I was glad to see that, in parts of the plantation,
+from which good views could be had, there were seats. I may observe here
+that there is a great want in plantations of seats, which are now the more
+needed as all logs in the old plantations have of course disappeared. Near
+the bungalow is an excellent stable, well paved, and quite in English
+style. On the following morning I wont with Mr. Sprott, who is in charge
+of Mr. Mangles's estate, to visit his Santigherry property, some seven
+miles distant, and on the way there went on the left of the road through a
+plantation belonging to Messrs. Macpherson and Ainslie. After this we
+re-entered the main road, passed the village of Santikoopa, and then
+entered and went round the estate we had come to visit. On the way home we
+diverged to the left and went through Mr. Murray Ainslie's estate, and
+round by an estate owned by Mr. Campbell, and finally arrived at Hallery
+at about half-past twelve. In the afternoon I went round part of the
+estate, which I had already seen something of on the day of my arrival.
+
+Early the following morning, after bidding good-bye to the host and
+hostess who had so kindly entertained me, I started on my journey
+northwards, and after a troublesome and trying drive (for my horses), in
+which two rivers had to be crossed by ferry boats, and much deep
+unmetalled road struggled through, I arrived at 12.30 at
+Coovercolley--another estate of Mr. Mangles's--where I was kindly
+entertained by Mr. and Mrs. Trelawney (Mr. Trelawney manages this fine
+property). The bungalow here is particularly comfortable, and had the
+great advantage of a very wide open veranda. On the right of the approach
+to the bungalow was a neatly trimmed shoe flower hedge, which had a very
+pretty effect, and, as at Hallery, terraces had been cut in front for a
+flower garden. From the front of the bungalow there is an extensive view
+of much of the Coorg country, and I was particularly struck by its
+continuous jungly character, and with its great contrast to the Mysore
+country to the north, which is not so much a jungly country, as an open
+grass country studded with occasional wood, and park-like groups of trees.
+On the afternoon of my arrival I rode round part of this fine estate, and
+inspected other parts of it on the following morning and evening. On the
+next morning I started at a quarter to six, and after driving about
+twenty-four miles, crossed the frontier, and entered Manjarabad--the
+southernmost coffee district of Mysore. The northernmost part of Coorg
+consists of a long tongue of land which projects into Mysore, and the
+scenery, in its beautiful, open, and park-like character, naturally
+resembles that of Manjarabad.
+
+On my visit to Coorg I look back with pleasure. It was, indeed, extremely
+enjoyable and instructive, and I cannot help regretting the fact that,
+owing to the nature of their duties, planters are obliged to remain so
+continuously at home; and then, of course, when they can get away, they
+naturally go for change of air and scene anywhere out of the coffee
+districts. The result of this is that the planters of the north of Mysore
+see little of those in the south, and that neither have any intercourse
+with Coorg, and that, in consequence, much valuable interchange of views
+and experiences that might otherwise take place cannot now do so. Had such
+intercourse existed, many of the mistakes made in Coorg as regards shade
+would probably have been avoided, and much loss of money averted.
+
+The reader will have noticed that I have hitherto made no observations on
+the coffee I saw in Coorg, my reason for not doing so being that I thought
+they might be more conveniently reserved for the close of the chapter. I
+am glad that in the course of my observations I shall have much to say in
+praise of the state of coffee in Coorg, and if I should seem to be a
+little free in my remarks as to the management of shade, I trust that my
+Coorg readers will bear in mind that my experience of trees planted as
+shade to supply the place of original forest trees removed is the oldest
+in India, and stretches back to the year 1857, and that it requires a very
+long time, as they will see by consulting the chapter on shade, before all
+the points connected with shade trees can be proved with certainty. That
+mistakes as regards shade should have been made in Coorg, where shade
+experience is comparatively recent, is not at all surprising; in former
+times numerous mistakes were made in Mysore, and have only been rectified
+by long experience and observation.
+
+My general impression on going through the Bamboo district of Coorg was
+that it contains a certain proportion of land of poor character (and this
+can be said of most coffee districts) which should never have been opened,
+but that there are many excellent and valuable estates, though it was
+plain to me that, from the more weakly, or perhaps I should rather say
+less robust, character of the shoots, and the appearance of the soil, it
+had, as a rule, much less growing power in it, and would consequently
+require more manure, than the deep and heavier soils of Mysore. But these
+soils in the Bamboo district, though lighter in character, are of course
+(and this is a fact of no small importance) more easily worked than those
+of Mysore. The next point that attracted my attention was the shade, and
+of the numerous estates that I saw in the Bamboo district there were only
+two that at all came up to my idea of what a well shaded property ought to
+be. I could see little signs of the shade being varied in kind and
+quantity to suit the various aspects, and many trees were preserved which
+were merely throwing shadow, not on to the coffee, but on to adjacent
+trees. Then I found that in one excellent piece of young coffee the shade
+had been planted in lines running from east to west, instead of being
+closely planted in lines from north to south (_vide_ chapter on shade).
+The shade, too, generally speaking, was far too largely composed of one
+kind of tree,--the Attí-mara (_Ficus glomerata_)--and finally this tree,
+the defects of which I have remarked upon in my chapter on shade, was
+badly managed by being trimmed up to a considerable height above the
+ground. The result of this was that on land on which there was an enormous
+number of trees there was far too little shade, and a forester fresh from
+England would never have imagined that the planters had intended to grow
+umbrageous trees for the double purpose of lowering the temperature of the
+plantation and sheltering the coffee from sun and parching winds, but
+would have supposed that they were engaged in growing timber for sale. I
+saw land which, I feel sure, had at least three times the number of trees
+that would have been sufficient to shade it fully, had they been properly
+treated. Such a number of trees throw out, of course, a corresponding
+number of large roots, and one planter told me that in some instances
+coffee was being killed by the masses of Attí root in the land. As regards
+shade, then, there is much room for improvement in Coorg, and especial
+attention should be paid to this in the Bamboo district which has suffered
+so much from Borer. This pest, we know, thrives best under warm and dry
+conditions, and it is therefore of great importance that the kinds of
+shade most recommended in my chapter on shade should be freely planted,
+and other kinds gradually removed.
+
+There was a very good crop on the trees when I passed through Coorg--one
+that, when picked, quite exceeded the expectations of the planters--and I
+saw two estates which had at once a good crop on the trees, leaves of
+good, well-fed looking colour, and a show of wood giving promise of an
+equally good crop for the following year; and it says well for cultivation
+in Coorg that any estate could show this, for the tendency of coffee, as
+of most fruit trees, is to give heavy and light crops alternately. As it
+is important to know the manures that were used to produce such results, I
+may mention that on one of these estates 6 cwt. of castor cake and 3 cwt.
+of bones had been applied the previous year, and for the four preceding
+years 2 cwt. of castor cake and 1 cwt. of bone had been used, but, in the
+opinion of the manager, the latter application had proved too small. On
+the other estate one-third of a bushel of cattle manure per tree, and from
+7 cwt. to 10 cwt. of bones had been applied once in three years, and
+composts also had been used to a considerable extent. These were formed
+first of a layer of vegetable rubbish, then fresh pulp and lime, and
+lastly a layer of soil. The estate last referred to, on which the cattle
+manure, bones and compost had been used, belongs to Mr. Mangles--his
+Coovercolley estate--and is certainly the finest I ever saw, if we take
+into consideration the state of the soil, the colour of the foliage, and
+the evident prospect of continuously good crops. So well fed, indeed, was
+the land with nitrogen, that an application of nitrate of soda produced no
+perceptible effect on the trees. The land was probably over supplied with
+phosphoric acid, and an analysis of the soil would be of practical value,
+for if, as I have good reason to surmise, there is a very large supply of
+phosphoric acid in the soil, the use of bones might be suspended for some
+years, and a light application of lime used instead. Ten acres, at any
+rate, might be tried as an experiment. I was shown one piece of coffee
+which had been manured, when it was two years old, with cattle manure, and
+this piece had remained perceptibly superior ever since. On this estate
+600 cattle are kept for the sake of their manure. I would suggest that
+the proprietor might, on say ten acres, discontinue the use of cattle
+manure, and, as an experiment, apply dressings of jungle top-soil instead,
+or the red earth alluded to in my chapter on manures, should that be
+available. The experiment might be valuable to the proprietor and to
+planters in general. Cattle manure is very expensive, and when 12 to 14
+tons per acre--some fairly well rotted and some slightly so--were used in
+Coorg on one estate the cost was 72 rupees an acre, including cost of
+application.
+
+In bringing these brief remarks to a close, I may observe that I formed a
+very high opinion of coffee in Coorg, and I feel confident that if the
+shade were remodelled on the system recommended in my chapter on that
+subject, the losses from Borer and leaf disease would be largely
+diminished, and a great general improvement in the coffee take place. We
+have experienced such results from improved shade in Mysore, and there can
+be no doubt that similar results will follow in Coorg. In remodelling the
+shade system, all light and dry soils should be first attended to and
+planted up with trees which give an ample and cool shade. The treatment of
+other parts of plantations may be postponed.
+
+As regards the profits that may reasonably be expected from well managed
+and well situated estates in Coorg, I am happy to say that I have obtained
+from a friend the returns from his estates for the last ten years, and as
+his properties are of large extent, the return may be regarded as a very
+reliable one, more especially as the prices for three years of the period
+were very low. The average yield per acre was 4 cwt. 1 qr. 7 lbs.; the
+expenses, £9 4s. 2d., and the profits per acre £7 8s. 6d.
+
+I only wish that, in conclusion, I could give as favourable an account of
+the prospects of sport in Coorg as I can of its coffee. Twenty-five years
+ago there was good big game shooting, but the absence of game laws, and
+the indiscriminate destruction of does, fawns, and cow bisons by the
+natives, at every season of the year, have changed all that, and it is
+with a melancholy smile that one reads in the "Coorg Gazetteer" that the
+Coorgs are such ardent sportsmen that they have hardly left a head of game
+in the country. But the first sign of advanced civilization--the
+intelligent preservation of wild animals--has begun, or will shortly be
+begun, in the enlightened state of Mysore, and I trust that its good
+example may soon be followed in Coorg, and all parts of India. With the
+aid of preservation game will soon increase in the more remote forests
+into which it has been driven back, and from thence spread into other
+parts of the country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[48] "Manual of Coorg," compiled by Rev. G. Richter, Principal, Government
+Central College, Mercara. Mangalore, 1870.
+
+[49] The late Mr. William Pringle, who, after leaving Coorg, wrote in
+1891, for the "Madras Mail," some interesting and suggestive papers on the
+cultivation of coffee.
+
+[50] I make this statement on the authority of Mr. Meynell (_vide_
+preface), and it is, no doubt, the result of his experience in the Bamboo
+district, but his estimate could hardly, I should say, apply to the
+estates I visited in North Coorg.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+COFFEE PLANTING IN MYSORE.
+
+
+After a long and attentive observation of the various occupations of life,
+I have no hesitation in saying that, for one who has to earn his bread
+somewhere, the life of a planter in Mysore, if not the very pleasantest
+and most interesting (and as far as my own experience goes it is both) in
+the world, is assuredly one of the most agreeable occupations that anyone
+of intelligence, industry, and active habits, and fond of sport and an
+independent and open-air life, could betake himself to. It will be
+observed that I place intelligence in the van, and I do so because, though
+there is some truth in the native proverb which declares that, "with
+plenty of manure even an idiot may be a successful agriculturist," I know
+of no occupation that calls for a greater degree of intelligence and
+steady application than that of a planter in Mysore, or any district where
+shade trees are required. For where the planter has only to deal, as he
+has in Ceylon, with the coffee on his land and nothing else, the business,
+though even then of course requiring considerable skill and intelligence,
+is comparatively speaking a simple one. But in Mysore the necessity of
+providing shade for the coffee gives us at once an additional and highly
+complicated business in the planting and management of the shade trees,
+and their selection and distribution to suit the various soils, aspects
+and gradients we have to deal with. Then the fact of having shade trees,
+which of course take up much of the manure intended for the coffee, makes
+the application of the manure, and especially the quantity to be put down
+at a time, a matter of constant doubt, for on the one hand, how much do
+the shade trees not rob us of, and on the other hand, how much do they not
+return to the land by their fallen leaves? Then should we not manure and
+cultivate in a different manner and degree the coffee under the direct
+shade of the trees, and the coffee in the open spaces between them? Such
+are some of the numerous points connected with coffee planting under
+shade, to which I briefly allude at the outset in order to show those who
+wish to plant coffee that a high degree of intelligence, and power of
+observation, are required to make a successful planter. Then it must be
+considered further that a colloquial knowledge of the Kanarese language
+must be acquired--a language which, from its admixture of ancient and
+modern Kanarese, the variation in the accent, and the words in common use
+in various parts of the country, is generally considered to be the most
+difficult in India. And, as will be seen further on, it requires no small
+amount of study and observation in order to determine how best to lay out
+money in the purchase or manufacture of manures. There is also occasion
+for much tact, firmness, and temper, in dealing with the labourers and
+overseers on the estates, and also the native population with which nearly
+all the estates in Mysore are surrounded. Then much tact and judgment is
+required in dealing with the Government officials. Other points might also
+be added, but I have probably said enough to caution those who may be
+inclined to embark in coffee planting in Mysore, against assuming, as has
+hitherto been too often done, that it is a business which may be managed
+by people of inferior capacity.
+
+I have said that the occupation is an agreeable one, and may add that,
+though the life of a planter involves much attention to his business,
+there is no really hard work in the sense that there is hard work in the
+colonies, and, from the coffee being in shade, there is no exposure to the
+sun, while as all the preparation of the crop is done by agents on the
+coast, there is none of that indoor factory work which tea planters have
+to undertake. Then the climate, taking it all the year round, is
+distinctly an agreeable one,--an exquisitely fine one in the winter, never
+disagreeably warm in the hot weather, owing to the coffee districts being
+under the influence of breezes from the western sea, only disagreeably wet
+in the monsoon, though then the climate is so fresh and healthy, that many
+find that season of the year to be by no means unpleasant. Besides, during
+the worst part of the wet season, there is comparatively little to do, and
+the owner of an estate can then leave home for change of air and scene. As
+regards the healthiness of Mysore, I can only say that everything depends
+on the discretion of the individual. If he chooses to take reasonable care
+of himself, experience shows that the climate is a decidedly healthy one,
+but if he chooses to expose himself unnecessarily, and fails to take those
+precautions as regards food, and against chills which all sensible people
+do, then he will be pretty sure to get fever. I may mention that the
+elevations of the coffee estates vary from 2,800 to about 4,000 feet above
+the level of the sea, which partly accounts for the temperate nature of
+the climate, though this of course is, as I have previously pointed out,
+very largely controlled and improved by the estates being under the
+influence of the charming sea-breezes of the Western Ghauts. And if the
+planter wishes to avoid the hot weather altogether, he has only to go to
+Ootacamund, 7,000 feet above sea-level, where he will not only come in for
+a delightful climate, but for the Ootacamund season. April and May may be
+pleasantly spent there, and when the monsoon begins in June, the planter
+who desires to avoid it can go to Bangalore, where he will be in time for
+the season there, and he can afterwards return to his estate in September.
+This is a change I can recommend from practical experience. Or should a
+change to England be preferred, the planter should leave India about the
+end of April, and return in October. Such changes as these of course are
+only to be thought of when the planter has made his way in the world; and
+I only allude to them here to show that he may personally see to the
+carrying out of all the important operations from October till April, and
+either spend the remainder of his time under most agreeable circumstances
+in India, or pass the summer and autumn in England. In former days such
+changes could not reasonably have been contemplated, owing partly to the
+time taken up in travelling, and partly to the cost, but we now have
+railways within thirty to sixty miles of the various plantations, and it
+is certain that at no very distant date these distances will be halved,
+and that we shall then be within seventeen to eighteen days of London--at
+present we may be said to be within eighteen to nineteen days of it. In
+expense the cost has been halved; a first-class return ticket from Bombay
+to London may now be had for £90, and on other lines of steamers the rates
+are lower. But it is now time to turn from matters of detail to consider
+the advantages of coffee in Mysore, as a good, safe, and permanent
+investment, and in order to show that the two last mentioned statements
+are well founded, I have obtained some details which will show the
+probable profits of coffee in Mysore. For obvious reasons I withhold the
+names of the estates. I have said that the investment is a permanent one,
+and by this I mean that, unless ruined by profound and incredible
+stupidity, a well shaded coffee estate in Mysore will last as long as the
+world will, or at any rate as long as the inhabitants of it choose to
+drink coffee, and in confirmation of this opinion, I may mention that one
+of the most flourishing pieces of coffee I have ever seen in Mysore was
+planted on land first opened about ninety-five years ago, and which was
+replanted about seventy years after it was first opened. I can also point
+to land opened in 1857, and which has in recent years been replanted with
+the new variety of coffee imported from Coorg, and, as the owner of it
+said to me last year when we were going round the property, "The estate is
+now looking better than you have ever seen it." But all the old estates in
+Mysore that were planted in the proper coffee zone are in existence now,
+and many of them look better than they ever did. The durability of coffee
+property in Mysore, then, is, as we have seen, not a subject of
+speculation, but an ascertained fact, and I now proceed to show that it is
+as profitable as it is durable.
+
+The first case I have to give relates to coffee property purchased by a
+friend of mine with money borrowed at eight per cent. interest, and with
+his permission I publish an account of his investment, as it not only
+shows what has been done in Mysore in the face of great difficulties, but
+illustrates the profits that may be expected from a property that is well
+managed, and well situated as regards soil and climate. In 1876, then, he
+purchased a native estate of 240 acres of good coffee land, of which 180
+acres had been very irregularly planted with "chick" coffee (the original
+Mysore plant). The total cost amounted to 98,000 rupees, which sum was
+borrowed at eight per cent. By 1880 the loan was reduced, from the profits
+of the coffee, by about 30,000 rupees, and my friend then purchased an
+adjoining native estate of 163 acres, sixty of which were also very
+irregularly planted with chick coffee. The price was 13,250 rupees, which
+he also borrowed at eight per cent. The total amount borrowed was thus
+111,250 rupees, and the total coffee land was 403 acres. Up to about this
+time the chick coffee had done fairly well, and by 1880 the loan, as we
+have seen, was reduced by 30,000 rupees, but soon afterwards this variety
+of coffee plant began rapidly to deteriorate all over the district, and
+estates like my friend's, which had hitherto given satisfactory profits,
+did but little more than pay their working expenses. But, luckily for
+himself, my friend, directly after the purchase of each estate, began to
+plant them with the Coorg kind of coffee (afterwards fully alluded to in
+this chapter) which had been recently introduced, and, as the old chick
+trees were from six to seven feet high, and had no lower branches, they
+did not for some time interfere with the progress of the Coorg plants, and
+yielded enough to pay expenses. As the Coorg plants came into bearing the
+old chick plants were removed, and in 1887-88 nearly ninety tons of coffee
+were picked, and by that year the whole debt, principal and interest, was
+paid off, and a considerable balance was left over to my friend's credit.
+In 1889-90 the property gave him a clear profit of £3,350, and it has done
+well ever since. Thus with all these tremendous difficulties to contend
+with, and in the face of the loss of all the old coffee, and after having
+to replant the whole property at great expense, my friend found himself in
+the possession of an estate, free of all debt, capable of yielding good
+annual profits. And it must be remembered, further, that this result was
+obtained, not from virgin forest land exclusively, but from land the
+greater part of which consisted of old native plantations.
+
+There are, I need hardly say, no means of ascertaining the profits that
+may be expected from coffee in Mysore, but the following analysis of a
+Manjarabad estate of 400 acres under cultivation, which has been supplied
+to me by a friend, will form a fair guide to what may be reasonably
+expected from a Mysore estate where the management is good. In the case
+in question, the average crop for the last five years, has been 3-3/4 cwt.
+an acre. The expenses were 111-1/2 rupees an acre, and the average profit
+111-1/10 rupees per acre per annum, or rather over £7 2s. 6d. an acre. I
+may add that I consider this a fair average estimate of what may be
+expected in Mysore on a well managed estate, as a considerable proportion
+of the land in question is of decidedly inferior quality. I have no
+special details to give from the northern part of Mysore, but I am
+informed by a planter of experience, who resides in that part of the
+country that, from a good estate of 200 acres, a profit of from £1,500 to
+£2,000 a year may be counted on.
+
+We have seen that the life is attractive, that coffee property is durable
+and profitable, and the reputation of the coffee is not exceeded by any
+coffee in the world, and, as I shall show further on, the plant is
+singularly free, when properly shaded and worked, from risk in any form,
+or pests of any kind. Nothing, in short, in the world would appear to be
+more desirable as a source of investment than coffee in Mysore, for those
+who are prepared to understand and look after it. And with all these
+alluring advantages, which I have, I believe, most accurately described,
+it might naturally be supposed that, coffee property in Mysore could be
+readily disposed of on advantageous terms to the seller. As a matter of
+fact, it is quite unsalable at any price that would be at all satisfactory
+to the owners. The explanation of this is very simple. Those who are
+working their own estates on the spot seldom command enough capital to
+invest in new estates, or do not care to extend their property, while
+capitalists at a distance, have, from the absence of information, no means
+of judging as to whether coffee in Mysore is a good investment or not.
+Instead, then, of accurate, or fairly accurate, accounts to rely on, we
+have nothing but vague and misleading statements and reports, which often
+affect most injuriously industries of sound and thriving character, and,
+as an instance in point, I may mention that, from what I had heard of
+coffee in Coorg (to which I have devoted a chapter), I should have been
+fully prepared, had I not learnt to regard all such reports with
+suspicion, to find a district on the high road to ruin. As it was, I was
+certainly prepared, and, indeed, expected to find, coffee in Coorg in a
+doubtful position. That precisely the reverse proved to be the case was a
+most agreeable surprise to me. One of my informants dismissed the whole
+matter thus. Coffee in Ceylon, he said, has gone with leaf disease, Wynaad
+(the district in the Madras Presidency, south of Coorg) is following,
+Coorg will go next, and Mysore last. Ceylon certainly has gone, Wynaad I
+will not pronounce upon, as I have not visited the estates in that
+district, but that Coorg and Mysore with their shade grown coffee will go
+with leaf disease is a mere groundless assertion, as the reader will, I
+hope, admit when I come to treat, in its proper place, of leaf disease and
+the effect of shade in limiting its amount, and controlling its injurious
+effects. And so far had these reports gone, and so thoroughly do the
+public at home connect coffee with Ceylon, and Ceylon alone, that a most
+thriving Mysore planter told me that, when he visited England, he now took
+good care to conceal his occupation, as he found that when he mentioned he
+was a coffee planter, people concluded at once that he was ruined. It is,
+then, most necessary to lay all the facts connected with coffee in Mysore
+before the public, with the view of placing our industry in its legitimate
+position, and I therefore make no apology for having gone into this branch
+of my subject with considerable minuteness. But it is now time to address
+myself particularly to the history and cultivation of coffee in Mysore,
+and to other matters in which the planters are directly or indirectly
+interested, and first of all it may not be uninteresting if I say a few
+words as to the introduction of the plant into India, or at any rate as to
+the earliest notices I can find on the subject.
+
+The earliest notice I can find of coffee in India is contained in a Dutch
+work entitled "Letters from Malabar," by Jacob Canter Visscher, chaplain
+at Cochin. This collection of letters has been translated by Major Drury,
+or rather at his instance, and as the date of the Dutch editor's preface
+is 1743, it is evident that the coffee plant must have at least been
+introduced five or six years earlier, but the date of its introduction is
+not mentioned, and we are merely informed, at page 160, that "the coffee
+shrub is planted in gardens for pleasure and yields plenty of fruit, which
+attains a proper degree of ripeness. But it has not the refined taste of
+the Mocha coffee.... An entire new plantation has been laid out in
+Ceylon." The plant, however, though introduced at that early period, does
+not seem to have met with much attention in India, and I can find no other
+allusion to coffee in Indian books till we come to Heyne's Tracts, which
+were published in 1800, and we are there merely told that coffee was sold
+in the bazaars of Bangalore and Seringapatam.
+
+Turning next to the history of coffee in Mysore, we find that there is no
+official record of either plant or planting further back than the year
+1822, which is not very surprising, as it was only placed under British
+rule in 1831; but tradition in these cases seldom fails to supply some
+story which is suitable enough, and it may after all be quite true that,
+as reported, a Mussulman pilgrim, about two hundred years ago, returned
+from Arabia with seven beans which he planted round his mutt (temple) on
+the Bababudan hills in the northern part of Mysore, near which some very
+old trees may still be seen, and that from these beans all the coffee in
+Mysore has descended. But, though the plant may have been introduced at
+this early period, I think it improbable that anything in the shape of
+plantations existed before about the close of the last century. And,
+though the plant has been known for such a number of years, it is not a
+little remarkable that coffee has only come into use by the natives who
+grow it in recent years, and when I first settled in Mysore, in 1856, I
+was repeatedly asked by the farmers of the country whether we ate the
+berry, and of what use it could possibly be. And even now, from all that I
+can learn, coffee is rarely used by the natives in the coffee growing
+districts, though I am informed that it is so to a considerable extent in
+the towns of the province.
+
+I have alluded to the tradition of coffee being first introduced into
+Mysore by a Mussulman pilgrim about two hundred years ago, and the species
+of coffee that was introduced then, or at some subsequent period, was the
+only one known in Mysore when I entered the province in 1855. This plant
+was finally called the "Chick" variety of coffee, and the name was taken,
+I believe, from the town of Chickmaglur, which lies close to the original
+Mysore home of the coffee plant. This variety had thriven well and
+promised to do so for an indefinite period of time, but towards the end of
+1866, and during the three succeeding years, we had dry hot seasons, which
+caused a general attack of the Borer insect, and at about the same time
+there occurred a general decline in the constitution of the trees, which,
+though no doubt greatly hastened in the majority of instances by the
+Borer, of which the reader will find a particular account in a subsequent
+chapter, has never been explained, and so serious was this decline that,
+had we been dependent wholly on the original Mysore variety, it is the
+opinion of one of our most experienced planters that, to use his own
+words, "there would have been an end of coffee planting in Mysore except
+in the case of a few elevated tracts on the Bababudan range of hills."
+But, most fortunately for the planters, the Government, and the people of
+Mysore, Mr. Stanley Jupp--a South Mysore planter--took in 1870 a trip into
+Coorg, which lies on the south-west of Mysore, and was so favourably
+impressed with the variety of coffee grown there that he recommended that
+experiments should be made with it in Mysore, and in 1871 experiments on a
+considerable scale were made with carefully selected seed which was
+obtained from Coorg by Messrs. R. A. and Graham Anderson, Mr. Brooke
+Mockett, and Mr. Arthur Jupp. The experiments turned out to be a
+remarkable success, the young plants raised from the imported seed grew
+with extraordinary vigour, and it was soon found that the new variety
+would grow and crop well, and even on land on which all attempts to
+reproduce the "Chick" variety had utterly failed. Then this sinking
+industry rose almost as suddenly as it had fallen; old and abandoned
+estates, and every available acre of forest, and even scrub, were planted
+up, and land which used to change hands at from 5 to 10 rupees an acre was
+eagerly bought in at twelve times these amounts. But there was still some
+anxiety felt as regards the new variety, or rather the produce of it, for
+when we took it to market the brokers at once objected and said, "We are
+not going to give you Mysore prices for Coorg coffee." But it was found,
+as had been anticipated by many experienced planters, that as the trees
+from Coorg seed aged the produce each year assimilated more and more in
+appearance and quality to that of the old Mysore plant, which is still
+grown on some estates in North Mysore, and some years ago I even obtained
+a slightly higher price for my coffee from the new variety than a friend
+had obtained for coffee of the old "Chick" kind. The coffee industry of
+Mysore is now established on a thoroughly sound basis. We have a plant
+which crops more regularly and heavily than the old variety, and which is
+in every respect satisfactory, and the produce of it has so improved under
+the influence of the soil and climate of Mysore, that, with the exception
+of the estates which produce the long-established brand of "Cannon's
+Mysore," and perhaps a few other estates on the Bababudans which have
+retained the original "Chick" variety of coffee, there is little
+difference in value between the produce of Coorg plants which have been
+long established in Mysore and the coffee of the original and now
+generally discarded variety. I may here add that the coffee of Mysore has
+always had a high reputation. This high quality has been partly attributed
+to soil and climate and partly to the coffee being slowly ripened under
+shade. But, however that may be, a glance at the weekly lists in the
+"Economist" will show that Mysore coffee of the best quality is commonly
+valued at from 10s. to 15s. a cwt. above that of any other kind that
+reaches the London market.
+
+I now propose to give a brief account of our coffee land tenures, and
+shall then address myself to the intricate question of coffee cultivation
+in Mysore, and the still more difficult question of the shade trees which
+shelter the coffee from sun and wind, and the soil from the wash of the
+tropical rains.
+
+When I entered the province in 1855 anyone who desired to have a given
+tract of forest land for coffee planting sent an application to the
+Government for it. An inquiry was then made, and, if no objection existed
+to the land being made over to the intending settler, or applicant, a
+puttah or grant, free of any charge for the land or any fee even in
+connection with the grant, was made out in Kanarese, which mentioned the
+name of the land and the boundaries of it, and stated that the land was to
+be planted with coffee within three years' time, and that, if not so
+planted, it was liable to be resumed by the State. No survey was made of
+the land, nor was it of any importance to estimate the acreage, there
+being no land tax, but in its place a tax of 1 rupee per cwt. of clean
+coffee produced, which was only liable to be demanded when the coffee was
+exported from the country, and not before. This system may seem to many to
+have been an objectionable one, and, from one point of view, no doubt it
+was, because the more highly the planter cultivated, the more highly he
+paid on each acre of his holding, but, on the other hand, the system
+enabled the planter to start with a very small capital, as he paid nothing
+for his land, nor a single shilling to the State till he had produced his
+crop. For starting and stimulating the industry the system certainly had
+its merits; but after the industry had obtained a firm footing, it was
+evidently of advantage to institute a taxational system of a different
+character, and, after much discussion and correspondence on the subject,
+the existing forms of tenure were finally decided on, and the "Mysore
+Coffee Land Rules" were formally notified to the public in March, 1885.
+There are two forms of grant--Form A, with an assessment of one rupee and
+a half an acre, which rate is fixed permanently, and Form B, at one rupee
+per acre, with liability to revision at the end of each period of thirty
+years. The assessment for local purposes stands now at 1 anna an acre
+(1-1/2d. at 2s. exchange), and that is the only taxation we have. There
+is not, and never has been, an income-tax in Mysore, nor is it at all
+probable that there ever will be, as the finances are in a flourishing
+condition, and the revenues under several important heads are improving,
+as may be seen on referring to the chapter on the general history of the
+province.
+
+Those who desire further and more detailed information regarding the rules
+in question, may be referred to the notification of March 24th, 1855, and
+I may mention that they are given in full in the "Mysore and Coorg
+Directory."[51]
+
+I regret that I have no precise information to give as regards the
+implanted coffee land in Mysore. With reference to the southern part of
+the province, I think I am quite safe in saying that all the land suitable
+for coffee has been taken up, but I am informed by a correspondent who
+resides in the northern part of the province, that in that part of the
+country there is much implanted land both in the possession of the
+Government and in the hands of private individuals. All along the sides of
+the western passes there are indeed large blocks of forest, but these,
+from the excessive rainfall, are quite unsuitable for coffee, as I am able
+to testify from an unfortunate practical experience, as I once took up
+land for coffee on the crests of the Ghauts. After its failure had been
+completely proved I sold the land to a planter who has since cultivated
+cardamoms on it, and last year the rainfall registered there was no less
+than 340 inches, nearly all of which fell between May and the end of
+October.
+
+From what has hitherto been written as regards our taxation, I need hardly
+say that the planters are well satisfied with the terms granted to them by
+the Government. With the roads, post, telegraphs, railways, dispensaries,
+and other facilities at their command, and the prospect of a further
+important development of communications, they have also every reason to be
+satisfied. In short, the progressive character of the Government would
+seem to leave nothing to be desired. There is, however, always a "but" in
+life, and in our case there are two "buts." The first of these relates to
+the state of the law as regards advances given to labourers to be worked
+off by them, and to contractors to bring labourers; and the second to
+extradition. To these may be added three wants--I can hardly call them
+grievances--the want of a Wild Birds' Protection Act, a Game Act, and an
+agricultural chemist. On these five points I now propose briefly to
+remark.
+
+The practice of giving money advances to labourers to be gradually worked
+off by them, and to contractors who undertake to supply labourers, has
+been productive of great loss and annoyance to employers, a great
+temptation to natives to commit fraud, and a source of constant worry to
+the officers of the Government. The Government sought by Act XIII. of 1859
+to check these evils, not by preventive, but purely by punitive
+legislation. Since then there has been a constant demand by employers of
+labour for more punitive legislation in the shape of amendments to the Act
+of 1859, and from recent assurances made by the Viceroy when he visited
+Mysore in 1892, it seems probable that something further will be done on
+the same lines. And something may of course be done to insure that the
+defaulter shall be severely dealt with--when he is caught. When he is
+caught. Yes, therein lies the whole difficulty, one which seems to have
+been as completely ignored by the Government as it has been by the
+planters in the legislation adopted with a view to check the evils
+connected with advances. In order to prove the necessity for further
+legislation an old planter once printed an account of a case which he took
+up against a defaulting coolie. His description of the hunt, and the wiles
+of the defaulting labourer in moving from one part of the country to
+another, was positively amusing, and showed conclusively that it did not
+pay to attempt to catch a defaulting labourer. What, then, can be the use
+of an Act which after all only punishes the coolie when he is caught, if
+the trouble and expense involved in catching him be so great, as to make
+the game not worth the candle? Is it not evident that the only thing which
+can help the planter is legislation which will make it very difficult for
+the labourer to obtain money from one employer and then run away and take
+an advance from another, and which will make it a comparatively easy
+matter to trace a defaulter? Now, after conferring with experienced
+planters and some leading native officials, I came to the conclusion that
+a system of registration could alone mitigate the serious evils of the
+advance system, and in conjunction with them I drew up a draft of a
+proposed Act which I laid on the table for the consideration of the Mysore
+Government when I attended the Representative Assembly in 1891, and I may
+mention that the draft in question has been printed in the Government
+Report of the Proceedings. It would be tedious to give an account of the
+provisions in the Bill, and it is sufficient to say that its two chief
+features were the registration of advances and the limitation of their
+amount. The registration was to be effected by its being made compulsory
+that when an advance was given three tickets on a Government form should
+be issued, one of which was to be held by the employer, the second by the
+labourer, and the third by the registrar of the talook. On each ticket was
+to be entered the name and address of the advancee, and the sum advanced,
+and as this was paid off the amounts so discharged were to be entered by
+the employer on the ticket retained by the labourer. When the whole amount
+was repaid, the ticket retained by the employer was to be handed to the
+registrar, who was then to erase the name of the labourer from the
+register of coolies under advances, and before any advance was handed to
+the labourer the registry was of course to be effected. The amount of
+advance was to be limited to ten rupees, and this was to be worked off in
+five months unless in the case of sickness. The object of limiting
+advances is as much in the interest of the labourer as of the employer, as
+it has been found that native employers of labour often give large
+advances to labourers and charge heavy interest on them when the coolie
+does not come to work, and thus so effectually get him into debt that he
+is reduced to the position of a slave. This system of registration would
+no doubt be troublesome, but it is the only way of checking the present
+evil system of giving advances which, now that labour is so well paid, is
+not really necessary, and that it is not so is evidenced by the fact that
+the large bodies of labourers employed in the gold mines receive no
+advances whatever. I may here mention that a private system of
+registration with reference to labour contractors has been started by the
+firm of Messrs. Matheson and Co., in connection with their extensive
+estates in Coorg, and that it has been found most useful. The system I
+have proposed would be valuable to the contractors, who themselves are
+often swindled by labourers to whom they have advanced money.
+
+I now turn to the subject of extradition, the law relating to which has
+much aggravated the evils connected with giving advances to labourers. The
+want of legislation on this subject has been brought to the notice of the
+Viceroy, and it is to be hoped that there may soon be complete reciprocity
+between native States and the British Government as regards warrants. At
+present a defaulter flying from Mysore to British territory can only be
+arrested by calling in the interposition of the Resident, a process so
+cumbrous that it is practically true, as alleged in the petition of the
+planters of Southern India, that "Planters or contractors residing in
+Mysore cannot obtain warrants against defaulters in British territory,
+though planters in British territory can obtain warrants against
+defaulters in Mysore." This is a grievance which requires redress, not
+only for the sake of the planters, but also of all other employers of
+labourers, or those who may have made contracts of any kind.
+
+Cattle trespass, I may mention, is not here alluded to because, though it
+was at one time a great grievance, a Cattle Trespass Amendment Act
+received the assent of His Highness the Maharajah in December, 1892. By
+this, where it is proved to the satisfaction of Government that in any
+given local area cattle are habitually allowed to trespass on land and
+damage crops, the fines will be doubled, and the owner of the land has
+besides the right to bring an action for compensation for any damage done
+to his land or crops.
+
+Having alluded to our grievances, I now pass on to consider lastly what
+may be called our wants as regards wild birds' protection, game
+preservation, and a Government agricultural chemist.
+
+A Wild Birds' Protection Act exists in British India, but as its
+provisions have not as yet been extended to our province, I would suggest
+that Mysore, in consequence of its numerous plantations where coffee and
+other plants and trees are liable to be attacked by insects, probably
+requires such an Act even more than any other part of India, and I may at
+the same time take the opportunity of suggesting that all the native
+States should be communicated with so that an Act for the Protection of
+Wild Birds may be provided for every part of India. It would be
+superfluous to adduce here the numerous and evident advantages that would
+arise from the protection of wild birds, as their value is now so
+universally recognized, and I therefore pass on to offer a few brief
+remarks on game preservation, or, to speak more exactly, of the
+preservation of those wild birds and harmless animals which are useful as
+food.
+
+The neglect of game preservation in India has not only been a cause of
+great loss to the country owing to the reckless waste of the sources of
+valuable supplies of food, but has severely injured the farmers in jungly
+tracts in a way that seems hitherto to have escaped notice. I allude to
+the fact that, in consequence of the wanton destruction of game in the
+western forests, tigers are compelled to inflict much greater losses on
+the herds of the natives. This is a fact to which I can personally
+testify, and which has since the middle of 1892 become steadily more
+apparent; for, when game was more plentiful in the forests along the
+crests, and at the foot of the Ghauts, the tigers lived largely upon game
+and rarely attacked cattle; indeed, so much was this the case that, about
+thirty years ago, a native who had the most outlying farm on the crests of
+the Ghauts told me that though tigers were constantly about they had never
+attacked his cattle. And as I was at the time living near his house, and
+clearing land for planting, and never got a shot at a tiger when residing
+there, I am sure that his statement was correct. But since that time
+English guns have become common, and the destruction of game of all kinds
+and of any age has gone on apace, and the result is that the tigers, which
+used to confine themselves mainly to preying on wild animals in the
+forests, have been forced to fall upon the village cattle, and I have
+never known tigers to be more destructive than they are now. On a single
+day this year no less than seven cattle were killed by tigers at one
+village, and an old planter of more than thirty years' standing, a near
+neighbour of mine, alluding to the subject in a recent letter, said, "Yes,
+there have been more tigers about this year than I have ever known." But
+it is not only on account of the supply of food from game, and for the
+sake of the cattle of the natives that a Game Preservation Act is urgently
+required, it is also urgently needed in order to check the abominable
+cruelties committed by the native hunters. Writing to me with reference to
+this subject, Colonel J. P. Grant, the head of the Survey and Settlement
+Service, observes as follows:
+
+"Gunning and especially netting, in the most reckless and improvident
+manner, are on the increase. Antelope are fast disappearing, and in the
+jungle tracts night shooting is clearing out spotted deer especially. As
+for cruelty nothing can exceed the indifference of net-workers to any pain
+they may cause their captures. Snipe are caught and their legs and wings
+broken, and in this condition they are kept alive and carried to market.
+The wounding, necessarily reckless during night shooting, is horribly
+cruel. Pea fowl, jungle fowl, or anything fairly big, have their eyes sewn
+up. I have often seen this. In the case of hares the tying is very cruel,
+the thong cutting down to the bone; and the same is the case with any deer
+they may catch alive."
+
+The rapid destruction of game of all kinds has been as melancholy as it
+has been remarkable, and I confess I never could have believed how
+complete, especially as regards small game, the deadly work has been had I
+not had occasion in recent years to drive, by easy stages, and early in
+the morning, along the whole of the western frontier of Mysore, and also
+much of the adjacent district of Coorg. In the old days, when riding, we
+always went at a walk and took our guns with us for shots at pea fowl,
+jungle fowl, pigeons, and other small game. But now you can neither see
+nor hear anything to shoot. And yet one of the favourite accusations of
+the Indian Congress against the Indian Government is that in consequence
+of the Arms Act the natives are unable to obtain guns and ammunition in
+order to defend themselves and their crops from the attacks of wild
+animals, though the scarcity of large game, and, in many cases, its
+absolute extinction, is notorious to sportsmen all over India. But the
+Mysore Government, I am happy to say, has at last directed its attention
+to the subject, and I have every reason to believe that a Game Act will
+soon be introduced in Mysore.
+
+The last want I have to allude to is that of a Government agricultural
+chemist, who should be empowered at a rate of fees, fixed by the State, to
+analyze soils and manures for private individuals, and to consult with
+planters and others as to the requirements of their soils and the best way
+of supplying them with manure. Such an officer would be very useful in
+searching for coprolites and new manurial resources. My life-long
+experience in agriculture on a large scale both in Scotland and Mysore has
+shown me more and more the great value of an agricultural chemist for
+discovering new manurial resources, and perhaps more especially
+economizing those that already exist; and the great want of such an
+officer was brought to the notice of Government by me when I was a member
+of the Representative Assembly in 1891.
+
+I may conclude this chapter by alluding to a discovery, or rather, I
+should say, a probable discovery, of the greatest importance, of a new
+hybrid coffee plant--a cross between the Liberian and the coffea Arabica.
+This has occurred on the property of a friend of mine, but, at his
+request, I do not publish his name, as he would be inundated with
+applications for seed. This magnificent hybrid, of which there are only
+two trees in existence as yet, has enormous bearing powers, and leaves
+which are apparently absolutely impervious to leaf disease, for I could
+not discover a trace of it though the hybrid is standing next to a coffee
+plant which is covered with it. It is of course uncertain as yet whether
+the new plant can be established as a distinct variety, nor do we know
+anything of the flavour of the coffee, as the quantity produced is yet so
+small that berries are reserved exclusively for seed; but should it be
+possible to establish the new variety (and I know of no reason why it
+should not be established), quite a new departure will take place in
+coffee production in India, and the value of coffee land will be enormous,
+as, from calculations made, the hybrid can produce at the rate of eight or
+nine tons an acre, while as many hundredweights an acre would be
+considered an unusually heavy crop in Mysore.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[51] "Hayes' Mysore and Coorg Directory," Bangalore. This valuable
+compilation, which contains no less than 573 pages, gives a most complete
+account of almost everything relating to Mysore and Coorg.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+SHADE.
+
+
+I now turn to the greatest of all the points connected with coffee--the
+question of shade. And I call it the greatest point, because if good shade
+of the best kind is grown it is absolutely impossible to destroy a
+plantation in Mysore, even with the worst conceivable management or
+neglect, and I say this after ample experience, as had it not been for the
+abundant and excellent shade on a badly-managed property of my own it
+would have been permanently ruined. But with plenty of good kinds of shade
+trees on the land you might even close the plantation gates, and abandon
+the land, and, as long as cattle were kept out, return ten years
+afterwards, saw down the coffee, grow suckers from the stumps, plant up
+the land with young plants where vacancies had occurred, and in four or
+five years the plantation would be as good as ever, and the land even
+better, for it would not have been exhausted by crop, and the fallen
+leaves from the shade trees would have enriched the soil. And if the old
+trees were not in a condition, from old age, to grow suckers that would
+develop into good trees, the whole land could be advantageously replanted.
+But, as the reader will remember, I have said that the trees must be the
+best kinds of shade trees, a subject that requires great study and
+observation to master. Before beginning, however, it may be well to point
+out those general principles which govern the whole subject, and which at
+once show us the best kinds of trees to select, and what is nearly of as
+great importance, how to manage them after they have been selected or
+planted, and I would lay particular stress on the latter point, which has,
+I may observe, been largely if not entirely misunderstood, simply because
+the great governing principle has been neglected.
+
+The governing principle, then, as regards shade for coffee is, that you
+should have on the land the smallest number of boles, because the more you
+multiply boles the more ground you waste; and the greater the number of
+large trees there are, the greater, of course, will be the number of large
+roots in the land, and the greater demand will there be on the resources
+of the soil; the greater, too, will be the waste of manure put down by the
+planter for the benefit of his coffee; and last, but by no means least,
+the smaller will be the amount of leaf deposit. I have seen much shade so
+managed as to give the greatest amount of boles with the smallest amount,
+and spread of branches, whereas the object of the planter ought to be to
+furnish the smallest number of boles with the greatest proportionate
+amount and spread of branches and foliage. And this unfortunate error, the
+evil of which will become more and more apparent as time advances, would
+never have been committed, had the primary principle I have pointed out
+been grasped at the outset.
+
+Let us then keep firmly in mind that, (1) we require trees that will, from
+their wide-spreading branches, enable us to do with the smallest number
+possible on the land, and that (2) if we trim up the lower branches of
+these trees when the trees are young because we do not like to see them
+too closely over the coffee, we shall entirely defeat the main object we
+have in view, because we shall certainly produce a tall tree with a small
+head, and consequently small spread of branches; and the clear
+apprehension of the principle first named guides us at once to the
+selection of the right kind of trees, and their proper treatment. I will
+now proceed to state the names of the trees that are, in my experience,
+the most desirable, and, secondly, those which are good for coffee, but
+which for various reasons are undesirable. After much and close study of
+this important subject, and a very long experience, I have come to the
+conclusion that the only trees which are at once easily propagated; free
+from the risks of attacks from cattle owing to their being grown from long
+cuttings; little liable to attacks from parasites, and which afford a
+proper degree of shade, and also admit the largest relative supply of
+light; which afford a large supply of leaf deposit; and which lastly, but
+by no means leastly, have very wide spreading branches, are only five in
+number. I give first the Kanarese and then the botanical name of each.
+There are, then, Cub Busree (_Ficus tuberculata_), the Gonee (_Ficus
+Mysorensis_), the Kurry Busree (_Ficus infectoria_), Eelee Busree (a
+variety of the last named), and Mitlee.[52]
+
+There are two kinds, Heb Mitlee, and Harl Mitlee--the second is a bad
+tree. The mitlee grows one fourth quicker than cub busree, and a recent
+close attention to this tree shows me that it is a much more desirable
+tree than either others or myself once supposed, for not only is it a
+quicker grower than the remainder of the most desirable kinds but its
+foliage lets in much light. It is, therefore, a most desirable tree for
+northern aspects.
+
+I next turn to a class of trees which are undoubtedly good for coffee, but
+which, for various reasons to be hereafter given, are less desirable than
+the five trees first given. The first of these less desirable trees is
+the Jack--Halsen-Mara (_Artocarpus integrifolia_), which was once a
+favourite tree, and there can be no doubt that coffee thrives well under
+it, but it is not a wide-spreading tree, the shade is too dense for every
+aspect, it is a slow grower, and it must be raised from young plants,
+which are very liable to be attacked by stray cattle. Then when old, and
+sometimes of medium age, it is very liable to be attacked by parasites;
+and it produces annually a heavy[53] crop of fruit which costs money and
+trouble to remove when immature, and which, if left to ripen, exhausts the
+soil. It is, too, liable to suffer much from wind, and, in situations
+which are at all windy, is not much to be relied on, as, when under the
+influence of wind, the foliage becomes poor and scanty, and the tree
+sometimes dies altogether. A study of the foliage will show, that in one
+important particular, the five first-named trees are superior to jack, for
+their leaves are attached to the twigs by long stalks, and much light is
+thus admitted through the spaces between the stalks, while the leaves of
+the jack are not only more numerous but are attached by short stalks, and
+the foliage thus throws a very dark shade. Then jack, as it is an
+evergreen, always affords a thick shade quite continuously, while the five
+first-named trees not only cast a chequered shade, but, at certain periods
+of the year, shed every leaf, leaving the tree quite bare for some time,
+which is an advantage to the coffee. And besides, I have some reason to
+suppose that the dense shade of the jack encourages rot (a disease
+remarked upon further on), as one of my managers reports that he has
+observed it under jack while it was not apparent on the coffee under other
+kinds of shade trees. But on hot westerly and southerly slopes, and
+especially where the soil is a bad retainer of moisture, and where the
+gradient is rather steep, jack may be used with advantage, as in such
+situations the heat is great and the light strong. I am therefore taking
+steps to remove jack by degrees from all but southerly and westerly
+exposures. I may add here that I have found that plants grown from seed
+procured from the dry plains of the interior of Mysore, grow more than
+twice as fast as plants raised from local seed. In concluding my remarks
+on jack, I would particularly advise planters to remove the jack fruit
+when immature, and put it into the manure heap, or bury it, as, if left on
+the ground, it attracts cattle and village pigs into the plantation. The
+fruit is large and full of a great number of seeds which must be an
+exhaustive crop on the land. On the Nilgiri hills I am told by the
+planters that there is a ready sale for jack fruit, but this is not the
+case in coffee districts generally.
+
+The Attí (_Ficus glomerata_) was with me once a favourite tree, and is
+generally considered to be a good one, as it affords a cool and desirable
+shade. As a young tree it is admirable, but as it ages the foliage becomes
+poor and scanty, and the tree has a tendency to run too much to thick
+bole, and thick branches, which are poorly supplied with smaller branches
+and foliage. When about thirty years old, I have generally found this tree
+to be a poor shader, but it can be much improved by severe pruning, or
+rather lopping. When thinning out shade on this estate about twenty years
+ago, a twelve year old tree had every branch removed preparatory to
+cutting down, but by some accident the tree was left standing, and the
+stumps of the branches threw out fresh shoots, and the tree is now
+flourishing, and has a comparatively wide spread of branches and fair
+amount of foliage. It is evident, then, that pruning heavily will cause
+the tree to throw out new and vigorous shoots, but as this is a
+troublesome and expensive work, and as attí is certainly liable to the
+defect above alluded to, and is, besides, not a wide-spreading tree, it is
+evidently not so desirable as any of the first five I have named. Attí can
+be grown from cuttings, but these must not be large ones, i.e., they
+should be thinner than those commonly used when planting cuttings of the
+various fig trees recommended at the beginning of the section on shade.
+
+The Noga (so called from its being much used to make bullock yokes from)
+or Nogurigay (_Cedrela Microcarpa_) is a favourite tree to plant for
+shade, as it is a quick grower, and cattle do not eat it, and it has been
+extensively planted in Mysore and Coorg. The shade is fairly good, but the
+tree is not a wide spreader. Then it has one very great objection owing to
+its being so peculiarly liable, when about thirty years old, to be
+severely attacked, and often killed, by parasites, and as it is so liable
+to be attacked, and therefore supplies a large quantity of parasite seed,
+the tree is the means of spreading these parasites to other shade trees. I
+have found that if you even remove every branch that is attacked, and
+quite below each parasite, the parasite will spring out again, and even
+more vigorously than before. In short, I found it impossible to contend
+with the parasites, and am ordering the removal of all Nogurigays from my
+plantations. I may add here that when jack is lopped in order to remove
+parasites, they do not spring out again in the same way. My head duffadar
+informs me that the reason why Nogurigays are so liable to parasites is on
+account of the rough, deeply-fissured bark, which retains the parasite
+seeds dropped by birds, whereas smooth-barked trees, like the first five
+named, of course do not retain them, and hence you rarely see parasites on
+smooth-barked trees. Another objection to this tree is that, from its
+shedding its leaves in the monsoon, and not growing them again till we are
+liable to have hot bursts of sun, you may have a thoroughly saturated soil
+exposed to a hot sun, which of course has the effect of rapidly hardening
+the soil. A neighbouring planter tells me that he finds the Noga tree
+liable to attacks from parasites at even ten years old, and that he
+therefore regards the tree as a temporary shade, i.e., as a shade to be
+removed after other more desirable trees are ready to take their place.
+
+Since writing this chapter I have again paid particular attention to this
+tree, and have been struck with the fact that, for some unknown reason,
+some trees of this variety seem to be much more liable to attacks of
+parasites than others, while some escape altogether. But it is quite clear
+to me that, generally speaking, this tree is not to be relied on, and I
+have, therefore, no hesitation in advising planters who have relied on it
+as a permanent shade to at once put down trees of the desirable kind first
+given with the view of gradually removing the Nogurigays.
+
+Mullee Geruguttee. A very thick, tall tree with large buttresses. Coffee
+thrives well under this tree, but it is not a wide spreader, and, when
+old, the foliage becomes poor. It is evident that a tree of great
+thickness which is not a wide spreader, takes up an immense deal of room
+in proportion to the shade that it yields, and this tree is therefore not
+so desirable as any of the first five species I have given as being the
+most desirable trees.
+
+Howligay (_Acrocarpus Flaxinifolia_). This tree has been largely planted
+in Mysore for shade, but no one speaks well of it now. We have some on my
+estate upwards of thirty years old, and the foliage is poor and scanty.
+The trees, too, shoot up to a great height, and spread but little. By
+topping at a certain height, this defect may be remedied to some extent,
+but in order to get an efficient shade from this tree you would require to
+plant it thickly, and would thus have a large proportion of stems and
+roots in the land. This tree, though not injurious to coffee, is certainly
+very undesirable as compared with the first-named kinds I have given.
+Some years ago two of these trees died on my property, and all the coffee
+died around them.
+
+Hessan (_Artocarpus Hirsuta_). Though said to be injurious in poor and
+shallow soil, coffee thrives under it in good land, but it has a tendency
+everywhere to run to stem, and therefore affords poor shade. An occasional
+tree branches out, and affords fair, and in some cases, even good shade,
+but, as a rule, this is not a desirable tree. It spreads little and thus
+gives but a poor return for the space taken up by its stem and roots.
+
+Nairul (_Eugenia Jambolana_). This is a good shade tree. Coffee thrives
+well under it, and wherever it exists, or may have sprung up accidentally
+in the plantation, it should be preserved, but it is not, I consider, a
+desirable tree to plant, as it is a slow grower and not a wide spreader.
+
+Wartee. This is a tree we have always preserved, but it is a slow growing
+tree, not at all a wide spreader, and the leaf deposit from it is not of a
+valuable quality, and it is, therefore, not a desirable tree to plant.
+
+Gwoddan (_Dolichos fabaeformis_). Coffee thrives well under this tree, but
+it has a great profusion of very hard fruits or seeds about the size of a
+small plum, and these, when falling from a high tree, injure the coffee
+berries, as may be readily supposed; the tree, too, is not a wide
+spreader. It is, therefore, not a desirable tree to plant.
+
+I may mention here that I have recently obtained a supply of seed of
+_Albizzia Moluccana_, which is the tree most approved of for shading
+coffee in the Island of Java, and I am informed by the superintendent of
+the Agri-Horticultural Society's Gardens, Madras (from whom I obtained the
+seed), that one of their correspondents who tried it some years ago
+reports that, "It grows rapidly, and is of great utility in putting a
+field of coffee under a light shade such as coffee likes," and that, "in
+four years the _Albizzia Moluccana_, planted thirty feet apart, will cover
+the coffee trees." The leaves close during the night, thus giving the
+coffee plants the benefit of the moonlight and dew more freely. Each ounce
+of the seed contains roughly 1,200 seeds, which, with ordinary care,
+should give 1,000 plants, and which, when planted out thirty feet apart,
+should shade twenty acres.
+
+I now proceed to consider the methods that are adopted for planting under
+shade in Mysore. The first is to clear down and burn the entire forest,
+and then plant shade trees along with the coffee. The second is to clear
+and burn the underwood, and a certain portion of the forest trees, leaving
+the remainder for shade, and the third is (a system which I have myself
+adopted in the case of land lying in ravines) to clear off and burn the
+entire underwood and trees of the lower part of the ravines, leaving the
+upper portions of them, and the remainder of the land to be cleared and
+planted, under the original forest trees, as in the second method
+mentioned.
+
+There can be no doubt that the first-named method is the easiest. I am
+aware that it has been adopted by some very experienced planters, and it
+has been partially adopted by myself in the case of all my land in the
+lower part of ravines. I am well able to judge of the advantages and
+disadvantages of both systems, as I have them under observation and
+treatment side by side. On the whole, I think there can be no doubt that
+the balance of advantage lies much in favour of land that has not had the
+forest cleared wholly and burnt off. It is true that by a wholesale
+clearance you at once kill the vast mass of live forest tree roots in the
+land, but, on the other hand, you at the same time destroy a store of
+slowly-decaying vegetable matter, which is of vast importance, not only in
+feeding the coffee, but in maintaining the physical condition of the soil,
+and so making it more, easily, and therefore cheaply, workable, and a
+better agent for preserving the health of the tree. And as a proof of the
+actual loss incurred, I may observe that Colonel C. I. Taylor, in his book
+on "The Borer in Coorg, Munzerabad and Nuggar," mentions that an iron peg
+driven into the ground so that not a part of it protruded, was found,
+after the cleared jungle had been burned, to be no less than six inches
+out of the ground. There seems to be a general opinion too that land that
+has not been burnt will last far longer, and one experienced planter, Mr.
+Brooke Mockett, attributes the circumstances of all the most ancient
+estates in Mysore being still in existence to the fact that the land has
+never been burnt. Mr. Mockett also informs me that in good land, where
+there has been no burn, he has never had Borer severely, though for a time
+there was no shade over it, as he cleared down ultimately all the old
+forest trees that had been left for shade, and planted fresh shade. I may
+mention, too, that I was lately shown an estate in Coorg which had been
+partially cleared down and burnt off, and partly planted under the shade
+of the old forest trees. In the latter case the plants had never suffered
+from Borer or leaf disease and were always healthy, while the coffee in
+the former case had suffered from both, and there was certainly a most
+marked difference perceptible in favour of the coffee planted in the
+unburnt land.
+
+There is also a great difference in my own property in favour of the
+coffee planted under the original forest shade as compared with the coffee
+on the land that was cleared down and burnt off, notwithstanding that in
+the latter case the most approved kinds of shade trees were afterwards
+planted, and that the land is now admirably shaded. It is highly important
+to notice these facts, both as a guide to those who have land to open, and
+also as regards the value of any property that may be for sale, for, after
+what I have mentioned, it is clear that a property planted under original
+forest shade, where the land has not been burnt off (for it is quite
+possible gradually to remove all the old forest trees and replace them
+with newly planted shade), must be much more valuable than one where the
+entire forest has been cleared down and burnt off. I now proceed to remark
+(1) on the course that should be pursued in the case of clearing down and
+burning the whole jungle and planting fresh shade, and (2) when planting
+under the original shade.
+
+After the land is ready for planting the coffee, and as early as possible
+in the monsoon, the young shade trees should be planted in lines or
+avenues running from east to west, and the trees should be planted so
+close that they may in five or six years touch each other, and thus form
+what looks like a series of hedges in parallel lines. The object of this
+formation is that as the declination of the sun is southerly during our
+non-cloudy or clear sky season, a close shadow may be cast from the south
+to the north, so that the spaces between the lines may have a lateral
+shade cast on them. When the trees begin to crowd each other every other
+one should of course be taken, out, and this may be repeated a second time
+if necessary. But, besides the southerly, we have also to consider the hot
+westerly sun, which will strike down the avenues from, say, between two
+and four in the afternoon. This it is important to block out with
+occasional trees planted in the avenue, but it is only, of course, where
+the land is exposed to the afternoon sun that the avenues should be
+blocked with occasional trees. After fully considering the subject, I find
+it impossible to say even approximately at what distance the lines of
+trees should be planted, on account of the great variety in the gradients,
+and the planter must here use his own judgment; and I can only say
+generally that the lines of trees require to be much nearer each other on
+a southerly than on a northerly aspect; nearly as close on a westerly
+aspect as on a southerly; and on an easterly aspect, at a closer distance
+than on a northerly one. Some guide toward the nearness of these lines
+will afterwards be found in the remarks on the quantity of shade required
+for the various aspects.
+
+After having planted the young shade trees, then, there comes the question
+of providing shade for them, for without it their growth will be very
+slow, and the planter would have to wait a great many years before
+obtaining such an amount of shade as would have an effect in lowering the
+temperature of the plantation. He requires then some quick-growing tree as
+a nurse for the good caste shade trees, and the only tree I know of that
+is suitable for this purpose is the quick-growing charcoal tree (_Sponia
+Wightii_)--Kanarese, _gorkul mara_--which springs up with the first rain
+after the forest has been cleared and burnt. Planters, I am aware, have,
+generally speaking, a great objection to this tree, and it is considered
+by Mr. Graham Anderson (_vide_ his book previously quoted) as being
+"generally regarded as prejudicial and useless." This conclusion has
+probably arisen from the fact that it is certainly a bad thing to have a
+rapid grower, and therefore a greedy feeder on the land, and hence it has
+been found that the charcoal tree is bad when young. But when it has
+attained its full height, which in ordinary circumstances is about thirty
+feet (I have one specimen on my property about sixty feet high, the only
+one of such a size I ever saw), coffee thrives well under it. This I found
+to be the case on plantations on the slopes of the Nilgiri hills, where a
+very experienced planter told me that the tree was bad when young for
+coffee, but not so when old; and I there saw coffee thriving well under
+the shade of old charcoal trees. On my oldest plantation we only preserved
+one of the species (all the others having been cut down, as their good
+offices as nurses to better trees were no longer required), and the coffee
+always throve under it remarkably well. Where, too, the shade has
+subsequently become deficient we always plant charcoal as a nurse for the
+more desirable trees, and have never observed that it is injurious to
+coffee. On the whole, after a very long experience and observation of this
+tree, I have no hesitation in recommending it as a nurse to be thinly
+distributed amongst the newly-planted shade trees. It is, I may observe,
+too, a tree with very light branches, which, of course, can easily be
+removed without injury to the coffee, and its branches should be thinned
+away when they crowd the young shade trees, and when these have been
+sufficiently drawn up and expanded the charcoal tree should be entirely
+removed.
+
+The subsequent treatment of the shade trees is of great importance. Their
+lower branches in the early years of their growth are commonly thin and
+weakly, and thus, of course, droop close over the coffee, and often touch
+it. Then the inexperienced shade tree grower begins to lop off the lower
+branches, with the result that he injures and bleeds the young tree, and
+deprives it of the nutriment it would otherwise derive from its full
+allowance of foliage. Some carry this trimming up to a very injurious
+extent, and the result is that they grow young trees with long stems and
+poor foliage, and a narrow spread of branches, and thus require many more
+trees in the land than they would if they exercised a little more patience
+at first. But if the tree is only left alone the evil of branches drooping
+downwards on to the coffee will soon disappear, as these branches will not
+only rise with the rising stem, but will thicken and grow upwards, instead
+of drooping as they did when young and weakly. And some planters, I
+observe, are by no means satisfied with lopping the lower boughs, but trim
+off branches fifteen feet from the ground. Under such a system the number
+of shade trees required is enormous, and the evils arising from the
+number of boles with their vast mass of large roots will only be the more
+severely apparent as time advances. By one shade planter in Coorg I have
+been told that coffee there has already been suffering much from the
+quantity of boles and tree roots in the land, in consequence of the
+trimming up system and the quantity of trees required in consequence. It
+should also be remembered that we require our shade not only to protect
+our coffee from the sun's rays, but to shield it from those parching winds
+which sweep across the arid plains of the interior of India, and to
+prevent the drying up of the land. And is it not perfectly obvious that if
+we trim up the trees so as to produce a long stem with a small crown, the
+parching winds will sweep unchecked over plants and soil? There is,
+however, the usual proverbial exception, and that is in the case of trees
+growing near the bottoms of ravines with steep sides to them, and where
+you often want a drawn up stem and crown to cast a shadow on to a hot
+western or southern bank, and in such cases, of course, trimming up is
+necessary. Having thus discussed the planting of coffee where the forest
+has been cut wholly down and burnt, we will now turn to planting under the
+shade of the original forest trees.
+
+In opening, then, a plantation which is to be shaded by preserving a
+portion of the original forest trees, the first thing to be done is to
+clear a wide track through the underwood from one end of the block of
+forest to the other, and as many tracks at right angles to the line as may
+facilitate your getting about and thoroughly inspecting the land to be
+cleared. The next thing to be done is to cut a wide track round the entire
+portion to be cleared, leaving a belt of from fifteen to twenty yards as a
+margin between the land to be cleared and the grassland lying outside the
+forest. This marginal belt will often be found useful for shelter in many
+cases, and it must be borne in mind, too, that the margins of jungles are
+generally composed of land into which the forest has more recently
+extended itself, and are therefore poorer than the interior portion of the
+forest, and consequently less adapted to the growth of the coffee. Another
+advantage of this marginal belt is that it will prevent fires spreading
+from the grasslands, and that by planting thorny climbing plants on its
+outer edge a good fence may be formed. Another very great advantage I have
+found from such belts is that valuable top soil may be taken from them to
+manure the adjacent coffee, and especially to afford a supply of rich
+virgin soil when filling up vacancies in the old coffee. This last use of
+the marginal belt is particularly valuable, as it is both troublesome and
+expensive to lay down either cattle manure or top soil brought from a
+distance in those odd corners here and there in the plantations where
+vacancies are apt to occur.
+
+After the above suggested preliminary tracks have been opened out, the
+whole underwood should be cleared and piled in heaps, and as far as
+possible, of course, from the trees which are most desirable for shade.
+Then the trees positively injurious to coffee should be cut down and their
+branches lopped and piled on the stumps of the objectionable trees, and
+after this a certain proportion of the less desirable kinds should be
+felled. All burning should be carried on in separate piles, as a running
+fire through the clearing would be fatal to the standing trees, and, when
+firing the piles they should be burnt off in detail at as great a distance
+from each other as possible, as the bark of many of the forest trees is
+easily injured by the heat arising from many blazing piles in their
+neighbourhood. The land having thus been thoroughly cleared, should be
+planted.
+
+But by the process I have recommended much more shade will be left than
+will ultimately be required, and I have found that it is impossible to
+clear down at once all the trees you wish to get rid of, as, if you did,
+you would be sure to require such a number of piles as would, when they
+were burnt, be sure to injure the trees to be preserved. It is therefore
+necessary to complete the clearing during the season following. Such
+trees, then, as you may wish further to remove may be thrown down between
+the rows of coffee, and others which may be likely to do much damage,
+either to the coffee or to the shade trees to be preserved, may be lopped
+and barked, and they should be barked as high up as a man can reach, as we
+have found that trees barked close to the ground die slowly.
+
+It sometimes, however, happens that the forest land is much cut up with
+narrow and deep ravines, and in that case the bottoms of such ravines
+should be cleared off entirely, and this can be done without injury to the
+standing trees above, as, when the wood in the bottom of the ravine is
+being burnt the flames will be too distant to inflict any injury to the
+trees left for shade higher up the slopes, but, as I have said, great care
+must be taken to prevent any running fire through the shaded land; and I
+can speak of the effect of such a fire from a melancholy experience. In
+the event of bottoms of ravines being thus cleared down, it may afterwards
+be found desirable to supply fresh shade on the southern and western
+slopes, and this can easily be done on the system recommended previously
+for lands which have been entirely cleared down.
+
+It is time now to turn our attention to the extremely complicated question
+of the quantity of shade required for the various aspects, gradients, and
+soils we have to deal with, and let us in the first place begin with some
+remarks on the effects of aspect as regards heat.
+
+In considering, then, aspect as regards sun and heat, I may observe that
+it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of taking into account the
+immense variation in temperature on the different exposures. For the
+effect that the sun's rays have on certain aspects in heating the soil and
+drying up the plant, are such as would be extremely difficult to believe,
+had the facts not been verified by competent observers, and with the aid
+of the thermometer. And as regards northern and southern slopes in
+particular, we shall find that the difference between one exposure and the
+other is just what constitutes the difference between green and dried
+grass, and between leaves luxuriantly green and leaves dry and withered.
+And that the first is literally true may be seen by anyone in the months
+of January and February, for in these months you will see grass on
+northern aspects green, and, comparatively speaking, fresh, while, even in
+a valley sheltered from drying winds, the grass on the southern slopes is
+completely withered. And you will see an equally striking difference in
+the coffee plants--those on the northern slopes full of health and life,
+while those on the southern ones are yellow, dried up, and sickly. Even in
+parts of the district where coffee will not thrive without a considerable
+amount of shade, you will always find the plants thrive well (with little
+or even none) on a northern bank, and look much better than on a
+moderately shaded southern bank. Nor in the nursery is the effect of
+aspect at all less striking. A nursery on a northern slope will require
+far less water, and far less shade over the plants, than one with a
+southern exposure. But the late Mr. MacIvor, superintendent of the
+Government Cinchona plantations on the Nilgiri hills, has tested the value
+of northern and southern aspects in a way which accurately judges their
+respective values. He accordingly tells us that, "The reason why a
+northern exposure in these latitudes is beneficial is from the fact that
+it is much more moist during the dry season than a southern aspect,
+because the sun's declension is southerly during the dry and cloudless
+season of the year, and thus, on the northern slopes, the rays of the sun
+do not penetrate and parch the soil. A northern aspect has also the
+advantage of preserving a much more uniform temperature than a southern
+aspect, because the excessive radiation and evaporation in the southern
+slopes greatly reduces the temperature at night, while in the day they are
+heated to excess by the action of the sun's rays striking the surface
+nearly at right angles. The practical effects of aspect on the plants are
+so great that they cannot be overlooked with impunity, and, in order to
+impress this on the minds of all those who may have the selection of
+localities for cinchona cultivation, I may mention that the difference of
+temperature is almost incredible; for example, at this elevation (probably
+about 7,000 feet) a thermometer laid on the surface of the southern face
+of a hill exposed to the sun at 3 p.m., will frequently indicate from 130°
+to 160° Fahr.; the same thermometer, if left in its position, and examined
+at 6 a.m., will generally be observed to indicate from 30° to 40°, while
+on a similar slope, if selected with a northern aspect, the thermometer,
+under the same circumstances, at 3 p.m., will generally indicate from 70°
+to 80°, and at 6 a.m. from 40° to 50°."
+
+There is, then, about twice as much heat upon a southern as on a northern
+aspect, and, of course, a corresponding difference as regards the effect
+of sun and drought on plant and soil, and it is therefore obvious that our
+shade policy should be governed accordingly.
+
+As regards the comparative heat on western and eastern exposures, Mr.
+MacIvor does not seem to have made any experiments with the thermometer,
+but where the slope is at all sharp the rays of the fierce western sun
+beat strongly into the soil, while it is quite off an easterly slope, of
+similar gradient, for the whole of the afternoon, and there is an enormous
+difference perceptible in the temperature. The effect, however, is in some
+degree counterbalanced by the fact that the soil and the plants on the
+easterly slope are swept by the withering and desiccating winds which
+sweep over the arid plains of the interior.
+
+We have seen, then, that the heat is very largely affected by the aspect,
+but the relative amount of heat and coolness is of course controlled, to a
+very considerable degree, by the gradient of the land, and just as steep
+northern slopes will be very cool, and steep eastern slopes moderately so,
+so will steep southerly and steep westerly gradients be extremely hot. The
+heat and coolness of the land, then, is constantly varying, not only with
+the aspect, but with the steepness of the gradients, and both of these
+points must be taken into consideration in regulating the quantity of
+shade required; and the reader will therefore see how impossible it is to
+give more than a general guide towards the quantity of shade required, and
+all I can undertake to say is that about twice as much shade is required
+on a southerly as on a northerly slope, that rather more shade is required
+on a westerly than on an eastern aspect, and that the last named requires
+less than a southerly aspect.
+
+But this question is further complicated by the varying quality of the
+soil.
+
+For our soils vary much in the same plantation, and require a greater or
+less degree of shade accordingly. The lighter and drier soils, of course,
+require not only more shade, but different kinds of trees, and in the case
+of such soils jack and cub busree should be freely used, and especially
+the former.
+
+The quantity and quality of the shade required is also complicated by
+considerations as regards wind, and, where the soil is exposed to drying
+east winds, more shade should be put down than would otherwise be
+necessary, had we only to deal with the drying caused by the sun's heat.
+And in the case of such lands the shade should consist very largely of
+jack and other thick foliaged trees, and these should be topped in order
+to keep them short and bushy, and thus the more able to shield the land
+from the effects of desiccating winds.
+
+And the whole subject is further complicated by questions of elevation and
+the varying quantity of rainfall, as the planter is nearer to, or farther
+from the Western Ghauts, and here I can only say generally, that the
+nearer you go to the Ghauts the less shade you will require, and the
+further to the east the more is necessary, but the planter must be guided
+here by local experience, as it is impossible to write precisely on the
+subject.
+
+Before quitting this branch of my subject, it may be well to show in a
+single sentence the overwhelming importance of having well regulated shade
+of the best kinds. If, then, the shade is excessive, the coffee will not
+bear well, and if it is deficient or composed of a bad class of trees, the
+coffee will be certain to suffer from Borer and leaf disease.
+
+From what I have said in the previous sentence it is evident that the
+regulation of the shade is of great importance. And, as the plantation
+ages, this thinning of the shade, lopping sometimes lower boughs, removing
+others, and cutting down occasional trees, requires constant attention. As
+a rule the whole shade should be carefully re-regulated at the end of
+every second year, or at the beginning of the third, when it will
+generally be found that, in consequence of the spread of the trees, there
+will be much thinning to be done. To cut down trees without injury to the
+coffee is, I need hardly say, a very nice operation, though it is one that
+the natives of the wooded countries, and especially the labourers from the
+foot of the Ghauts, are very expert at. It should never be attempted with
+coolies from the plains, who, of course, are unused to climbing trees, and
+have no experience of woodland work. The branches and tops of the trees to
+be felled are first removed, after a stout rope has been attached to a
+fork, above the point to be cut, and the end of the rope is then run round
+the butt of an adjacent tree, and held by a man. A huge bough is cut and
+falls with a threatening crash, but so well is the end of the rope judged
+that the ends of the twigs just touch the tops of the coffee trees. Then a
+coolie proceeds to lop off the smaller twigs and branches of the bough,
+and as he does so, it is gradually lowered till all are removed, and the
+bough, bereft of its clothing, is laid on the ground. Then comes the
+difficult task of felling the trees between the rows of coffee, a work of
+great nicety, which is partly effected by the final stroke of the axe, and
+partly by hauling a rope attached to the top of the tree. When a tree
+cannot be felled between the rows, it may often be felled so as to fall
+into the fork of an adjacent tree, and there it may be either left till it
+decays or let gently down to the ground, if the stem is a thin one. Bamboo
+ladders should be used to ascend the tree up to the first branch, as,
+though coolies can readily ascend without them, their bare legs are apt to
+suffer, and it is for this reason that coolies often try to shirk joining
+the shade party. The branches lopped off should be cut up into short
+lengths, and piled between the coffee trees. Such branches and twigs, as
+they decay, form good manure.
+
+I have said that the proper regulation of shade is a work of great
+importance. It is also one of great difficulty, for the person who marks
+the shade trees to be removed must have a thorough knowledge of the kinds
+most worthy of preservation, and at the same time bear in mind the
+aspects, the gradients, the relation of the earth to the sun during the
+hottest months, and the declination of the sun; and, as the planter will
+be usually marking shade trees in the morning, he must keep constantly in
+view the points where the sun will strike in during the hot afternoon
+hours. Then as he looks at a shade tree that has shot up to a great
+height, he must consider whether its shade is thrown on the coffee it once
+shaded or on to the top of an adjacent shade tree, and, as regards such a
+tree, he will often find that he is keeping on his land a tree that is
+merely throwing a shade on to another shade tree. I was particularly
+struck with this lately when looking at some howligay trees that had shot
+up to a great height, and which I at once ordered to be removed, as I
+found that their shade was now simply thrown on to the surrounding shade
+trees. In short, the trees were now doing no good, and were therefore
+merely doing harm by occupying the land and robbing it of food. I have
+said that when marking shade the planters must bear in mind the relation
+of the earth to the sun during the hottest months, and this caution is
+very necessary, because if he should happen to be marking trees in January
+for removal after the crop season is over, and does not remember that the
+earth is daily shifting its position, he will find that he will have made
+many mistakes as to the trees which should be preserved, and that a tree
+that is very well placed for blocking out the hot afternoon sun in
+January, may be of very little use in March and April.
+
+After a shade tree has been cut down it is necessary, in order to prevent
+the stump throwing up suckers, to remove the bark thoroughly from the
+stump, and also from any roots that project from the surface of the
+ground. If this is not done the stump and its roots will live on and take
+up manure intended for the coffee.
+
+It is important to remember that, in many parts of an estate, as the shade
+trees become lofty the sun will come in, just as it would on a man's head
+if he carried his umbrella erect, and at the end of a long pole, and I
+have seen coffee trees so much exposed to the sun as to require fresh
+shade to be planted near them, not withstanding that some of the coffee
+trees in question were almost touching the stem of a very tall shade tree.
+When the planter observes that the sun is thus likely to come in from the
+shooting up of the shade trees, he should plant fresh shade. Nor need he
+be afraid of putting down too much, for it is easily removed if this is
+done when the trees are small, and then it must also be remembered that,
+as the plantation ages, both coffee and soil call for more shade, as the
+growing power of the land, and its ability to keep the trees fresh and
+green, naturally diminishes with the advance of time. Whenever, then, the
+appearance of the coffee shows that it is needed, fresh shade should be at
+once supplied, for every yellow leaved patch of coffee in a plantation is
+a breeding ground for the Borer insects, which will gradually spread into
+the adjacent coffee, where their presence will never be detected till hot,
+dry seasons occur, which they are sure to do sooner or later. When
+spreading from such yellow patches the Borer insect may not attack strong
+trees. On the contrary, it will generally attack those which are in a
+dried up condition either from weakness of constitution or because they
+are suffering from the effects of an over heavy crop, but in such trees it
+will surely obtain a footing, and so be ready to spread further when hot,
+dry seasons arrive. When, then, the appearance of the coffee shows that
+more shade is required, charcoal trees should be planted, and on the
+northern side of them cuttings of the good caste shade trees should be put
+down; and I particularly emphasize the side for the nurse because it is
+thus interposed between the sun and the permanent shade trees to be
+sheltered.
+
+When the permanent shade trees have grown to the required size, the
+charcoal trees should be removed. It must be remembered that the permanent
+shade trees will grow very slowly unless sheltered by such nurses from the
+sun, and further, that the older the land the slower is the growth of all
+trees. It is most necessary, then, in all old land to dig holes at least
+four feet deep, and fill them with some good top soil from the forest, or
+with ordinary soil and cattle manure and bones. In order fully to protect
+the young shade trees from cattle and the sun, I now erect a square of
+fencing composed of palm tree slabs, and so high that cattle cannot reach
+over it, and, in the dry season, place some toddy tree branches across the
+square so as to shade the plants put down. In each square I plant a cub
+busree cutting, or one of the five kinds of trees recommended; sow several
+jack seeds, and a charcoal tree as nurse. In the case of the tree cutting
+failing to thrive, the planter will then always have a jack tree to fall
+back on. Should the cutting succeed the jack plant may be removed. I may
+here add that the parts requiring more shade are naturally more apparent
+in the hot season, and the planter should then put down a short pole with
+a flag at the end of it, whenever more shade is required. This will
+greatly facilitate the work of shade planting in the monsoon, as at that
+time the places where more shade is required are not very readily
+apparent, as all the coffee then becomes more or less green.
+
+I have alluded to the fact that parasites (Kanarese--_Bundlikay_) attack
+the shade trees, and especially the nogurigay and jack trees. They should,
+of course, be cut off along with the bough on which they may happen to be
+growing; and it is important to remember that this should be done before
+the seed ripens, which is usually at the beginning of the monsoon. The
+latter end of April is the best time to carry out this work, as, if
+deferred till rain begins, the trees become slippery, and so dangerous for
+the climbers.
+
+I have pointed out that the five trees I have recommended as being the
+best for shade can all be grown from cuttings, and it is important to
+point out that these should be taken from young and vigorous trees, and
+not, as is often done, from trees which are declining from age. There are
+some useful remarks at pages 88 and 89 of Mr. Graham Anderson's "Jottings
+on Coffee," on the preparation and planting of cuttings. The holes should
+be two feet deep, and filled up to three-quarters of the depth with soil.
+The cuttings should be six feet long with a fork at the top. They should
+be made at the beginning of the monsoon, and left in a cool and shady
+place in order to thicken the sap, the lower extremity of the cutting
+should be cut off with a curved slope, like the mouth-piece of a
+flageolet. Put the cutting gently into the hole, so as not to fray the
+bark, and tread down firmly. Wounds should be smeared with a mixture of
+cowdung and mud. The attí (_Ficus glomerata_) may also be grown from
+cuttings, but these should be rather thinner than those taken from the
+five trees first mentioned as being the best to plant for shade.
+
+It has been previously pointed out that charcoal trees are valuable as
+nurses. They may be raised by clearing and burning a small piece of
+jungle, or by putting some virgin jungle soil in a bed and watering it,
+when charcoal plants will spring up. When a few inches high, take the
+plants up carefully with a ball of earth and transplant into baskets
+filled with jungle top soil. Put out the plants with their baskets in
+holes about the size of those usually made for coffee plants, and early in
+the monsoon, and see that they are well protected from cattle.
+
+In conclusion, I think it well to mention that we have on my property, so
+far as I am aware, by far the oldest artificial shading of coffee in
+India. For many years all the estates in Mysore relied on the original
+forest shade, but mine was partly destroyed by a running fire when the
+clearings were first made, and some of the land was cleared wholly down,
+burned off, and planted with the most desirable kinds of shade trees. Our
+experience on this property dates back to the year 1857, and is therefore
+particularly valuable, for the defects connected with some trees were not
+apparent for as much, in one important case, as thirty years.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52] I regret that I am unable to give the botanical name of this tree,
+and of some others subsequently mentioned. I have drawn up a list of
+trees, some of which may be retained till better trees can be grown to
+supply their places, and also of other trees which are positively
+injurious to coffee, but do not publish them, partly in order to save
+space, and partly because I have not been able to ascertain the botanical
+names of all the trees in question.
+
+[53] My manager last year weighed and counted the Jack fruits from a
+single tree. There were forty fruits which weighed 572 lbs. The largest
+fruit weighed 30 lbs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+MANURE.
+
+
+The question of shade is, as we have seen, a highly complicated one, and
+is also, as we shall see, a cause of complication in the subject we are
+now about to consider; for, were no shade required, the subject of
+manuring the land for coffee would, comparatively speaking, be a simple
+one. And it is very important to call attention to this point, because
+hitherto planters have not in any way allowed shade to disturb their
+manurial practices, but have applied their manures equally to land under
+the direct shade of the trees, and to the open spaces between them, which
+are only under the influence of lateral shade, or, in other words, have
+manured their land as if there were no shade trees on it whatever. A
+little consideration, however, will show that the kinds and qualities of
+the manures applied should be quite different under the shade of trees,
+from what they ought to be in the open spaces between them. For, close
+around the stems of the shade trees we have a large leaf deposit, which
+manures the soil and maintains its physical condition, and, at the same
+time, comparatively speaking, small crops of coffee, while in the open
+spaces between the shade trees we have a small amount of leaf deposit, and
+much heavier crops of coffee. If, then, we further take into consideration
+the fact that the soil between the shade trees is liable to be
+deteriorated by a greater exposure to wash and to baking from the sun
+after the soil has been thoroughly soaked, it is evident that manuring
+should be largely varied both in quality and quantity, if we are at once
+to manure efficiently and economically. And I desire the more particularly
+to call attention to this matter, because no planter, as far as I am
+aware, has at all studied the subject. And it is principally of very great
+importance because what we call bulk manures, i.e., farmyard manures,
+pulp, composts, and top soil, are difficult to procure in large
+quantities, and cost much to apply, as they have to be carried on coolies'
+heads, and often for considerable distances, down the rows of coffee
+trees. The more, then, we can limit our applications of bulk manure to
+such lands as urgently require them, the better shall we be able to devote
+a full supply to the soil which most requires such manures. Now if we
+apply our bulk manures to the land directly under the shade trees, we
+shall certainly be injudiciously using our mammal resources, because the
+leaf deposit under the shade trees supplies exactly that kind of padding
+which gives its chief value to bulk manures, and, if these opinions are
+sound, it therefore follows that we should, as a rule, apply all our bulk
+manures to the spaces between the shade trees, and only apply them to the
+land under the shade trees, when, from the soil being of a clayey
+character, an occasional application of bulk manure may be required to
+improve the texture of the soil, or, in other words, make it more easily
+workable. And it also follows that we should only apply bones, lime, and
+ashes, fish and oil-cake to the coffee under the direct influence of the
+shade trees.
+
+But there is another question as regards manuring under the shade trees
+that requires careful consideration, and that is, whether we can, by heavy
+manuring, produce in such situations a larger crop than we could by a
+small application of manure, and from an experiment made by the late Mr.
+Pringle, formerly chemist on Messrs. Matheson and Co.'s estates in Coorg,
+it would seem to be a waste of money to supply more than a very moderate
+amount to the coffee directly under the shade trees, for he found that a
+considerable increase in the quantity of manure gave no increase in the
+crop. But I do not, of course, accept this experiment as conclusive, as it
+was made with bones alone, and it is possible that a more favourable
+result might have been obtained had an application of foliage stimulating
+manure been used as well, for the growth of new wood under shade is
+extremely slow, and it is probable that this slow growth, by giving an
+insufficient supply of young wood, is really the main cause of the yield
+under the shade trees being so much less than that from the coffee in the
+spaces between them. But the whole of this branch of my subject requires
+further careful experiment and observation before we can arrive at any
+definite conclusion. In the meanwhile, and till it can be shown that, with
+the aid of foliage stimulating manures, we can increase the yield under
+the direct shade of the trees, it is evident that as coffee under direct
+shade produces less than coffee in the spaces between the shade trees, the
+coffee that produces more should have a larger supply of manure.
+
+It is hardly necessary to add here that, in order to prevent confusion,
+the whole field of coffee to be operated on should first of all be manured
+evenly all over with the quantity and quality of manure which it is
+advisable to use under the shade trees. After that, additional manure
+should be applied to the spaces between the shade trees. It is quite clear
+to me that a great economy of manure would be effected by this practice,
+and that from not applying bulk manures to the coffee under the shade
+trees, the physical condition of the land in the spaces between them
+could be maintained in a much more satisfactory degree than it is at
+present.
+
+Then there is another question which, I believe, has hitherto escaped
+notice, and that is, as to whether we should not make some alteration in
+the kinds of manure so as to suit them better to the various aspects we
+have to deal with, for even in land of the same quality, and treated in
+precisely the same way, there is a considerable difference in the
+appearance of the coffee when we pass from an eastern or southern aspect
+to a western one, and a very great and marked difference is at once
+perceptible when you enter the coffee on a northern aspect. In the
+last-named case the coffee is nearly always green, and steadily but slowly
+growing, while on the southern and eastern aspects the coffee in the hot
+weather is apt to present a dried-up and sickly appearance. Then on these
+two last-named aspects there is commonly an over supply of suddenly grown
+wood. We should therefore, I think, increase foliage-stimulating manures
+on northern aspects, and diminish them on the southern and eastern, while
+we should have a medium degree of such manure in the case of western
+aspects. It seems to me that the reasoning in favour of
+foliage-stimulating manures on northern aspects is the same as in the case
+of coffee trees under direct tree shade, which always prevents the rapid
+growth of new wood. But on this point, as well as on that in the previous
+section, experiments must be made before any definite conclusion can be
+arrived at.
+
+The quantity of manure that should be annually supplied is evidently a
+matter of the greatest importance, and here the first thing to be borne in
+mind is that of the four manures we require, namely, lime, nitrogen,
+phosphoric acid, and potash, the first two are somewhat easily removed
+from the soil, while the last two are firmly retained by it. It is
+evident, then, that lime and nitrogen should be applied little and often,
+while phosphoric acid and potash may be applied either little and often,
+or in large quantities at longer intervals, whichever may be found most
+convenient. But in the opinion of an eminent agricultural chemist whom I
+have specially consulted on the subject, nitrogen, if applied in slowly
+decomposing form, as for instance, in the shape of oil-cake, would only be
+lost in an infinitesimal degree, but still he admits that there would be a
+loss, and as we cannot tell what that loss may amount to under the
+influence of our tropical climate and deluges of rain, it would be safe to
+assume that nitrogen, as well as lime, should be put down at short
+intervals and, in order to make up for the escape of these manures from
+the soil, in larger proportions than either phosphoric acid or potash.
+
+I have pointed out that phosphoric acid is retained by the soil, and it is
+important to remember that it is only removed by the crops of coffee to
+the extent of from one-and-a-half to two pounds per acre per annum, and
+these are two facts that every planter should bear in mind when he
+contemplates following the common custom of manuring with bones. For if he
+remembers that about one-half of the bones consists of phosphate of lime,
+and that about one-half of the latter consists of phosphoric acid, he will
+at a glance see, when he estimates the amount of phosphoric acid removed
+by the crops, that if he puts down even 100 lbs. of bones per acre he will
+have put down enough phosphoric acid for about twelve crops of coffee. And
+yet for a planter to put down 3 cwt. of bones per annum regularly is quite
+a common thing, and a friend of mine, after having manured his land one
+year with bones to a moderate amount, put down each year, for the two
+following years, no less than three-quarters of a ton of bone-meal per
+acre. So that, making a large allowance for the phosphoric acid taken up
+by the shade trees, he had put down, in these last two years, enough
+phosphoric acid to last for the crops of 300 years. From the application
+of bones he had undoubtedly obtained a great benefit, but I feel sure that
+it was from the lime and the nitrogen of the bones, for the application of
+bones that preceded the two applications of three-quarters of a ton per
+annum must have left the soil amply supplied with phosphoric acid. Now
+assuming that the soil required lime, and a moderate degree of nitrogen,
+these could have been supplied far more cheaply, and just as efficiently
+had my friend applied a small dressing of ordinary lime, and some
+oil-cake, and I am the more convinced of the accuracy of this view after
+visiting Mr. Reilly's Hillgrove estate near Coonoor on the slopes of the
+Nilgiri hills, and hearing the result of his very long experience. Bones
+he had never used but once, and that on a small portion of the estate, but
+he had always applied lime once every three years at the rate of about 4
+or 5 cwt. per acre; the other manures he had used were cattle manure, and
+town manure from Coonoor, and these added to the small quantity originally
+in the soil, had supplied his coffee amply with the 2 lbs. of phosphoric
+acid annually removed by the crops. After much consideration, and hearing
+Mr. Reilly's views, it seems quite clear to me that as but a small
+quantity of phosphoric acid is removed by the crops, and as that manure is
+firmly retained by the soil, bones need only be used at long intervals
+provided lime is regularly applied in small quantities.
+
+And next, before we can approach, or attempt to determine, the quantity of
+manure required, we have to take into account the loss by wash, either
+from the surface or by downward percolation, and the absorption of manure
+by the roots of the shade trees. We have also to take into consideration
+the manure returned by the shade trees in the shape of fallen leaves, and
+the ammonia derived from the rainfall, so that it is impossible to state
+with any approach to accuracy the amount of manure that should be
+applied. We can only say then that, whatever the required amount may be it
+must be very considerable, for in addition to the above-mentioned losses
+of manure, we require a considerable amount for the demands of the coffee
+trees, and that, further, it must vary with the amount of the rainfall,
+and the retentive or non-retentive character of the soil. The crop, it is
+true, takes comparatively little from the soil, and Mr. John Hughes,
+Agricultural Chemist, 79, Mark Lane,--points out in his "Reports on Ceylon
+Soils and Coffee Manures," that 5 cwt. of parchment coffee an acre, which
+is an average crop over a long series of years, only removes from the
+soil--
+
+ lbs.
+Nitrogen 8-1/4
+Potash 7-1/2
+Phosphoric acid 1-1/2
+Lime 1
+ ------
+Total 18-1/4
+
+Assuming then, he tells us, that the small quantity of potash required
+could be supplied by the soil, and that the pulp is returned to it, the
+loss by the crops could be fully supplied by 100 lbs. of castor cake and
+10 lbs. of bones per acre. Then if we require much more from the plant
+than the production of crop (for we expect it, in addition, to grow wood
+for the succeeding crop, and during this process the plant grows much
+superfluous wood, besides suckers, which have to be removed), it must be
+remembered that all primings and superfluous wood are left on the land.
+What there is actually carried off it is really very small in quantity.
+Why, then, it will naturally be asked, is it necessary that so much manure
+should be present in the soil if we wish to grow good coffee and have
+continuously good crops, and why is it that if manuring is neglected you
+will soon find that it is only the rich hollows that are able to maintain
+the coffee in good condition and produce good crops continuously? To such
+questions no distinct answer can be given, and we can only conjecture that
+coffee, when it wants its food, must, for some unknown reason, have a
+considerable supply at hand. There is, however, one test which, I think,
+always shows conclusively whether this food is present in the quantity
+required to supply the needs of the plant. Just before the hot weather the
+coffee trees throw out a small flush of young wood. Now if the trees have
+given a fair average crop, and at the same time have a good show of
+bearing wood for the next season's crop, and are also throwing out a good
+supply of vigorous young shoots, then you may be sure that your land is
+well fed. But if the trees throw out no young shoots at that time, or very
+few, then you will know that your land is not as well fed as it ought to
+be.
+
+It might naturally be supposed that I could furnish some guide to the
+planter, from our experience in Mysore, as to the quantity of manure that
+should be put down, but I regret to say that I am unable to do so, as I
+know of no estate where a regular and continuous system of manuring has
+been carried out. But in North Coorg, and very close to the Mysore Border,
+the continuous practice on Mr. Mangles's Coovercolley Estate of 500 acres
+gives a fairly approximate idea of what can keep an estate in a well-fed
+condition. There the practice has been to put down every third year from 7
+to 10 cwt. of bone-meal an acre, and one-third of a bushel of cattle
+manure, and, besides this, composts of pulp, mixed with top soil and lime.
+Now this is the finest estate I ever saw. The coffee was even and of a
+beautiful colour, and when I saw it towards the end of 1891 there was a
+fair crop of coffee on the trees, and an ample supply of young wood for
+the following crop, and the land was so well fed with nitrogen that an
+experimental application of nitrate of soda to a part of the land had
+produced no perceptible effect on the trees. From what I have previously
+said as to the application of bone-meal being overdone, I think it
+probable that the estate would have presented as good an appearance had
+the land, after once being well stored with phosphoric acid, been treated
+with small applications of lime instead of bones. Then another estate I
+saw in 1891 in Coorg, in the Bamboo district, furnished some guide as to
+the amount of manure required where cattle manure was not available, and
+on the estate in question, which had both a good crop on the trees and
+ample wood for the future, I was informed that, in the year previous, 6
+cwt. of castor cake and 3 cwt. of bones had been applied per acre, and
+that for the four preceding years 4-1/3 cwt. of manure, containing 2 parts
+of castor to I of bones, had been applied, but that the last-named amount
+had been found to be too small. The reader will find in the chapter on
+Coorg some further information, which has since been supplied to me by Mr.
+Meynell, on this point.
+
+The quantity of manure that should be put down at a time is evidently a
+matter of great importance, as if you begin by putting down a large
+application you are certain to have an over-heavy crop, followed by
+exhaustion, and a very poor crop the following year, while the object of
+all intelligent fruit cultivators is to work for moderate even crops. It
+seems quite clear, then, that we should manure little and often, as you
+thereby not only avoid the risk of over-heavy crops, but economize your
+manure. For is it not obvious that if you put down at once a supply of
+nitrogen and lime to last for three years, you increase the risk of loss
+from wash and downward percolation? And it must also be considered that an
+over-heavy crop leaves the trees in an exhausted and dried-up state to go
+through the hot weather, when they will be liable to be attacked by the
+Borer insect, which, as we shall afterwards more particularly see,
+delights in dry wood. So that when we further take into consideration the
+injury to the constitution of the trees which is caused by over-heavy
+crops, we need have no doubt that there is much reason to dread them. I
+would therefore strongly deprecate, for the preceding reasons, heavy
+manuring (even the mind may be over-manured in the eager desire to arrive
+at a cultured intellect), and would advise that a beginning be made with a
+moderate application, and, if this is found to be insufficient, that the
+amount be gradually increased till the trees show that they can with case
+give regular average crops. If cattle manure or jungle top soil is
+available, a quarter of a bushel a tree may be annually applied of either,
+accompanied by 3 cwt. of bone-meal. And, if neither of the two former
+sources are available, then 3 cwt. of bone-meal and 2 cwt. of white castor
+cakes would be a reasonable application. After applying 3 cwt. of
+bone-meal per acre for three consecutive years the land ought to be amply
+stocked with phosphoric acid, and the bone-meal should be discontinued,
+and its place supplied with small applications of lime, either annually or
+at intervals of two or three years, should the latter course be more
+convenient. And subsequently, when there is reason to suppose that the
+land requires a fresh supply of phosphoric acid, an application of
+bone-meal may again be used. I would particularly warn the planter against
+over-manuring light dry soil, or south and south-western aspects, or the
+upper and drier portions of eastern aspects, as an over-heavy crop on
+these aspects is very perilous even with good shade, for we may not have a
+drop of rain from November till April, and should such a drought occur,
+and be preceded by a dry season (and such seasons occurred in 1865 and
+1866, and caused the great attack of the Borer insect, which was so fatal
+to all insufficiently-shaded coffee, and from which even well-shaded
+coffee suffered to some extent), or should even a single dry, hot season
+follow immediately after the crop is picked, there would be sure to be a
+serious drying up of the plant, with but small chance of its bearing
+anything worth having the season following, and very great risk of a
+severe attack of Borer. But on northern and north-western aspects the land
+is not exposed to parching east winds, and, as we have seen, has a
+temperature about one-half cooler than that on a southern aspect, and the
+planter may therefore on such aspects manure with greater freedom. But
+even in these aspects I am sure that over-heavy manuring will lead
+ultimately to injury to the trees, and, in a series of years, to the
+production of a smaller amount of coffee.
+
+I have indicated the amount of manure which in my opinion ought to be put
+down when manure is applied for the first time on a plantation, and if the
+plantation is of a flat character, or only on very moderate slopes, the
+manure should be evenly applied all over it. But if, as often happens,
+there are hollows and ridges on the land, then the ridges should be, as a
+rule, much more heavily manured than the hollows, for which a very little
+manure will suffice, as so much is washed into them, and they are,
+besides, much richer to start with. It is very important to note at the
+outset all those spots which, in the original forest, are very rich, so
+that the manure may be applied accordingly, and though, as I have said,
+the ridges as a rule are poor, there are many instances where the top of a
+ridge, from being pretty wide, is rich, though the sides of it for a
+little way down are nearly always poor. I have lately been minutely
+examining old forest land, with the view of removing top soil from it, and
+have been much struck with the variation in the depth of the rich surface
+soil.
+
+We have next to consider the time of year at which manure should be
+applied to the land, and here we shall find that the planter, like the
+farmer, often has to do things when he can, and not when he should, and
+though, from the risk of loss by wash alone, there can be no doubt that
+all manures should be put down after the heavy rains of the monsoon are
+over, it is difficult to see how this can be carried out in the case of
+bulk manures, on account of the difficulty of getting enough labour to at
+once cope with the ordinary estate work, and apply a class of manure which
+absorbs so much hand labour. Then there is the difficulty of carting
+manure at that season when the roads, which are not macadamized, would be
+cut to pieces. But this difficulty could be overcome were a sufficient
+number of storage sheds provided to which the manure might be carted
+during the dry season. But the sheds would cost a good deal of money, and
+the cost of the manure would be increased by the cost of extra handling,
+or in other words putting the manure in the sheds and taking it out again.
+So that I am inclined to think that it would be better to apply, by direct
+cartage from the cattle sheds, as much bulk manure as can be applied in
+the month of September, and the remainder at any convenient time after
+crop. Another great objection to applying manure after crop, and before
+the monsoon, is, that you stimulate the growth of the weeds which spring
+up with the early rains, and also much growth of suckers, and superfluous
+wood in the coffee, all of which have to be handled off at considerable
+expense, whereas, it is hardly necessary to say, that the weed growth is
+smaller at the end of the monsoon, and the force of the plant directed
+rather to the maturing of the berry than the growth of surplus wood. But
+in the case of light manures such as bones and castor cake, there is no
+difficulty in applying them in September, and an effort should certainly
+be made to put them down then. Another advantage of manuring at the end of
+the monsoon would be that the planter could then clearly perceive what
+trees would be certain to give a good crop, and give them an extra
+quantity of manure, and also diminish his application of manure in the
+case of such parts of the plantation as might be yielding a small crop. I
+may here mention that, from reliable information received from Coorg,
+results there have shown that it is best to apply a portion of the manure
+after crop to strengthen the blossom, and a portion after the heavy
+monsoon rains are over to strengthen the trees and assist in maturing the
+crop.
+
+But the most important point, perhaps, as regards the best time for
+manuring is the bearing that the time of manurial application has on leaf
+disease, and Mr. Marshall Ward in his third report on leaf disease (p. 15)
+has some most valuable remarks on this question. "The object of the
+planter should be," he says "to produce mature leaves as soon as possible
+and keep them on the branches as long as possible." Now if leaves are
+produced in April and May they become attacked by the fungus while still
+young, and in August and September the ripening crop is left bare on the
+branches. But the leaves which were in bud in December are matured and
+well hardened, and have already, by living longer, done much service to
+the tree. He then points out that when certain districts in Ceylon
+suffered from a bad attack of leaf disease in July, "a large surface of
+young and succulent leaves were ready to receive the spores of the
+Hemeleïa." The germination of the spores was rapid, and the young leaves
+were soon destroyed. The planter then, he says, should manure and prune so
+as to grow matured leaves during those months when the least damp and wind
+may be expected. And the same remarks are evidently equally valuable as
+regards rot, and show us the necessity of modifying our manurial and
+pruning practices so as to enable the tree the better to contend against
+it as well as leaf disease. All manuring, then, which leads to the
+production of young succulent foliage just at the beginning of the rains
+should be avoided, and the same remark applies equally to pruning. But I
+shall again return to the subject when writing on pruning.
+
+As to the best method of applying the manure, great differences of opinion
+and practice exist. At one time in Mysore it was customary to cut a
+shallow trench in the shape of a half moon around the upper sides of the
+trees about two feet from the stem, and deep enough to contain the manure,
+which was then covered in with the soil taken out. But this process was
+found to be expensive, and of course took much labour, which is sometimes
+extremely scarce, and on my property we have for some years
+past--excepting in the case of manuring with fish, which is liable to be
+carried off by birds, dogs, jackals, and village pigs--scattered all the
+manure on the surface, and close around the stem of the tree, with the
+idea that the manure would be less likely to be taken up by weeds, and by
+the roots of the shade trees. But in connection with this system there is
+a fact which I did not take into account, but which is well worthy of
+careful consideration, and that is, that the tendency of such a system of
+manuring is to keep the coffee roots close to the surface. Now it has been
+suggested by the late Mr. Pringle, whose opinion on another matter I have
+previously given, that this would have an unfavourable effect, if we had,
+as sometimes happens, deficient blossom showers; as in that case, and with
+many rootlets near the surface, a stimulus would be given to the plant
+which would induce it to throw out the blossom when there was not enough
+rain to bring it to perfection; whereas, if, by putting down the manure
+more deeply we attracted the roots downwards, the blossom buds could only
+be started after such an amount of rain as would give the soil such a
+soaking that a successful blossom would be insured. There certainly seems
+to me to be a great deal in this idea, but I am not aware that we have had
+any experiments made side by side as regards surface manuring, and
+manuring in pits, and therefore am not in a position to express a decided
+opinion on the subject, but theoretically there would seem to be much in
+favour of burying manure in pits, and it seems certain that the manure
+would be less likely to be taken up by weeds than in the case of surface
+manuring.
+
+I need hardly add that in the case of all steep parts of a plantation all
+manure should be, if not buried deeply, at least covered with soil after
+the digging of a trench large enough to contain the manure. On the
+plantations on the Nilgiri Hills the manure is put into pits 2-1/2 feet
+long, 1 foot 6 inches wide, and 1 foot deep on the lower side of the pit,
+which of course would make the side of the pit on the upper side of them
+much more than one foot in depth. The trenches or pits are dug across the
+slope and in front of each coffee tree, and in the line (i.e., not in the
+centre of each set of four plants). These pits are not filled up to the
+brim, but the manure is placed in the bottom of them, and is then covered
+with soil, so that the pit is about one-half filled up. The soil taken out
+is heaped in a curve above the pit so as to prevent heavy rain washing
+down into the pit. When more manure is required to be added--say
+bone-meal--it is scattered on the soil in the pit, or the top soil in it
+is scraped off and the manure scattered and then covered up.
+
+I now propose to consider our manurial resources in detail, and shall
+begin with the first stay of all agriculture, farmyard manure, as to the
+value of which for coffee I have never met with any difference of opinion.
+But there are many objections to relying on farmyard manure, or, at least,
+to applying it on a large scale, as, if the planter keeps many cattle of
+his own, he runs great risk of his herd being invaded by disease, and the
+difficulty and expense of feeding a large number of cattle is very
+considerable. In some cases it is possible to hire cattle from the
+natives, and this is done occasionally, and at the rate of 15 rupees a
+month for 100 head, but here again risk from disease is often incurred,
+and if it broke out, the natives would withdraw their cattle. The question
+then naturally arises whether, considering the great cost and trouble
+attendant on manufacturing cattle manure on a large scale, we cannot find
+some substitute that would diminish the quantity now required. And here it
+is important to ask what farmyard manure consists of. It consists, then,
+of the excreta of animals, and the vegetable matter used as litter. From a
+chemical point of view it mainly provides, in addition to the organic
+matter, in a slowly-acting form, lime, nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric
+acid, and from a physical point of view it furnishes a padding to maintain
+the texture of the soil, or, in other words, to keep it in a loose and
+friable condition. And with reference to this last very important point, I
+may remind the reader that Sir John Lawes has well pointed out that "All
+our experiments tend to show that it is the physical condition of the
+soil, its capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, its permeability
+to roots, and its capacity for absorbing and radiating heat, that is of
+more importance than its strictly-speaking chemical composition." Now as
+regards the chemical aspect of the manurial question, if we assume, as we
+have every reason to do from the small quantity of potash required, and
+its supply from decomposing stones in the land, that the potash does not
+require to be taken into account, we shall find that our nitrogen and
+phosphoric acid can be far more cheaply supplied by fish, or by a mixture
+of bone-meal and oil-cake than by farmyard manure, and should it be found
+that potash does require to be added, we could obtain it more cheaply from
+ashes or kainit. Then in order to provide the padding that farmyard manure
+supplies, and to furnish nitrogen in a slowly-acting form, we could
+collect dry leaves, twigs from jungle trees, ferns, and any other
+available vegetable matter, form them into a compost with some earth, or
+jungle top soil, and apply the mixture to the land. With such a compost as
+I have suggested, bone-meal or fish-manure in small quantity might be
+mixed, and we should then have a very good substitute for all the chemical
+and physical advantages to be derived from the very best kind of farmyard
+manure. But there is another way of arriving at the same end, which is
+open to many planters, and that is by collecting top soil from the fringe
+of jungle commonly left round the plantation, or from the uncultivated
+jungle of the estate, or from adjacent pieces of jungle land. And such
+pieces of land varying from ten to twenty acres can commonly be purchased,
+and can be used to supply top soil. This, of course, has in it much
+vegetable matter in various stages of decay, and a mixture of it with a
+small quantity of bone-meal would form a manure superior, as I shall
+afterwards show when I come to treat of top soil, to farmyard manure
+chemically, and superior to it from a physical point of view. To such
+local manurial resources I would call particular attention, as planters
+have hitherto relied far too exclusively on cattle manure, and imported
+manures, such as bones, fish, and oil-cake, and it is evident that we
+could dispense with much of all these manures if we made a full use of the
+resources I have recommended. In concluding my remarks on cattle manure I
+may observe that it is both costly to supply and to apply to the land. It
+is difficult, of course, to make exact calculations on the subject, as the
+facilities for supplying litter vary so much, but generally speaking it
+costs from 70 to 80 rupees an acre if we manure at about the rate of a
+third of a bushel per tree.
+
+I now turn to a consideration of the value of jungle top soil, a manure to
+which I have only lately given particular attention, though I was, of
+course, well aware of its value in a general way, and may begin by
+stating that two samples of what we were using on my estates have been
+analyzed by Dr. Voelcker, the object being partly to ascertain the value
+of the soil and partly to compare its cost with the cost of cattle manure.
+After estimating the cost of making cattle manure, and calculating as
+closely as possible the cost of obtaining and applying jungle top soil
+from land adjacent to the plantation, it was found that in the case of the
+best sample of top soil, obtained by removing only four or five inches of
+the soil, it paid nearly twice as well to use it as a manurial agent as it
+would to use cattle manure, and I may add that three tons of the soil
+contain the same manurial matter as two tons of ordinary well-made English
+farmyard manure. In the case of the second sample analyzed, and which I
+was sure from the character of the land must be of inferior quality, it
+was found that 2-1/4 tons of the soil would contain as much manurial value
+as one ton of farmyard manure, and that the cost of using the two
+materials would be about the same.
+
+I had also analyzed at the same time a sample of a kind of decayed
+pink-coloured rock, as I had found that coffee had thriven well in the
+pink soil which had evidently been formed from the rock in question, but
+the manurial value was so small that Dr. Voelcker thought that it might
+merely be of use in improving the physical condition of the soil. I
+however applied it to some backward coffee, and also applied some of the
+best top soil to a contiguous piece of backward coffee, and was much
+surprised to find that the pink soil, to which little direct manurial
+value was attached by Dr. Voelcker, showed results superior to the best
+top soil applied alongside of it, and I am now applying it on a large
+scale. This soil, I may mention, is applied by the natives to the surface
+of their vegetable beds. They do not attach any manurial value to it, but
+apply it to keep the vegetables cool, as the soil has quite a remarkable
+effect in keeping itself cool while the adjacent soil is quite hot, and I
+have now applied it to the flower beds near my house, and also to the
+walks around the bungalow. This pink decayed rock is sometimes streaked
+with a white decayed rock, which the natives call jadi mannu, and
+sometimes the latter so much preponderates that it looks nearly white. I
+am told by the natives that if you mix the red and white earth together
+and apply the mixture to the surface of the land it will never get
+dry.[54]
+
+In concluding my remarks on soil applications, I may observe that if top
+soil costs the same price as cattle manure, the former is to be preferred
+for four reasons. It is much more easily handled and applied; it is a
+better substance for mixing with other manures, such as bonedust or ashes,
+for instance; it has a better physical effect on the soil; and is nearly
+free from weed seeds which abound in cattle manure.
+
+I may add that I have since made a calculation with the object of seeing
+how, by the addition of manures to the kemmannu soil, I could make a
+mixture which would have all the fertilizing ingredients of farmyard
+manure in addition to the advantages possessed by the soil, and which I
+have just enumerated. I find that if to 83 parts of the soil I added 1
+part of bonedust, 12 parts of castor cake, 2 parts of potash salt, and 2
+parts of lime, I should make up a compost equal to good English farmyard
+manure, and at but a slightly increased cost, which would be more than
+covered by the special physical and other advantages arising from the use
+of kemmannu.
+
+The pulp of the coffee is very apt to be carelessly treated, and it is
+important to remember that Mr. Hughes, in his "Report on Ceylon Coffee,
+Soils, and Manures," estimates that, _if properly preserved_, two tons of
+pulp are equal to one ton of good farmyard manure. But it must not be
+washed, as it often is by being run into a pulp pit with water, or nearly
+all its valuable constituents would be lost. It should be mixed, he tells
+us, with cattle dung, or, if that is not procurable, with liberal supplies
+of lime, and he also suggests that it should be put under cover day by
+day. We have adopted on my property a plan which I think in these climates
+is the cheapest and best. A layer of top soil is placed in the road
+alongside of the coffee where we desire to use the manure; then each day's
+pulp is carted direct to the plantation and scattered over the top soil,
+and more top soil added, till we have a layer as thick as we find
+convenient, but of course not so thick as to prevent carts passing over it
+to other parts of the plantation. On these layers of pulp and top soil
+lime or bonedust may be sprinkled.
+
+Dry fallen leaves is another local resource which should by no means be
+neglected, and they are commonly used for littering the cattle sheds. Such
+leaves are about equal to cattle dung. A sample of those we use was
+analyzed by Dr. Voelcker, and the result gave 1 per cent. of phosphate of
+lime, 1 per cent. of ammonia, and 3/4 per cent. of potash.
+
+Green twigs[55] cut from jungle trees are of considerable manurial value,
+and the natives seem well aware of the value of the different kinds. A
+sample of the following six kinds which are most approved of by the
+natives--namely, Japel, Nairal, Ubble, Gowl, Mutty and Hunchotee, was
+analyzed by Dr. Voelcker, and the result gave 1/4 per cent. phosphate of
+lime, 3/4 per cent. of potash, 1 per cent. of lime, and 3/4 per cent. of
+nitrogen.
+
+Ferns are of considerable manurial value, and are rich in potash, and they
+should be used to litter the cattle sheds.
+
+Burnt earth has been formerly used in Ceylon, and has been recommended by
+Mr. Pringle for use in Coorg, but I have no experience of its use, but if
+it pays to use it in Coorg it would pay equally well to do so in Mysore.
+
+Wood ashes are much valued in Ceylon, where they are applied at a cost of
+1s. 3-1/2d. a bushel. We buy ashes at 2 annas (less than 3d.) a bushel
+delivered on the estate. Though costing as much as 1s. 3-1/2d. in Ceylon,
+Mr. Hughes says they are the cheapest form in which potash can be supplied
+there.
+
+It should be remembered that the ashes of the stem wood and thick branches
+are not nearly so valuable as those of young branches and twigs. A good
+sample of the last-named contains 20-1/2 per cent. of potash and more than
+30 per cent. of lime. In many places in the vicinity of the estates much
+good manure might often be made by cutting down weeds and jungle plants of
+any kind, burning them, mixed with earth, slowly, and applying the mixture
+to the coffee.
+
+I have only heard of one planter who used night soil. He had planks
+pierced with the necessary apertures, underneath which buckets with some
+soil in each were placed; these were removed daily and emptied into
+renovation pits in the coffee. Anybody depositing elsewhere was fined, and
+the fine given to the Toty, who had thus an interest in looking out for
+defaulters. There can be no doubt that this is an excellent system, and
+obviously advantageous from a sanitary point of view, and that it could
+with, ease be carried out on an estate where all the coolies were of the
+lower castes, but it could not be carried out, and it would be very unwise
+to attempt it, in the case of an estate on which there are poor members of
+the better castes. It is even important on such a property to see that no
+pieces of ordinary paper find their way on to the farmyard manure heap,
+as, when such has been detected on my property, the women of the better
+castes refused to carry out the manure.
+
+We have now examined what I may call the local manurial resources, and I
+propose to consider in detail those manures which have to be imported into
+the coffee districts from various quarters. Of these manures lime is one
+of the most important, and as three samples of soil from my property were
+all found to be very deficient in lime, it is probable that applications
+of lime are as desirable in Mysore generally as they are in the case of
+plantations on the Nilgiri slopes. Limestone can be procured from the
+interior of Mysore, and also from the port of Mangalore. It should always
+be burnt on the estate. It is a cheaper plan than having it burnt before
+importing it, and we got, besides, the ashes of the wood used for burning
+the lime. Lime is as valuable ground as burnt, and when it is ground is
+not so liable to suffer from rain as burnt lime is. It must not be mixed
+with bonedust, oil-cake, or potash salts, but should be put down some
+weeks before these manures. Lime should only be used in small quantities
+of half a ton or a ton an acre (it is usually used at the latter rate in
+Ceylon), as a free use of it would favour the escape of ammonia from the
+soil by too rapidly converting inert into active nitrogen, and, as a
+neighbour of mine once found, the result would probably be a heavy crop of
+coffee followed by exhaustion of the tree. Lime might be advantageously
+used more often where the land is liable to be soured, or where much
+vegetable matter has accumulated. It should be remembered that, as ashes
+contain about 30 per cent. of lime, we should diminish the quantity of
+lime when we have applied ashes. I have said that lime should be used at
+the rate of half a ton to a ton an acre, but I may remind the reader that
+Mr. Reilly had found that 4 or 5 cwt. regularly applied every three years
+was enough, and as to the quantity that should be used, the planter must
+be largely guided by the local experience. As lime is easily washed out of
+the soil, it seems to me that more should be applied in the case of a
+heavy, and less with a light rainfall.
+
+Bonedust has been largely, and I think, as the reader will see from my
+previous remarks, very wastefully used in manuring coffee. It varies much
+in quality, and the purchaser would do well to obtain a guarantee as
+regards its genuineness. Bonedust should be mixed with fine top soil, and
+then applied to the land, or it may be mixed with cattle manure, or
+applied as a surface dressing, but either of the two first-named methods
+of application is to be preferred. In 500 lbs. of bones there are, in
+round numbers, about 250 lbs. of phosphate of lime, which consists of 125
+lbs. of phosphoric acid and as many of lime. I may remind the reader that
+5 cwt. of parchment takes from the soil 1 lb. of lime and 1-1/2 lb. of
+phosphoric acid.
+
+Fish manure is of great value, especially in bringing rapidly on backward
+or sticky coffee. A sample I have had analyzed contained 7-1/3 per cent.
+of ammonia and nearly 9-1/2 per cent. of phosphate of lime. The whole fish
+can be imported from the coast, and they should be broken up and mixed
+with top soil. This is not only advantageous for distributing the manure
+throughout the land when it is applied, but it is particularly necessary
+in the case of fish, as I have found by practical experience that, if
+applied whole and covered with soil, crows, kites, jackals and pigs dig
+them up and carry them off.
+
+Oil-cakes of various kinds have always been a favourite manure, and it is
+a particularly desirable one, because the nitrogen in it is in a slowly
+convertible form. Of all the cakes castor is said to be of the highest
+manurial value (though an analysis I have had made of ground nut cakes
+gives a better result in nitrogen), and besides nitrogen it contains
+phosphate of lime, magnesia, and potash. In an analysis I had made of
+brown castor oil-cake, i.e., cake made after crushing the entire seeds,
+there was over 4 per cent. of phosphate of lime, or about equal to 5 per
+cent. had the cake been white castor, which is made after the seeds have
+been decorticated. But another sample of brown castor which was analyzed
+for me, only gave a little more than 2-3/4 per cent. of phosphate of lime.
+From this difference, and from the general consideration of the
+differences of all seeds in particular seasons, and also in some degree
+from various soils, it seems to me there must often be, from natural
+causes, a considerable difference in the value of cakes. The attention of
+purchasers should be directed to these differences; they should obtain, if
+possible, a guarantee as to the composition of the cakes they buy, and
+occasionally test the manure.
+
+From what I have said as to the composition of castor cake, it is probable
+that white castor contains from 4 to 5 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and
+I desire to call particular attention to this, because oil-cake is usually
+regarded purely as a nitrogenous source of manure, whereas one of the
+oil-cakes commonly used--i.e., castor cake--contains an appreciable
+quantity of that phosphate of lime of which bones are generally considered
+to be the sole suppliers by the planter. But it is evident that if we
+annually used 300 lbs. per acre of white castor, we should, even if it
+contained only 4 per cent. of phosphate of lime, be supplying six times
+the amount of lime and more than three times the amount of phosphoric acid
+removed by an average crop of coffee, and though the lime is liable to
+loss from waste, it must be remembered that the phosphoric acid is firmly
+retained by the soil. It is important to remember that castor cake should,
+like bones, be mixed with a considerable quantity of fine top soil, so
+that the manure may be widely distributed through the soil.
+
+Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is an extremely expensive manure, and not
+a desirable one, because the nitrogen in it is in a too quickly
+assimilable form, and is very liable to be lost in drainage. But it might
+be used with effect, and in small quantities, for bringing forward
+supplies, and I am informed that for this purpose it has been used with
+advantage in Coorg. I have used the nitrate of potash on my property--an
+experimental amount only--and it caused the trees to throw out strong and
+numerous shoots. It should be bought in the form of pure nitre.
+
+Nitrate of soda is also liable to the objection that the nitrogen in it is
+in a too quickly available form, and liable to be lost. I have never used
+it on my property, but from observing its effect on an estate in Coorg,
+and the effect it had in causing the trees to throw out a fine supply of
+young wood, can see that it might be used with great effect in rapidly
+forcing forward worn-out coffee growing on an exhausted soil. But if used
+for this purpose it should be backed up with a liberal supply of bones and
+castor cake, or of bones and farmyard manure, or bones and top soil, as,
+if not so backed up, the result would be unsatisfactory, if not
+disastrous, seeing that the nitrate of soda, if applied alone, would cause
+the plant to wring out everything that was available in the soil. The
+application of nitrate of soda on the estate alluded to was at the rate of
+2 cwt. an acre, and cost 21 rupees an acre, inclusive of the cost of
+application. I saw the estate at the end of October, and the nitrate had
+been put down in March previous. The wood it had been the means of
+producing was very good and strong, dark green, and abundant, and the
+effect of the nitrate was by no means confined to one season, for the
+effect of the nitrate put down the year previous was still apparent. The
+land here evidently was short of nitrogen, and hence the good effect of
+the nitrate, but as I mentioned previously, an application of nitrate had
+produced no perceptible effect on another estate belonging to the same
+proprietor, which had been regularly well manured with bones and cattle
+manure and composts, and because, of course, the land was so well supplied
+with nitrogen that the coffee required no more. In concluding my remarks
+on the effects of nitrate of soda, I may observe that by using this
+manure, unremunerative coffee might be turned into a paying estate in less
+than two years, while without the aid of it, from three to four years
+would be required.
+
+Potash is a manure as to which I can give no distinct information, or, at
+least, only information of a negative kind. I once sent out a small
+quantity of the muriate of potash, but my manager could perceive no
+effects from it whatever, and I have been informed of an instance of its
+having been applied to an estate in Coorg at the rate of one quarter of a
+pound a tree, or at the rate of between 3 and 4 cwt. an acre, without any
+perceptible effect having been produced from the application.
+
+Then it must be remembered that the quantity of potash removed by an
+average crop of coffee is only 7-1/2 lbs. an acre, that potash is firmly
+held by the soil, and that it is constantly being supplied in small
+quantities by the fallen leaves (these contain 3/4 per cent. of potash) of
+the shade trees and the decomposition of stones in the soil, and in
+applications of farmyard manure. And with reference to the demands for
+potash by the tree, I may mention that I, in conjunction with a friend,
+endeavoured to estimate the consumption of potash by the crop, and we sent
+to Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, a carefully drawn sample of soil taken
+from between four coffee trees from which twelve crops of coffee had been
+removed without any manure being supplied, and also a sample of virgin
+soil adjacent to the coffee (soil similar in every respect except that it
+had not been cropped), and asked him to spare no expense in analysis. The
+result was remarkable, for the soil from which the twelve crops had been
+taken was found to be very little deteriorated in anything except the
+quantity of lime it held, which was less than in the virgin soil. The
+explanation evidently was that the leaves from the shade trees, and
+perhaps decomposing stones, had supplied all the potash removed by the
+crops. "Why, then," asked my friend, who had called on the Professor to
+hear the result of the investigation, "can young coffee easily be grown on
+the virgin soil, while it would come on very slowly and poorly in the soil
+from which the twelve crops of coffee had been taken?" "Simply," was the
+answer, "because the untouched virgin soil is in a beautiful physical
+condition, while the soil in the plantation has been rained upon and
+walked upon, and thus had its physical condition impaired." I need hardly
+add that what I have just written is highly instructive, as it
+corroborates what Sir John Lawes has said, and which I have previously
+quoted, as to the physical condition of the soil being of more importance
+than its, strictly speaking, chemical composition, and it shows us the
+importance of maintaining a perfect physical condition of the soil, partly
+by cultivation and partly by additions of bulk manure--farmyard
+manure--top soil, and composts.
+
+To grow young plants in old soil requires great attention to manuring and
+preparing the soil, so as to supply the physical and chemical requirements
+necessary for the vigorous growth of the young plants. Now we know that
+the plants thrive well in virgin soil, and we cannot do better than fill
+the holes with it, if it can possibly be procured within any reasonable
+distance. If it cannot, then the soil should be mixed with some thoroughly
+decayed and dried cattle manure, mixed with bonedust, and if it is desired
+to rush the plant forward, a slight dressing of nitrate of potash might
+subsequently be applied.
+
+Coprolites, the supposed fossilized remains of animals, which would
+probably contain about 40 to 50 per cent. of phosphate of lime, have been
+discovered in Mysore, and I am informed by an executive Engineer officer
+in the Mysore offices that they are to be found over an area of about two
+square miles, and at about a distance of seven miles from the Maddur
+Railway Station on the Bangalore Mysore line. This is a highly important
+discovery, and, when developed, ought to be the means of furnishing the
+planter with cheap supplies of the mineral phosphate of lime. I may
+mention that as one find of coprolites has been made in the province, it
+is highly probable that further discoveries of this valuable manure may be
+made. A discovery of phosphatic nodules has also been made near
+Trichinopoly, in the Madras Presidency, and though not of quality
+sufficiently good for export to England, has been reported on by Dr.
+Voelcker as being good enough for use amongst the plantations of Southern
+India. A deposit has also been discovered in the Cuddapah district.
+
+We have now glanced at all the local manurial resources at the command of
+the planters, and also the manures which may be purchased at a distance
+from the plantations, and as to the latter the question now naturally
+arises as to how the planter can best lay out his money when manuring his
+coffee. Now I know of no planter in India who has knowledge enough to
+decide as to how he should lay out his money. The planter knows in a
+general way that he wants nitrogen, phosphoric acid, lime, and perhaps
+some potash, but as to the most desirable and economical sources from
+which to obtain them he is unable to decide, and it is not a question,
+even if he called in an agricultural chemist, to be decided once for all,
+for the prices of the various manures are constantly liable to change.
+Here, then, is a matter that should be taken up by the Government, which
+in this respect should follow the example of the Sussex Agricultural
+Association, the chemist of which publishes every spring the most
+economical manurial mixture which the farmer can use for his various
+purposes. In this thinly populated country the well-to-do planters are too
+few, and the humble native planters too poor, to do what is done by the
+rich agricultural societies of Great Britain in the way of aiding the
+farmer. The societies at home are mainly composed of landlords and the
+richer tenants. The Government in India is the one great landlord over
+two-thirds of British India, and should perform the duties of one.
+
+In concluding my remarks on manures, I need hardly say that it is of the
+greatest importance to keep a careful record of all the manures put down,
+and a special manure book should be kept for this purpose, in which notes
+should be kept of the effects observed. But for ready reference I have
+found it most convenient to have a plan made of each field on the estate,
+and on one side of it a space should be left in order to enter the manures
+applied. The date on which the field was planted might also be entered on
+the plan.
+
+Finally, I may remind the reader of the Tamul proverb which declares that
+"With plenty of manure even an idiot may be a successful agriculturist,"
+and may add to it the English adage, which says to the farmer, "Never get
+into debt, but if you do, let it be for manure."
+
+The work of bringing round an old and neglected plantation is by no means
+an easy one. The first thing to be done is to see to the physical
+condition of the land. This is sure to be hardened and deficient in
+vegetable matter, and this condition of things can only be remedied by
+applying large quantities of cattle manure or jungle top soil, or both.
+Now it will generally be found impossible to obtain enough cattle manure
+to fully manure even fifty acres in the year, nor, if it could be obtained
+in large quantities, would cattle manure have nearly such lasting effects
+in ameliorating the condition of the land as would applications of jungle
+top soil, and besides, the latter, if procurable (which it often is), can
+at once be applied in large quantities, and at about one-half the cost of
+cattle manure, in the case, as has been previously shown, of the best top
+soil, and at about the same cost in the case of the most inferior quality
+of top soil. It is evident, then, that great efforts should be made to
+procure a supply of jungle top soil, and the best top soil could of course
+be carried from a considerable distance without exceeding the cost of
+cattle manure. With the cattle manure or top soil, bonedust and white
+castor cake should be applied at the rate of 8 cwt. an acre, and 5 cwt. of
+the former to 3 cwt. of the latter; and, if the planter is in a hurry for
+immediate results, he might put down a small dressing of nitrate of
+soda--say 112 lbs. an acre. With the addition of the nitrate I feel
+confident, after observing the results of it on one of Mr. Mangles'
+estates in Coorg, that a remunerative crop would be picked in about two
+years after the application of the above suggested manures. I would
+particularly point out that, though the land, of course, must be well dug,
+the planter must not look to that alone for ameliorating the hardened
+condition of the soil, for however well dug, it will, unless cattle manure
+or jungle top soil should be applied, speedily run together again into as
+hardened a condition as ever. After the soil has been thoroughly manured
+and ameliorated in the manner suggested, moderate annual manuring will be
+quite sufficient for the future, for, as I have pointed out, coffee is not
+an exhaustive crop, though it is essential that a considerable supply of
+fertilizing matter should always be present in the soil. Where top soil is
+not available, red soil (kemmannu), if procurable, might be used with
+advantage, and the results of the experiments previously given seem to
+show that it might be even preferable to top soil.
+
+After such an application of manure as I have above advised, the planter
+must be on his guard against producing such a heavy crop as will lead to
+an exhaustion of the tree, and a failure of the following crop. And should
+there be reason to apprehend an over heavy crop, it must be reduced by
+free handling and pruning.
+
+In the case of a neglected plantation the trees are sure to be covered
+with moss and rough dead bark, and it is of great importance to remove
+this at once, and rub the trees down thoroughly.
+
+When manuring, always leave here and there, and at some convenient point
+or edge of a road, a short block of coffee un-manured, perhaps about
+twelve trees, and next to that a similar block with double the dose of
+manure applied to the field, and note the results. In order to have the
+effects of the different systems of manuring under constant observation
+experiments with different manurial mixtures can be best conducted at
+places where four roads meet. I need hardly say that in the observation of
+results, nothing should be left to memory, but the planter, the moment he
+has observed any result, should on the spot write it in his note book. The
+experiments of most importance are the following:--(1) As to the manure
+best calculated to bring on vacancy plants rapidly in old and worn soil.
+(2) To determine the value of potash as manure. (3) To determine the best
+time of year for manuring. (4) To determine how far it pays to manure
+little and often, as compared with manuring seldom but in large
+quantities. (5) How far the value of bones is due to their lime, and how
+far to the phosphoric acid they contain; and (6) how far it would pay to
+top dress old soil with earth taken from the adjacent, grass lands. Such
+are some of the many experiments that might usefully be tried. It would
+also be useful to experiment as regards native manurial practices. For
+instance, the growers of Areca nut palms, and pepper vines, make a mixture
+of Kemmannu, or red, or rather pink hued soil, which looks like
+recently-decomposed rock, black earth, and sheep dung, and apply the
+compost to their palms and pepper-vines, and it would be interesting to
+try such composts in the case of coffee. It would also be interesting to
+experiment with ordinary good soil taken from the grass lands. I am
+informed by a native farmer that the terraces on which ragi is grown, are
+occasionally dressed with such soil, and that the manurial effect of it
+lasts for two years, but no doubt the effect is much increased by the
+physical effect caused by the addition of the soil. The more I have
+studied these subjects the more am I convinced that the most, economical
+way of keeping up coffee land from a physical and chemical point of view
+is one of the many secrets yet to be discovered, and I would strongly urge
+planters to experiment. There is a common saying amongst farmers and
+planters that they cannot afford to make experiments. This is merely the
+refuge of the indolent and the ignorant. Experiments may, of course, be
+made on such a scale as to be hazardous or even ruinous, but they can be
+made in such a way as to be neither the one nor the other.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[54] I am now so satisfied with the capacity of these soils to keep
+themselves cool, that I am applying them as a top dressing to land
+deficient in shade and dry ridges. Since writing the above, I have
+ascertained from my manager the interesting fact that about seven weeks
+after putting down the red earth, newly grown white roots were found to be
+running all through this earth, though no rain had fallen from the time of
+the application of the soil up to the time the growth of the rootlets was
+observed. The adjacent land, to which virgin forest top soil had been
+applied, had no such growth of new rootlets, nor had any of the adjacent
+land, to which no top dressings had been applied. The red earth had
+evidently the power of taking in sufficient moisture from the atmosphere
+to stimulate a growth of young roots. The red earth was applied on
+February 20th, and no rain fell till April 7th. This growth of new
+rootlets, I may add, was also observed in another part of the plantation
+to which, a top dressing of the red earth had been applied.
+
+[55] The full analyses of these leaves and twigs are given in the Appendix
+to Dr. Voelcker's work, "The Improvement of Indian Agriculture," which
+contains other analyses of interest to the planter. This important work
+should, I may repeat, be in the hands of all those interested in tropical
+cultivations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+NURSERIES.
+
+
+Since the introduction of the Coorg plant, it has been customary for
+Mysore planters to send annually to Coorg for seed, and they have always
+endeavoured to obtain it from the best coffee grown on the best land, and,
+as the results from this practice have been very satisfactory, it may seem
+that no better course could be suggested. But till all courses are tried
+it is certainly open to doubt whether this is the best, and I am now
+experimenting with seeds produced not from the richest, but from the
+poorest and most exposed portion of a Coorg estate (but of course neither
+so poor nor exposed as to be incapable of producing strong, healthy trees
+and sound seed), and I think it probable that seed from such trees will
+produce hardier plants than can be produced from seed gathered in rich and
+sheltered situations. As regards the climate from which the seed should be
+produced, one well-known planter, Mr. Edwin Hunt, writing in the "Madras
+Mail," Feb. 27th, 1891, says that he attaches the greatest importance to
+change of seed irrespective of the poorness or richness of the soil on
+which it has been raised, and thinks change of climate does as much as
+change of soil, and has for some years found it advantageous to procure
+seed from the wettest climate for the driest climate, and _vice versa_. I
+have had no experience on this point as regards coffee, but it may be
+interesting and useful from a shade-planting point of view, to note here
+that I have found that seeds of the jack tree from the dry plains of the
+interior produce plants which grow much more rapidly in the wet coffee
+districts than plants do which have been raised from local seed, and this
+naturally raises a question, I am now experimenting on, i.e., as to
+whether we should not procure coffee-seed from trees grown in the dry
+plains of the interior where the rainfall is less than half of that of our
+driest coffee districts. I may here note that coffee can be grown in
+low-lying sheltered land as far east as Bangalore if the coffee is
+irrigated. I was shown in 1891 coffee that looked well, and had borne
+well, in Mr. Meenakshia's gardens, some miles from Bangalore. One hundred
+and seventy trees planted 6 x 6 ft. in 1885 gave an appreciable crop in
+1889, and in 1890 3 cwt. of clean coffee, or at the rate of upwards of a
+ton an acre. When I saw the trees in July, 1891, they were looking well,
+and had a fair crop on them. There was no shade except a bushy tree here
+and there. The proprietor, encouraged by his success, had been extending
+his cultivation. In the same garden I also saw cardamom plants about seven
+feet high and in blossom; these had been planted eighteen months
+previously. There were also some vines, grown from plants imported from
+Caubul, which produced large fine white grapes.
+
+It is of course very important to select a good site for the nursery, and
+a ready command of water is essential, as it is both costly and
+unsatisfactory to carry to the beds even a short distance, and the aspect
+should, if possible, be northerly, as in that case very little shading is
+required if the ground is on a slope, as, if a line of trees is left at
+the head of the slope, a large amount of lateral shade will be thrown on
+to the beds. Next to a northern an eastern aspect, if the land is
+low-lying, with a hill or sloping land rising rather abruptly behind it,
+is by no means a bad situation, as the sun will be entirely off the land
+early in the afternoon. Should the planter unfortunately have to fall
+back on a southern aspect, this may be aided by leaving forest trees
+rather thickly on the western side of the nurseries so as to shield it
+from the afternoon sun, or a line of casuarinas may be planted on the
+west, and also on the southern side, so as to cast lateral shade on the
+nursery. A western aspect is to be deprecated, in consequence of the
+scorching heat of the afternoon sun.
+
+There is a common idea, which I myself once shared, that it is always best
+to have your nursery on new land, but this is really not at all necessary
+if you renew your land by carting on to it top soil from the jungle, or
+even a mixture of any fresh soil that has not been trampled upon, and
+which has been mixed with cattle manure and some bone-meal. I consider it
+most important to retain the same site for the nursery, because, by
+growing casuarinas to cast lateral shade on it, you can ultimately
+dispense with shading the nursery, as these trees run up quickly, and
+attain a great height. The light, too, comes readily through them, so that
+their lateral shade is most desirable, and lateral shade, it must be
+remembered, allows the plants to benefit by the dew fall. I may add that
+the height to which the trees grow enables the planter to grow them at
+such a distance from the beds as to be practically unable to reach them
+with their roots.
+
+As regards the best time for putting down the seed, opinions and practice
+have varied considerably, but it is now generally admitted that seed put
+down at Christmas, which will give plants with ten leaves on them in June
+(the planting season) are the most suitable for new clearings. Seed put
+down in September or October will give fine sturdy plants with one or two
+pairs of branches, and these are considered to be the most suitable for
+vacancies in old land. In order to do full justice to the last-named
+plants, they should, three months before planting out, be transplanted
+into small circular baskets, about the size of a small flower pot, and
+with wide spaces between the wickerwork. These baskets should be filled
+with a mixture of dried cattle dung and good soil; they should then be
+placed on the surface of the bed and touching each other, and, when the
+plants are put out, they should be put down with the basket, which will
+then be quite filled with a mass of fibrous roots all ready to extend
+themselves into the surrounding land. When this course is pursued the
+plant receives no check, and its rapid growth is insured. If this method
+is not adopted in the case of replanting old land, or filling up vacancies
+amongst old coffee, many plants are sure to perish, and the survivors will
+make but poor progress. But in the case of virgin soil this course, though
+obviously a safe one, and freeing the planters from all anxiety as to a
+failure in the rains, may be dispensed with. Where baskets are expensive,
+or difficult to procure, pieces of worn out gunny bags answer the purpose
+fairly well, and I have seen them used on the Nilgiri hills.
+
+The pits for vacancy plants should be dug shortly after the monsoon, and
+filled in soon after being dug, when the soil is quite dry, with a mixture
+of jungle top soil, bone-meal, and ordinary soil, or old, well dried
+cattle manure mixed with some fine bone-meal and ordinary soil. I have
+never used the nitrate of potash for manuring vacancy plants, but it has
+been used in Coorg with good effect, as may be readily understood by
+anyone who has had any experience of that valuable manure.
+
+In conclusion, I may say that if the planter is not prepared to take all
+the steps necessary to insure the growth of vacancy plants in old land, he
+had far better not put down any at all, as he will find it to be a mere
+waste of money and labour, which is often more precious than money.
+
+As regards the important point of topping, there are considerable
+differences of opinion. I am in favour of short topping, because the
+coffee thus more quickly and completely covers the ground, and the trees
+are more easily pruned and handled, and some planters top at from three to
+three and a half feet. Others again prefer four feet, and some four feet
+and a half, while I know of a planter who prefers a greater height, and
+cuts off the lower branches of his trees so as to turn them into an
+umbrella shape. The last practice I thought a very strange one once, but
+taking rot and leaf disease into consideration, I am by no means sure
+that, for our shade coffee, it is not the best, and at any rate feel quite
+sure that, as the lower branches in the case of highly topped trees soon
+become poor and thin, the practice of high topping, and removing some of
+the lower branches, is one to be decidedly recommended, and I am now
+adopting it on my estate. For, in the case of our shade plantation, if the
+coffee is short and thickly planted, so as to closely cover the ground,
+there is necessarily a great want of ventilation, and, when this is the
+case, rot must, from the great dampness of the ground, have a tendency to
+increase in the monsoon, while from there being no room for the passage of
+air underneath the trees, the spores of the leaf disease will be preserved
+from being dried up and killed during the season of strong and parching
+winds. But quite independently of these reasons, it seems to me that the
+souring of the land owing to excessive saturation would be much lessened
+were there free ventilation under the coffee trees. And, taking all these
+points into consideration, I am now letting up all my short topped trees,
+which is easily done by letting a sucker grow from the head of the tree,
+and topping it when it reaches the required height. In places which are
+exposed, or fairly exposed, to wind, short topping would not be attended
+with such disadvantages, as in the case of the land in more sheltered
+situations, but for all sheltered situations it certainly seems to me
+that, with reference to the limitation of rot, leaf disease and the
+souring of the land, the trees should be topped at not less than four feet
+and a half.
+
+The trees should not be topped until after the blossom comes out, as the
+result of topping at an earlier period would be to cause the trees to
+throw out a heavy crop on the primary branches, and more suckers, and so
+cause more trouble and expense in handling. It should be remembered, too,
+that in the case of all young plants if, before the first blossom, you cut
+the top, you check the growth of the roots. When topping, remove one of
+the topmost pair of branches as, if both are left, a split in the top of
+the stem is liable to occur. Should waiting until after the bursting of
+the blossom cause the tree to grow so high as to be affected by wind, the
+top may be pinched off by hand, and the tree afterwards topped at the
+proper height. This is often necessary in the case of shaded coffee, which
+is, of course, liable to be drawn up.
+
+I have said that the evil of topping before blossom is, that a heavy crop
+is thereby thrown out on the primary branches, and I know of nothing more
+injurious to the young tree, or more certain to throw it out of shape, as
+the branch shrinks, and the tendency then is for the strongest secondary
+branch to take the lead. A judicious and full-pursed planter, it is true,
+would either remove the whole of the maiden crop, or at least from the
+three upper pairs of primaries, but the crop of the fourth year is apt to
+find a young planter with empty pockets, and he may not be able to afford
+the sacrifice; but he should in any case remove the immature berries, or
+blossom buds, from the greenwood of the primary branches, and if he
+refrains from topping before blossom, his trees may stand their maiden
+crop fairly well. But if the maiden crop threatens to be a heavy one it
+should certainly be lessened, as the following year there would be little
+crop, and much growth of superfluous wood, and an over heavy crop the
+succeeding year, and so on continuously. The trees would thus be thrown
+into the habit of giving heavy alternate crops, which is most injurious to
+the plant which, like all other fruit-yielding plants, should be worked so
+as to give even, moderate crops every year. But is it not evident that a
+heavy crop followed by a small crop and much superfluous growth must be
+extremely bad? for the trees thus produce an over heavy crop of berries
+one year, and an exhaustive crop of shoots and suckers during the next,
+and thus call for an extra expenditure of labour.
+
+It is very important, by what is called handling, to keep the tree clear
+of shoots within six inches of the stem, and to remove all cross shoots
+and suckers and thin out superfluous wood as soon as possible. For we must
+constantly keep in mind that a given weight of leaves is as exhaustive to
+the tree as a given weight of berries. Prompt handling, and the removal of
+suckers, is also very necessary for the free ventilation of the tree, and
+especially during the monsoon months. I would call particular attention to
+the bearing that judicious and timely handling has on rot and leaf
+disease, as these are both much encouraged if the tree, at the beginning
+of the monsoon, has much immature foliage. We should handle them (and
+prune too, as is subsequently pointed out) so as to meet the monsoon as
+much as possible with well ripened leaves, and this can obviously be best
+done by preserving all the September and October shoots we can, and
+removing all the February shoots that the tree can spare. In connection
+with this subject, I would strongly advise planters to study Mr. Marshall
+Ward's third Report on leaf disease in Ceylon, to which I have elsewhere
+referred, and would particularly call attention to what he urges as to the
+advisability of giving every leaf that is to be preserved as long a life
+as possible, in order that it may feed the tree for the greatest possible
+length of time.
+
+In our climate, anything approaching to heavy pruning is regarded as an
+abomination, and the general opinion is now in favour of shortening back
+long drooping primaries, removing cross shoots and wood that is not likely
+to bear anything more, and thinning out overgrowths of new wood. The most
+luxuriantly wooded part of the plantation should be pruned first, and the
+sticky coffee last, because, in the first place, it is important to stop
+the growth of superfluous wood as soon as possible, and in the second
+case, time will be given to the sticky coffee to throw out new shoots, so
+that the pruner can see exactly where to apply the knife, which is often a
+matter of difficulty, if he is dealing with trees quite exhausted from
+bearing a heavy crop, or from the land being insufficiently manured. It is
+very important to pare closely off the spikes left after cutting off a
+secondary branch, so that the bark may heal over the junction of the
+branch with the parent branch, as, if this is not done, the free
+circulation of the sap is checked. It runs up the branches, and, of
+course, cannot readily get on when it meets with a spike of wood sticking
+out of the branch. This spike or stump may be green or half or quite dead,
+but whatever state it is in the free circulation of the sap will be
+checked, and the quantity of sap in circulation for the benefit of the
+main branch will be lessened.
+
+The time for pruning trees is obviously of great importance. Our present
+practice is to prune as soon after the crop as possible, and no doubt this
+follows the rule as regards all fruit tree culture, which is, that the
+trees, from the time of blossoming till up to the picking of the crop,
+should not be interfered with. But pruning at that time causes the tree to
+throw out much young wood which in the beginning of the monsoon is in an
+immature state, and, as Mr. Ward has pointed out (_vide_ p. 389), this
+succulent foliage is a good breeding ground for leaf disease. Mr. Brooke
+Mockett, too (_vide_ p. 401), has pointed out that leaf disease is worst
+in the case of trees which have been heavily pruned, and obviously because
+the heavier the pruning the greater the supply of succulent foliage. Such
+succulent foliage, too, is liable to be rotted away in the drenching rains
+of the south-west monsoon. So that, taking all the points into
+consideration, it is obvious that pruning should be so managed as to
+increase mature foliage, and, as much as possible, limit the amount of
+succulent foliage, at the beginning of the monsoon. How this object is to
+be attained it is difficult to see, but we can certainly do something
+towards attaining it by very light pruning; and I would suggest here that
+planters should make experiments both in pruning and manuring, with the
+view of growing the young wood earlier in the season. And I would suggest
+that planters might set aside say an acre, and leave the trees untouched
+at the usual pruning season, and confine their pruning to removing useless
+wood at the end of the monsoon. This, I surmise, would have the effect of
+throwing out new wood then, which would be mature at the beginning of the
+monsoon. Such experimental plots should not be manured after crop, but
+should be manured immediately after the monsoon. It certainly seems to me
+that, if we could both manure and prune at the end of the monsoon, we
+should attain, as far as it can be attained, the production of mature wood
+and leaves at the beginning of the monsoon.
+
+Some planters, when pruning, remove moss and rub down the trees at the
+same time, but this, I am sure, can be done more cheaply and effectually
+as a separate work.
+
+The removal of moss and rough bark, and generally cleaning and rubbing
+down the trees is a work of very great importance, and should be carried
+out once every two or three years. The injury arising from moss is too
+well known to call for any remark, but the reason why the removal of rough
+bark, and especially rough bark at the head of the tree, and at the
+junction of the topmost branches with the stem is of such importance is,
+that it is in the crevices of the rough bark that the Borer fly lays its
+eggs. When thus removing the moss and rough bark, the eggs may often be
+destroyed, and in the absence of rough bark to shelter them, it is
+probable that the insect would probably not lay the eggs at all, or that,
+if it did, they would either become addled, or fall to the ground. I may
+add here that we have found a piece of square tin the best thing for
+scraping down the trees, and that the hair-like fibre of the sago palm is
+an excellent thing for rubbing down the stems.
+
+Though moss thrives best in damp situations, and on northern aspects, it
+sometimes exists on open and eastern aspects, and, when the latter is the
+case, the moss is certainly due to poverty of soil, and in such cases, in
+addition to scraping the trees thoroughly, an application of top soil
+mixed with lime, or bonedust, should be applied to the land. I may add
+that I have seen trees on a dry knoll, and with no shade over head,
+covered with moss, and this was no doubt owing to poverty of soil, which
+caused the bark to be in an unhealthy condition, and therefore a suitable
+home for the growth and spread of moss.
+
+Digging and working the soil in order to keep it in an open condition is
+of great importance, because, to use for the second or third time the
+words of Sir John Lawes, "it is the physical condition of the soil, its
+permeability to roots, its capacity for absorbing and radiating heat, and
+for absorbing and retaining water, that is more important than its
+strictly speaking chemical condition." In other words, a moderately
+fertile soil, if maintained in fine physical condition, will give better
+results than a rich one which is in a hardened state. But to keep the
+soil in good condition, and yet comply with the fruit cultivators' chief
+axiom that, "from the time of blossom till the crop is ripe the roots
+should not be disturbed," is a matter of great difficulty--I might almost
+indeed say an impossibility. For, from the trampling of the people in
+their passage up and down the lines, and the dash of the rain, the soil
+becomes exceedingly hard immediately after, or at least very shortly after
+the rain. Here, then, the planter finds himself between the devil and the
+deep sea. Is he to leave his soil in a hardened state from the beginning
+of November to the end of January, or perhaps the middle of February, or
+is he to violate the axiom which tells him not to disturb the roots till
+after the crop is ripened? And here I think the condition of things is
+such that he should come to a compromise, and dig up at the end of the
+monsoon a space of about 2 to 2-1/2 feet up the centre of the lines, which,
+being the part always walked upon, is necessarily liable to be puddled and
+hardened, and then, after crop-picking is finished, lightly dig, or pick
+over and stir, the remainder of the soil, breaking, of course, all clods
+at the same time. By such a process we should prevent the central portion
+drying up and cracking, and aerate laterally the rest of the soil, and at
+the same time do as little damage as possible to the roots. I need hardly
+say that it is of great importance to begin with all those places where
+the soil is most hardened, as, should the planter not be able, from
+shortness of labour, to complete his digging before crop, he will at least
+have dug those places most urgently in need of cultivation. If the soil of
+the estate is pretty even in character, the hottest aspects will of course
+harden soonest, and should be dug first, but it may so happen that a hot
+aspect may have a soil of a loose and open character, while a north aspect
+might have a soil of stiff character, and here the planter must alter the
+rule so as to suit his particular case.
+
+For digging, or rather loosening the soil at the end of the monsoon, my
+experience is that the four-pronged Assam fork is the best tool, and that
+for the light picking over of the whole of the soil after crop a light
+two-pronged digger is best. This last tool is shaped like a mamoty, but
+with two prongs rather widely set apart instead of the broad blade of the
+mamoty. It being very light, it can easily be turned in the hand, so that
+clods may be broken with the back of the tool, and it can be used by
+women, which of course is of great advantage for pushing forward the work.
+
+Renovation pits, as they are called, were once regarded as an excellent
+means of deeply stirring the soil, but, of recent years, have fallen out
+of favour with many planters, and I think justly so. These pits, or rather
+trenches, are dug in the spaces between four trees, and are generally
+about fifteen inches in depth, as many in width, and about ten feet long.
+Weeds and rubbish were thrown into them, and when they were filled with
+these, and soil washed into them, the pits were abandoned and another set
+opened. I am now satisfied that these pits did much damage by the
+sub-soil--which is often of an undesirable quality, and always, of course,
+more liable to run together and harden than the original top soil--being
+thrown on to the surface of the land. In fact, they did the same damage
+that the steam plough has often done at home in unskilful hands, i.e.,
+turned a fine loose surface soil into one of an inferior character. Then
+the sides and edges of the pits harden and crack, and this of course adds
+to the heat of the plantation. But renovation pits may be put to an
+excellent use if employed in their character of water-holes, as they are
+called by the natives, and whenever land is liable to wash, they are of
+great service, and, though but small portions of our shaded plantations
+are ever liable to wash, a line of renovation pits should always be put on
+the lower sides of roads to catch the water that runs off them, and thus
+cause it to soak gradually into the soil. When renovation pits are used as
+water-holes no new ones should be opened, but the old pit should be
+cleaned out and its contents scattered on the surface of the land, not
+between the rows of coffee, as the soil would at once run into the
+renovation pits below, but around the stems of the coffee trees and in the
+lines. I have found that renovation pits, or water-holes, are of great
+value as water conservators, and wherever it is necessary to increase the
+supply of water for a tank, deep water-holes--say from 3 to 4 feet in
+depth and width--should be dug around the upper sides of the tank, and the
+rain water conducted into them by small channels. We have found, on my
+property, such an appreciable effect from even a moderate amount of such
+holes, that I am now largely increasing their number. A friend of mine has
+also found a similar effect in connection with his tank, though, I may
+mention, he had made the pits in connection with his coffee, and not with
+the view of increasing the water supply in his tank. I believe that this
+method of increasing the water supply would be well worth the attention of
+Government in connection with its numerous tanks.
+
+The reader will remember that I have recommended applications of jungle
+top soil and other soil, and it should be remembered that such
+applications will, by rendering the soil more open, much lighten the work
+of digging, and this is a point that should be carefully estimated when
+calculating the expense of dressing the land with fresh soil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE DISEASES OF COFFEE.
+
+
+Though coffee in Mysore is liable to two diseases, and to the attack of
+one insect, these, when the cultivation is good, and the shade suitable in
+kind and degree, are not likely to cause any uneasiness in the minds of
+the planters. But it is, of course, necessary to go carefully into the
+whole subject of these diseases and the insect attack, in order to bring
+out fully the steps that should be taken so to cultivate and shade the
+coffee as to render these evils as innocuous as possible, and I have
+therefore, in addition to my own knowledge, taken pains specially to
+procure from two planters of long practical experience their views. The
+views, I may say, of Mr. Graham Anderson as regards leaf disease are
+particularly valuable, as he has paid much attention to the subject.
+
+Leaf disease is the common name given to the attack of _Hemeleïa
+Vastatrix_, a fungoid plant which distributes its spores in the form of a
+yellow powder. These alight on the leaves of coffee, and in weather
+favourable to the fungus, will germinate in about a day, and the fungoid
+plant then roots itself between the walls of the leaves. After the plant
+has completed its growth, which it generally does in about three weeks,
+more spores are produced to fly away with the wind, or be scattered by the
+movements of the coolies amongst the coffee, and thus the disease spreads.
+A great deal, of course, has been written about it, and those who desire
+more particular information may refer to Mr. Marshall Ward's report on
+coffee loaf disease in Ceylon. It is sufficient to say here that when the
+attack is severe the tree is deprived of its leaves, or of a large number
+of them; that much injury to the crop results; and that both the tree and
+the soil are heavily taxed in replacing the foliage that has been
+destroyed.
+
+Leaf disease has probably existed[56] in Mysore as long as coffee has, but
+was, from the small amount of it, so entirely unnoticed, that, when I
+wrote my chapter on coffee in the "Experiences of a Planter," more than
+twenty-two years ago, I had never heard of it, nor, I am sure, had any of
+my neighbours. A trick, however, I once played on Mr. Graham Anderson's
+cousin about thirty years ago, enables me to trace it backwards so far
+with certainty. On coming through his plantation on one occasion, I picked
+oft a very large yellow coffee leaf, and placed it below the first of
+several plates with the aid of which he was helping his visitors. When the
+servant lifted the first plate, there was the leaf, and I said to my
+friend, "There are your golden prospects." Many years afterwards Mr.
+Graham Anderson recalled the incident to my memory, and said, "That was
+the leaf disease." But it was not till leaf disease appeared in Ceylon in
+a severe form that our attention was called to the subject, and since then
+leaf disease has undoubtedly increased, and, in the opinion of one of the
+two experienced planters I have consulted, has caused much loss directly
+and indirectly, while the other informs me it has caused much loss on some
+estates. But I confess my own observation causes great doubts in my own
+mind as to whether the losses of leaves which planters attribute to leaf
+disease are entirely owing to that cause, and I was much struck with what
+Mr. Reilly, of Hillgrove Estate, Coonoor, said to me on the subject; and
+when we were discussing leaf disease in general, he observed that it was
+often said to be the cause of leaves falling off, when their doing so was
+really owing to an over heavy crop of coffee. Then with our dry east winds
+many leaves become yellow and fall off, and some become so because they
+have been injured by the pickers, others from rot, and others from old
+age, and all these leaf losses are commonly put down to leaf disease, so
+that, taking all these points into consideration, I find myself quite
+unable to determine, even approximately, the amount of loss arising from
+_Hemeleïa Vastatrix_.
+
+But of one thing, however, I do feel absolutely certain, and that is, that
+when the land is well cultivated, manured, and judiciously shaded with
+good caste trees, leaf disease may be reduced to such a degree that we
+need not trouble ourselves about it, and I feel equally sure that the most
+important of all the agents for controlling and limiting the disease is
+the shade of good caste trees. And as to the effect of shade upon
+_Hemeleïa Vastatrix_, I made particular inquiries when visiting estates in
+1891 on the slopes of the Nilgiris, and conversing with planters on the
+subject. One manager went so far as to say that there was no leaf disease
+under the shade trees. Mr. Reilly, of Hillgrove Estate, said there was
+much less leaf disease under the shade trees. Another planter of great
+experience told me that leaf disease begins on the coffee in the open, and
+then spreads into even the finest trees under shade, but that those are
+affected in less degree. "In the end," he said, "You see the estate all
+yellow, but with green patches of coffee under the shade trees." In short,
+I found that all the planters I consulted were agreed in saying that there
+was but a small amount of leaf disease under the shade trees. The estates
+on the Nilgiri slopes have been originally all in the open, but latterly
+shade has been encouraged on some estates, but not to a degree which in
+Mysore would be called shade. However, the shade was quite sufficient, as
+we have seen, to illustrate the important fact that shade can control leaf
+disease. And as shade can control leaf disease, I need hardly say that it
+is of the utmost importance (just as it is as regards Borer), to carefully
+fill up at once all spots where shade is deficient, because this
+deficiency encourages leaf disease, and forms a breeding ground for spores
+to fly into the surrounding coffee. Open spots here and there may not
+strike one at first sight as being of much importance, but if they are all
+added together, the planter will see that they will amount to a
+considerable area of land, and quite sufficient, at any rate, to inoculate
+his plantation with leaf disease.
+
+The reader will observe that I have said that leaf disease may be reduced
+within practically speaking harmless limits if the coffee is judiciously
+shaded with good caste shade trees, and I would call particular attention
+to the term good caste trees, because bad caste shade trees will not
+control leaf disease. On the contrary, Mr. Graham Anderson informs me that
+he has seen worse leaf disease under a dense covering of bad shade trees
+than he has in the open, and he also informs me that, though shade is the
+backbone of our success in Mysore, he has had more misfortune from all
+causes when his estate was under the heavy shade of bad caste trees than
+he has ever had since, though many places are not yet properly covered
+with the good kind of shade trees which he had planted to take the place
+of the bad ones he had removed. I am much indebted to Mr. Graham Anderson
+for information on the subject of leaf disease, and he has been kind
+enough to enumerate the following conditions under which leaf disease is
+liable to occur in the cases of good soils under good shade:
+
+"In the case of good soils under good shade trees," writes Mr. Graham
+Anderson, "leaf disease is liable to occur under the following
+circumstances, or at the following times:
+
+"1. From the soil being saturated at some critical period of growth,
+particularly just when secondary growth commences in September.
+
+"2. During the time when the plants are maturing a heavy crop.
+
+"3. After the plants have been exhausted by ripening a heavy crop.
+
+"4. After heavy weeds--particularly if late in the season.
+
+"5. After a heavy digging where roots have been cut.
+
+"6. After pruning without manure having been applied, or from want of
+digging.[57]
+
+"7. Even after manuring when the trees have large succulent roots in an
+immature condition--generally a sign that fibrous surface roots are
+deficient, and that large, deep-feeding roots are present in excess.
+
+"8. After large quantities of green or rotting weeds have been deeply
+buried, or large quantities of acid, unrotted, or forcing manures have
+been applied.
+
+"Leaf disease is also liable to occur:
+
+"1. In poor gravelly soils, and on land which has caked in the hot
+weather, or become unmanageable during rain.
+
+"2. On land where ill-balanced manurial preparations have been used.
+
+"3. In soils suffering from a deficiency of the available supply of
+phosphates and alkalies.
+
+"4. Under unsuitable shade trees."
+
+Now it is to be observed that these are preventable causes, or
+aggravations of leaf disease, and, if carefully attended to, the planter
+will have little to apprehend from leaf disease. Mr. Anderson, in his
+communication to me, lays, and very rightly, particular stress on the
+maintenance of the physical condition of the land and its state of
+fertility. And it is satisfactory to find that he is exactly confirmed by
+Mr. H. Marshall Ward in his third report (dated 1881) on coffee leaf
+disease in Ceylon, and he points out (p. 3) that "Leaf disease appears to
+affect different estates in different degrees on account of varieties in
+soil, climate, and other physical peculiarities."
+
+"But," he continues, "I would draw particular attention to this. Careful
+cultivation and natural advantages of soil, climate, etc., enable certain
+estates to stand forth prominently, as though leaf disease did not affect
+them, or only to a slight extent, while poor nutrition, the ravages of
+insects, etc., have in other cases their effects as well as leaf disease."
+Or, in other words, he states that, as was suggested to me by Mr.
+Reilly--a planter of long experience near Coonoor on the Nilgiris--that
+much loss of leaves, which has been attributed to leaf disease, is often
+due to other causes.
+
+Mr. Brooke Mockett--one of the planters previously alluded to--informs me
+that "Leaf disease is certainly worst (1) on trees that are cropping
+heavily, (2) on trees that have been severely pruned (heavy pruning being
+ruination in my opinion), (3) on plants under bad caste shade trees (these
+plants it seems to cripple), and (4) on plants in the open."
+
+It is worthy of note that the Coorg plant is not nearly so liable to
+attacks of leaf disease as the original Mysore Chick plant. I have seen a
+tall plant of the latter variety heavily attacked, while a Coorg plant
+partly under it was only slightly attacked on the side next the Chick
+plant, and hardly at all on the side not under the Chick plant. I observe,
+too, from the Planting Correspondent's Notes in the "Madras Mail" of
+January 30th, 1892, that the same thing has been observed in Coorg, and
+that occasional Mysore plants, which had by some accident found their way
+into the Coorg coffee, got the disease first, and that it then spread into
+the surrounding coffee.
+
+It should be borne in mind that leaf disease does not kill the tree, but
+only injures it, and diminishes its powers by depriving it of much of its
+foliage, so that there is nothing alarming in leaf disease when it is
+controlled by good management of the tree, and good shade, cultivation of
+the soil, and manuring; and the only case I can hear of where anything
+like permanent injury has occurred, is where the disease has existed under
+the shade of bad caste trees. But it is far otherwise with the justly
+dreaded Borer insect, which, however, can, as we shall see, be effectively
+controlled by good shade. To the attacks of this insect I now propose to
+direct the attention of the reader.
+
+The too well-known coffee Borer is a beetle, about as large as a horsefly,
+which lays its eggs in any convenient crevice, and generally, it is
+supposed, near the head of the tree, in the bark, or wood of the coffee
+tree. After the larvæ are hatched they at once burrow their way into the
+tree, where they live on the dead matter of the inner or heart-wood of the
+stem, and there they reside from, it is supposed, three to five months,
+till their transformation into winged beetles. Then they bore their way
+out of the tree, and fly away to carry on their mischievous work. This
+insect has been declared to be, by Mr. John Keast Lord, "a beetle of the
+second family of the Coleoptera Cerambycidæ, and to be closely allied to a
+somewhat common species known as the wasp-beetle (_Clytus avietis_),
+which usually undergoes its changes in old dry palings." And in a
+collection made by M. Chevrolat in Southern India, and now in the British
+Museum (at least it was so in 1867, when Mr. Lord investigated the point),
+a specimen was found, to which the name of _Xylotrechus quadrupes_ was
+attached. This Borer, like the leaf disease, has probably always attacked
+coffee, but the earliest probable notice of it is to be found in Mr.
+Stokes's Report on the Nuggur Division of Mysore, in about 1835, where he
+observes that coffee trees in dry seasons often wither and snap off
+suddenly at the root. The cause, or probable cause of this he does not
+state, but there can be little doubt that the Borer had attacked the trees
+alluded to. Since then the Borer seems to have attracted little or no
+attention till towards the end of 1866, but about that time, and during
+the three following years, an alarming attack of Borer took place, and
+inflicted immense injury on plantations, and there can be no doubt that
+this was in a great measure owing partly to insufficient shade, and partly
+to bad caste shade trees, accompanied by dry, hot seasons, which were
+favourable to the hatching of the eggs of this destructive insect. But
+since then much attention has been paid to shade, both as to quantity and
+kind, and the Borer may now be regarded as an insect which can with
+certainty be held in check if the land is properly shaded with good caste
+trees. And I say good caste trees, because bad caste trees encourage
+Borers, and Mr. Graham Anderson, who has had a very large and disagreeable
+experience of the effects of bad caste trees, informs me that he has "seen
+worse Borer under dense _bad_ caste shade than in open places in good soil
+on northern slopes." "Some bad shade trees," he continues, in his
+communication to me on the subject, "keep the coffee in a debilitated
+state. They allow it to be parched up in the dry weather, and they smother
+it in the monsoon. They rob it of moisture and manure with their myriads
+of surface-feeding roots, and prevent dew and light showers benefiting the
+plant. I do not fear Borer under well-regulated shade of approved
+descriptions. Renovation pits left open in the hot weather, large
+clod-digging in a light soil even under fair shade, weeds left standing in
+dry weather; all these, by increasing evaporation, tend to cause increase
+of damage from Borer. A hard caked surface, or a compact, undug soil is
+equally bad. Rubbing and cleaning the stems is a valuable operation,
+because it removes rough bark in which eggs may be deposited, and
+contributes to the health of the tree. The prompt removal and burning of
+all affected trees, properly arranged shade of selected varieties,
+frequent light stirring of the surface soil, having well arranged shoots
+distributed all over the coffee trees, not opening the centre of the trees
+too much, and keeping the trees succulent and vigorous by culture and
+manure, may be at present classed among the best remedies for the Borer
+pest." In other words, he would say that the Borer loves dry wood. Keep
+your coffee tree green and succulent and well shaded, and you have little
+to fear from it.
+
+I have also obtained the opinion of Mr. Brooke Mockett, who informs me
+that "Borer is certainly as destructive under bad caste trees as in the
+open." "Borer," he continues, in his communication to me on the subject,
+"is always much worse in land where there has been a burn than in unburnt
+land. It is also bad in rocky and stony places. In good soil, where there
+has been no burn, I have never had Borer severely, even though for a time
+there has been no shade whatever. I do not fear Borer now that such an
+excellent system of shade raising has been discovered. Rubbing stems once
+in about three years I look upon as of great use."
+
+I too have had great experience of Borer, and agree with what my friends
+have written on the subject, with the exception of what Mr. Graham
+Anderson has said as to the advisability of promptly removing and burning
+all bored trees. This I am aware is the common practice, but I have never
+carried it out on my property, and yet, though the trees were riddled with
+Borer in the great Borer years, and I have had since then a fair
+proportion of it on some part of my property, I believe that no estate has
+less Borer now. Instead of removing the bored trees I removed the Borer
+itself with the aid of the shade of good caste trees, and especially, I
+believe, by paying strict attention to what I have particularly enforced
+in my shade section--the prompt filling up of every spot in the plantation
+that called for more shade. For it is in such spots that the Borer first
+locates itself, and then it spreads to other dried up trees in the
+plantation. There is little use, I think, in removing the affected trees.
+You must remove the cause of their being affected, because, if you do not,
+the _sound_ trees that are insufficiently shaded will in time be affected:
+and then it must be remembered that the Borer is a winged insect which, as
+long as you leave suitable ground for it, will be sure to make its
+appearance. Out of curiosity I lately cut down and carefully examined a
+coffee tree which I could see, from the appearance of the bark, had once
+been heavily bored, but which I felt certain had no Borer now, nor any
+recent attack of it. The tree I found, after a careful dissection, had not
+a sign of Borer present in it, nor any sign of a recent attack, and yet in
+years gone by it had been heavily attacked and bored literally from end to
+end of the stem. The explanation was that the land had formerly not been
+sufficiently shaded, while now the shade is ample. The Borers had then
+left the trees, and their descendants had either not thought it worth
+while to lay any eggs on them, or the eggs had, from the lowered
+temperature caused by the shade, become addled. Many years ago I remember
+cutting down a fine coffee tree, when the round gimlet-made looking hole
+through which the insect makes its escape was plainly to be seen, when I
+found that a single Borer had drilled a hole down a part of the centre of
+the tree, then passed into the fly state and left the tree. It was a fine
+succulent and nourishing tree, and would, in all probability, have not
+again been attacked. To remove, then, all attacked trees, as some planters
+do, seems to me to be a great waste. To do so will not prevent other
+Borers arriving from some quarter or other to continue the deadly work;
+but shade, if it does not prevent their arrival, either prevents the
+insect from laying its eggs, from instinctively feeling that the ground is
+unsuitable for their being hatched, or causes the eggs to become addled.
+But whatever the cause may be, it is certain that succulent trees in well
+shaded land will not suffer from Borer, while it is equally certain that
+coffee trees in a dried up state, and with either insufficient shade, or
+shade of bad caste trees over them, are certain to be attacked by Borer
+again and again, and will eventually be killed.
+
+I turn, lastly, to the consideration of a disease in coffee which is
+popularly known by the name of rot, and scientifically as _pellicularia
+koleroga_, a fungoid plant which crawls over the leaves and seals up their
+breathing pores, till at last the leaf dies, as man does, from want of
+breath. On one of my estates we have had a considerable experience of it,
+and, whatever may cause rot, I feel sure that what aggravates it, and
+causes it to be very injurious, is the want of free circulation of air
+over the land, and through the coffee trees; and I am the more convinced
+of this because we have found rot worse in the open, and where there was
+little undecayed vegetable matter present in the soil, than in rather
+thick shade with abundance of undecayed vegetable matter on the surface.
+But in the latter case the land is on a rather high ridge exposed to the
+constant winds of the south-west monsoon, while in the former case the
+land was in a hollow under a hill which lies between it and the west--a
+hollow completely sheltered from the wind. And it is in such sheltered
+spots that we find rot worse, and quite independently of the presence or
+absence of shade or of vegetable matter lying on the land. To check rot,
+then, the free circulation of air is necessary both over the land and
+through the plant. Much may be done in the first case by judiciously
+opening channels for air through the shade trees so as to admit a free
+circulation of air into hollows, and much in the latter by freely handling
+out the centres of the trees which, in the monsoon, and especially in
+hollows, are apt to grow a superabundance of young wood, which chokes up
+the centre of the tree and thus hinders the free circulation of air. The
+soil, too, is often excessively saturated in these hollows, and, where
+this is the case, the land should be surface drained. Though I have not as
+yet adopted the plan of sweeping up and putting into the manure heap, or
+burying with a little lime added, the numerous dead leaves that are apt to
+drift into hollows, I feel sure that either of these plans would be
+attended with advantage, by lessening damp, and allowing a free
+circulation of air over the land. I am confident, I may add here, that the
+removal of the lower branches of the coffee trees, branches which in any
+case bear hardly anything in well-shaded land, would be of great advantage
+in lessening the damp in the plantation, and so diminishing the causes
+that promote rot.
+
+With reference to rot, it is of great importance to thin out young wood as
+early as possible, so that, when the rot season arrives, the trees may
+have a moderate amount of well-matured young wood, with fully-developed
+hardened leaves, instead of a largo number of small succulent shoots
+covered with succulent leaves, which are very apt to be rotted bodily
+away. And the importance of this is equally great with reference to leaf
+disease, and Mr. Ward, in his "Report" (p. 15), points out that pruning
+and manuring should be so timed that the tree may have, at the beginning
+of the wet weather, mature wood and leaves, and the whole of his
+observations on this head point to the conclusion that manuring ought to
+be carried out at the close of the monsoon, and that pruning, which
+encourages the growth of much young wood, should be limited as much as
+possible to the removal of utterly useless, worn-out wood. Under the head
+of pruning and handling, the reader will find some remarks with reference
+to the important subject of the best time for pruning so as to limit rot
+and leaf disease.
+
+I am glad to say that I have no other pests to chronicle as regard Mysore
+estates, but as estates on the Nilgiris sometimes suffer from green-bugs,
+I give the following treatment, which was discovered, and has been
+effectually used by Mr. Reilly of Hill Grove Estate, Coonoor, who has
+kindly permitted me to publish the recipe.
+
+For every 30 or 35 gallons of water take a bundle of wild merang (_Leucas
+zeylanica_ or (Kanarese) Thumba Soppu) plants about two feet in diameter,
+and, after removing the roots, boil it for about four or five hours, and
+let it cool all night, and in the morning apply the decoction to the
+coffee trees affected, with the aid of a garden syringe. The trees should
+be well syringed, and it is advisable to give the tree a second
+application. The refuse of the boiled plant should be scattered on the
+ground around the stem of the tree.
+
+This prescription might probably be useful in the case of garden plants or
+shrubs which have been attacked by insects.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[56] Mr. Reilly, of Hillgrove Estate, Coonoor, told me that he had first
+noticed leaf disease about twenty-six years ago. It commenced low down on
+the coffee on the Coonoor Ghaut, and then came gradually up the Ghaut.
+
+[57] A planter on the slopes of the Nilgiris gave me a well marked
+instance of leaf disease being increased from want of digging, when there
+was a good opportunity of contrasting the dug with the undug soil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE SELECTION OF LAND FOR PLANTATIONS, AND THE VALUATION OF COFFEE
+PROPERTY.
+
+
+The selection of land for the planting of coffee requires great judgment,
+and the consideration of many circumstances besides the question as to
+whether the land is or is not capable of growing good coffee. For, in
+addition to questions of the age of the forest land, climate, the
+steepness of the gradients, aspect, and soil, we have to consider the
+healthiness of the climate, the water supply, the facilities for procuring
+labour, and the proximity of the land to good means of communication. Then
+as to the valuing of coffee plantations we have, of course, to consider
+all these points, as well as many others, to which I shall presently
+allude when I come to treat of that branch of my subject.
+
+In Mysore, notwithstanding the enormous quantity of forest land stretching
+along the Western Ghauts, there is, compared to the total area of forest,
+but comparatively little land, suitable for coffee, to be cleared. In the
+southern part of the province there is none, that I am aware of, worthy of
+the attention of Europeans, but one of the planters in the northern part
+of Mysore tells me that in that part of the country there is still much
+uncleared land, partly in the hands of the State, and partly the property
+of individuals. Such uncleared lands (and it is important when valuing a
+plantation to remember the following classification) may be divided into
+three classes, (1) the original forest, or, as the natives call it,
+mother jungle, that has never been touched by man; (2) the forest of
+secondary growth which has sprung up after the mother forest land has been
+cleared for grain growing, and abandoned after a crop or two has been
+taken from the soil; and (3) land on which young forest is growing, and
+which has never previously had any other forest on it. These three classes
+of lands are easily recognized by experienced persons, and even at a
+considerable distance. In the first there are large numbers of trees of
+great size, and often of timber of good quality. In the second there are
+no large trees, or perhaps only one or two samples of the original
+forest--generally mangoe, as they are often used as worshipping
+places--towering from fifty to sixty feet above the present level of the
+forest. In the case of the third, or young forest: this class of land may
+readily be recognized by the number of young Nundy and other deciduous
+trees. The first-named class of forest is of course by far the most
+valuable; the second will be more or less valuable according to the time
+that has elapsed since the mother jungle was felled--in some cases this
+may be only 40 or 50 years ago, in others from 50 to 100, and perhaps in
+some instances upwards of 150 years ago. In the last case, of course, the
+land will approximate in value to the mother jungle, but in the first
+there is an enormous difference in the value of the land, which will
+easily be understood when we consider what takes place when forest is
+cleared, burnt off and cropped. For in the tremendous conflagration that
+ensues, much of the accumulated wealth of ages is destroyed; and I may
+remind the reader that an iron peg driven firmly down till its head was
+level with the ground of a newly-cleared piece of forest, was found to be
+projecting no less than six inches from the surface after the fire was
+over. Then a crop is sown which indeed is not an exhaustive one, but it
+must be remembered that the land is exposed to heavy tropical rains, and
+perhaps for two years, after which it is abandoned, and allowed to grow up
+again into forest. So that the injury to the land from the burning of the
+forest, the removal of one or two crops of grain, and especially the loss
+from wash, bring about a state of exhaustion which a very long time is
+required to repair. The value of the land, then, in which this secondary
+growth of forest has sprung up, will entirely depend upon the time when
+the forest was cleared and burnt off, and as this is more or less
+conjectural, it is difficult to give on paper any guide as to the probable
+time, and the valuer can only form an opinion from the practice he has had
+in examining forest lands. As regards the third class, i.e., young
+forest on land that has never had any previous forest growth, the valuer
+can have little doubt. Such lauds are not desirable, and are as inferior
+to lands of the second class as these generally are to those of the first,
+or mother jungles.
+
+I have said that a vast quantity of forest along the Western Ghauts is
+unsuitable for coffee; and it is so because of the excessive and
+continuous rainfall, and the estates, fortunately very few in number,
+which were started in the wet mountain regions which fringe the Mysore
+tableland, have all been abandoned. But on the eastern side of the passes
+the rainfall gradually diminishes, and at a distance of about six or seven
+miles from the crests of the Ghauts the coffee zone commences, and
+stretches inland to varying distances from the Ghauts till the forest
+region gradually dies away into the wide-spreading plains of the interior
+of the province. Of the rainfall in this coffee region we have no reliable
+accounts, and it varies much even within short distances, but it is
+generally believed to range from 50 inches on the most easterly side of
+the coffee districts[58] to about 120 on the west. Opinions vary much as
+to the most desirable site for plantations, but I think that most planters
+are inclined to think that a rainfall of about 70 inches is the most
+desirable. As regards elevation above sea level, plantations vary from
+2,800 feet to upwards of 4,000, and it is generally supposed that the
+highest elevations yield the best coffee, but it is very difficult to form
+any precise conclusion on the subject. Cannon's coffee, which is mostly
+grown at about 4,000 feet, always fetched a high price, but this was
+owing, I believe, to its long-established good name, for, when I grew
+coffee at elevations of from, I believe, 3,200 to nearly 3,500 feet, and
+of the same variety of plant, a large wholesale and retail dealer told me
+that whether they bought my coffee, Cannon's, or Santawerry (an estate of
+the best reputation) it was all the same. After looking over many lists of
+sales in recent years, I am struck with the small differences in the
+prices obtained for Mysore coffees, with the exception of Cannon's and a
+few estates which still grow the old original plant of Mysore. But all the
+estates which grow the Coorg plant obtain prices very similar, though
+there is a considerable difference in the elevation of the estates, and
+therefore, so far as the price of the coffee is concerned, I should not,
+in valuing land for planting, attach much importance to mere elevation, as
+long as it does not go below 2,000 to 3,000 feet, for below that we have
+no experience to go by, and are, therefore, unable to say what effect a
+lower elevation would have on the character of the coffee. We have now
+considered both climate and elevation, and the values of the various kinds
+of forest land, and have next to look at, and if possible value, the
+effects of aspect.
+
+The more I have seen and studied coffee the more am I struck with the
+value of aspect, and this is of enormous importance in such a climate as
+Mysore, which is liable to suffer so often from prolonged droughts, and as
+it is quite a common thing to have five months without a drop of rain, and
+also during part of that time to have either dry winds or hot desiccating
+blasts of air coming in from the heated plains of the interior, it can
+easily be understood that in valuing lands, much consequence should be
+attached to forest which contains a large proportion of north and
+north-western aspects. As to the relative value of the various aspects I
+have fully treated the subject in my remarks on shade, and I must leave it
+to the personal experience of planters to determine how much more value
+they would attach to land mainly facing north and north-west as compared
+with land facing mainly south and south-west. For myself I should
+consider that the former was at least ten per cent. more valuable than the
+latter; and that the relative value of the other aspects should be
+carefully weighed before coming to an opinion as to the price that should
+be given for forest land.
+
+In the valuation of land the next thing we have to consider is the
+steepness of the gradients on it. Now after having had much experience of
+steep land, land on moderate slopes, and land which might almost be called
+flat, I have no hesitation in giving a decided preference to the
+moderately sloping land. I object to the steep land, because it is
+troublesome to work and manure, and because the ridges on it are sure to
+be poor; and to the flat land, because the soil is apt to become sodden in
+our heavy monsoons, and because it is soon apt to harden, and thus is
+troublesome to work. In my opinion, the highest value ought to be attached
+to the moderately sloping lands, less value to the flat, or nearly flat
+lands, and less still to steep lands.
+
+As regards the kinds of soil suitable for coffee, there are points on
+which some difference of opinion exists. All however are, I think, agreed
+in thinking that the most desirable soils are those of dark chocolate
+colour, considerable depth, and of easily workable character--what would
+be described in England as a rather heavy loamy soil. Then, and sometimes
+touching these soils, there are soils of decidedly whitish appearance,
+against which a general prejudice exists; but though some of these soils
+are light and of inferior character, others are capable of growing coffee
+quite as well as the best of the chocolate soils. Occasionally there are
+small sections to be found in good coffee lands of soil of a light
+character and pinkish hue, which few people not familiar with it could
+suppose to be a good soil, but in this I have found that coffee flourishes
+remarkably well. There are other classes of soil which are generally
+considered to be inferior to those above mentioned, lightish, bright rod
+soils, black soils (though I have seen very good coffee in such), and
+soils of a whitish and rather sandy character; but it may be laid down as
+a general rule that all the soils we have, and I think I have soil of
+almost every class, are capable of growing good coffee if the climate is
+suitable, and if the forest in it is of undoubted primæval character; and
+I have much reason to think that, where soils have been found to be
+unfavourable, it is owing to the original jungle, say 50 or over 100 years
+ago, having been felled, burnt off, and cropped with grain for a season,
+and then abandoned. In from thirty to forty years very fair forest can be
+grown, but I should say that it would take at least 150 years to restore
+the land to anything approaching its chemical and physical condition when
+the primæval forest was first felled.
+
+We have, lastly, to consider the healthiness of the climate, the water
+supply, the facilities for procuring labour, and the proximity of the land
+to good roads.
+
+As regards the climate of the coffee districts in Mysore, I have no
+evidence before me to show that there is much difference as regards health
+in any of the climates, though some, from elevation and nearness to the
+Ghauts and the source of the sea-breezes, are decidedly more agreeable
+than others which are lower, hotter, and more distant from the western
+passes. Manjarabad, however, is generally considered to be the healthiest
+district, and some are of opinion that certain parts of the northern
+coffee district are rather below the average as to healthiness. A good
+water supply for drinking, and for pulping and nurseries, is, of course,
+of great importance, and a careful account should be taken of this in
+valuing land for planting. Then the facilities as to the supply of labour
+require to be carefully taken into consideration. They vary very much, as,
+in some cases, the whole labour has to be imported, while in other cases
+a considerable supply can be drawn from villages in the immediate
+proximity of the land. At one time it was always considered that it was a
+great advantage to have local labour, but the local labourers have now
+become so well off and independent that many planters much prefer the
+imported labourers, because the former are so uncertain in their
+attendance, while the latter, when once on the estates, have nothing to
+take them away from their work till the season arrives for their departing
+to their homes, either below the Ghauts, or in the interior of the
+province, from both of which sources the planters of Mysore draw so much
+of their labour. But in the picking season there can be no doubt that the
+vicinity of villages is a great advantage, as this generally occurs before
+the rice harvest, and before that takes place, many people are glad to
+work for a month or two months on the plantations. So that, in valuing
+land, proximity to villages ought certainly to be taken into favourable
+account. Finally, in valuing land, the proximity to good roads and easy
+access to them is of great importance--and I say easy access to them
+because it sometimes happens that land is situated on the wrong side of an
+unbridged river which is sure to be in flood for many months of the year.
+I now turn to the important subject of valuing plantations of various
+ages.
+
+I may commence here by observing that all the points enumerated as regards
+the valuation of land suitable for coffee apply equally to plantations,
+but it is hardly necessary to say that there are many additional points to
+be considered when valuing a plantation that is for sale, or for which a
+valuation may be required for any other purpose. The first point that a
+valuator should inquire into, is the age of the forest land on which a
+plantation has been formed. This may not be very easily determined, as the
+whole of the original forest may have been removed, but there are nearly
+certain to be corners left, and the valuator should remember that the
+surest sign of very old forest is an occasional very old and partly
+decayed Nandi tree, or large and aged Marragudtha trees. The next point to
+be considered is as to whether the forest was all felled at once and burnt
+off with a running fire, or whether it was cleared by degrees--i.e., in
+the first year cleared of underwood and a few of the large trees, and the
+wood piled and burned in separate heaps, and the large trees gradually
+removed in subsequent years. This may be regarded as a very important
+point, for in the latter case the physical condition of the soil will be
+sure to have been better maintained, and, in the opinion of one of our
+most experienced planters, the coffee will be much less liable to attacks
+of the Borer. The age of the plantation should next be inquired into, but
+mere age, it must be remembered, though it may be of great importance, is
+by no means always so. At first sight it would appear that a young
+plantation, with its virgin soil, must be more valuable than an old one,
+but I have in my mind's eye a plantation in Manjarabad, belonging to
+friends of mine, and the planting of which was begun as far back as 1857.
+Last year one of my friends took me over it, and a finer plantation it
+would be impossible to find, and at the end of our walk he said to me,
+"The place is better than you ever saw it." And so it most undoubtedly
+was: and, as another planting friend once wrote to me, "All the old
+established estates in Mysore are to the front still, and many of them
+better than they ever were," and better because manuring and cultivation
+have improved pieces of inferior land and ridges to such a degree as to
+make them superior to what they were before the land was first cleared and
+planted. One of the estates in question was opened about ninety-five years
+ago, and yet contains as fine coffee as one could wish to see. All depends
+upon the care with which the estate has been kept up, and into that the
+valuator must specially inquire, and he must also specially inquire into
+the age of the coffee trees, which, always supposing that the soil has
+been well kept up, is of far more importance than the mere age of the
+estate. My friends' estate, for instance, above alluded to, was an old
+estate, but it was, comparatively speaking, a fresh plantation, for all
+the old trees had been removed, and the whole property replanted with the
+Coorg plant. So that, though the estate was old, the coffee was by no
+means so.
+
+From what I have hitherto said, it is evident that in many cases the
+valuing of an estate presents to the mind an extremely complicated
+problem, and there are so many exceptions and limitations, and so many
+points of doubtful nature--the question of the age, for instance, at which
+the coffee tree declines--that I cannot attempt to do more than indicate
+those to which the valuator should turn his attention. There are, however,
+points on which I can express a more decided opinion--the shade on an
+estate, its kind, or kinds, and regulation.
+
+After what has been previously written as to shade, its weight in
+determining the value of a plantation must obviously be very great; so
+much so, that planters, when going round an estate in Mysore, are
+generally more taken up with observing the shade than the coffee
+underneath it. And I cannot, perhaps, better illustrate the effects of bad
+caste trees than by mentioning what a neighbour said to me when I was
+going round his plantation. He pointed to the coffee under a bad caste
+tree and said, "The coffee there gave a good crop this year, but the trees
+are suffering now, and will give a poor crop next year; while the coffee
+under the good caste trees there gave a good crop this year, are looking
+well now, and will give a good crop next year." Such, then, is the
+difference, and sometimes it is much more, between bad and good caste
+shade trees. And when the reader remembers that Mr. Graham Anderson has
+said that he has experienced more misfortune of every kind owing to the
+presence of bad caste shade trees, it is evident that a valuator should
+attach a much higher value to a plantation shaded entirely with good caste
+shade trees than to one with bad or indifferent kinds of shade trees. For
+the latter mean diminished crops, and more Borer and leaf disease, while
+the former lead to the very opposite effects.
+
+Manurial facilities have next to be taken into consideration, and here we
+shall find a very great difference between estates. Some, but I am afraid
+very few, have spare, odd bits of jungle land which the proprietors have
+acquired for the purpose, or angles of the original forest which they have
+left uncleared, from which valuable top soil may be procured, while others
+are in parts of the country where the grazing for cattle is good, and
+where cattle manure can sometimes be bought from the natives. But many
+estates have no top soil resources, and but poor facilities of making bulk
+manure, and all these points require to be carefully considered when
+valuing an estate.
+
+But besides all the previously mentioned points, there are the labour
+facilities, the water supply, and lastly, but by no means leastly, the
+concentration of all the points of most importance in one central point to
+be taken into consideration. It often happens on estates that the nursery
+is in one place, the pulping-house half a mile from that, and the bungalow
+half a mile from either. But is it not obvious that an estate is more
+valuable when the bungalow, drying-ground, pulper, and nursery are all
+within a stone's throw of each other?
+
+Lastly, we come to the most difficult question of all. How many years'
+purchase is a coffee property worth? To this question I can give no answer
+at all, nor is it likely that any answer can ever be given till all the
+facts connected with the industry become widely known. And of all these
+determining facts, the execution of the projected railway line through the
+southern coffee district to Mangalore will certainly be the most
+important. This line, in fact (which will probably be opened in three
+years' time), will alter the entire position of coffee, as it will not
+only provide for the carriage of coffee to the coast and the importation
+of manure, but will bring the planters within ready touch of the finest
+sanatorium in the world--the Nilgiri Hills.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[58] My friend Mr. Graham Anderson presented to the Durbar, at the meeting
+of the Representative Assembly in 1892, an interesting memorandum on
+rainfall in Mysore, and the influence of trees on the condition of
+climate, and in this he has given a return of the rainfall for a section
+of the Manjarabad Talook, stretching inland from the crest of the Ghauts
+to about the termination of the forest tract--a parallelogram of fifteen
+miles in length from west to east, and about four miles from north to
+south. This section shows, from April to end of August, a rainfall of
+291.53 inches on the extreme west, as compared with 44.21 inches on the
+extreme east. But it is remarkable that this variation of no less than
+247.32 inches occurred on the northern side of the tract, the variation on
+the southern side being only from 232.46 inches to 72.42 inches, or a
+difference of only 160.04 inches. This shows an extraordinary, and at
+present unaccountable, deflecting of the South-West Monsoon current. Mr.
+Anderson remarks that, though in heavy weather and with favourable winds,
+the Monsoon rain is often carried to a considerable distance to the east
+of the termination of the forest tract, it is of common occurrence to find
+an almost total cessation of continuous rain a few miles beyond the forest
+zone.
+
+In the memorandum in question Mr. Anderson also remarks on the well known
+and interesting fact that the clearing away of certain descriptions of
+trees, and the substitution of others improves the supply of water in the
+springs. But the whole memorandum is both interesting and practical, and
+its presentation at the meeting of the Representative Assembly is an
+additional illustration of the value of that institution in pressing
+matters of importance on the attention of the Government. The returns of
+the rainfall were obtained from various planters on the section of country
+investigated by Mr. Anderson.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+HOW TO MAKE AN ESTATE PAY, AND THE ORDER OF THE WORK.
+
+
+The first step towards making a plantation pay is to eliminate all sources
+of loss, and the first point claiming attention relates to the
+advisability of abandoning all the spots on an estate which are difficult
+to keep up, sometimes from defects of soil, sometimes of aspect, and more
+often of both. At present you often find, just as you do in the case of
+farmers in Scotland, that planters often make money on the good land to
+throw much of it away on the bad, and the people who thus act simply do so
+from want of strength of mind; for everyone knows that it costs more to
+keep up inferior coffee than it does to keep up the best, and that the
+latter yields good and certain crops, while the former yields poor and
+uncertain crops. And it is equally well known that highly manured and well
+situated coffee on good land can always be relied on to give a paying
+crop, even in the very worst season, while coffee on poor land with a bad
+aspect is simply at the mercy of the season. And one of the oldest
+planters in Mysore told me that, some thirty years ago, when his land was,
+comparatively speaking, unexhausted, if the blossom showers were
+favourable he got a good crop all over the estate, but that if they were
+unfavourable, the best situated coffee on the best land still gave a fair
+crop, while the rest of the plantation produced very little. The maximum
+of high and safe profits, then, will be obtained where the land kept up is
+all good, well situated, and well manured. There are, of course,
+occasional spots of half an acre or so in the very best lands which must
+by no means be abandoned. On the contrary, they should be kept up at any
+cost, as they would be the means of spreading weeds into the surrounding
+land, and the places that should be abandoned are continuous pieces or
+blocks on the outside of the coffee to be kept up. I may remind the reader
+here that where an outside block can, as it were, be sliced off one side
+of the estate, an application can be made to the Government to have it
+measured and classed in future as land thrown out of cultivation, which is
+liable to a reduced rate of taxation, but the Government will make no
+reduction in the case of pieces of land, which are in the plantation,
+being thrown out of cultivation. I have said that the pieces of inferior
+land which may be occasionally found in the good coffee should certainly
+be kept up; but there are, in the case of steep lands, sometimes pieces of
+land at the heads of slopes, and next to the fence, where, from
+injudicious management, the soil has gradually worked down the hill, and
+in such cases a strip of the barest land near the head of the slope may
+with advantage be thrown out of cultivation, and the abandoned land should
+be thickly planted with trees, the leaves of which will be shed downwards
+amongst the coffee. And in planting such abandoned strips with trees an
+addition will be made to the value of the estate, as wood, as elsewhere
+pointed out, soon becomes scarce in any country that is taken up for
+coffee.
+
+The next source of loss which calls for observation is that arising from
+the system of giving advances to labourers and to maistries--the name for
+a class of men who take large sums to advance to coolies, and are paid a
+commission on the number they bring in. The planters have lost large sums
+from this pernicious and troublesome system, and in the remarks previously
+made on planters' grievances, the reader will find allusions to the
+existing legislation on the subject, and the need for fresh legislation to
+grapple with the evils arising out of giving advances for labour.
+Sometimes the coolies die, and the money is lost altogether; sometimes,
+and not unfrequently, they abscond, and in the latter case it is such a
+difficult matter to trace them that the planter simply resigns himself to
+the loss of the money. Then as regards money advanced to maistries to
+bring coolies, somewhat similar difficulties occur. The maistry may die,
+he may abscond, and sometimes he advances to coolies who decamp and take
+advances from another planter or his maistry. In short, whether the
+planter advances directly to coolies, or to maistries to bring coolies, he
+finds himself involved in a mixture of losses and worries and uncertainty
+as to getting through his various works at the proper time.
+
+Now nearly every human system is calculated to serve some purpose, and
+arises out of a greater or lesser degree of necessity. But it sometimes
+happens that the original causes for the system have either disappeared or
+very largely vanished, and that the system goes on by the force of
+custom--very strong in all countries, and especially so in the East. And
+thus it is with the advance system. When labour was as low as 2 rupees 4
+annas a month (which was the rate I paid at first), it was quite
+impossible that a man could, within any reasonable time, save enough money
+to pay the expenses of a marriage; thus borrowing became a necessity, and
+the labourer therefore mortgaged his future labour, the sole security he
+had to offer. The lender was, of course, always a man who wanted work
+done, and by lending the required money obtained a certain command over
+the labourer. In the early days of planting the local labourers were
+always in debt to some native employer, and when they wanted to come to a
+European plantation the owner of it had to pay off the sum owed by the
+labourers, and when these labourers' sons wanted to marry it was customary
+to advance enough for the purpose, and sums of from 20 to 40 rupees a head
+were thus advanced, and, in the end, many thousands of rupees were thus
+lent to the labourers, and led to the losses I have described. But in
+these days, when labour has risen to 7 rupees a month, and the labourer
+can live on about 2 rupees a month, he can save in a single year nearly
+enough for his marriage, and therefore the old necessity for his getting
+into debt no longer exists, and some years ago I began to give up making
+advances for marriages, and find that I am still well supplied with local
+labour; and I feel sure that if other planters would only follow my
+example, the advance system would gradually be reduced within small
+limits, and thus one great source of loss on a plantation would be either
+abolished or reduced to a minimum.
+
+But besides the advances made directly to local labourers by the planter,
+there are the advances made by him to maistries to bring in coolies from a
+distance. In former days the sums advanced were very small, and amounted
+to little more than a retaining fee of a few rupees a head. But from the
+competition for labour, or from planters weakly yielding to the demands
+made on them, the sums so advanced gradually rose to as much as ten rupees
+ahead, and, of course, the risks of the planter increased in proportion.
+Now this, of course, is a state of things very difficult to contend
+against, but I see no reason why some attempt might not be made to reduce
+these advances to about one-half of their present amount; and I feel sure
+that if the planters would only agree amongst themselves not to advance
+more than five rupees a head, they would obtain as many coolies as they do
+now.
+
+I may remark, finally, that the evils connected with this system, and the
+great temptation to fraud held out by it, certainly call for the
+legislation which I have elsewhere alluded to when treating of planters'
+grievances.
+
+The losses arising from not closely supervising the people employed in
+minor works; from not having tools sharpened overnight; and from delay in
+setting the people to work, I do not touch on here, as I have alluded to
+them in my hints to managers: and the mention of tools reminds me that
+much loss is often incurred from their careless use, and from neglect in
+seeing after them, the result of which, of course, is that they are often
+lost or stolen. Then losses often occur from want of attention to the
+order in which the various works should be carried out, and which should
+be influenced by the aspect and the kinds of soil on the plantation. Even
+if all the work of the plantation could be finished with ease and
+certainty, it is important to observe the proper order, as to do so is
+most beneficial to the coffee, and then it should be considered that,
+should labour from some accident run short, it will at least be certain
+that the most important parts of the plantation will have been attended
+to.
+
+Removing moss or rough bark and cleaning the trees should be begun on all
+northern aspects. Then attend to the low-lying eastern aspects which have
+the sun off them all the afternoon. Do next the north-western aspects,
+then the southern, and lastly the due western and south-western aspects,
+which are so much exposed to the sun that the trees there have little moss
+on them. The mossing party, it is hardly necessary to mention, should
+follow the pruners.
+
+Pruning should be begun in the most luxuriantly wooded part of the estate
+first, and the same order as to aspect should be followed as when removing
+moss, as it is important to let light as soon as possible into the trees
+which are on the darkest aspect, and this order will, of course, suit the
+mossing party, which is, as I have said, always to follow the pruners.
+
+Shade should be thinned in the same order as to aspect as that laid down
+for the removal of moss, and as soon after crop as possible. The shade
+cutters should precede the pruners, as, after pruning, the coffee is of
+course more liable to be injured by falling branches.
+
+Dig all the hottest aspects first, as the soil on these hardens soonest
+and more severely. Begin with the southern and south-western aspects, then
+dig the western aspects, then the eastern, and lastly the northern
+aspects. When all the soil is of much the same degree of stiffness, this
+order should be followed, but the rule may require to be modified on some
+estates, where the soil may be of loose character on a southern slope, and
+of stiffer character on another aspect, in which case the stiff soil
+aspect should be dug first.
+
+Removing parasites should be done immediately after crop, and at the same
+time as removing shade, or at any rate before pruning, as the branches
+with the parasites on them would otherwise injure the coffee. It is
+important to remove these parasites before they seed, which is about the
+beginning of the rains.
+
+Young jack fruit removal should be begun about the last week in February.
+Do not remove the fruit when very small, as the tree will in that case at
+once blossom again, and the work will then have to be repeated.
+
+Fences should all be in order, and every gap filled up by the time the
+rice harvest is over, when the natives either never herd their cattle at
+all, or so carelessly that they are liable to be frequently in the
+plantation.
+
+As regards weeding, wherever an estate is liable to rot, all the places
+that are most liable to it should be weeded first, as it is very important
+to keep the ground quite clean, so that there may be a complete
+circulation of air across it. Should it be found that any part of an
+estate is more liable to leaf disease than other parts, then the weeding
+should be carried out first on the portion of the estate most liable to
+the disease.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE MANAGEMENT OF ABSENTEE ESTATES.
+
+
+As many of my readers are no doubt aware, elephants are employed to pile
+timber in the Government yards, in other words, to arrange the logs one
+above another, and at equal distances from each other. This they are soon
+trained to carry out with mathematical accuracy, and all that the mahout
+requires to do is to rest himself comfortably on some adjacent log and
+look on, cheering the elephant with his presence, and perhaps throwing in
+an occasional remark. But sometimes the mahout goes to his dinner, or
+absents himself for some other reason, and, before he leaves, addresses a
+few parting injunctions to the elephant to continue his exertions. And at
+first the animal does so, but not for long does he proceed with his work
+at the same pace as he did when the mahout was present. He soon begins
+sensibly to relax. Presently, finding or imagining that there is no
+prospect of the mahout returning, he stops altogether, and stands for a
+moment in doubt. Then all doubts seem to vanish, and finally he takes a
+bunch of foliage and begins to fan himself. Such is the nature of the
+elephant, and the human animal does not greatly differ from him.
+Exceptional men there may be, and no doubt also exceptional elephants,
+but, as the late Sir Charles Trevelyan good-naturedly said to an official
+in the Madras Presidency, "The fact is, we all require a little looking
+after." And hence it is that, when the proprietor cannot look after his
+own property, he finds it always advisable to give the manager an interest
+in the concern, or some interest which will induce the manager to fan
+himself in moderation. In the case of tea plantations in India, sometimes
+a share is sold to the manager, and then he is given time to pay for this
+out of the profits of the concern. In coffee, sometimes, a salary is
+given, and a bonus of one rupee a hundredweight on the coffee produced.
+Then on some estates belonging to a firm, as it was found that this worked
+unevenly, a bonus of a rupee a head was given on each coolie, which was
+done to encourage managers to make their estate as attractive to coolies
+as possible. In one case I know of, the manager is allowed to invest
+capital of his own in the concern to even as small an amount as 1,000
+rupees, and for the sum invested he receives a share in the profits of the
+estate. The 1,000 rupees are treated as part of the capital of the estate,
+and whatever the profits may be, the owner of the capital gets his share.
+If he leaves, his capital is returned to him, or, in the event of death,
+paid to his heirs. Another plan, and I think the best, is to give a share
+of the profits in lieu of salary; or, should the manager not like the
+risk, a salary enough for the manager to live on and a share of the
+profits besides. But I do not think it wise ever to part with a share in
+the ownership of the land, as, in the event of the death of a manager, who
+has been turned into a working partner, a very unsatisfactory state of
+things is liable to arise. And the original proprietor might, and probably
+would, have trouble as to the management of the estate, as he would then
+have to deal with the heirs of the deceased.
+
+It seems hardly necessary to say that a proprietor should exercise great
+care in the selection of a manager, but the circumstances of the estates
+in Mysore, which are always surrounded by a native population, and
+sometimes a very considerable population, are such that unusual care is
+required when appointing a manager. For in dealing with the people around
+him, he requires to exercise much tact, and careful circumspection, and
+great control over his temper, which is often sorely tried. And he needs
+it all the more for the first few years, because anything new is sure to
+be attacked and worried. When alluding to the fact that the new comer is
+exposed to many annoyances, while the old planter seldom is, a native
+official once said to me, "The new man must submit to being worried and
+annoyed, and," he added with a laugh, "even to be kicked for four years,
+and then he may do anything." Any planter, then, settling in a new
+district requires to act with great care and tact till he passes the four
+years period, when he may do anything in reason. But unless he has a full
+control of himself, he will be sure to be involved in squabbles and
+disputes of a more or less troublesome character, which are injurious to
+the interests of the estate. And hence there is the greater need for the
+proprietor being careful in his selection of a manager.
+
+It is very important that, at the outset, a clear understanding should be
+come to between the absentee proprietor and his manager, so as to prevent
+disputes and confusion. To avoid these it should be laid down either that
+the manager is to have full power to act on his responsibility, or that he
+is to act entirely under the instructions of the proprietor. When the
+latter understanding is come to, the manager must adhere strictly to the
+orders of the proprietor, even though the agent may think that he would
+serve the proprietor's interests better by neglecting the orders, and
+because, obviously, the proprietor may have reasons for his orders which
+are not apparent, or only partially apparent, to the manager. In the event
+of a manager not being disposed to carry out orders to the letter, he
+should at once resign his situation, as he has no right to receive his
+pay on the understanding that he is to carry out his employer's wishes,
+and then fail to do so.
+
+Powers of attorney to managers should be carefully and fully drawn, as it
+is often of great importance that a manager should have full power to act
+in the courts as to buying and selling land, and other matters. If the
+full power of acting on his own responsibility is to rest with the
+manager, it should be distinctly so stated in the power of attorney. If
+the power of direction lies with the principal solely, it should be
+remembered (a fact that is not always remembered, by the way, as I know
+from my own experience) that, though the manager has the power of acting
+for the proprietor, he cannot do so in any degree at variance with the
+instructions received. If, for instance, the proprietor orders that, in
+the case of a dispute between him and another party, the manager is to
+call in arbitrators to decide on certain points in a dispute, the manager
+would have no right to put other points connected with the dispute to the
+decision of the arbitrators, because he, the manager, might think it would
+be of advantage to his principal to do so, or for any other reason
+whatsoever.
+
+The proprietor of an absentee estate is necessarily entirely in the power
+of his manager; and whatever the number of accounts, reports, and returns
+may be is of little consequence, as the proprietor cannot get behind them,
+i.e., he cannot count the coolies that enter the estate in the morning,
+and that being the case, he is wholly dependent on the honesty of the
+manager. But the proprietor, it might be urged, can call for the
+check-roll of people. So he can, but there is nothing to prevent the
+manager keeping two check-rolls, one to pay the people with and the other
+to send to the proprietor, and I have heard of this being done. Nor is
+there anything to prevent a manager representing himself to be present on
+the estate and attending to his duties, while in reality he may be
+amusing himself fifty miles away. It is, if a little amusing, certainly
+very instructive to read in "Balfour's Cyclopædia"[59] that "coffee is
+liable to fail from leaf disease, Bug, Borer, and the absence of the eye
+of the owner," and the statement would have been quite complete had the
+writer added that it is the absence of the eye of the owner which, in
+Mysore at least, I may certainly say, is responsible for much of the leaf
+disease and nearly all the Borer. But the reader will readily understand
+that money is very easily frittered away in employing large bodies of
+labourers unless an active personal interest is taken in seeing that full
+value is obtained from them, and that their efforts are rightly directed.
+It is no wonder, then, that Dr. Balfour treats the absence of the eye of
+the owner as an equivalent for the presence of Borer or leaf disease. I
+know of two estates in Mysore, of about similar size, one of which gave a
+clear profit of over £5,000 one year, while a neighbouring estate as well
+situated, and with better soil, yielded a small loss. Both estates were
+started in the same year. But in the case of the first, the eye of the
+owner was always present, while in the case of the second, the owner was
+totally absent for many years, and afterwards only visited his property at
+long intervals, sufficiently long to enable him NOT to estimate its steady
+decadence.
+
+Every estate should have an information book,[60] so complete that, in the
+event of a new manager being appointed, he should hardly have to ask the
+proprietor a single question. The book should either be type written, or
+written in a hand as clear as type, should of course be paged, and have a
+well drawn up table of contents, and a blank page opposite every written
+page, for the insertion of notes and observations. The book should give,
+firstly, a history of the estate, then a list of the various fields, the
+dates on which they were planted, a description of the soil of each field,
+and an account of the manures put down in it, with notes on the results
+observed from the various manures applied. A list should be given of the
+native staff, and of the character and capabilities of the individuals
+comprising it, their pay and length of service, and also of those amongst
+the work people who would be likely to make good duffadars. The experience
+of the estate as to the order and way in which the various works should be
+done should be carefully recorded. A section should be devoted to
+observations made when visiting neighbouring estates, as it is of the
+greatest importance to record all the local experience and opinions.
+Remarks should be made as to the best means of obtaining transport either
+for the estate or carrying coffee to the coast, and as to how and where
+anything and everything the estate may require can be procured. The dates
+of feasts and holidays should be entered, and a section should be devoted
+to financing the estate, accounts and rates of pay, and the advances given
+by the estate to coolies, or maistries. Another section should be devoted
+to giving a complete inventory of all the tools, sawn timber, machines,
+carts, cattle, bungalow furniture, in short, everything on the property.
+And a section should be devoted to lines, or coolie houses, and sanitary
+precautions regarding them. Careful record should also be entered of all
+the coffee sold, and the prices obtained for it, and remarks as to the
+changes, if any, in the quality of the produce, as such changes would
+perhaps throw light on the treatment of the property, and the manurial
+system most advisable.
+
+The dates on which vegetables should be put down, and the kinds most
+suitable to the locality, and the best method of growing them should also
+be noted, as well as the most suitable kinds of fruit, and the most
+desirable kinds of ornamental trees. The rainfall register should also be
+given, as well as any other information of interest, as for instance, a
+list of game shot from the estate.
+
+Much of the above kind of information exists on estates, but it is either
+buried in diaries or accounts, and, in short, is not in a readily
+available form. When preparing my own information books I was especially
+struck with their value as books of reference, and found my first one of
+use even before I had completed it. Notes soon accumulate, and in the
+course of about three or four years it will generally be found that a new
+edition is required. The book is especially valuable when you wish to hear
+the opinions of any planter whose experience you would like to compare
+with your own. In that case, instead of much talk ending perhaps in no
+very clear result, you can ask that the information book should be glanced
+over and a note made opposite any point as to which the experience of the
+person you wish to consult may differ from your own. I was particularly
+struck with the advantage of my information book when an eminent
+agricultural chemist once paid a visit to my estate. I handed it to him
+and asked him to be kind enough to look over the section relating to
+manures, and make any notes he thought fit on the conclusions arrived at.
+He presently came to me with the book marked here and there with brief
+yes, no, or, perhaps, memo.'s. I then took my note-book, and in a very
+short time wrote down his opinions as to the conclusions I had come to.
+
+An absentee proprietor should have the information book written in
+duplicate and keep one copy with him, and in this he should write his
+opinion as to how it would be advisable to deal with the property in the
+event of his death. The book, I need hardly add, would be of the greatest
+value to the proprietor's heir, as with it he would be the master of the
+manager, while without it the manager would be the master of the new
+proprietor.
+
+Another great advantage arising from the information book is that it does
+away with all possibility of misunderstanding. There can be no "Oh, I
+understood this, or thought you wanted the other," or, "Oh, I was not
+informed, and now that I know what you want." In short, there can be no
+room either for disputes or excuses with a well-kept, written up to date,
+information book.
+
+The following hints may prove useful to young planters, or managers, but,
+as it will be more convenient, I shall use the word manager solely, and
+the reader will understand that in the term manager I include planters who
+are their own managers, or who, in other words, do not employ a manager.
+
+When the Duke of Wellington was asked by Lord Mahon (afterwards the Earl
+Stanhope) to what he attributed the success of his campaigns, the Duke
+replied, "The real reason why I succeeded in my own campaigns is because I
+was always on the spot. I saw everything and did everything for myself."
+Managers should remember this secret of success, and remember that, when
+they give orders they must always go and see that they are carried out,
+and if they do not do so, they may certainly rely on their orders being
+imperfectly, or inefficiently executed. And here I am reminded of a case
+to the point which happened one morning. My manager had ordered some top
+soil to be laid on one of the roads in the plantation, and on this
+bonedust was scattered, the intention being that each basketful of top
+soil should contain a certain proportion of the bonedust. On passing the
+spot on the way to look at some other work my manager dismounted, and
+said, "if you will remain here for a moment I will rejoin you." Then he
+went down into the coffee to look at the application of the manure. During
+his absence I overheard a woman say to the man who was filling her
+basket, "You have put no bones in my basket." This called my attention to
+the subject, and I then observed that the bonedust had not been scattered
+right up to the edges of the top soil, which overlapped the deposit of
+bonedust by about a foot, and hence her basket, which was being filled
+from the edge of the heap (which was a flattened one), contained no
+bonedust, or but a very little of it, and the result of this, of course,
+would be injurious to all those trees which had been deprived of the
+proper share of bones, or got none at all. This may seem a trifling
+matter, but it will illustrate and enforce my suggestion as to the
+necessity of being always on the spot, and it is the attention to, or
+neglect of, all these apparently trifling matters which, in the total,
+makes estate management either a success or the reverse. What I have said
+will also illustrate the fact that coolies, who to those who do not
+understand them, appear so lifeless and uninteresting, do take an interest
+in what is going on, and this poor woman, as the reader will have
+observed, was defending my interests, and remonstrating with the duffadar
+(native overseer) as to the way in which the manuring was being carried
+out, at least so far as her share in the work was concerned at the moment.
+I do not think I could add anything further as to the necessity of being
+always on the spot, though I may as well mention that one planter of long
+experience once said to me, "Every day that a man is off his estate is a
+loss to him."
+
+Managers are apt to neglect seeing to the execution of the minor works of
+an estate, and it is there that there is often a great leakage of money,
+and, what is often of more importance, waste of labour which is required
+for pushing forward other works. I will take, for instance, the people
+sent off to gather leaves for littering the cattle sheds. I have found by
+personal inspection that, unless closely looked after, much of this labour
+will be lost, and the same is sure to be the case with the people
+employed in other minor works. To keep the people employed in minor works
+up to the mark the manager should always visit them daily, and, besides,
+pay them a surprise visit three times a week.
+
+Another source of leakage on an estate, and not an inconsiderable one,
+arises from tools not being sharpened over night, or by some one before
+the arrival of the people, and nothing is more common than to see a group
+of coolies hanging round the grindstone in the morning waiting to have
+their axes or knives sharpened. Ten minutes may here easily be lost, and
+on six men this leads to the loss of one hour's work. Then time by a slow
+manager is often lost in getting his gangs under weigh and setting them to
+work. Where the work can be done by contract, or task work, this does not
+of course matter, but such work as pruning, shade tree thinning, etc.,
+cannot be tasked, and delay in setting to work is then a serious loss,
+partly in direct money, and partly from work delayed which it may be very
+important to push on.
+
+Managers should always carry note-books and take down at once anything
+they may wish to remember. They should afterwards take out the principal
+points, enter them on a slip of paper and put it on the writing table,
+for, as the native saying goes, "A good memory is not equal to bad ink"
+for recording a fact. Points or facts of more especial interest should be
+at once entered on the blank leaves of the information book to which I
+shall presently allude. When visiting other estates managers should always
+note down any points of interest, and especially as regards manuring and
+the effects of shade trees on the coffee.
+
+Managers, in the case of a large estate, should never walk along the
+roads, unless of course for a very short distance, but only amongst the
+coolies at work, or when inspecting work done, or laying out fresh work.
+For these purposes all the strength and freshness of the managers are
+required, and it seems superfluous to observe that a tired man is seldom a
+good observer, or rather in a good state for observing. On a steep estate
+the manager should dismount on the upper road and walk downhill to his
+coolies, and send his horse down to the lower road so as to avoid climbing
+the hill.
+
+Managers should be careful of their health, make it a rule always to
+change at once the moment they come in, and see that their food, however
+plain, is of good quality and well cooked. They should take remedies
+immediately at the first indication of disorder, and should be very
+careful to attend to the directions in the preceding section, and avoid
+all unnecessary fatigue, as it is when over fatigued that a man is most
+liable to the inroads of disease.
+
+It is very important to, as soon as possible, make a beginning, however
+small, as regards any work, even if it should have to be discontinued for
+a time on account of other works coming in the way. For the beginning
+stands there as a reminder that the work has to be done, and the
+proverbial first step has been taken.
+
+It is also important so to arrange work that parties may be within easy
+reach of each other, as this of course lightens the work of supervision.
+
+When visiting a working party the manager should not trouble himself so
+much about the work being then done, but should occupy most of his time in
+examining the work of the previous day, and he should see that the
+duffadars are not merely staring at the coolies as they work, but that
+they are examining the work that has been done. When pruning, for
+instance, the duffadar should move from one end of the line to the other
+examining as he goes the trees just finished by the people. It is hardly
+necessary to say that a fluent command of the vernacular is of the
+utmost, or I may say, of the most indispensable importance, for, as an old
+planter once said to me, "A native thinks that a European who can't speak
+the language is a perfect fool." The reader will find a chapter in the
+"Experiences of a Planter" on learning languages by ear, and I regret that
+I cannot, from want of space, insert it in this volume.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[59] "The Cyclopædia of India, and of Eastern and Southern Asia," by
+Surgeon-General Edward Balfour. Third edition. London: Bernard Quaritch,
+15, Piccadilly, 1885.
+
+[60] And so should every estate in England, and every business, too.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE PLANTER'S BUNGALOW, AND THE AMENITIES OF AN ESTATE.
+
+
+The best form of bungalow is, in my opinion, one with the rooms in a row
+and an open veranda ten feet wide running around three sides of the house.
+The veranda at the back should also be ten feet, but there it would
+require to be partially inclosed, partly for bathrooms, and partly for a
+store-room for household supplies. The advantage of this form of bungalow
+is that the wide veranda is a pleasant place to sit in, and walk up and
+down in the rainy season, and besides, if an additional room is required,
+a temporary partition may be put up, and should a permanent addition to
+the accommodation be necessary, a portion of the veranda at the end of the
+bungalow may be built up. Such a form of bungalow, too, can easily be
+added to in length.
+
+Willesden paper should be put under the tiles, as it prevents leaks, keeps
+the wood of the roof largely free from the influence of damp, and the
+bungalow, too, in the monsoon months. For bedrooms I should recommend
+glazed tiles, and for the dining-rooms and verandas, unglazed square red
+tiles, fringed at the edges of the room with two or three rows of glazed
+tiles. I do not recommend the latter for any place where there are many
+people moving about, as I have found that the glazing soon becomes
+injured.
+
+It is generally the custom to have the kitchen at some little distance
+from the bungalow, but I do not think that this is a good arrangement,
+partly because it is inconvenient in the rainy season, and partly because
+the kitchen is apt to be turned into a resort for horsekeepers and
+loungers. The plan I have adopted is to have the kitchen and the go downs
+in a wing running at right angles to the west end of the bungalow, and
+with the kitchen door facing the back veranda. This arrangement is most
+convenient for the servants, and enables the master of the house to have
+the kitchen under easy observation, so as to see to its cleanliness, and
+prevent its being made a place of common resort. The dirt and disorder
+usual in an Indian cook room is well known, but there is no reason why it
+should not be kept as neat and clean as an English kitchen. The floor
+should be paved with square tiles, and I believe it would pay well, for
+economy of fuel, and ready supply of hot water, to have a small Wilson
+range (227, High Holborn--range No. 11 is a convenient size). Owing to the
+shape of the ground it may not be convenient to have the kitchen and go
+downs built as a wing of the bungalow, and in that case they should be
+opposite the back of the bungalow, and connected with it by a covered way.
+No drain should be made out of the kitchen or scullery. I have found it
+cheaper, and safer, from a sanitary point of view, to have all the dirty
+water used for watering purposes. I have a group of orange trees on a
+slope near the kitchen, and above each tree a hole is made. Into this the
+dirty water is poured for several days. Then the pit is closed with earth,
+and others are used in succession. I thus get rid of a nuisance in a
+wholesome way, and at the same time water the orange trees.
+
+The aspect of the bungalow is of great importance. It should front due
+north, as the declination of the sun is southerly during the cloudless
+season, and the sun is thus entirely off the front veranda, and if the
+situation should not be naturally well sheltered from the east, a solid
+block of casuarinas should at once be planted on the eastern side, as the
+easterly wind is disagreeable, and liable to create drafts, and
+consequently cause chills. A line of casuarinas should be planted on the
+south and west side of the bungalow, and at such a distance as to cast a
+shadow on to the southern and western walls, and also on to the roof, as
+this will keep the house much cooler than it would otherwise be. Other
+trees might be suggested for this purpose, and trees affording more
+coolness, but I have suggested the casuarina as it is a quick grower, very
+ornamental, and not at all liable to be blown down. No carriage drive
+should be made up to the front of the bungalow, as it is obviously much
+pleasanter to look out of the veranda on to a pretty garden without a road
+intervening, and carriages should either drive up to the back of the
+bungalow, or to one end of it where a wide space may be left for turning.
+I have said that a line of casuarinas should be planted on the southern
+and western sides of the bungalow so as to shade it from the sun, and I
+would suggest that, in order to keep the ground on these aspects cool,
+orange trees should be thickly planted, and I may mention that I have done
+this with excellent effect on the southern side of my bungalow. When
+orange trees are planted for this purpose they should either not be
+allowed to bear fruit, or but a very small number of oranges, as the
+object of course is to have, for ornamental reasons, fresh looking trees,
+and full of foliage, so as to keep the ground near the bungalow as cool as
+possible.
+
+The bungalows in Mysore are usually built on the grass land outside of the
+plantation, and where this is practicable it should always be done, as,
+from the value of the coffee land, much of it cannot be spared for
+planting, whereas in the open, as the land is of little value the planter
+can, by planting clumps of casuarinas and other trees, make his residence
+so much more agreeable and cheerful. But sometimes it is advisable or even
+necessary to have the bungalow in the plantation, and in that case the
+most must be made of the situation, and vistas cut here and there through
+the shade trees so as to let in the best available views. It should be
+remembered, a fact too often forgotten, that, what are called in Scotland
+the amenities, are not only agreeable in themselves, but have an important
+marketable value, and when people discover that the winter on a Mysore
+plantation is one of the pleasantest climates in the world, and have
+practically realized the ease with which the journey may now be made, a
+plantation will be often regarded (as I regard mine) as a pleasant winter
+home. And, whatever it may be regarded as, it is certain that an intending
+purchaser of coffee property on which he proposed to reside would
+naturally, and perhaps unknown to himself, be influenced by the amenities
+of the estate.
+
+As regards the garden in front of the bungalow, it should of course be
+limited to such an amount as may be within easy command of the water
+available. Roses should be freely used, and violets, mignonette,
+geraniums, and phlox, while the edges of the veranda should have some
+crotons and ferns in pots. I have given this limited list because it
+contains all that is necessary to make a place reasonably presentable, but
+many additions may of course be advantageously made.
+
+I need hardly say that it is very desirable to place the bungalow as close
+as possible to the points where the near presence of the planter is
+advantageous. These are the pulping-house, store, drying-ground, nursery,
+vegetable garden, and orchard. I have two estates where this desirable
+combination exists, and by the exercise of a little care and time to study
+the situation, it may often be carried out; but the best site for the
+bungalow cannot sometimes be discovered without a residence of some
+duration on the estate, and it is of great advantage in making a new
+plantation to defer for some time building a permanent bungalow. For all
+practical purposes a house with sun-dried brick walls, and a roof of rough
+jungle wood, will answer very well for some years, and during that time a
+careful study of the land will generally disclose a much better site than
+one might at first be disposed to select. And I speak with personal
+experience on this point, as, had I built a permanent house on the site I
+at first selected on my head estate, I should certainly have had cause for
+regret. At first sight it may seem that the proximity of the bungalow to
+the drying-ground is not desirable, but the drying-ground, estate office,
+store, and other buildings may, by planting, be completely and quickly
+screened off from the dwelling-house. The permanent bungalow should be
+built of brick, but all steps should be made of stone, and not of brick,
+as is so commonly done, as the stone is so much more suitable in a climate
+which is wet for so many months of the year. It is very advisable to keep
+a bungalow cool at night, so that you may be able to have a cool house in
+the day, and in order to effect this a free admission of air is necessary,
+and the doors of the dining-room certainly should have wire gauze doors as
+well. The wooden doors may then be left open at night. The bedroom doors
+that open into the verandas should have the same too, for, though this is
+not quite so necessary, it is a great comfort to have plenty of air, and
+yet be able to exclude cats, rats, or snakes.
+
+Building materials should be constantly collected--stones, stone-posts,
+the wood-work of native houses which is sometimes for sale; and a careful
+eye should also be kept on all the felled wood left in the plantation, as
+this is often overlooked till it partially decays, and it is very apt to
+be stolen. Trees with a central dark wood, like Jack, may be left unsawn
+for some years, but trees which have not, like Neeral or Mango, should be
+sawn up as soon as they are dry. Sawn wood should be brought home at once
+and stored in a house sheltered from the east wind which dries up the wood
+extremely, and a careful list should be kept of it. Wood for rafters is
+the better for being put into a tank and left there for four or five
+months. I may explain that stone posts (we use the literal translation
+from the Kanarese) are blocks of from 8 to 12 feet in length, which are
+raised by fire by an ingenious process. The natives first light fires on
+the slab of sheet rock they desire to operate on, and then cut small holes
+along the segment they wish to split off. They then drive wedges into the
+side of the rock, and the segment splits off, giving a stone post of the
+length required (they may be raised as long as 20 feet) and about 18
+inches wide and 5 inches thick. There are no more useful things to have a
+supply of on an estate, and we use short ones for the posts of wire fences
+and for stiles. They are particularly useful for supporting verandas.
+
+To prevent white ants attacking the roofs of buildings I have successfully
+used the following mixture. Tar, one pailful; asphalte, 2 lbs.; and castor
+oil, one seer. Mix and boil these ingredients. Afterwards add sand. Then
+plaster the mixture on the top of the walls to the depth of about two
+inches, and on this place the wall plates. This plan was adopted when one
+of my bungalows was re-roofed many years ago, and we have not a sign of
+white ants, though they are numerous all around the house.
+
+If posts, when put in the ground, are buried in sand, and surrounded with
+it up to the level of the floor, white ants will not attack the wood, as
+they cannot apparently work in sand. This is important to remember, as
+wooden posts are often used for cattle, and other sheds.
+
+Toddy trees past yielding toddy should be cut down, split into convenient
+sizes for reapers and other purposes, and should then be smoked to
+preserve the wood. As I previously pointed out, the toddy tree (_Caryota
+Urens_ palm) is a most useful tree, and the seeds of it should be freely
+sown in the fences, waste jungle, and the bottoms of deep ravines, but it
+is not a desirable tree to have in the plantation.
+
+Wood for handles should be kept in store, as it is of great importance to
+use well seasoned wood. Jack roots are valuable for all short handles.
+
+Lines, or rows of houses for labourers should be made of sun-dried bricks,
+and roofed with corrugated iron. For sanitary reasons they should, if
+possible, be divided over several sites. The manager should occasionally
+visit the lines, and a duffadar be appointed to see after them, and that
+no dirty water is thrown down in front of the doors. The houses should be
+numbered, and a list of the occupants kept. New arrivals should be at once
+reported, as bad characters are often harboured in the lines. A pensioned
+sepoy might be advantageously employed to look after the lines, and report
+on new arrivals, and also keep an eye on persons who may be suspected of
+stealing coffee. The advantage of employing a stranger for such purposes
+is obvious, as natives residing permanently in the locality are much
+afraid of making enemies, whereas a fresh pensioned sepoy might be got in
+from time to time, and he should be changed before he had time to make any
+friends on the estate. An application for a sepoy should be made to the
+officer in charge of pensioned sepoys in Bangalore. These pensioned sepoys
+might also be employed with advantage in the crop season, with the special
+object of preventing coffee robbery from the plantations, which are often
+surrounded with villages.
+
+As regards coolie lines, it is important to consider aspect, and a slight
+slope towards the east, or slightly south, is a good one, as it catches
+the first rays of the sun, and so reminds the people of their duties in
+coming early to work, and enables them to warm themselves when the
+mornings are chilly. Such an aspect is also sheltered from the south-west
+monsoon blasts, and, in the hot weather, from the heat of the westering
+sun.
+
+When I look at a magnificent row of Casuarinas (_Casuarina Equisetifolia_,
+the Tinian pine or Beefwood) which I planted on my property about the year
+1859, and which are now about 150 feet high, and consider the value of
+this tree, both for timber and firewood, I stand astounded at my own
+stupidity in not having planted them on a considerable scale. But it is
+thus in all new countries where you are surrounded by trees, and it is
+difficult to believe that, under such circumstances, timber and wood can
+ever become dear and scarce, and the Englishman rarely plants trees for
+timber or fuel,--in fact, I am the only one who has done so as far as I am
+aware--and perhaps they do not realize, being born in a land of slow
+timber growth, how rapidly some trees shoot up in Mysore. It may encourage
+planting if I mention that I took careful measurement by line of one of
+the row alluded to. In January, 1882, the height of the tree was 153 feet,
+in girth near the ground, 5 feet 8 inches; at 50 feet, 3 feet 8 inches;
+and 1 foot 6 inches at 100 feet. In February, 1884, the same tree was in
+girth at 4 feet from the ground, 5 feet 3 inches; at 50 feet, 4 feet 5
+inches; and at 100 feet, 2 feet 3 inches. In March, 1886, this tree, at 6
+feet from the ground, was 5 feet 4 inches in girth; at 77 feet, 3 feet 2
+inches; and at 100 feet, 2 feet 3 inches. This tree was again measured in
+February, 1893, when its dimensions were found to be as follows. Height,
+154 feet. Girth at 3 feet from ground, 6 feet 3 inches; at 6 feet, 5 feet
+10 inches; at 77 feet from ground, 2 feet 9 inches; and at about 20 feet
+from the top of the tree, 1 foot 2 inches.
+
+The wood is very strong, and may be used for rafters. It makes excellent
+fuel, giving much heat, and little ash.
+
+The _Grevillea Robusta_--Silver Oak--should also be planted, as it affords
+excellent firewood.
+
+And _Poinciana Regia_--the gold Mohur, which is also good for making
+Charcoal. _Pithecolobium saman_, the rain tree, should also be planted, as
+I find that (Report of Government Gardens, Bangalore, for 1888-89) "In
+good open soil it grows more rapidly than any introduced trees." I have an
+_Eucalyptus Globulus_ (the blue gum) growing fairly well on my property,
+and about eight or nine years old, but, as it is unfavourably reported on
+for Mysore in the Report previously mentioned, I do not recommend it.
+
+Casuarinas should be planted in holes four feet deep, and certainly not
+less than that depth if a safe and rapid growth is desired. I have been
+particularly struck with the great difference in the rapidity of growth
+where the holes have not been deeply dug. The plants will require a little
+water during the dry weather of the first year.
+
+As the most important part of a planter's capital is his health, it is
+obvious that great pains should be taken to conserve it, for, though
+Mysore will be found to be a very healthy country if ordinary precautions
+are taken, the extremes of temperature are very great--often cold in the
+morning--very hot in the sun in the middle of the day, and often turning
+suddenly cold again at sunset. In England the lowest Mysore temperature
+would not be called cold, but relatively to the heat of the day it is so.
+Then the east winds, if you get heated to the extent of perspiration, are
+apt to produce that chill which is the starting point of illness in most
+countries. For a great many years past I have, as a matter of curiosity,
+which has since become a matter of habit, always asked when told of the
+death of anyone, "Did he not get a chill?" And I have almost invariably
+found the answer to be in the affirmative. When, then, a planter comes
+in, he should make it a rule always to change his things from head to
+foot, and he should avoid sitting in drafts when the wind is from the
+east. When he goes out shooting he should take a spare flannel shirt with
+him, change his shirt when suitable opportunities occur, and, of course,
+dry the one he has taken off in the sun. He should always take a cover
+coat with him to put on, when, after a hot day in the sun, he may have to
+ride home in the chilled evening air. As a protection against the sun
+there is nothing better than a coat padded with cotton all down the back
+and front, and with a stand up padded collar. Some people prefer large
+solar topees. I dislike them, as they heat and oppress the head, and
+always prefer a light topee and an umbrella. It is well known that the
+head is affected more through the eyes than in any other way, and smoked
+glasses should always be used when going along unshaded roads, and
+especially across dried grass lands. Over fatigue should be avoided as
+much as possible, and the effects of it done away with immediately. When
+tired do not call for brandy or whisky and soda-water, but if you feel
+that you require anything to keep up the system, a plateful of soup, made
+with one of Brand's beef preparations, will be found to be far preferable.
+Then a bath, and an hour in bed will turn you out a fresh man fit for
+anything, mentally or bodily, and you will be able to eat a good meal with
+appetite and advantage. The best kind of clothing is light tweeds, such as
+might be used in England in warm summer weather. Cholera belts, or
+cummerbunds, are often recommended, but I much prefer thick, short flannel
+drawers coming rather high up over the middle of the body. You thus admit
+free ventilation, and at the same time avoid risk of chill about the
+loins.
+
+Next to protecting the body from without, or perhaps of equal importance,
+is fortifying it from within. Here the first point of importance is to
+get a good cook who is a good baker, and supply him with American flour.
+Toddy from the sago-palm is an excellent substitute for yeast, and I
+imagine it must be better, for I never get better, and very seldom as
+good, bread anywhere in the world as I do in my Indian home in the jungle.
+The flour usually to be bought in India, made from wheat grown in the
+country, is either bad or adulterated, and often has sand in it, and the
+bread made from it is of poor quality. As regards food, there is no
+difficulty in Mysore, and at a moderate cost as good a table can be kept
+as could be desired for purposes of health and comfort. Attention should,
+of course, be paid to having a good vegetable garden, in which a good
+supply of lettuces and tomatoes should form a principal feature, and
+during the wet weather months, when vegetables cannot be procured on the
+spot, tinned vegetables should be used. I have found the French tinned
+vegetables to be the best. There are now many excellent preparations of
+herrings preserved in tins, and these should be used occasionally. Ghee is
+commonly used in India for cooking, but for all dishes for which it is
+suitable, oil is much cheaper and better. Gingelly oil (_Sesamum
+Orientale_) is the best, or, I think, the only oil which is good for this
+purpose. It is, I find, by the article on oils in the "Encyclopædia
+Britannica," the finest culinary oil in the world, and superior to olive
+oil, for which, indeed, it is commonly sold, and large quantities of the
+seed go to Southern Europe. The seed should be procured and washed in cold
+water to remove the red epidermis, and then a native oil-maker may be got
+in to prepare the oil. When ghee, or clarified butter, is required, never
+buy that article in the bazaar, but buy the best native butter and have it
+made into ghee. Boil the butter, and add to it a small quantity of sugar
+and salt, and skim off floatage. If to the clarified butter some fresh
+milk is added, it may be used for the table instead of butter, but it is
+better, I find now, to use tinned butter.
+
+Cleanliness in the kitchen, and vessels in good order, are points easily
+talked about, but cannot be attained without some inspection, and the
+kitchen and its utensils should be examined from time to time. People who
+are particular have all the pots and pans ranged out ready for inspection
+daily, and such inspections are most necessary for health, as the dirty
+habits of the native servants are such that persistent vigilance is
+requisite. And I may here add that there is no use in telling the servants
+a thing once--they must be told again, again, and again. At last they give
+in to your persistence, and being, like most people in the world, a good
+deal creatures of habit, go on fairly well. It is only fair to the native
+servants to mention that, if they do keep things in a dirty state, it is
+often because they have not the means that servants have at home. The
+water supply at their command is commonly very deficient, and often not
+over clean, and they are generally ill supplied with places to wash up in,
+and with dusters and glass cloths, and then they are rated, and often
+abused, because plates are badly washed and things in general dirty.
+
+Under the heading of health requisites, I, of course, include literature.
+This, for a planter of moderate means, is generally a matter of great
+difficulty, and must continue to be so till the railway system is extended
+to the planting districts. At present novels that cannot be read more than
+once are quite out of the question on the score of cost, and, under the
+circumstances, the planter should content himself with buying Scott's and
+Bulwer's and George Eliot's novels. He should, of course, have a good
+Atlas, an Encyclopædia--Chambers' is good and moderate in price, and
+Balfour's "Cyclopædia of India," which contains much valuable and
+interesting information. He might also buy Lecky's Works, and Sir John
+Strachey's "India," and Buckle's "History of Civilization," for, whatever
+the faults of the last may be, the writer's style is admirable, and the
+book stirs up thought and inquiry in the mind. Addison's "Spectator," as
+it is commonly called, Amiel's "Journal," and Locke's "Conduct of the
+Understanding," might also be bought. Ville's "Artificial Manures" should
+be procured and studied. Then for newspapers, I may certainly recommend
+"The Spectator," "The Mail," or tri-weekly edition of the "Times," and
+"The Illustrated London News"--not the thin paper edition of it, which is
+most unsatisfactory in every way. One of the best, if not the very best of
+Indian papers is the "Madras Mail," and that should certainly be taken,
+more especially as there is much planting intelligence in it. A note
+should be kept of the various books reviewed in "The Spectator," and of
+any books the reader might fancy to buy, and Smith's lists of second-hand
+books, and also the lists of Messrs. Mudie and Co., should be procured,
+and from these booksellers books may often be bought at a very moderate
+price. Do not buy cheap editions of novels, but buy the original three
+volume editions, which have good paper and print, and which may be bought
+second-hand at most moderate prices.
+
+It is of great importance that a planter should have some pursuit which
+may be both useful and interesting, such as botany, natural history, or
+geology, and drawing, too, would be most valuable. In the old days sport
+filled up our leisure hours, but that, in these days, is not always to be
+had without going far afield, as, from the number of guns in the hands of
+the natives, the game within their reach has been mostly destroyed. It is
+of great value, then, to have some pursuit to fill up time when there is
+not enough of it to spare to go to a distance from home for sport.
+Attending to, and taking an interest in a garden is a great resource, and
+indirectly a source of great pleasure, which I am reminded of as I write
+these lines, and at the same time listen to the warbling of the Bulbuls in
+the flower garden in front of my bungalow. These charming little birds are
+very active, and are now (February 28th), collecting materials for
+building their nests. There are, too, many charming warblers which are
+attracted by a garden so arranged as to attract birds. The beds in the
+foreground should consist of a mixture of flowers and standard roses, and
+those at the back of various flowering shrubs, and low trees which are
+suitable for the birds to nest in. I have no carriage road in front of the
+bungalow, and with this arrangement can have the beds quite close to the
+foot of the steps of the inclosed veranda. I am much struck with the
+persistent loquacity of these Indian birds, and at no time of day--not
+even for a minute--is the sound of birds absent, and their notes are to be
+heard all through the fine weather.
+
+It is very advisable to take up waste paddy fields, i.e., abandoned rice
+terraces, for cattle grazing, and I may point out that this is also of
+advantage to the amenities of an estate, by providing snipe shooting close
+at hand. It will also be found of advantage for feeding ducks and geese. I
+have a stretch of such land on one of my properties, and find it most
+useful. The water, I may add, should be carefully conducted to the various
+terraces, just as if they were to be cultivated with rice, this, as I need
+hardly say, being necessary for the snipe. Amongst these scraps of hints,
+which may be useful, I may mention the fact that tealeries were once
+common in India. I am told that they are easily established, though I
+have, myself, no experience of them. It is sometimes possible to add to
+the amenities of an estate by reserving pieces of land for tigers to lie
+up in, and this is very important, now that every scrap of land is being
+taken up for planting either coffee or cardamoms, and that cover for game
+is becoming proportionately scarce. There are two such pieces that I have
+reserved on my estate for tigers, but care must be taken beforehand to see
+that such reserves are on the exact route by which tigers cross from one
+part of the country to another. For instance, the pieces I have reserved
+are about three miles apart, and I have never known or heard of a tiger
+being between them excepting on one occasion last year, when a royal tiger
+inspected a cattle shed of mine about five minutes' walk from the house.
+At first sight it seems singular that these animals, like hares, should
+have their runs, and still more that the runs should be so regularly
+adhered to, though they may be several miles apart.
+
+In concluding this chapter, and my remarks on planting, I have only to
+observe that, if a planter chooses to take an interest in everything that
+is going on around him, and learns to make himself at home in the country,
+he will find the life both interesting and agreeable. In former times
+there was, no doubt, a sense of remoteness in the situation, but that, as
+we have seen, has been considerably removed by the railway extensions of
+recent years; and when the proposed lines, to which I have alluded in my
+introductory chapter, are carried out, planters, during the unimportant
+seasons of the year, may reside either at Bangalore or on the Nilgiri
+hills (the climate of the latter, taking it all the year round, is the
+finest in the world), and yet be in full touch with their affairs.
+
+Finally, I may observe that in Mysore we have the great advantage of being
+out of reach of the faddists of the House of Commons, who, for the sake of
+their votes, have to be humoured, whether the interests of India suffer or
+not. There is no chance, for instance, of the opium faddists thrusting a
+Commission on the Mysoreans, and then making them pay for part of the
+expenses of the inquiry. The progress of India may be checked by the
+ignorant or unprincipled action of a party in the House of Commons (and
+certainly will be checked if the opium faddists are allowed to have their
+way), but Mysore is free from the only danger that threatens India--the
+sacrifice of its interests in order to serve party ends in the House of
+Commons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE INDIAN SILVER QUESTION.
+
+
+Since the preceding chapters were written a great and most momentous step
+has been taken by the Indian Government. On the 26th of June, 1893, the
+Finance Minister in India announced that a gold standard was to be
+established, and that the mints were to be closed to the free coinage of
+silver. This measure, which so profoundly affects the prospects of the
+producers and manufacturers of India, I am compelled to notice. To do so,
+however, in an exhaustive manner would be quite beyond the scope of this
+book, and I shall confine my remarks as much as possible to the points of
+the subject which bear upon the welfare of those who produce or
+manufacture anything in India. The reports[61] and papers enumerated at
+the foot of the page supply me with a large amount of information and
+opinion, but I must warn those interested in the subject that a complete
+view of the whole situation, as far as India is concerned, cannot be
+obtained from them. For some, and in my opinion the most important, points
+connected with the question, have either not been alluded to at all, or
+quite inadequately investigated. These defects I hope in some degree to
+be able to supply from my long experience of the effects of the
+expenditure of capital in developing the resources of India--and I say in
+some degree, because I feel sure that a much fuller investigation is
+required before all the far-reaching effects of this momentous measure can
+be adequately weighed. I trust, however, that, even in the short space I
+am devoting to the subject, I shall be able sufficiently to elucidate
+those points which dominate the situation, and a consideration of which
+will show that if the Government succeeds in forcing up the gold value of
+the rupee in the manner proposed, the prosperity of the people, the
+popularity of our rule, and the state of our trade in the East will be
+most seriously prejudiced. And now let me begin at the beginning, so that
+the uninformed reader may have a clear view of the whole subject as far as
+India is concerned.
+
+The origin of the movement in India with reference to the introduction of
+a gold standard and forcing up the gold value of the rupee is shortly, and
+I believe very accurately, stated by Sir Frank Forbes Adam in his evidence
+given before the Currency Committee; and on November 26th, 1892, he told
+the Committee that "Though there is undoubtedly dissatisfaction existing
+among a certain number of those carrying on foreign trade, really the
+origin of the movement and its true force proceed from the servants of
+Government." Of this, I think, there can be no doubt whatever; and it is
+important to remember that this movement did not originate with the
+people, or planters, or merchants, or manufacturers, or from any section
+of the producers and traders of India. The servants of the Government had
+a great and legitimate grievance, because they found that, though rupee
+prices in India were not to be complained of, they experienced a grievous
+loss on their home remittances, and it was their persistent agitation
+which created and maintained the true force of the movement. The
+agitation they thus originated was joined in by some of the merchants of
+India, though to what extent does not appear, and I can only say generally
+that the merchants who did join the movement were small in number. Bombay
+and Karachi were clearly against any interference with the currency; and
+from the expression of disappointment which fell from the Hon. Mr.
+Mackay--President of the Currency Association, Calcutta--with reference to
+the small number of his supporters, I am led to the conclusion that, with
+the exception of a certain proportion of Calcutta merchants, occasional
+individuals in other parts of India, and the servants of the State, all
+India was, and is, dead against the monetary policy of the Government. Of
+the twenty-two witnesses examined before the Currency Committee, thirteen
+were against the Government measure, six in favour of it (four of the
+latter being Government servants), two doubtful, and one presumably
+against the measure.
+
+The main features of the measure I take from the statement of the Finance
+Minister, who, on the 26th of June, 1893, announced the introduction of a
+Bill "with the object of altering the Indian monetary standard from silver
+to gold," and who in his next sentence declared that "It is not intended
+to do more at present than stop the free coinage of silver at the Indian
+mints, and as a provisional arrangement to provide for the issue of rupees
+at these mints in exchange for gold at the ratio of 1s. 4d. per
+rupee."[62] In a subsequent part of his speech Sir David Barbour states
+"that an arrangement for the receipt of gold at the mints at a ratio of
+1s. 4d. per rupee will be made by executive order, and so will the
+arrangements for the receipt of sovereigns in payment of sums due to
+Government at the rate of fifteen rupees a sovereign." The current rate
+of exchange then, and still existing, is about 1s. 3d., and the
+Government thus proposed, by creating an artificial scarcity of rupees, to
+force up the gold value of the rupee by one rupee per sovereign. Let us
+now glance at the cash effects of the measure on the finances of the
+Government and the prosperity of the people; and in doing so I shall, to
+aid the comprehension of the English reader who knows nothing of lakhs, or
+crores, or Rs. x, state the figure in pounds sterling, treating the rupee
+at its old value of 2s. To do this will not materially affect my
+statements, for, though some articles have risen in price, others have
+fallen, and, on the average, the rupee (excepting as regards labourers'
+wages, which have much risen in many parts of India in recent years) goes
+nearly as far in India as it ever did, a fact which is fully corroborated
+by several very competent witnesses examined by the Currency Committee,
+though one witness maintained that silver prices in India had risen.[63]
+It may be interesting to note in this connection that the purchasing price
+of silver in China has remained unchanged for many years past, and that
+for the last thirty years there has been little change in the purchasing
+power of the rupee in Ceylon. Both these statements I make on the
+authority of witnesses examined before the Currency Committee.
+
+What then would be the cash effect (1) on the finances, and (2) on the
+people, were the Government successful in forcing up the gold value of the
+rupee by one rupee a sovereign? The saving that the Government would
+effect in remitting money to England to pay home charges would amount to
+about £1,570,000,[64] but as the amount is liable to loss by exchange we
+must make a deduction, and, in round numbers, the sum that the Government
+would save is about a million and a half sterling. Now as to the people of
+India. What the Government gains, i.e., a rupee a sovereign, the seller
+of produce must lose, as exporters could afford to give them just so much
+less than they now do. Now, taking the exports of India at one hundred
+millions,[65] the currency measure of the Government would cause a loss to
+producers of 7 per cent., which is equivalent to a tax on the exported
+productions of India of seven millions. The result of course is, that to
+get little more than one million and a half into the Treasury, the
+Government proposes to take seven millions out of the pockets of the
+people. Now I have no wish to pose as what is commonly called an expert,
+and I naturally shrink from any idea of criticising that long chain of
+financial luminaries which, beginning at the Council Chamber at Calcutta,
+stretches through the rooms of the Currency Committee which recently sat
+in London, right up to that Cabinet over which the greatest of financial
+luminaries presides, but I trust I may be allowed to go as far as to say
+that the arrangement made by Mr. Gladstone's Government which is the body
+ultimately responsible--does not seem to be of a very alluring character,
+as it entails on India, viewed as a whole, a loss of £5,500,000. And this
+cheering result has apparently been viewed with such satisfaction by the
+financial experts, that it is to be regarded as merely a small instalment
+of the blessings they have in store for the happy toilers whose destinies
+they have been empowered to influence. For if the policy of taking five
+and a half millions sterling out of the pockets of the people in order to
+put about one million and a half into the financial till is a good one,
+the extension of the process, up to certain limits, must be equally so.
+For such an extension the Indian Finance Minister is evidently prepared,
+as one may see by looking again at the sentence I have quoted from the
+speech, in which he declares that "it is not intended to do more _at
+present_ (the italics are mine) than aim at a rate of 1s. 4d." This,
+coupled with statements subsequently made, and by what the Currency
+Committee has suggested as to a farther increase if it should seem
+necessary, shows that the Government evidently contemplates a rise to 1s.
+6d.; and indeed this must obviously be the case, as the anticipated gain
+from a rise to 1s. 4d., when put against the probable loss on opium, and
+the allowances to be made to Government servants to compensate them for
+the loss they sustain on home remittances, would go far to swallow up the
+gain to the State from a 1s. 4d. rate. Supposing, then, that the
+Government should be able to carry out its project of a 1s. 6d. rate,
+the blessings previously showered on the producers will be trebled; so, of
+course, will be the gain to the Exchequer; and the account will then in
+round figures stand thus:--gain to the Exchequer on home remittances,
+£4,500,000; loss to the producers, £21,000,000; or, in other words, the
+levy of an export tax of 21 per cent. on all the productions of India,[66]
+and a total annual loss to India considered as a whole of £16,500,000
+sterling. This seems pretty well for a beginning, but it is really a very
+small part of the results that may with certainty be anticipated from the
+measure, which, as Sir David Barbour says, will have far-reaching effects.
+Of this, as we shall see, there can be no doubt whatever. Of the direct
+loss we can form a rough calculation; the indirect losses are indeed
+incalculable. But let me proceed.
+
+We have seen that, at the least, the Government proposes to impose, and
+will impose if it can force up the exchange, an export tax (or what is
+practically an export tax) of 7 per cent., which is to be ultimately
+raised to 21 per cent. And we have now to follow out the effects of this
+on the producers, the people generally, and the financial prospects of the
+State.
+
+The producers in India of articles for foreign export either, as the
+planters generally do, send their produce for sale to London, or, as the
+main body of producers do, sell them to merchants who export the goods.
+Both these classes of producers are of course much benefited by a low rate
+of exchange--the former when they sell in gold and remit money to India to
+pay for the up-keep of their estates, and the latter when they find that
+the merchant can afford to pay more rupees than they could when exchange
+was higher. If then, to put the case in a more precise way, the Government
+succeeds in forcing up the gold value of the rupee, and the merchant is
+thereby compelled to turn his sovereign into 15 rupees instead of 16
+rupees, it is obvious that to make the same profit as before he must give
+the seller of produce one rupee less. Now let me take the business with
+which, as a planter, I am most familiar. I have roughly estimated the
+total value of the coffee annually produced in Mysore at £870,000, and if,
+for the sake of even numbers, we knock off £70,000, a 7 per cent. export
+duty on this will amount to £56,000, and if the Government could raise, as
+it proposes, the rupee to 1s. 6d., £168,000 a year would be the price
+that the measure would entail on a portion of the inhabitants of the
+native state of Mysore on this single article of export. But this direct
+cash loss is far from being all; and if the reader will turn back to the
+Introductory Chapter, and to that on Coffee Planting in Coorg, he will
+there find an explanation of the extraordinary effect produced by the
+introduction of capital into the rural districts of India, and of the
+remarkable effects it produces on the prosperity of the people, the
+development of the agricultural resources of the country, and the finances
+of the Government. But, for the convenience of the reader, I may briefly
+repeat here what I have pointed out in greater detail in the chapters
+alluded to.
+
+From the estimate given of the profits of well-managed European
+plantations which have been formed on the best land (_vide_ chapters on
+Coffee Planting in Coorg, and in Mysore), it is evident that, though these
+would be greatly injured by the exchange being forced up, they could still
+make fair profits; and, indeed, it is conceivable that, from the losses
+that the Government measure would entail, they might ultimately be in as
+good a position as they are now; for there are large amounts of poor lands
+which, if the Government policy is pursued, would be thrown out of
+cultivation, either partially or entirely, and the diminished production
+and demand for labour would, of course, be of great advantage to the
+estates which survived. And what would largely accelerate the decrease of
+cultivation would be the fact that if the exchange is forced up all
+confidence in the Government will naturally be shaken. For how can
+producers have any confidence in a Government which, instead of levying on
+the country as a whole the increased taxes it requires, seeks to attain
+its financial ends by manipulating the currency in such a way as to reduce
+to the producers the prices of the commodities they grow for export? And
+if the gold value of silver is to be forced up to 1s. 4d., and with the
+declared possibility of its being forced up to 1s. 6d., what is more
+likely than that the Government may persevere with this disastrous policy
+whenever it again finds itself in financial straits? And is it not evident
+that the present financial policy of the Government, and the possibility
+of its being further pursued, must give that shock to confidence which
+will at once repel capital and injure credit? And is it not equally
+evident that if the gold value of the rupee can be forced up in the manner
+proposed, the first effect of this will be shown in a large decline in the
+demand for labour? Now, as pointed out in the chapters previously alluded
+to, the results of an increased employment of labour are quite different
+from what they would be in England, where an increase of employment given
+to labourers merely means an increase of comfort amongst the working
+classes, and of the profits of the shopkeepers with whom they deal. For in
+India, the introduction of capital to be spent in labour in the rural
+districts means a social revolution, as large numbers of the labourers set
+up as cultivators the moment they have saved enough capital to do so. In
+some cases they give up working for Europeans, in others they combine
+agriculture with occasional months of work on the plantations, or other
+sources of employment; the whole lower classes of the people are thus
+elevated, and this tells at once on the finances, enabling (1) rents to be
+more easily paid, and (2) because the finances improve as more land is
+brought under cultivation. Now, not only would a large diminution of
+employment take place in connection with coffee-planting were exchange
+forced up, but the same cause would act on the growers of pepper,
+cardamoms, and other products, and the prosperity of the province would be
+thrown back, and the same kind of result would obviously occur in any part
+of India which grows articles for export.
+
+But there is yet another result from this truly far-reaching measure, as
+Sir David Barbour justly calls it, which to my mind is the most important
+of all--the bearing of it on famines; for we all know that the population
+is rapidly increasing, and that of all apprehensions which haunt the minds
+of those responsible for the safety of India, those as regard famines are
+by far the greatest. And here I must ask the reader to turn back to my
+Introductory Chapter, and consider the facts relating to famines--facts
+which show how constantly the fear of famine lies before the Indian
+administrator, both from a financial and humane point of view. I ask him
+carefully to survey these facts, and then consider what effect the forcing
+up of the gold value of the rupee is likely to have on famine-producing
+causes. And is it not evident that the effect of the measure in
+diminishing the demand for labour must be enormous; that if less money is
+spent on labour, less will be spent in improving and developing the
+agricultural resources of India, in digging wells and other
+famine-preventing works; and that if the labourers fail to find the amount
+of employment they can now readily obtain, the greater will be the
+financial burden thrown on the hands of the State in times of famine and
+scarcity? And must it not be equally evident to anyone possessed of the
+humblest form of human reason that the Government had far better exhaust
+every taxational resource before embarking on a course which, if the
+anticipations of Government are realized as to silver, will be ruinous to
+the country, and which, at a vast direct and indirect cost to the people,
+will only, as I have shown, afford a comparatively speaking trifling
+financial relief to the State? But it is time now to pass to other points
+connected with the measure. And first of all let us glance at the evident
+political results that must arise from it.
+
+From what has been previously said, it is evident that the Government has
+arrayed against itself every class in India excepting its own civilian and
+military servants, and to these we have only to add, not another class,
+but only a small proportion of the mercantile class. With the exception of
+some just complaints they had to make as regards charges[67] that had been
+unjustly thrust on the Indian Exchequer, and which I myself made in the
+"Times" and elsewhere long before the Congress was even thought of, the
+agitators of the Congress had no serious grounds to go upon. But who can
+say that now? Up till lately there was no cause for discontent. India has
+never been more prosperous, and has never shown greater, or nearly as
+great signs of progress, as she has within the last twenty years. Not only
+has the demand for labour been abundant, but in many instances it has
+exceeded the supply. The rates of wages had largely increased, and were
+producing, as I have previously shown, an accelerated quickening of
+attention to the development of the resources of the soil. All that the
+country wanted was to be let alone, and if the financial conditions
+required increased taxation, no agitator could have successfully
+complained of this, seeing that it could only have been imposed on account
+of that cheapening of silver which has been one of the great causes
+(railways were the other) of the increased prosperity which all classes
+have enjoyed in recent years. But, if the Government measure raises the
+gold value of the rupee, the agitator will be able to point out that, at
+an enormous cost to the producers of India, the Government has only
+obtained a most trifling financial relief, and be able to complain with
+justice that the Government has lessened the profits of the agriculturist
+and diminished the employment for labour. What an admirable advantage has
+the monetary measure of the Government conferred on the popularity of
+British Rule in India!
+
+I have alluded to the losses that the measure must inflict on the planters
+of Southern India, and my remarks on that head apply equally to the
+tea-planters of India; but the latter have, besides, a special grievance
+which they share in common with the tea-planters of Ceylon, and this
+grievance is also shared in by the coffee-planters, though, as far as I
+can see, hardly to the same extent. This well-founded grievance lies in
+the fact that if no international agreement (and there seems no
+probability whatever of such an agreement ever being come to within any
+time to be even guessed at) is come to between the silver-using countries
+in the East, the tea-planters of India and Ceylon will be brought into
+unequal competition with their rivals in China, and the coffee-planters of
+India and Ceylon will in like manner be unfairly weighted in their
+competition with the coffee producers of Brazil. With reference to the
+tea-planters of India and Ceylon the case is very clear, and it is
+perfectly obvious that if in India you have silver artificially raised in
+value relatively to gold, and that in China silver remains unprotected,
+the Chinese will be able to accept a smaller gold value for their tea than
+the Indian producers, and the difference in the exchange may be such that
+China may regain her former position in the tea market, and that Indian
+teas may be partially driven from the field; and if we add to that that
+the Indian tea-planter will, in consequence of exchange being forced up,
+have fewer rupees to pay his coolies than he has now, it is evident that
+the result of the Government measure will be most serious to this
+industry. The evidence (Currency Committee) that relates to Ceylon is very
+decisive on this point, and the witnesses examined with reference to tea
+expressed extremely depressed views as to the ruinous results that must
+arise if the monetary policy of the Indian Government can be carried into
+effect. From the correspondence that has passed between the Government of
+India and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, it would seem that
+India has no objection to Ceylon establishing its own mint for the coinage
+of silver (the silver coins at present in use in Ceylon are rupees) and
+the island would then be in the same position as other silver-using
+countries. But if Ceylon starts its own mint, and is thus able to prevent
+the evils of the artificial scarcity of silver to be created in India with
+the view of forcing up the gold value of the rupee, then it is plain that
+Ceylon tea-planters would retain their present advantages, which arise
+from a low rate of exchange, and thus be able to carry on their business
+on far more advantageous conditions than their Indian rivals.
+
+To estimate the effect on the Indian coffee-planters with reference to the
+effect of the monetary policy of the Government in placing the Indian at a
+disadvantage as regards his competition with the Brazilian planter would
+be difficult, and I am not in a position to form a decisive opinion on the
+subject; but I may mention that the manager of the London and Brazilian
+Bank informed the Currency Committee that the production of coffee in
+Brazil has largely increased, and will still further largely increase,
+owing to the greater facilities of communication, and also the direct
+influence of a low rate of exchange. The last-mentioned fact gives, I may
+observe, one more instance of the direct effect of a low rate of exchange
+in stimulating production, and so swelling the volume of exports. If,
+then, the Brazilians are to retain, and we are to lose, the benefits of
+the cheapness of silver relatively to gold, it is evident that the
+coffee-planters of India must be handicapped in their competition with
+those of Brazil; but I do not hazard a decisive opinion as to the exact
+weight of the competition, as I am uncertain as to how far our quality of
+coffee comes into competition[68] with the quality produced in Brazil.
+
+I must now at least allude to the effects of the measure on the trade,
+manufactures, and railways of India. I regret that I am unable to go more
+fully at present into a consideration of the effects on them of this
+ill-starred measure, but all that the general reader requires to know is,
+to use the words of Sir Frank Adam (one of the most important witnesses
+examined by the Currency Committee), that if the Government succeeds in
+forcing up the gold value of the rupee, China would be able to undersell
+India in tea and rice; the Bombay manufacturers would receive fewer rupees
+for their wares, and, as in the case of opium, the advantage would go to
+the Chinese and Japanese; the railways would have little to carry from the
+interior if the rupee prices went down. Finally, I may observe that the
+gold industry of India would be largely injured, and that, especially,
+mines struggling towards a successful issue would be seriously hampered if
+the gold value of the rupee were forced up.
+
+Brief though my survey of this great subject may be, I trust I have said
+enough to expose the harmonious rottenness of the monetary policy of the
+Government, and by this I mean a rottenness so complete that it is
+impossible to find a single redeeming feature in the measure that has been
+adopted. It is rotten economically, it is rotten financially, and it is,
+if possible, still more rotten from a political point of view. Those who
+have knowledge enough to understand the bearing and ultimate evil effects
+of the measure are angrily arrayed against the Government now, and when
+the ryots and labouring classes of all kinds experience the fall in prices
+and dearth of employment that will assuredly follow if the Government
+should be able to force up the gold value of the rupee, and are able to
+trace this to the action of their rulers, widespread and serious will be
+the abiding discontent which will take possession of the people.
+
+I cannot conclude this short notice of a great subject without commenting
+on what, at first sight, seems the remarkable fact, that the Government in
+India, as represented by the Viceroy, and those merchants who are
+represented by Mr. Mackay, President of the Currency Association, have
+admitted that a low exchange has been a stimulus to the progress of India,
+and that producers have gained by it. It is true that the Viceroy declared
+in his speech in Council of June 26th, 1893, that "to leave matters as
+they were meant for the country as a whole a fatal and stunting
+arrestation [_sic_, probably a misprint for arrestment] of its
+development."[69] But the cat escapes later on in the speech when a hope
+is expressed that one of the effects of the measure will be "that capital
+will flow more freely into the country without the adventitious stimulus
+which we have hitherto been unable to refuse." The Viceroy thus admits,
+what everyone knows, that a low exchange has acted as a stimulus to the
+progress of India, and in doing so has given away the whole case for the
+Government. But no one has ever denied the admission in question except
+Mr. Mackay; and his absolute denial, when questioned on the subject, that
+the producers of India would be affected by the measure, was subsequently
+eaten up by himself in cross-examination towards the close of his evidence
+given before the Currency Committee. But it is of course the rule, to
+which there are few exceptions, that those who are engaged in the
+unfortunate business of bolstering up an indefensible case, invariably let
+out something which is absolutely destructive to the cause they are
+advocating; and we find another instance of this at p. 191, Appendix I. of
+the "Report of the Currency Committee." And if Mr. Mackay has given away
+the whole case in London, one of his followers equally did so in Calcutta
+when a deputation, headed by Mr. Mackay, was received by the Viceroy. And
+on this occasion Mr. W. O. Bell Irving, as representing over 3,300 square
+miles of land in Lower Bengal, stated that he "was not prepared to contend
+that in certain respects the ryots and zemindars have not benefited from
+the depreciation of the rupee." We thus see that both the Government, as
+represented by the Viceroy, and the most active supporters of the present
+monetary policy, have admitted that the measure would have injurious
+effects on the producers of India--in other words, on those on whom the
+financial stability of the empire entirely rests.
+
+And the producers of India have as little reason to be satisfied with the
+action of the Currency Committee which was presided over by Lord Herschell
+as they have with the Government in our Eastern Empire. A glance at the
+first page of the Report, and at the professions of the witnesses
+examined, will show that this is the case. The Committee was requested by
+Mr. Gladstone's Government to form, _inter alia_, "a just estimate of the
+effect of a varying, and possibly much lower exchange, upon the commerce
+and people of India." Now, the people of India almost entirely live either
+directly (and I think about ninety per cent. do so directly) or indirectly
+on the land; and yet, though in England there are to be found persons who,
+like myself, are Indian landowners, and who, from having lived amongst the
+people in the rural districts, are well able to testify to the effects of
+the measure on the welfare of the people, not a single Indian landed
+proprietor was called before the Committee. If a Parliamentary Committee
+were called upon here to consider any proposed measure that would widely
+effect the people of England as a whole, and the landed classes in
+particular, would it not be scandalously unjust if not a single landed
+proprietor, or any person directly or indirectly connected with land, were
+requested to give evidence before it? But notwithstanding that a certain
+proportion of the witnesses were Indian officials, and that the
+examination of representatives of the classes chiefly concerned (the
+producers) was carefully left out, the weight of the evidence was entirely
+against the monetary policy of the Government. And yet the committee
+supported the Indian Government. So that this measure has been passed
+after a partial investigation, during which the most important points that
+ought to have been minutely examined were never even touched upon, and
+even then in the teeth of the majority of the witnesses examined, and
+whose opinions, from their character and position, were of great value.
+Were it not that the Committee was composed of English gentlemen, who
+would not wittingly do anything but examine into matters to the best of
+their ability, it would really seem, after a careful survey of the whole
+situation, as if this Committee was a mere sham got up as a shield to
+protect a foregone conclusion.
+
+There can be little doubt that the Indian Government and the Currency
+Committee were acting under the idea that (1) India had been pushed into a
+financial corner, and (2) in fear of the result of the probable repeal of
+the Sherman Act in the United States; and so, urged on by a panic-stricken
+feeling to rush somewhere, the Government began in haste to burn the whole
+house down in order to roast its financial pig. As to the first point, the
+state of the finances in India no doubt requires all the care and economy
+that can be exercised; but to imagine, as many people seem to do, that it
+has exhausted its taxational resources, is ridiculous. The salt tax,
+taking the price all over India, is lower than it was fifteen years ago,
+and this could be raised without hardship to the people. Import duties
+might be imposed to the amount of several millions. Then, considerable
+charges now defrayed from current revenues might be passed to capital
+account, as they would be in England. And if the worst came to the worst
+an export duty of three per cent. might be imposed, for though is would
+not be good policy to do so, it would still be better than the seven per
+cent. export duty the Government would practically levy were exchange
+forced up to 1s. 4d., and obviously very much better than the twenty-one
+per cent. export tax which the Government evidently look forward to, for,
+as we have seen, it is aiming at a 1s. 6d. rate. A large saving, too,
+might be effected by going back to the old system of having a local
+European force in India. Let anyone consider these points, and weigh the
+remarkable and interesting statement quoted from Sir William Hunter, and
+he will at once see that the condition of India generally is full of hope
+(or at least was so till the monetary policy was announced), and that its
+taxational resources are by no means exhausted. It should also be
+considered that as the Government has not only spent large sums in recent
+years in defensive works and public buildings, and at the same time paid
+off debt to the amount of twenty-three millions, it would be perfectly
+justified in borrowing, if it were necessary, in order to meet temporary
+difficulties.
+
+Now let me turn to what is the dominant cause of the monetary policy of
+the Government--the dread that if the Sherman Act were repealed exchange
+might sink even as low as a shilling per rupee.[70] What if it did? Let us
+examine the consequences of that to India considered as a whole. The
+apprehension in question was proclaimed in the Viceroy's speech of June,
+26th, 1893, and in considering the consequences of a 1s. rate of
+exchange, he pointed out that this would entail an increase of Rs. x
+7,748,000 in the remittances required to be made for the home charges of
+the Government, being, curiously enough, almost the exact sum which the
+people of India would lose on their exports were exchange forced up to
+1s. 4d. by the monetary policy of the Government. But as the producers
+of India would gain largely by the 1s. rate of exchange, the total
+account would stand thus:--loss to the Government say, for the sake of
+round figures, seven millions; gain to the producers, twenty-one millions;
+total gain to India, considered as a whole, fourteen millions. So that if
+the very worst anticipations of the Government were realized India would
+be a large gainer by the fall to a 1s. rate of exchange, and the
+finances could be squared by increased taxation, which, if levied
+considerably on imports, would be distinctly a popular measure. And, in
+any case, the agitators could have no ground to go upon, as I have shown,
+as the increased taxation could be amply justified.
+
+One word more. I cannot refrain from calling attention to the remarkable
+circumstance that Mr. Gladstone's Government has in a single year adopted
+two measures which are highly objectionable from political, economical,
+and financial points of view--the Home Rule Bill for Ireland and the
+Currency Measure for India; and that both were forced on by arbitrary and
+tyrannical action. For just as the Home Rule Bill was forced through the
+House of Commons with inadequate examination and discussion, so was the
+Currency Measure forced through, not only without adequate investigation,
+but in the teeth of the majority of those whose opinions were laid before
+the Viceroy, and in the teeth of the majority of the witnesses examined
+before the Currency Committee. But arbitrary and tyrannical action seems
+to be the order of the day with the Gladstonian Government; and it is
+worthy of notice in this connection that it forced an Opium Commission on
+India merely to buy a few votes in the House of Commons, and, with the
+grossest injustice, provided that India should pay for a part of the cost.
+The outcry raised has, indeed, brought about a reduction of the charge
+that was to have been made, but, from a statement made in the "Times," I
+observe that the Government has clung to the travelling expenses of the
+members of the Commission, which are to be charged to India, and probably
+with the view of proving that extreme meanness is not one of the national
+failings.
+
+As the English reader might imagine that the Indian Government was solely
+responsible for this measure being passed into law, I may point out that
+the decision of the Cabinet was required and obtained in connection with
+the Currency Measure. From such a Government the producers of India, while
+they have everything to fear, can have nothing to hope. Our sole hope
+depends upon its being turned out, and replaced by an Unionist
+administration which will either annul the suicidal policy that has been
+adopted, or at least suspend its action till a full and searching
+investigation has been made into all the immediate and all the
+consequential results that must arise from the measure in question, should
+the Government be able to force up the gold value of the rupee. If the
+facts adduced in this chapter are substantially correct, the verdict
+cannot be doubtful, for these facts prove that the Government proposes to
+levy what is practically a heavy export tax on the products of India, and
+in a form, too, most injurious to its best interests, and ultimately to
+the finances of the State. And I say in a form most injurious, because the
+Gladstonian Government (for the Cabinet is distinctly responsible for the
+policy proposed to be carried into execution) has practically adopted a
+policy of protection, not for the benefit of the productions and
+industries of India, but for the protection and encouragement of the
+productions and industries of those silver-using countries which now
+compete with India. Of all the grotesquely ludicrous policies that have
+ever been adopted by perverted human reason this surely is by far the most
+absurd. By one and the same measure to stamp down the progress of India
+and promote the progress of other silver-using countries; to diminish the
+traffic on Indian railways, and correspondingly increase the traffic in
+such countries; to diminish the volume of India's trade and increase that
+of other Eastern countries; to raise a comparatively small sum for the
+Indian Exchequer at a vast cost to the producers of India; to diminish the
+amount of capital that would otherwise flow into the hands of the people,
+and to, at the same time, sacrifice all its consequential effects; to
+diminish employment for labour and increase the causes that aggravate
+famines and scarcities; to ultimately diminish the financial resources of
+our Indian Empire; to create a serious cause of dispeace (a useful Scotch
+word) between us and the people we govern;--such are some of the effects
+that must be produced should the Government be successful in carrying out
+that monetary policy which it has forced on India in the most arbitrary
+and tyrannical manner. Can we wonder then that Sir David Barbour, the
+Indian Finance Minister, said that the measure would have "far-reaching
+effects, and ought not to be attempted unless under the pressure of
+necessity?" No such necessity, as I have completely shown, has arisen. Out
+of its own mouth, then, does the Government stand condemned.
+
+In this connection it may be interesting to quote the opinion of the great
+Duke of Wellington, who, speaking in the House of Lords in 1833 (July 5),
+said, "My lords, I wish the noble lords opposite had taken the advice of
+Sir John Malcolm upon the subject of forming an independent body in
+London, representing the interests and carrying on the concerns of India.
+My lords, it is persons of this description who interpose an efficient
+check upon the Government." Unfortunately for India there is no such
+body, and the final decision on this great question has rested with a
+Cabinet composed of men who know nothing of Indian interests, and who,
+indeed, have no time to attend to them, seeing that their thoughts require
+to be almost exclusively devoted to a consideration of those
+vote-catching, parochial politics with the aid of which alone the
+Government can hope to maintain its balance on the political tight-rope.
+
+I may observe, in conclusion, that, as regards the effects of the
+depreciation of silver on a silver-using country, we have, in the case of
+Mexico, circumstances exactly parallel to those in India, and in the
+"Times" of October 21st, 1893, a most interesting analysis is given of the
+report of our consul at Mexico--Mr. Lionel Carden--as regards the effects
+on that country of a further serious depreciation of silver. Mr. Carden
+sums up his conclusions on the hypothesis that the present value of the
+dollar, which is 3s. 1d., falls to 2s. 6d., and proceeds then to
+examine into the effects of such a fall on the country considered as a
+whole. He estimates the losses to the Government and the railways which
+would arise from the sums they have to pay in gold, and then puts against
+them the advantages that the fall in silver would confer on miners,
+agriculturists, and manufacturers. His final conclusions are as follows:
+
+"In striking a balance between the advantages and disadvantages arising to
+different interests in Mexico from a depreciation of silver, it must be
+borne in mind that the losses which would be sustained by the Government
+and the railway companies are essentially limited in their amount, whereas
+the benefits that would accrue to certain of the productive industries are
+susceptible of indefinite extension. Moreover, an increase in the
+productiveness of the country would make itself felt at once in an
+increase of the revenue of the Government, as well as of the railways.
+The only conclusion, then, at which it is possible to arrive is that a low
+price of silver, if permanent, would not only not be prejudicial to Mexico
+as a whole, but would conduce to its ultimate benefit by the stimulus it
+would afford to the development of its immense agricultural resources."
+
+Yes. The losses from the payments that have to be made in gold are a
+comparatively speaking fixed quantity, while the gain to the people from
+cheap silver will yield wide-spreading consequential benefits far beyond
+the reach of calculation. This, too, is the case as regards India; we
+require for it a Government which can appreciate, and act up to, this view
+of the situation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[61] "Minutes of Evidence taken before the Committee appointed to inquire
+into the Indian Currency, 1893." "Report of Committee appointed to inquire
+into the Indian Currency, 1893." "Indian Currency Correspondence between
+the Government of India and the Secretary of State, 1893." "Abstract of
+the Proceedings of the Council of the Governor-General of India, the
+Viceregal Lodge, Simla, Monday, June 26th, 1893."
+
+[62] I may mention that formerly anyone could take bullion or ornaments in
+silver to the mints and change them for rupees.
+
+[63] It is very difficult to form an accurate opinion on this point.
+Returns seem at first sight very conclusive, but you require a knowledge
+of facts which the returns do not disclose. For instance, in the
+Government return quoted in the "Economist" of September 30th, 1893, it
+would appear that, compared with 1873, there had been an enormous rise in
+the price of ragi--a millet which is the staple food of the people of
+Mysore. In the table, the prices of 1873 being taken as equal to 100, the
+rise from 1876 to 1880 is 209, from 1881 to 1885 the ratio falls to 103,
+and remains at that till 1890. Then, in 1891, it rises to 138, and in 1892
+to 177. From this return the writer in the "Economist" concludes that the
+purchasing power of the rupee is now about 30 per cent. lower than it was
+in 1873. But to my mind the rupee price of ragi, judging by the returns
+and omitting periods of famine and scarcity, has probably only risen 3 per
+cent. The high price of the 1876-80 period was caused by the great famine,
+and the price in 1891 is to be accounted for by the partial failure of the
+ragi crop in that year--the country being on the brink of a famine--and
+this circumstance of course affected prices in the year following.
+
+[64] The amount that the Government would save is about 1,570,000 Rs. x.
+
+[65] The reader will see that, for the sake of making even figures, I have
+taken the value of the exports at upwards of eleven millions less than
+they really are. The return of the trade of British India for 1891-92 is
+as follows:
+
+ Rs. x
+ Private imports 81,310,119
+ Private exports 111,179,196
+ Government imports 2,844,926
+ Government exports 281,082
+ -----------
+ Total trade Rs. x 195,615,323
+
+The above figures show that--
+
+ The export trade is Rs. x 111,179,196
+ The import trade is Rs. x 84,155,045
+ -----------
+ Net excess exports of total trade Rs. x 27,305,233
+
+
+[66] I observe that one of the witnesses calculates the export tax thus
+proposed to be levied by forcing up the exchange to 1s. 6d. at 20 per
+cent., but I have obtained my figures from a highly competent authority,
+and I have no doubt they are substantially correct. I may add that the
+"Times" correspondent, telegraphing from Calcutta on October 23rd, says,
+"Exports cannot be profitably financed. The currency legislation alone is
+equivalent to 20 per cent. tax upon them."
+
+[67] As a set-off against the charges complained of, it should be
+remembered--a point which I did not take into account when formerly
+writing on the subject--that England bears the cost of the naval
+protection of India.
+
+[68] I have since ascertained, on good authority, that, though the coffee
+of Brazil has not as yet come into competition with Indian coffee (as
+people used to the latter do not care for the former, and would not use it
+unless there was a very great difference in the value), the coffee from
+Costa Rica, Columbia, Guatemala, and Mexico (all silver-using countries)
+does so to a very considerable extent.
+
+[69] It might be imagined from this statement that a low rate of exchange
+had been already setting back, or at least arresting, the hand of
+progress, and I therefore quote the following passage from p. 40 of the,
+"Report of the Currency Committee."
+
+"The following facts relating to the recent progress of India are taken
+from a paper read by Sir W. Hunter (one of the greatest existing
+authorities on the subject) at the Society of Arts, on the 16th of
+February, 1892.
+
+"Between 1881 and 1891 the whole number of the Army had been raised from
+170,000 to 220,000, and the number of British soldiers in it from 60,000
+to 71,000, or, including reserves, volunteers, etc., to very much more.
+Many large and costly defensive works had been constructed, both on the
+north-west frontier and on the coast. In recent years almost all the
+public buildings have been reconstructed on a large scale.
+
+"Railways, both military and commercial, have been greatly extended.
+Notwithstanding these extraordinary expenses, there were, during the
+twenty-five years which followed 1862, fourteen years of surplus and
+eleven years of deficit, yielding a net surplus of Rs. x 4,000,000. In
+1889 the public debt of India, exclusive of capital invested in railways,
+showed a reduction since the mutiny period of Rs. x 26,000,000. The rate
+at which India can borrow has been reduced from 4 or 5 per cent. to a
+little over 3 per cent. The revenue of India, exclusive of railways and
+municipal funds, has grown between 1856-57 and 1886-87 from Rs. x
+33,378,000 to Rs. x 62,859,000, and in 1891 it had increased to Rs. x
+64,000,000, or, including railway and migration receipts, to Rs. x
+85,750,000; and this increase is due to the growth of old revenue rather
+than to new taxation. Further, whilst the rent or land tax paid by the
+people has increased by one-third, the produce of their fields has more
+than doubled, in consequence partly of higher prices and partly of
+increase in cultivation. Further, in 1891 there were nearly 18,000 miles
+of railway open, carrying 121,000,000 of passengers and 26,000,000 tons of
+goods, and adding a benefit to the people of India calculated as far back
+as 1886 at Rs. x 60,000,000. Further, the Indian exports and imports at
+sea, which in 1858 were about Rs. x 40,000,000, amounted in 1891 to about
+Rs. x 200,000,000, and the produce thus exported has increased in quality
+and variety no less than in amount."
+
+What evidences of "a fatal and stunting arrestation of development"!
+
+[70] This extraordinary assumption must evidently have been founded on
+another, if possible still more wonderful; namely that the American
+Government was composed of individuals so short-sighted that they would
+fail to take the precautions which men of ordinary common sense would be
+sure to adopt with the view of preventing, as far as possible, a sudden
+fall in the value of silver. But the American Government, as we know,
+naturally diminished its purchases of silver, and as no one supposes
+(except perhaps the Indian Government) that it can be so silly as at once
+to lose money and create a gratuitous disturbance by suddenly flooding the
+market with the silver accumulated, we see that, since the repeal of the
+Sherman Act, the price of silver, so far from having gone down, as
+anticipated by the Viceroy, has even slightly gone up.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gold, Sport, And Coffee Planting In
+Mysore, by Robert H. Elliot
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13746 ***
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