diff options
Diffstat (limited to '13689-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 13689-0.txt | 11248 |
1 files changed, 11248 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/13689-0.txt b/13689-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d7458a --- /dev/null +++ b/13689-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11248 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13689 *** + +SEA-WOLVES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN + +[Illustration: KHEYR-ED-DIN BARBAROSSA—CORSAIR, +ADMIRAL, AND KING.] + + + + +SEA-WOLVES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN + +THE GRAND PERIOD OF THE MOSLEM CORSAIRS + +BY COMMANDER E. HAMILTON CURREY, R.N. + +WITH PORTRAITS AND ILLUSTRATIONS + + + “Ships are but boards, sailors but men: + There be land rats and water rats, land thieves and water thieves, + I mean pirates.” + + _Merchant of Venice._ + + +LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W 1910 + +TO THAT GRACIOUS LADY + +TO WHOSE COUNSEL AND ENCOURAGEMENT + +I OWE SO MUCH + +MORE THAN ANY ONE—SAVE I—CAN IMAGINE... + +TO MY WIFE + +I DEDICATE THIS BOOK + + + + +PREFACE + + +When the ship is ready for launching there comes a moment of tense +excitement before the dogshores are knocked away and she slides down +the ways. In the case of a ship this excitement is shared by many +thousands, who have assembled to acclaim the birth of a perfected +product of the industry of man; the emotion is shared by all those +who are present. It is very different when a book has been completed. +The launching has been arranged for and completed by expert hands; +she like the ship gathers way and slides forth into an ocean: but, +unlike the ship which is certain to float, the waters may close over +and engulf her, or perchance she may be towed back to that haven of +obscurity from which she emerged, to rust there in silence and neglect. +There is excitement in the breast of one man alone—to wit, the author. +If his book possesses one supreme qualification she will escape the +fate mentioned, and this qualification is—interest. As the weeks +lengthened into months, and these multiplied themselves to the +tale of something like twenty-four, the conviction was strengthened +that that which had so profoundly interested the writer, would not +be altogether indifferent to others. For some inscrutable reason the +deeds of sea-robbers have always possessed a fascination denied to +those of their more numerous brethren of the land; and in the case +of the Sea-wolves of the sixteenth century we are dealing with the +very aristocrats of the profession. Circumstances over which they had +no control flung the Moslem population of Southern Spain on to the +shores of Northern Africa: to revenge themselves upon the Christian +foe by whom this expropriation had been accomplished was natural to +a warrior race; and those who heretofore had been land-folk pure and +simple took to piracy as a means of livelihood. It is of the deeds of +these men that this book treats; of their marvellous triumphs, of their +apparently hopeless defeats, of the manner in which they audaciously +maintained themselves against the principalities and the powers of +Christendom always hungering for their destruction. + +The quality which Napoleon is said to have ascribed to the British +Infantry, “of never knowing when they were beaten,” seems to have also +characterised the Sea-wolves; as witness the marvellous recuperation +of Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa when expelled from Tunis by Charles V.; +and the escape of Dragut from the island of Jerba when apparently +hopelessly trapped by the Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria. All through +their history the leaders of the Sea-wolves show the resourcefulness +of the real seamen that they had become by force of circumstances, and +it was they who in the age in which they dwelt showed what sea power +really meant. Sailing through the Mediterranean on my way to Malta in +the spring of this year, as the good ship fared onwards I passed in +succession all those lurking-places from which the Moslem Corsairs were +wont to burst out upon their prey. Truly it seemed as if + + “The spirits of their fathers might start from every wave,” + +and in imagination one pictured the rush of the pirate galley, with its +naked slaves straining at the oar of their taskmasters, its fierce, +reckless, beturbaned crew clustered on the “rambades” at the bow and +stern. It might be that they would capture some hapless “round-ship,” +a merchantman lumbering slowly along the coast; or again they might +meet with a galley of the terrible Knights of St. John or of the +ever-redoubtable Doria. In either case the Sea-wolves were equal to +their fortune, to plunder or to fight in the name of Allah and his +prophet. + +That which differentiated the Sea-wolves from other pirates was the +combination which they effected among themselves; the manner in which +these lawless men could subordinate themselves to the will of one whom +they recognised as a great leader. To obtain such recognition was no +easy matter, and the manner in which this was done, by those who rose +by sheer force of character to the summit of this remarkable hierarchy, +has here been set forth. + +E. Hamilton Currey. + + + + +CONTENTS + + Page + INTRODUCTORY 1 + + CHAPTER I + THE CRESCENT AND THE CROSS 13 + + CHAPTER II + THE COMING OF THE CORSAIRS 28 + + CHAPTER III + URUJ BARBAROSSA 43 + + CHAPTER IV + THE DEATH OF URUJ BARBAROSSA 59 + + CHAPTER V + KHEYR-ED-DIN BARBAROSSA 75 + + CHAPTER VI + THE TAKING OF THE PEÑON D’ALGER; ANDREA DORIA 91 + + CHAPTER VII + THE APOTHEOSIS OF THE CORSAIR KING 107 + + CHAPTER VIII + THE RAID ON THE COAST OF ITALY; JULIA GONZAGA 123 + + CHAPTER IX + BARCELONA, MAY 1535; THE GATHERING OF THE + CHRISTIAN HOSTS 139 + + CHAPTER X + THE FALL OF TUNIS AND THE FLIGHT OF BARBAROSSA 155 + + CHAPTER XI + ROXALANA AND THE MURDER OF IBRAHIM 172 + + CHAPTER XII + THE PREVESA CAMPAIGN; THE GATHERING OF THE FLEETS 189 + + CHAPTER XIII + THE BATTLE OF PREVESA 205 + + CHAPTER XIV + THE NAVY OF OARS; THE GALLEY, THE GALEASSE, + AND THE NEF 221 + + CHAPTER XV + DRAGUT-REIS 238 + + CHAPTER XVI + DRAGUT-REIS 254 + + CHAPTER XVII + DRAGUT-REIS 269 + + CHAPTER XVIII + THE KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN 286 + + CHAPTER XIX + DRAGUT-REIS 306 + + CHAPTER XX + THE SIEGE OF MALTA 324 + + CHAPTER XXI + ALI BASHA 344 + + CHAPTER XXII + LEPANTO 362 + + AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 383 + + LIST OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, SPAIN, + SULTANS OF TURKEY, POPES OF ROME, AND GRAND + MASTERS OF MALTA FROM 1492 TO 1580 385 + + DISTANCES IN SEA MILES ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN + AFRICA 387 + + INDEX 389 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +I wish to record my cordial recognition of the kindness shown to me at +Malta by Mr. Salvino Sant Manduca. The picture of the carrack opposite +to page 300 was a gift from him. The galley of the Knights of Malta is +a reproduction of a picture hanging in his house. I should also like to +thank him for the time and trouble which he took on my behalf during my +stay at Malta, and the keen interest he displayed in my subject. + +R. HAMILTON CURREY. + + + KHEYR-ED-DIN BARBAROSSA—CORSAIR, ADMIRAL, AND KING _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + URUJ AND KHEYR-ED-DIN BARBAROSSA 44 + + ANDREA DORIA, PRINCE OF ONEOLIA, ADMIRAL TO CHARLES V. 92 + + SOLIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT 110 + + THE EMPEROR CHARLES V 150 + + MULEY HASSAN KING OF TUNIS 162 + + GALEASSE UNDER SAIL 194 + + GALLEY UNDER OARS 222 + + BRIGANTINE CHASING FELUCCA 236 + + GOZON DE DIEU-DONNÉ SLAYING THE GREAT SERPENT OF RHODES 294 + + CARRACK IN WHICH THE KNIGHTS ARRIVED AT MALTA, 1530 300 + + JEAN PARISOT DE LA VALETTE, GRAND MASTER OF THE KNIGHTS + OF MALTA, AT THE SIEGE OF THAT ISLAND BY THE TURKS IN 1565 324 + + DEATH OF DRAGUT AT THE SIEGE OF MALTA 340 + + A GALLEY OF THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA 354 + + DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA 362 + + SEBASTIAN VENIERO 364 + + + + +SEA-WOLVES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN + +INTRODUCTORY + + +In all the ages of which we have any record there have been men who +gained a living by that practice of robbery on the high seas which +we know by the name of Piracy. Perhaps the pirates best known to +the English-speaking world are the buccaneers of the Spanish Main, +who flourished exceedingly in the seventeenth century, and of whom +many chronicles exist: principally owing to the labours of that John +Esquemelin, a pirate of a literary turn of mind, who added the crime +of authorship to the ill deeds of a sea-rover. The Sea-Wolves of the +Mediterranean in the preceding century did not raise up a chronicler +from among themselves: for not much tincture of learning seems to +have distinguished these desperate fighters and accomplished seamen, +descendants of those Spanish Moslems who had, during the Middle +Ages, lived in a land in which learning and culture had been held in +the highest estimation. Driven from their homes, their civilisation +crushed, their religion banned in that portion of Southern Spain in +which they had dwelt for over seven centuries, cast upon the shores +of Northern Africa, these men took to the sea and became the scourge +of the Mediterranean. That which they did, the deeds which they +accomplished, the terror which they inspired, the ruin and havoc which +they wrought, have been set forth in the pages of this book. + +It was the age of the galley, the oar-propelled vessel which moved +independently of the wind in the fine-weather months of the great +inland sea. Therefore to the dwellers on the coast the Sea-wolves were +a perpetual menace; as, when booty was unobtainable at sea, they raided +the towns and villages of their Christian foes. During all the period +here dealt with no man’s life, no woman’s honour, was safe from these +pirates within the area of their nefarious activities. They held the +Mediterranean in fee, they levied toll on all who came within reach +of their galleys and their scimitars. Places unknown to the geography +of the sixteenth century became notorious in their day, and Christian +wives and mothers learned to tremble at the very names of Algiers and +Tunis. From these places the rovers issued to capture, to destroy, and +to enslave: in Oran and Tlemcen, in Tenes, Shershell, Bougie, Jigelli, +Bizerta, Sfax, Susa, Monastir, Jerbah, and Tripoli they lurked ready +for the raid and the foray. At one time all Northern Africa would +thrill to the triumph of the Moslem arms, at another there would go +up the wail of the utterly defeated; but in spite of alternations of +fortune the Sea-wolves abode in the localities of their choice, and +ended in establishing those pirate States which troubled the peace of +the Mediterranean practically until the introduction of steam. + +The whole record of the sixteenth century is one of blood and fire, +of torture and massacre, of “punic faith” and shameless treason; the +deeds of the sea-rovers, appalling as they were, frequently found a +counterpart in the battles, the sieges, and the sacking of towns which +took place perpetually on the continent of Europe. + +There was so much history made at this period, the stage of world +politics was occupied by so many great, striking, and dazzling +personalities, that the Sea-wolves and all they accomplished were to a +great extent overshadowed by happenings which the chroniclers of the +time considered to be of greater importance. In this no doubt they were +right in the main; but, in spite of this opinion which they held, we +find that time and again the main stream of events is ruffled by the +prows of the pirate galleys. Such men as the Barbarossas, as Dragut, +and Ali Basha could only have been suppressed and exterminated had the +whole might of Christendom been turned against them, for they held in +their hands two weapons, the keenest and most powerful with which to +attain the objects which they had in view. + +The first and more powerful of these was the appeal in a rough and +warlike age to the cupidity of mankind. “Those who are content to +follow us,” they said in effect, “are certain to enrich themselves if +they are men stout of heart and strong of hand. All around us lie rich +and prosperous lands; we have but to organise ourselves, and to take +anything that we wish for; we can, if we like, gather a rich harvest at +comparatively small trouble.” Such counsels as these did not fall on +deaf ears. Driven from the land of plenty—from glorious Andalusia with +its fruitful soil, its magnificent cities, its vines and olives, its +fruit and grain, its noble rivers and wide-spreading _vegas_—the +Spanish Moslem of the day of the Sea-wolves was an outcast and a +beggar, ripe for adventure and burning for revenge on those by whom he +had been expropriated. + +Great historians like William Hickling Prescott tell us that, in the +course of the seven centuries of the Moslem domination in Spain, the +Moors had become soft and effeminate, that “the canker of peace” +had sapped, if it had not destroyed, the virile qualities of the +race, that luxury and learning had dried up at their source those +primitive virtues of courage and hardihood which had been the leading +characteristics of those stark fighters who had borne the banner of +the Prophet from Mecca even to Cadiz. Tom by faction, by strife among +themselves, they had succumbed to the arms of the Northern chivalry; by +its warriors they had been driven out, never to return. + +When this was accomplished, when the curtain fell on the final scene +of the tragedy, and the Moors, after the fall of Granada, were driven +across the sea into Africa, there came to pass a most remarkable change +in those who had been expropriated. The learning, the culture, the +civilisation, by which they had been so long distinguished, seemed to +drop away from them, cast away like a worn-out garment for which men +have no further use. In place of all these things there came a complete +and desperate valour, a bitter and headstrong fanaticism. + +It was one of the attributes of the Moslem civilisation in Spain, +and one of the most enlightened thereof, that religious toleration +flourished in its midst. Jew and Christian were allowed to worship at +the altars of their fathers, no man hindering or saying them nay; one +rule, and one alone, had to be preserved: none must blaspheme against +Mahomet, the Prophet of God, as he was considered to be by the Moslems. +The penalty for infraction of this rule was death; otherwise, complete +liberty of conscience was accorded. + +We have spoken of the two weapons held by the leaders of the +Sea-wolves. The first, as we have, said, was cupidity; the second +was fanaticism, the deadly religious hatred engendered, not only by +the wholesale expropriation of the Moslem population, but also by +the persecution to which the Moriscoes—as those Moslems were known +who remained in Spain—were subjected by their Christian masters. It +requires little imagination to see how these two weapons of avarice +and intolerance could be made to serve the purpose of those dominant +spirits who rose to the summit of the piratical hierarchy. Not only +did they dazzle the imaginations of those who followed in their train +by promises of wealth uncounted, but they added to this the specious +argument that, in slaying and robbing the Christian wheresoever he was +to be found, the faithful Moslem was performing the service of God and +the act most grateful to his holy Prophet. + +Could any rule of life be at the same time more simple and more +attractive to the beggared Mohammedan cast on the sterile shores of +Northern Africa to starve? + +With the main stream of history, to which we have before referred, we +have no concern in this book. He who would embark thereon must sail +a powerful vessel which must carry many guns. Also for the conduct +of this vessel many qualities are necessary: a commanding intellect, +acute perceptions, indefatigable industry, complete leisure, are among +those things necessary to the pilot. These must be supplemented by a +genius for research, a knowledge of ancient and modern languages, and +an unerring faculty for separating the few precious grains of wheat +from those mountains of chaff which he will have to sift with the +utmost care. There are, however, subsidiary rivulets which feed the +onward flow of events, and of such is the story of the Sea-wolves of +the Mediterranean. On these the adventurous mariner can sail his little +cockboat, discreetly retiring before he becomes involved and engulfed +in the main stream. That he cannot altogether avoid it is shown by +the fact that the men who are here chronicled took part in events of +first-class importance in the age in which they lived. Kheyr-ed-Din +Barbarossa fought the battle of Prevesa against his lifelong +antagonist, Andrea Doria. Dragut was killed at the siege of Malta, at +the moment almost of the fall of the castle of St. Elmo; had he lived +it is more than probable that Jean Parisot de la Valette and his heroic +garrison would have been defeated instead of being victorious. Ali +Basha was the one Moslem commander who increased his reputation at the +battle of Lepanto, because, as was usual in all maritime conflicts of +the time, the corsairs, who had the habit of the sea, were more than a +match for soldiers embarked to fight on an unfamiliar element. + +We shall speak, later on, of the autocratic rule of these leaders who +possessed so absolute a domination over the men by whom they were +followed. The fact of this absolute supremacy on the part of the chiefs +is very curious, as theoretically in the confederacy of the Sea-wolves +all were equal; we are, in fact, confronted with pure democracy, where +every man was at liberty to do what seemed best in his own eyes. He +was a free agent, none coercing him or desiring him to place himself +under discipline or command. This, be it observed, was the theory. As +a matter of fact the corsairs, who were extraordinarily successful in +their abominable trade, abode beneath an iron and rigid discipline. +This was enforced by the lash, as we shall see later on when it is +related how Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa flogged one Hassan, a captain +who, he considered, had failed in his duty: or by the actual penalty +of death, which Uruj Barbarossa inflicted on one who had dared to act +independently of his authority. + +The theory of equality obtained among the Mediterranean pirates; but +the Barbarossas, Dragut, and Ali believed that, in practice, the less +interference there was with their designs by those, whom Cardinal +Granvelle denominated in a letter to Philip II. as “that mischievous +animal the people,” the better it would be for all concerned. The +conception held of rights and duties of “the mischievous animal” +by these militant persons was, that it should behave as did those +others recorded of the Roman centurion in Holy Writ: if it did not, +and difficulties arose, the leaders were not troubled with an undue +tenderness either towards the individual or the theory. Of this we +shall see examples as we go on. + +This period has been called “The Grand Period of the Moslem Corsairs” +cause it was in something less than a century, from the year of the +expulsion of the Moors from Granada in 1492 to the death of Ali Basha +in 1580, that the Sea-wolves were at the height of their power, that +the piratical States of the Mediterranean were in the making. That +subsequently they gave great cause of trouble to Christendom is +written in characters of blood and fire throughout the history of the +succeeding centuries; but the real interest in the careers of these +men resides in the fact that they established, by their extraordinary +aptitude for sea-adventure, the permanent place which was held by +their descendants. Time and again in the sixteenth century the effort +was made to destroy them root and branch: they were defeated, driven +out of their strongholds on shore, crushed apparently for ever. But +nothing short of actual extermination could have been successful in +this; as, no matter how severe had been the set-back, there was always +left a nucleus of the pirates which in a short time grew again into a +formidable force. The Ottoman Turk, magnificent fighter as he was on +land, seemed to lose his great qualities when the venue was changed +from the land to the sea. The Janissaries, that picked corps trained +as few soldiers were trained even in that age of iron, who never +recoiled before the foe but who fought only to conquer or die, seem to +have failed when embarked for sea-service. That which the hard teaching +of experience alone could show—that the man who fights best upon the +sea is he who has the habit of the sea—was at this time not generally +recognised, and this it was that rendered the corsairs so supreme on +the element which they had made their own. Some among the great ones of +the earth there were who appreciated this fact, who, like that great +statesman Ibrahim, Grand Vizier to Soliman the Magnificent, recognised +what it was to lay their hands upon “a veritable man of the sea”; but +the rule was to embark men from the shore and to entrust to them the +duty of fighting naval actions. + +When “the Grand Period” came to an end, as it did about the date +already indicated, the corsairs had become a permanent institution; +they remained established at Algiers, Tunis, and other ports on +the littoral of Northern Africa as a recognised evil. Pirates they +remained to the end of the chapter, the scourge of the tideless sea; +but no longer did they array themselves in line of battle against +the mightiest potentates of the earth allied for their complete +destruction. It was the men of the sea who set up this empire; it was +they who defied Charles V., a whole succession of Popes, Andrea Doria +and his descendants, the might of Spain, Venice, Genoa, Catalonia, and +France. It was they who taught the so-called civilised world of the age +in which they lived that sea-power can only be met and checked by those +who dispose of navies manned by seamen; that against it the master of +the mightiest legions of the land is powerless. + +This contention is by no means invalidated by the fact that frequently +the corsairs were defeated by land forces embarked on board ship. +Thus when Dragut was defending Tripoli against an expedition sent +against him in 1559 by the combined forces of Spain, Tuscany, Rome, +Naples, Sicily, and Genoa, of one hundred sail which embarked fourteen +thousand troops, he was relieved by Piali, the Admiral of Soliman +the Magnificent, who came to his assistance with eighty-six galleys, +each of which had on board one hundred Janissaries, and who gained +so striking a victory over the Christians that the Turkish Admiral +returned to Constantinople with no less than four thousand prisoners. +But in this case, as in so many others, the actual hostilities took +place on shore, where the troops had the opportunity of displaying +their sterling qualities. + +There is very little doubt that critics will point out that the +corsairs were by no means universally successful; that, as in the +case of the attack by Hassem, the ruler of Algiers in 1563, on Oran +and Marzaquivir (a small port in the immediate vicinity of Oran), in +the end the Moslems were badly beaten. This undoubtedly was the case, +and there is no desire to magnify the deeds of the Sea-wolves or to +minimise the heroic defence of Marzaquivir by the Count of Alcaudete, +or that of Oran by his brother, Don Martin de Còrdoba, At the last +moment of their wonderful defence they were relieved by a fleet sent by +the King of Spain, and Hassem had to abandon his artillery, ammunition, +and stores and beat a hasty retreat to the place from whence he had +come. + +There was nothing remarkable in the fact that the corsairs were +frequently defeated; what is really strange is that they should have +achieved so great a success—success vouched for by the concrete +instance that they established those sinister dynasties on the coast of +Northern Africa which were the outcome of their piratical activities. + +In speaking of them, historians of later date than that at which they +flourished are apt to hold them somewhat cheaply, to dismiss them as +mere barbarians of no particular importance in the scheme of mundane +affairs; as men who caused a certain amount of trouble to civilisation +by their inroads and their plunderings. That which is certain is that +they were for centuries a standing shame and disgrace to the whole of +Christendom. + +To those who may perhaps be called the pioneers—that is to say, the men +treated of in this book—a certain amount of sympathy and understanding +may be conceded; for they had been driven from the land which had +been theirs, it was their countrymen and their co-religionists who +were being ground to powder beneath the fanatical cruelty of the +Spanish Inquisition. That which they did was doubtless abominable, +but it cannot be contended that they had not received the strongest +provocation both from the material and the religious points of view. + +Once the “Grand Period” was passed, that period in which such men as +the Barbarossas, Dragut, and Ali flourished, the chronicle of the +Moslem States founded by them sinks to the degraded level of sheer +robbery and murder; of a history of a tyranny established within one +hundred miles of the shores of Europe, and of great kings and princes +bargaining with piratical ruffians who held in thrall thousands upon +thousands of their subjects. How it came about that the Christian +States tolerated such an abuse is one of those mysteries which can +never be explained; and if subsequent centuries displayed a greater +refinement of manners, a more apt appreciation of all that is softer +and kindlier in the human relationships of nation towards nation and +of people towards people, they have not perhaps so much to plume +themselves upon as had their rude forefathers of the sixteenth century, +who, seeing the evil and feeling the effects thereof, did their best to +extirpate those by whom this evil was caused. + +The question may be asked, how can it be that the lives and actions of +such men as these are worth chronicling? It is because, not only that +they modified profoundly the course of history in the age in which they +lived, but also because that, hidden deep down, somewhere, in these men +stained by a thousand crimes, ruthless, lustful, bloodthirsty, cruel as +the grave, was the germ of true greatness, some dim spark of the divine +fire of genius. Contending against principalities and powers, they held +their own; in the welter of anarchy in which they lived they proved +that there existed no finer fighting men, which alone give them some +claim to consideration; but that which is most interesting to watch is +the absolute domination obtained by the leaders over their followers. +There is no other record of pirates who commanded on so large a scale; +there is none which shows men such as these bargaining on equal terms +with the great ones of the earth. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE CRESCENT AND THE CROSS + + +There is, in the deeds of men of action, an interest which is never +aroused by those persons of brains and capacity by whom the world +is really ruled. The statesman in his cabinet is the god within the +machine; it is he who directs the acts of nations, it is he who moves +the fleets and armies as if they were pieces on the chess-board; to +him, as a rule, is the man of action subordinate, obeying his behests. +Rule and governance are his, power both in the abstract and the +concrete. Seldom in the history of the world do we come across the men +who are at one and the same time statesmen and soldiers, who, taking +their destiny in their own hands, work it out to the appointed end +thereof. But, as we stray in the by-paths of history, we meet with +some who, in their day, have influenced not only the age in which they +lived themselves, but also the destinies of generations yet unborn. It +would seem incredible that mere pirates, such as the Moslem corsairs +of the Mediterranean, could be included in this category, and yet, as +their story is unfolded, we shall see how the Sea-wolves rose from +the humblest beginnings to trouble the peace of Europe, to found for +themselves dynasties which endured. + +Uruj Barbarossa, Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, Dragut Reis, and Occhiali, or +All Basha, were men who, in the sixteenth century, did much to change +the conditions of the times in which they lived: it was the time of +the Renaissance in Europe, a period of splendour in all the arts and +sciences. These men added nothing to the knowledge of the civilised +world as it then existed, save and except in one particular, which +was, as Kheyr-ed-Din explained to Soliman the Magnificent on a certain +memorable occasion, that he who rules on the sea will rule on the land +also. In the present day, when all the nations and languages sit at the +feet of Captain (now Rear-Admiral) Mahan, and acclaim his “Sea Power” +series of books, it is interesting to find that he was anticipated +in the most practical fashion possible by a corsair of the sixteenth +century. + +This period was one in which great men abounded. The Emperor Charles +V., Francis I. of France, and Henry VIII. of England, were on the +thrones of their respective countries; in Hungary was John Hunyadi, at +Constantinople Soliman the Magnificent held rule, while in Rome the +“fatal house of Medici” were the successors of Saint Peter. War was a +commonplace state of the times, but until the Crescent began to sweep +the seas it had its manifestation in the perpetual quarrels of the +nations of Christendom, which represented, as a rule, the insatiable +ambitions of its rulers. But now new men forced themselves to the +front, a new power arose which was very imperfectly understood, and +which practically held the sea at its mercy. Gone were the halcyon +days of peaceful trade which had been pursued for generations by +Venetian and Genoese, by Spaniard and Frenchman; gone also, apparently +never to return, was all sense of security for the wretched dwellers on +the littoral of the Mediterranean, who lived in daily, and particularly +in nightly, dread of the falcon swoop of the pirate galleys. + +It is amusing to read the old chroniclers, sticklers as they were for +“the dignity of history,” continually having to turn aside from the +main stream of their narrative of emperors, popes, and kings to descend +to the level of the Sea-wolves, and to be constrained to set down the +nefarious doings of these rovers of the sea. Bell, book, and candle +were invoked against them in vain, and mighty monarchs had to meet them +in the stricken field not merely once or twice—to their utter undoing +and discomfiture—but many times, while victory inclined first to one +side and then to the other. + +The Osmanli had ever been warriors since the times of the Prophet, of +Abu-Bekr, of Othman, and of Ali; but so far their warlike achievements +had been always on land, their only sea experience being confined to +the crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, when in the eighth century, +under Tarik, they had swarmed into Andalusia, conquered Roderick the +Goth, and set up that Moslem domination in Southern Spain which lasted +until 1492, just before the events set forth in this book took place. +Piracy in all ages is a thing in which a curious shuddering interest +has been taken, and the deeds of the outlaws of the sea have never +lacked chroniclers. There is for this a reason apart from the record +of robbery and murder, which is the commonplace of piratical deeds: +it resides in the perennial interest which men take in individual +achievement, in the spectacle of absolute and complete domination by +one man over the lives and the fortunes of others. This intense form of +individualism is nowhere so well exhibited as in the story of piratical +enterprise, where a band of men, outside of the law and divorced from +all human kind by the atrocity of their deeds, has had to be welded +into one homogeneous mass for the purpose of preying upon the world +at large. Therefore he who would hold rule among such outlaws must +himself be a man of no common description, for in him must be that +quality which calls for instantaneous obedience among those with whom +he is associated; behind him is no constituted authority, discipline is +personal, enforced by the leader, and by him alone. Beneath him are men +of the rudest and roughest description, slaves to their lusts and their +passions, prone to mutiny, suspicious, and—worst of all—stupid. + +It is with these constituent elements that the piratical leader had to +deal, trusting to the strength of his own arm, the subtlety of his own +unassisted brain. Some among these leaders have risen to eminence in +their evil lives, most of them have been the captains of single ships +preying on commerce in an indiscriminate manner; but this was not the +case with the Sea-wolves of the Mediterranean, Primarily sea-robbers +they were of course, but as time and opportunity developed their +characters they rose to meet occasion, to take fortune at the flood, in +a manner that, had they been pursuing any other career, would most +certainly have caused them to rise to eminence. Into the fierce and +blood-stained turmoil of their lives there entered something unknown +to any other pirates: this was religious fanaticism—a fanaticism so +engrained in character, a belief held to with such passionate tenacity, +that men stained with every conceivable crime held that their passage +to Paradise was absolutely secure because of the faith which they +professed. Tradition, sentiment, discipline, were summed up in one +trite formula; but though we, at this distance of time, may hold it +somewhat in derision, it was a vital force in the days of Soliman the +Magnificent; and there was an added zest to robbery and murder in the +fact that the pirates, as good Mohammedans, were obeying the behests of +the Prophet every time that they cut a Christian throat, plundered a +Christian argosy, or carried off shrieking women into a captivity far +worse than death. + +That a pirate should be a warrior goes without saying, that a pirate +should be a statesman is a thing almost incredible; but those who +will read the story of the life of Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa will be +forced to admit that here, at least, was a pirate who achieved the +apparently impossible. Admiral Jurien de la Gravière has remarked that +the Moslem corsairs of the sixteenth century were great men, even when +measured by the standard of Henry VIII., of Charles V., of Soliman the +Magnificent, of Ibrahim, his Grand Vizier, or of Andrea Doria, greatest +among contemporary Christian mariners. To the seaman, of course, there +is much that is fascinating in the deeds of his forerunners, and +the ships of the corsairs had in them something distinctive in that +they were propelled by oars, and were in consequence, to a certain +extent, independent of the weather. Like the sailors of all ages, to +the Sea-wolves gales and storms of all sorts and descriptions were +abhorrent; and in consequence they had a well-marked piracy season, +which, as we shall see, covered the spring and summer, while they +carefully avoided the inclement months of autumn and winter. + +In a later chapter an attempt has been made to place before the reader +pictures of the galley, the galeasse, and the nef, which were the names +attached to the ships then in use; the name brigantine, far from having +the significance attached to it by the sailor of the present day, seems +to have been a generic term to denote any craft not included in the +names already given. + +Although the sixteenth century had outgrown the principle of the +general massacre of the enemy by the victors, still chivalry to the +fallen foe was far to seek, as all persons captured at sea were, no +matter what their rank and status, immediately stripped and chained to +the rowers’ bench, where they remained until ransom, good fortune, or +a kindly death, for which these unfortunates were wont to pray, should +come to their release. To a large extent this savagery may be traced +to the religious rancour which animated the combatants on both sides, +as the fanaticism of the Moslem, of which we have already spoken, was +fully matched on the side of the Christians by the bigotry of the +Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, otherwise known as the Knights of +Malta, who were vowed to the extermination of what they, on their +side, called “the infidel.” It was an age of iron, when men neither +gave nor expected grace for the misfortunes which might befall them in +the warrior life which they led. It was distinguished by many gallant +feats of arms on both sides, but pity formed no part of the equipment +of the fighting man bent on the death or capture of his enemy. Honestly +and sincerely each side believed that they were doing the service of +the Almighty in destroying the other party root and branch. The amount +of human misery and suffering caused by the rise and progress of the +Moslem corsairs was absolutely incalculable; the slavery of the rower +in the galley in the time of which we speak was an agony so dreadful +that in these days it is a thing which seems altogether incredible, a +nightmare of horror almost impossible even to imagine. + +The life of the “gallerian” was so hard that his sufferings in many +cases were mercifully ended in death in a very short time, as none +save those of iron constitution could stand the strain imposed by the +desperate toil and wretched food. Yet there are cases on record of men +who had worked at the oar for actual decades, so unconquerable in their +strength that even such a life as this had not the power to break them +down. + +To the peaceful mariner who wished merely to trade, to the individual +whose business called him overseas, this epoch must have been one of +terror unspeakable. The ordinary perils of the deep were quite enough +to keep timid folk at home in those days of clumsy, ill-found sailing +ships, which could by no means work to windward, and did not sail +remarkably well even with the most favouring breezes; when to this we +add that every ship which started on a voyage in the Mediterranean had +before her the chance of being captured by the corsairs, it was no +wonder that he whose business led him oversea should make his last will +and testament and bid a fond farewell to all his relatives. + +There is a record in the Mémoires of the Rev. Frère Pierre d’An, +Bachelier en Théologie de la Faculté de Paris, etc., who wrote in a +most heartfelt manner concerning the danger of the sea and the perils +to be expected from the Barbary corsairs. He says, date 1637: + + “An ancient writer, considering how little assurance + can ordinarily be placed in the sea, and how hazardous + it is to expose oneself and one’s goods to its mercy, + has remarked, with much reason, that it is infinitely + preferable to be poor on shore than to be rich at sea. + In which saying he mocks indeed at those ambitious, + avaricious, and mercenary men who, in order to gain false + glory and the things of this world, expose themselves + rashly to the manifest perils which are most of the time + the inevitable lot of the seaman. This same consideration + causes him also to utter these remarkable words: that + he repents himself of but one thing, and that is ever + to have travelled by sea when it was possible to have + done so by land. And, to say truth, he has good reason + to speak as he does, because it is impossible for the + most hardy navigators not to tremble with fear when it is + represented before their eyes that they must combat with + the winds, the waves, and the foam every time that they + adventure upon the deep. + + “Because it is indisputable that this is the very Theatre + of the storms, and the place in the world most capable + of all sorts of violence and tragic adventure. This, + however, does not prevent those who covet the perishable + goods of this world from straying upon the sea, even in + unknown and untraversed regions, without ceasing and + without rest. + + “If, however, they abandon the ocean for a time, it is + but to return to it again to seek once more war with + their ships, in order unjustly to make themselves masters + of the bodies and of the riches of others. + + “Of such it may be remarked to-day are, in all the + maritime coasts, the implacable Corsairs of Barbary. For, + however great may be the dangers of which we have just + spoken, and no matter now many examples they may see of + the fury and inconstancy of Neptune, they cease not their + irritating performances, kindling warfare in all the + coasts of the Christian nations. It is there that they + exercise their infamous piracies, and there also that + they glory in the most shameful of all commerce—the trade + of the brigand. + + “Which in all towns that are well policed have always met + with a swift and just retribution, because the law is + ordained against those who maintain such practices. + + “But such does not happen among these pirates. + + “On the contrary, it may truthfully be said that, while + in towns in which good persons dwell good actions receive + the palms and the crown, it is among the Corsairs but to + the wicked to whom are given recompense and praise. + + “In effect the most determined among them—I mean the most + unworthy robbers who are best versed in all the infamies + of their trade and most accustomed to the practice of + violence—are those who are covered with honours, and + who pass in the estimation of their fellows for men of + heart and courage. + + “Indeed experience has taught all Christian merchants + that the infidels of the coast of Barbary are all + brigands. + + “Among these those of Algiers carry off the prize for + riches, for ships, for strength, and for villainy.” + +The bachelor in theology is somewhat sweeping in his criticisms, and +his meaning is, perhaps, somewhat clearer than his grammar. One thing, +however, is perfectly plain, that, in the opinion of the reverend +brother, those who go to sea are to be divided into two categories, +rogues and fools, with a strong preponderance of the worse Element of +the two. + +Of the corsairs dealt with in this record of their deeds the two +Barbarossas were the sons of a Mohammedan father and a Christian +mother. Dragut Reis was a pure Mohammedan, and Ali Basha was a +pure-blooded Italian. All these men, as will be seen, raised themselves +to eminence in the profession of piracy; in each and every separate +case starting at the very bottom rung of the ladder and rising, by +sheer stress of valour and character, to the very top. Each in turn +became Admiralissimo to the Grand Turk at Constantinople. Kheyr-ed-Din +Barbarossa commanded the Ottoman fleet at the great battle of Prevesa, +at which he met with his life-long competitor at sea, the famous +Genoese Admiral, Andrea Doria. Dragut Reis was killed at the siege +of Malta in 1565, and Ali Basha was the only Moslem commander who +increased his reputation at the battle of Lepanto in 1571, when Don +John of Austria shattered the power of the Moslem at sea for the time +being. + +Although the “renegado” was very much in evidence in the vessels of +the Moslem corsairs, still of course the bulk of the fighting men, by +which the galleys were manned, were Mohammedans, the descendants of the +warriors who had swept through Northern Africa like a living flame in +the early days of the Mohammedan conquest. + +Cut adrift from the homes which had been theirs for over seven +centuries—as we shall see in the next chapter—there was nothing left +for the erstwhile dwellers in Andalusia but to gain their living by the +strong hand. The harvest of the sea was the one which they garnered—a +harvest of the goods of their mortal enemies strung out in lines of +hapless merchant-vessels throughout the length and breadth of the +tideless sea. + +It booted not that the great Powers of Europe sent expedition after +expedition against them; these they fought to the death with varying +fortune, ready, when the storm had passed over their heads, to start +once more on the only career which promised them the chance of +acquiring riches. Their whole history is a study of warfare, waged as a +rule on the petty scale, but rising at times, as in the cases already +mentioned, into events of first-class historical importance. + +The deeds of the buccaneers of the next century in the Spanish Main +sink into comparative insignificance when compared with what was +accomplished by such a man as Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, who was known, +and rightly known, by his contemporaries, and for many generations +of Moslem seamen yet to come, as “the King of the Sea.” The capture of +Panama by Sir Henry Morgan in January 1671 was possibly as remarkable +a feat of arms as was ever accomplished, but it cannot rank in its +importance to civilised mankind on the same plane as those memorable +battles in the Mediterranean of which mention has been made as having +been fought by the Moslem corsairs. + +Fighting for their own hand, the booty reaped by these men was +incredible in its richness. Sea-power was theirs, and they took the +fullest advantage of this fact, fearing none save the great community +of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, which, vowed to the +destruction of the infidel, neither gave nor accepted quarter. + +We have said that the real interest in the lives of the corsairs arose +from the fact that it was personal ascendancy, and that alone, which +counted in the piratical hierarchy. Against Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa +plots arose again and again, only to be defeated by the address of the +man against whom they were directed. + +It was one of the cruellest of ages, and rough cruelty was the +principal means adopted to ensure success; sheer terror was the weapon +of the leader. Thus when one Hassan, a subordinate of Kheyr-ed-Din, +failed to take a Spanish ship because she made too stout a resistance, +his chief caused him to be soundly flogged and then thrown into prison. +Such methods naturally raised up hosts of enemies in the wake of the +piratical commanders, ready at any time to do them a mortal injury, and +it is little short of miraculous that they should throughout a long +period of years have been able not only to maintain, but to increase, +their supremacy over the wild spirits of which their following was +composed. It was, however, the golden age of autocracy, when men +surrendered their judgment to some great leader, content to follow +where he led, to endorse his policy at the cost of their lives. + +It is the autocrat who is made by the circumstances of his life who +ultimately becomes supreme. The leaders among the corsairs were tried +by every test of prosperity and of adverse fortune; they emerged from +the ruck in the first instance because it was in them to display a more +desperate valour than did their contemporaries, and it was only when +they emerged triumphant from this, the first test, that they could +begin to impose their will upon others. It was then that their real +trials began, as the undisciplined are ever prone to suspicion, much +given to murmuring against a leader who is not perpetually successful. + +As a rule, however, there were but few to criticise, as the office of +critic was one fraught with far too much danger to be alluring. In +maintaining their authority the leaders stopped at nothing, and the +heads of the recalcitrant were apt to part with amazing suddenness from +their bodies if they repined overmuch. The Moslem leader was, it is +true, merely _primus inter pares_, and was distinguished by no outward +symbol of the power which he possessed; but life and death lay in his +hands, and life was cheap indeed. + +We have spoken hitherto of the leaders, but what of the men of which +their following was composed? Rough, rude, and reckless, these latter +lived but to fight and to plunder; to them any other life would have +seemed impossible, and indeed this was practically the fact. In the +communities in which they lived the adult male had no other means of +gaining a livelihood. Since their expulsion from their ancient homes no +ordered and peaceful method of existence had been possible for them. +In the surroundings in which their forefathers had lived the arts of +peace had been carried on in a civilisation to which there had been +none comparable in the world as it then existed; on all this the Moslem +had now to turn his back, and to earn a precarious living by the strong +hand. War, sanguinary and incessant, was henceforward to be his lot, +and it must be said that he turned to this ancient avocation with a +zest which left but little to be desired from the point of view of +those by whom he was led. In the new life of bloodshed and adventure he +seemed to delight. Like the free-lance in all ages, he seems to have +squandered his booty as soon as it was acquired, and then to sea once +more, to face the desperate hazard of an encounter with the knights, to +raid defenceless villages, to lie _perdu_ behind some convenient cape, +dashing out from thence to plunder the argosy of the merchantman. +Intolerable conditions of heat and cold he endured, he suffered from +wounds, from fever, from hunger and thirst, from hope deferred, from +voyages when no plunder came his way. + +His reward was the joy of the fight, the delight of the ambush +skilfully laid, to see the decks of the enemy a dreadful shambles, with +the Crescent flag of the Prophet above the detested emblem of the +Cross. Then the return to Algiers laden with spoil: to tow behind him +some luckless Christian ship, while aboard his own war-worn galley the +drums beat and the trumpets sounded, and the banners floated free to +the stainless Mediterranean sky. Then the procession of the captives +through the crowded streets laden with what a short time before +had been their own property—a mournful _cortège_ of men doomed to an +everlasting slavery and of women destined for the harems of the Bashas. + +Thus was his life lived, and when death came it came as a rule from the +slash of a sabre or the ball from an arquebus or a bombard; and then +what matter, for had not Hassan Ali or Selim fallen in strife against +the enemies of his faith, and did not the portals of heaven open wide +to receive the man who had lost his life testifying to the fact that +there was but one God, and that Mahomet was the Prophet of God? + +True in substance and in fact is that which was said by the Frère +Pierre d’An that “it is indisputable that the sea is the Theatre of +the storms and the place in the world most capable of all sorts of +violence and tragic adventure.” Those who “coveted the goods of others +straying on the sea,” called by the reverend brother “the implacable, +corsairs of Barbary,” were to make life intolerable on that element for +centuries to come, and if the Crescent did not supersede the banner of +the Cross in the blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea, it remained as a +portent and a dread symbol of human misery and unutterable suffering. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE COMING OF THE CORSAIRS + + +The rise and progress of the Moslem corsairs of the Mediterranean is a +most curious and interesting historical fact. The causes which led to +results so deplorable to commerce, civilisation, and Christianity are +set forth in this chapter in order that some idea may be formed of the +state of affairs in that region at the end of the fifteenth and the +beginning of the sixteenth centuries, and also that the reflex action +of the great triumph of the Christian armies in Spain may be more fully +understood. + +The maritime Christian States of the Mediterranean at this epoch +were at the height of their power and prosperity, but were faced by +the might of the Ottoman Empire, against which they waged perpetual +warfare. Bitter and unceasing was the strife prosecuted by the Cross +against the Crescent, and by the Crescent against the Cross; and +riding, like eagles on the storm came the corsairs in their swift +galleys ready to strike down the luckless argosy of the merchantman +wheresoever she was to be met. But this was not all, as the shore as +well as the sea yielded up to them its tribute in the shape of slaves +and booty, and Christian mothers trembling in the insecurity of their +homes would hush their wailing children with the terror of the names +of Barbarossa, of Dragut, or of Ali Basha. + +Popes and emperors, kings and princes, found themselves compelled to +form leagues against these Sea-wolves who devoured the substance of +their subjects, and great expeditions were fitted out to fight with and +destroy the corsairs. Had Christendom been united no doubt the object +would have been attained; but, as will be seen at the end of this +chapter, an “Alliance of Christian Princes against the Turks”—which +generic term included the corsairs—was not always used in the manner +best calculated to injure those common enemies. + +When in 1492 Granada was yielded up to “Los Reyes Catolicos,” Ferdinand +of Aragon, and Isabella of Castile, by that luckless monarch known as +Boabdil el Chico (or “the little”), the last remnant of the power of +the Moors in Spain had gone never to return. On that small hill on the +way to the coast still known as “el ultimo suspiro del Moro” (the last +sigh of the Moor), Boabdil, as he looked for the last time on his lost +capital of Granada, is said to have burst into tears. His fierce mother +Ayesha had, however, no sympathy for her fallen son: “Thou doest well +to weep like a woman for that which thou daredst not defend as a man,” +was her biting—and totally unjust—comment, and the cavalcade pursued +its miserable journey to the coast, from whence it embarked for the +kingdom of Fez. + +Great was the jubilation in Christendom; for more than seven centuries +the followers of the Prophet had dwelt in the land from which Tarik +had expelled Roderick the Goth in the eighth century. There they had +dwelt and held up a lamp of learning and comparative civilisation which +shone brightly through the miasmatic mists of cruelty and bloodshed +in the Middle Ages, and none can question that, under Moorish rule +in Spain in those centuries, the arts of peace had flourished, and +that science, agriculture, art, and learning had found generous and +discriminating patronage in the courts of Còrdoba and Granada. + +And now all was over the iron chivalry of the North had broken in +pieces the Paynim hosts. They were expelled for ever from Christian +soil, or else were forced to live in a state of degrading servitude, +sore oppressed by an alien rule, in the land which their forbears had +won and kept by the sword. + +There was jubilation, as has been said, in Christendom, but the knights +and nobles who flocked from all parts of Europe to join the standard of +the Catholic monarchs had no prevision of the consequences, no idea of +the legacy that they were leaving to their descendants. + +It is of this legacy that we have to speak, and there has been none +more terrible, none fraught with more awful suffering for the human +race. The broken hosts of the Moslem chivalry became the corsairs of +the Mediterranean: ruthless pirates freed from all restraint of human +pity, living only to inflict the maximum of suffering upon their +Christian foes, who, having sown the wind at the taking of Granada, +reaped in the coming centuries a whirlwind of blood and agony which +continued down to the bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth in 1816, +and even later than that date. + +Warriors to a man, the hosts of Boabdil crossed the Straits of +Gibraltar into Africa; warriors but now broken men, from whom had been +reft not only their lands and houses but even the chance of remaining +in their native country. Religious toleration had been the rule of +the Moslem States in Spain. In the name of religion they had been +expropriated; therefore toleration was slain, and to exalt the Crescent +above the Cross became the duty of every fighting Mohammedan. Into +all the ports and harbours of the North African littoral the Moslems +intruded themselves, their one preoccupation to revenge themselves upon +the Christians, of no matter what race or nationality. There was at +this date but small opposition from the rulers of the Pagan States who +held in their weak and inefficient hands such strong places of arms as +Algiers and Tunis. + +Very soon the Moslems acquired the habit of the sea, and very soon the +Christian States discovered how different was the Mohammedan dwelling +at peace in Andalusia, or at worst fighting with his co-religionists, +to the desperate corsairs created by their own act who now ravaged the +shores of the tideless sea. + +In the years succeeding to the conquest of Granada the corsairs became +the scourge of the Mediterranean. France, Spain, Genoa, Venice, were +all at odds with them; as the trading vessels, which had hitherto +passed to and fro unmolested, were now captured, haled into North +African ports, their cargoes sold, and their hapless crews forced to +labour, naked and chained to the benches of the pirate galleys, until +death came and mercifully put an end to their sufferings. + +From Reggio to Genoa, from Venice to Taranto, the cry of rage and +fear went up; it was re-echoed from the coasts of France and of the +Balearic Islands, while Southern Spain seethed with disaffection, and +the Moriscoes, as those Moors who remained in the country were known, +were ever on the lookout to assist their bold brethren, the rovers of +the sea. Christendom was completely bewildered: hitherto the relations +between the nations and the Kings of Tunis, Tlemcen, Fez, and others +of the North African potentates, had been of the most agreeable +description. Both parties had denounced piracy, and had as far as in +them lay done all in their power to discourage this form of robbery. +But now all was changed, and, as has been said in the previous chapter, +a situation arose analogous to that of the Spaniards in the West Indies +a century and a half later when Morgan and the buccaneers were at the +height of their maleficent prowess. The situation was analogous, but +whereas Morgan, Scott, L’Ollonais, and others terrorised only such +forces as Spain possessed in far-distant colonies, the corsairs were a +terror to all the great nations of the world. + +Granada fell, as has been said, in 1492 amid the rejoicings of the +Christian States; but it had been well for Christendom as a whole if +the Caliphs of Còrdova and Granada had never been defeated, and they +and their subjects driven from their homes: to form the nucleus of +those piratical States which existed from this date until well into the +nineteenth century, as the scourge and the terror of all those who, +during those ages, desired to “pass upon the seas on their lawful +occasions.” The capture of Granada was separated from the fall of the +Byzantine Empire by a period of thirty-nine years, as it was in the +year 1453 that Constantinople was captured by the Caliph Mahomet II. +Byzantium fell, and perhaps nothing in the records of that Empire +became it so well as that last tremendous struggle; and when on May +29th, 1453, the Ottoman legions were victorious, the body of the last +Emperor of Byzantium was found beneath a mountain of the slain only +recognisable by his purple mantle sewn with golden bees. The Cross +which Constantine the Great had planted on the walls 1125 years before +was replaced by the Crescent, and the Christian Cathedral became that +Mosque of St. Sophia which still endures. + +From the earliest days of the Moslem corsairs of the Mediterranean they +were in close communication with their co-religionists of the Ottoman +Empire; and this for a very good reason, which was that the Turk had +not the habit of the sea, but was essentially a land warrior, and, as +the story of the Sea-wolves progresses, we shall see how in a sense the +Grand Turk and the pirates became interdependent in the ceaseless wars +which were waged in the epoch of which we treat. + +The fall of Constantinople resounded throughout Christendom as though +it had been the crack of doom, and all men held their breath wondering +what next might portend. So stunned were the maritime States that +they took no action, letting “I dare not wait upon I would.” Their +indecision was fatal. Had the Venetians, the Genoese, and the Catalans +at this juncture formed an alliance, they might have chased the +Turks from off the face of the waters; but to mutual jealousy and +indecision was added fear—fear of this new and mighty power which had +arisen and had swept away one of the landmarks of Europe. So it fell +out that Genoa entered into an arrangement with the Grand Turk, and +Venice concluded a treaty of commerce on April 18th, 1454. It was the +Caliph Mahomet who first fortified the Dardanelles, where he mounted +thirty heavy guns before which Jacques Loredano, the Venetian admiral, +recoiled, reporting to the Republic that henceforward none could pass +the Straits. We have, however, nothing to do with the Grand Turk in +these pages, save, and except in so far, as he had an effect on the +lives of the corsairs. This effect will develop itself as we proceed. + +There is one body of men, however, concerning whom it may be as well +to treat of briefly in this place, as the lives which they led and +the deeds which they performed were inextricably entangled with those +of the corsairs. These men were the members of that association first +known as the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, later as the Knights +of Malta. Between them and the corsairs it was war to the death; and +not only with these robbers, but also with any ship which sailed +beneath the insignia of the Crescent. + +In 1291 the Soldan of Egypt chased the Knights Hospitallers, as they +were also known, from the soil of the Holy Land; Philip IV. of France +welcomed them in the island of Cyprus, and gave them the town of +Limasol as an asylum. This for the time the knights were bound to +accept, but they were impatient of charity, resentful of tutelage, +proud and independent. Considering their own order as the greatest and +most stable bulwark of the Christian faith, they bowed before neither +King nor Kaiser; and the only boon they asked of great potentates, when +allied temporarily with them in their eternal warfare, was that on all +occasions theirs should be the post of the greatest danger. + +This, indeed, they did not ask as a favour, but claimed as a right. It +is easily understood that such desperate warriors, who fought only to +conquer or die, were allies sought for eagerly by all professing the +same faith. + +Fulke de Villaret, Grand Master of the order in 1310, seized upon +Rhodes, which, though nominally belonging to Greece, was at this time +a refuge for bad characters of all nationalities. This island was in +the most advantageous position, as it commanded the sea-route from +Constantinople to Egypt and the ports of Asia Minor, and was also +in close proximity to the coast of Caramania, from whence the order +could draw the necessary timber for the building of their galleys and +incidentally their motive power—in the shape of slaves—for the oars by +which they were propelled. + +The knights fortified the island until it was practically unassailable +in that age. In the meanwhile their navy grew so rapidly that, in +1436, they were actually in a position to fight the Turks in line of +battle. To Rhodes came the younger sons of noble families from every +nation in Europe, all aflame with ardour to fight for “the religion”; +and the great nobles themselves did not disdain to take service in so +chivalrous an order. + +Their former enemy, the Soldan of Egypt, made a descent on the island +in 1440, and in 1444 besieged the place in form; but he was beaten off, +after forty-two days’ ceaseless fighting, with great slaughter. + +“Soldier and sailor too” were the bold Knights of Saint John; for them +no toil was too arduous, no danger too great. In heat and cold, in +storm and tempest, they plied their trade of war, their holy crusade +to extirpate the infidel from off the face of the waters. They looked +for no material reward, and riches and honours they contemptuously +rejected. Strong in their marvellous faith that on their shoulders +rested the propagation of Christianity in these latter days, they +swept the seas with a calm assumption of victory which caused it to be +half assured before the fight began. And when the battle was joined, +where could be found such paladins as these men who claimed it as an +inalienable right to head the hurricane rush of the boarders from the +decks of their galleys, to be ever the leaders when the forlorn hope +should mount the breach? Life for the knights of this order was looked +at literally with a single purpose—the advancement of Christianity and +the downfall of that pestilent heresy which proclaimed that Mahomet +was the prophet of God. Against all who bowed the knee in the mosques +of the false prophet their lives were vowed, and it is but the barest +justice to them to record that on the altar of this their faith these +were ungrudgingly poured forth. + +Naturally reprisals were the order of the day. Equally fanatical was he +who held to the Moslem faith; in consequence many were the attempts +to stamp out, once and for all, the prime enemies of the Ottoman +Empire. In 1480 a Turkish fleet of one hundred and forty ships issued +from the Dardanelles, an army awaited it on the coast of Caramania +which was rapidly embarked, and on May 23rd the fleet anchored a few +miles from the town of Rhodes. Here, then, was a trial of strength in +which the Hospitallers delighted. After repeated attacks in detail, on +July 28th a grand assault was made which the Turks considered would be +absolutely decisive: it was decisive, but not in the fashion which they +anticipated. + +The standard of the Janissaries already floated on the first curtain +of the rampart when Pierre D’Aubusson rallied the knights for one last +desperate effort. “Shall it be said in days to come that ‘the Religion’ +recoiled before a horde of Moslem savages; that the banner of Saint +John was soiled by their infamous touch? But this is no time for talk. +Ye have swords, Messires; use them!” + +Thus the Grand Master; and then the knights, in their battered armour +and with their hacked and dinted swords, flung themselves once more +upon the foe. The Janissaries closed in around them; but these fine +troops were not what they had been two months before, and the close +contact with the Hospitallers, which had endured sixty-five days, +had been to them a lesson fraught with disaster: they had already +lost six thousand men, and their adversaries were still absolutely +undismayed. His helmet gone, his banner held aloft over his head, +Pierre D’Aubusson was ever in the thickest of the fray unconquered, +unconquerable; and pressing close behind him came the knights, each +jealous for the glory of his “Auberge.” French, Venetian, Catalan, +Genoese German, none can tell who fought best that day; but the +Janissaries were beaten, and three thousand of their corpses cumbered +the ditch into which they were hurled by their foes; there were besides +fifteen thousand wounded in the Turkish camp. + +The heart was out of that great army which had embarked to the sound +of trumpets and the blessings of the Mullahs but ten weeks before, +and they sailed away a beaten force. Mahomet II. swore to avenge his +defeat, but his days were numbered, and he died at Scutari on May 3rd, +1481, at the age of fifty-two, and in the thirteenth year of his reign. + +In the year 1499 Daoud Pasha, Admiralissimo to Bajazet, the successor +to Mahomet II., defeated Antonio Grimani the Venetian admiral in +that combat known to the Republic as “La deplorabile battaglia del +Zonchio.” The populace of Venice demanded that Grimani should be +instantly beheaded, but he not only escaped their vengeance but lived +to be nominated as Doge on June 6th, 1521, at the age of eighty-seven: +certainly a curious record for an unsuccessful admiral of that date. + +In 1500 was formed the “Alliance of Christian Princes” at the +initiative of the Borgia Pope Alexander VII. Louis XII., King of +France, and Ferdinand V. of Spain announced their adherence to this +effort against the Turk, and Pierre D’Aubusson, the veteran Grand +Master of the Knights of Saint John, was nominated as Captain-General +of the Christian armies. For the purposes of this war the admiral +of the Papal galleys in the Mediterranean, Lodovico del Mosca, +purchased from Ferdinand, King of Naples, all his artillery, of which +a description is given by the Padre Alberto Guglielmotti, a Dominican +friar, author of a work entitled, “La Guerra dei Pirati e la Marina +Pontifica dal 1500 al 1560 A.D.” “There were thirty-six great bombards, +with eighty carts pertaining to them; some drawn by horses, some drawn +by buffaloes harnessed singly, or two, four, or even six together; two +waggons laden with arquebuses for ships’ boats; nine with about forty +smaller bombards (_bombardelles_) placed three, four, or even six on +each waggon; twelve with ordinary pieces of artillery; as many more +for the service of twelve big guns; thirty-seven carts of iron balls; +three with gunpowder; and finally five laden with nitre, darts, and +bullets. Splendid artillery of most excellent workmanship and great +power escorted by two thousand men under arms, without mentioning the +companies who marched before and after each waggon.” + +The French king had prepared a fleet and army under Count Philip +of Ravenstein; the Spaniards were under the command of Gonsalvo de +Còrdoba, the “Great Captain.” The history of the “Alliance of Christian +Princes” is illustrative of the methods of those potentates at that +time. After one or two unimportant skirmishes with the Turks, in which +no great harm was done on either side, the French and Spaniards joined +together, and seized the Kingdom of Naples: the prudent king of this +territory, having sold his artillery to Lodovico del Mosca, did not +await the coming of his Christian brethren. + +In the territory known to the Romans as Byzacena, which stretched +from Algiers to the confines of Tripoli, there was reigning at this +period one Abu-Abd-Allah-Mahomed, a Berber Moslem of the dynasty of +Hafsit. Between this dignitary and Genoa a treaty of commerce had been +arranged and signed. But treaties on the shores of the Mediterranean +were capable of very elastic interpretation; they never reckoned +with the corsairs, and these latter were in the habit of intruding +themselves everywhere, and upsetting the most carefully laid plans. +Curtogali, a corsair who had collected a great following, was now a +power with which to reckon, and high in the favour of the Grand Turk +at Constantinople. This robber presented himself at Bizerta—one of +the ports of Abd-Allah-Mahomed—with a squadron of thirty ships, and +demanded hospitality. As Curtogali disposed of thirty ships and some +six thousand fighting men it would probably have been impossible for +Abd-Allah to have refused his request in any case; but he was far from +wishing to do so, as, by a convenient interpretation of the Koran, the +pirate had to deliver up one-fifth part of all the booty which he reft +from the Christians to the ruler of the country in whose harbours he +sheltered. There was no place so convenient for the purposes of the +pirate as Bizerta: from here he could strike at Sicily, at the Balearic +Islands, at Rome, Naples, Tuscany, and Liguria, while at the same +time he held the trade slowly sailing along the North African littoral +at his mercy. Great were the depredations of Curtogali, and even Pope +Leo X. trembled on his throne, while Genoa, Venice, and Sicily seethed +with impotent fury. + +In the meanwhile who so happy as Abu-Abd-Allah-Mahomed? We cannot do +better than to take the description of his position from the pages of +the good Padre Alberto Guglielmotti. The Franciscan says: “He [that is, +Abd-Allah] desired peace with all and prosperity for his own interests. +Friendly to the merchants in their commerce; friendly to the corsairs +in their spoils. Let all hold by the law: the former contentedly paying +customs dues, the latter cheerfully handing over a fifth part of their +robberies, and Abd-Allah—their common friend—would ever continue at +peace with them all. Outside his ports the merchants and the pirates +might fall by the ears if they would: that was no reason for him to +trouble his head. On the contrary, he would joyfully await them on +their return either with customs dues or tribute of the fifth as the +case might be.” + +However well this state of affairs may have suited Abd-Allah, the +Genoese held that the situation was far from satisfactory. In +consequence they sent an army against Curtogali, and on August 4th, +1516, they captured Bizerta, set free a number of Christian captives, +and plundered the town. But they did not capture Curtogali, who, +only five weeks after, made a daring attempt to carry off the Pope +in person from the sea-shore in the neighbourhood of Rome. Curtogali +ended his days as the Governor of Rhodes, from which the Knights +of Saint John were finally expelled by Soliman the Magnificent on +December 22nd, 1522. This was the greatest blow which the fraternity +ever received. On December 24th the Turks made a triumphal entry into +the town, and it was said that “Sultan Soliman was not insensible to +the sorrowful position of his vanquished enemies, and when he saw the +Christian Commander, Prince Philippe Villiers L’Isle Adam, he remarked: +‘It weighs upon me somewhat that I should be coming hither to chase +this aged Christian warrior from his house.’” At the beginning of the +following year the knights left the island, never to return. On the +day of this desolate embarcation the herald blew upon his trumpet the +“Salute and Farewell” and the identical instrument upon which this call +was sounded is still preserved in the armoury at Malta, to which barren +island the knights were forced to retreat. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +URUJ BARBAROSSA + + +In the year 1457 an obscure Roumelian or Albanian renegado named +Mahomedi was banished from Constantinople by the Grand Turk; he +established himself in the island of Mitylene and there married a +Christian widow named Catalina, by whom he had two sons, Uruj and +Khizr. The father had been a sailor and both sons adopted the same +profession. It is from the pages of El Maestro Don Fray Prudencio +de Sandoval that we glean these bare facts concerning the birth and +parentage of these men who, in after-years, became known to all the +dwellers on the shores of the Mediterranean as the “Barbarossas,” from +their red beards. Sandoval, Bishop of Pampluna, published in the year +1614 his monumental history of the Emperor Charles V., and through his +splendid volumes the deeds of the Moslem corsairs run like the scarlet +thread which is twisted through a Government rope. It is evident that +the fact of having to deal with such rascals annoys the good Bishop +not a little, as his severe and caustic comments frequently display. +There was incident and accident enough in the life of the famous +“Carlos Quinto” without the historian having to turn aside to chronicle +the deeds of the pirates; but their exploits were so daring, the +consequences thereof were so far-reaching, that the ominous crimson +thread had to be woven into any narrative of the times in despite of +the annoyance of the man by whom the rope was twisted. + +Of Mahomedi we possess no record save the remark concerning him to +the effect that “el qual fue gran marinero”: in what way he displayed +his gifts as a seaman we are not told. We have remarked before on the +curious fact of how the “renegado,” or Christian turned Mohammedan, +became the most implacable foe of his former co-religionists. We see in +the case of the two Barbarossas that they had no drop of Moslem blood +in them, as both parents came from Christian stock: and yet no greater +scourges ever afflicted the people from whom both their father and +mother originally sprang than did Uruj and Khizr Barbarossa. + +[Illustration: URUJ AND KHEYR-ED-DIN BARBAROSSA.] + +The characters of the two brothers were widely different. The elder was +no doubt a “first-class fighting man,” a fine seaman, a born partisan +leader; but here his qualities came to an end. Rough, cruel, imperious, +brutal, he imposed himself upon those who became his followers; but +in him were to be found none of the statesmanlike qualities which +distinguished his far greater younger brother. His was the absolutely +finite intellect of the tactician as opposed to the strategist, who, +seeing his objective, was capable of dealing with circumstances as they +immediately arose; but, partly no doubt from defective education, but +principally from the lack of intellectual appreciation of the problems +of the time in which he lived, could never rise to the heights which +were scaled by Khizr, better known by the title conferred upon him +later on by the Grand Turk as “Kheyr-ed-Din,” or “The Protector of +Religion.” + +The sons of Mahomed, that “gran marinero,” naturally took to the sea, +and as a young man Uruj became possessed of a ship—how we do not know, +and it were better perhaps not to inquire. In this small craft he +repaired to the coast of Caramania to make war upon the Christians; or, +in other words, to begin an independent piratical career. Uruj in these +days was young and inexperienced, or he would not have chosen this +locality for his first venture, as this coast was in close proximity to +the island of Rhodes, from whence the great galleys of the Knights of +Saint John of Jerusalem set forth to exterminate the enemies of their +faith. + +So it came about that Uruj, sailing out in his little ship from under +the shadow of a wooded point, came in full sight of _Our Lady of the +Conception_. There was nothing for it but immediate flight, and Uruj +put his helm up and scudded before the breeze; but the great galley +“goose-winged” her two mighty lateen sails, and turned in pursuit. The +ship which carried Uruj and his fortunes was both fast and handy, and +for a time she held her own; but it was only for a time, as those on +board _Our Lady of the Conception_, finding that they were not gaining on +the chase, put forth their oars and soon changed the aspect of affairs. +The galley of the knights carried twenty-seven oars a-side, and each +of these oars was manned by nine Moslem slaves. The sea was smooth and +favourable for rowing, and soon the ravening pursuit closed in on +the doomed corsair. As the interval between chaser and chased became +less and less, those on board the pirate ship could see for themselves +the fate which was awaiting them, as on the central gang-plank, which +separated the rowers’ benches, the boatswain and his mates were +unmercifully flogging the bare backs of the straining oarsmen to urge +them to greater exertions. He who was captured at sea in those days was +set to row until he died, and the calculating mercy which causes a man +to feed and treat his beast well in order that it may do the better +work was not to be relied upon here, as life was cheap and slaves were +plentiful. Very soon the beak of the galley overhung the stern of the +little ship. Escape was impossible, to fight would have meant the +massacre of all on board; the choice was instant submission or a watery +grave. Uruj lowered his sail, and he and his little company were ironed +and flung into the depths of the galley until such time as they should +be wanted to take their turn at the oars. In this ignominious fashion +ended his first attempt at independent piracy. + +But a storm was brewing, and a heavy sea got up. The sails of the +galley were lowered, her beak was put head-on to the wind, and she +made for the shore. In this noisome confinement Uruj could hear above +the crash of the seas and the whistling of the wind the shrieks of the +hapless slaves as the whips of their taskmasters bit through skin and +flesh: the galley-slave rowed stark naked chained to his bench. This +was to be his fate, and he was well aware of the fact. + +At last, after nightfall, the galley anchored under the Isle of +Castel Rosso, at the entrance of the Gulf of Satalie. It still blew +hard, but, in the comparative peace of the anchorage, sounds hitherto +hidden by the war of the elements now made themselves manifest. There +were the snores of the sleepers, the clank of the leg-chains as the +wretched slaves shifted their positions in the attempt to gain an +easier place on the bench, there was also the sound of men carousing +with loud laughter in the stern of the vessel; but above them all rose +the hollow groaning as of one in mortal agony. This proceeded from a +slave who was quite close to Uruj. There came a spell in the laughter +and loud voices in the stern, and presently an imperious voice spoke: +“That noise disturbs me; see that it ceases at once.” An obsequious +answer came from out of the prevailing darkness: “It shall cease at +once, Excellency.” Then came men with lanterns, who unshackled the +wretch who groaned and—flung him overboard. + +The night grew worse, the wind backed, and the galley began to drag her +anchors. The slaves were roused, and the oars got ready to shift her +from her dangerous position on what had now become a lee-shore. Uruj +had managed to slip his shackles, a defective bolt having given him +his liberty; for him it was now or never, and he was a bold swimmer. +He had seen enough and heard enough of _Our Lady of the Conception_, +and, as the great oars plunged once more into the sea, the corsair, +preferring the mercy of the elements to that of the knights, slipped +over the side unobserved and swam for the shore. He reached dry land by +a miracle, and from Satalie he found his way to Egypt, where he took +service as a mariner in a ship of the Soldan of Egypt which was bound +for the coast of Caramania, from which province the Egyptians, as well +as the knights, drew the timber which they required for shipbuilding. +But again this neighbourhood proved disastrous to Uruj, as the ship in +which he sailed was attacked by a Christian galley, and he once more +had to save himself by swimming on shore. There was no lack of incident +in the life of a corsair of the sixteenth century. + +This time he presented himself to Khorkud, the Governor of Caramania, +brother to Sultan Selim, the Grand Turk. The Governor, recognising him +as an intrepid mariner, ordered the Basha of Smyrna to furnish him with +a ship fitted for that _guerre de course_, which he desired to pursue +against the Christians. The value of the corsair as an auxiliary was +beginning to be recognised among the high Turkish officials. For the +complaisance of Khorkud there were two reasons: in the first place, +he was acting in the interests of his brother in sending to sea any +really capable man to make head against his enemies, and the fact +that Uruj was a pirate pure and simple did not weigh for a feather in +the balance; in the second place, it was a decidedly good mercantile +speculation as he ordered his inferior, the Basha of Egypt, to bear +the expense of fitting out the necessary ship—which came to some 5,000 +ducats—and doubtless received a handsome percentage on all captures +from his grateful protégé. + +This latter, as may easily be imagined, had had quite enough of +the Caramanian coast, which had turned out a veritable nest of +hornets; also, he had no desire at present to cultivate the further +acquaintance of the knights, and therefore put the whole width of the +Ionian Sea between himself and them, and succeeded in taking several +rich prizes. He avoided Mitylene and returned to Egypt, wintering at +Alexandria. It may here be remarked that the corsairs, as a rule, +regarded the winter as a close season, as in those early days the +mariner did not, if he could avoid it, risk his ship by sailing her at +this period of storm and tempest. In consequence there was nothing to +tempt the pirates to range the seas during these months, and if they +had had a successful summer and autumn, as they generally did, they +could well afford to lay up and await the coming of spring. + +But when storm and rain gave way to the smooth waters and balmy +breezes, the Sea-wolves were certain of their prey, as the whole length +and breadth of the tideless sea was sure to be filled with the ships of +the detested Christians trafficking in every direction. In the ethics +of the Moslem all ships which sailed under the banner of the Cross, no +matter to what nation they belonged, were fair game, even supposing +that her insignia were the Crescent—well, supposing the spot to be +sufficiently remote, dead men tell no tales, and the pirates were to be +trusted to see to it that none escaped. + +But, however this might have been, it is quite certain that no +qualms of conscience troubled Uruj concerning those others: Genoese, +Neapolitans, Catalans, Andalusians, French, or the dwellers of the +Balearic Islands, were all fish sent by a bountiful Providence to be +enclosed in his net, and he seized upon them without distinction. +When in the full tide of his success there was but one thing which +preoccupied the mind of the corsair, which was to find a ready market +for his spoils and a convenient place in which to rid himself of +an embarrassing number of captives. This, however, did not present +an insuperable difficulty, as we have already seen in the case of +Curtogali, and a similar arrangement was carried out by Uruj Barbarossa +and his brother. + +Uruj now established himself at the island of Jerba, on the east +coast of Tunis, which formed an admirable base from which to “work” +the Mediterranean from the piratical point of view. Jerba had +originally been conquered and occupied by the Spaniards in 1431, but +the occupation had been allowed to lapse, and the island was lying +derelict when the Barbarossas made it their headquarters. Here Uruj was +joined by his younger brother Khizr, destined to become so much the +more famous of the two; he had already made himself some reputation in +piratical circles, and now brought his cool judgment and wise counsel +to the assistance of that fiery fighting man his elder brother. The +first question to be decided was that which we have already mentioned, +namely, the disposal of spoil from prospective captures, and with this +end in view the corsairs approached the Sultan of Tunis. This potentate +made a gracious response to their overtures, and wished them all +success in their enterprises. He promised them succour and support on +the same terms which Curtogali had obtained, namely, one-fifth of all +the spoil landed in his dominions. + +The price to be paid was a stiff one, and was so regarded by the active +partners in this arrangement; they were, however, young and unknown, +and had not the least intention of holding to their bargain when more +favourable circumstances presented themselves. Now they held fair +speech with the puppet princes of North Africa; the day was to come +when they should chase them from their insecure thrones. It was at this +time, shortly after the treaty with the Sultan of Tunis was concluded, +that the younger Barbarossa received from the Grand Turk the glorious +name of Kheyr-ed-Din, or “The Protector of Religion.” It was a somewhat +remarkable title for a pirate, but perhaps its bestower was slightly +deficient in a sense of humour. + +Sailing from Tunis in the spring of the year 1512, the brothers, with +three galleys, fell in with _The Galley of Naples_, an enormous nef with +a crew of three hundred. They instantly attacked, but were repulsed, +night falling without either side having gained an advantage. This +audacious proceeding illustrates the hardihood of the Moslem corsairs +at this time. They were amply strong enough to range the Mediterranean +and to capture, with no risk to themselves, the weak and unprotected +argosies plying their trade in this sea; but this was not the method +of the Barbarossas. Villains they may have been according to modern +standards, pirates they were unquestionably; but they were grim, +hard-bitten, fighting men, who shrank from no dangers in the pursuit +of their prey, who reckoned that the humiliation and defeat of their +Christian antagonists was as sweet a morsel as the booty reft from +their hands. All night the three Moslem galleys and the great nef lay +becalmed awaiting the conflict which was to come with the break of day; +and it is easy to imagine that there was not much quiet sleep on board +of either the Moslem or the Christian ships, for both on the one side +and the other the issues loomed large. The corsairs had, so far, made +no such important capture as this, which, could it be accomplished, +would add enormously to their prestige, in addition to such spoils as +they might acquire; but the combatants were fairly evenly matched in +the matter of numbers, and the fight was one to a finish. The advantage +on the side of the corsairs lay in the fact of their being three to +one, and their being thus enabled to attack in three separate places at +the same time. Terrible must have been that night of waiting for the +unfortunates on board _The Galley of Naples_; there was no escape, and +on board of her among her passengers were many women, whose fate was +too terrible to contemplate should the day go against them. The first +assault had been beaten off, it is true, but the struggle had been +hard and bitter; would they be equally successful when the assault was +renewed? + +Even such a night as this, however, comes at last to an end, and the +prospect of action must have been welcomed by the men on both sides; +of the women with so horrible a fate impending one can hardly bear to +think. The ghostly fingers of the dawn touched the grey sea with a wan +yellow light, outlining the nef and the slender, wicked-looking galleys +with their banks of oars; over the surface of the deep a slight mist +hovered, as though some kindly spirit of the sea would hide, if such a +thing were possible, the deeds which were to come. The three galleys +lay close together, and Uruj and his brother held a few last words of +counsel. + +“It is agreed, then,” said the elder; “you, my brother, attack the +starboard side and I on the port side, while Hassan Ali [indicating +the captain of the third galley] will await the time when we are fully +engaged, and will then board over the stern.” + +“It is agreed,” answered Kheyr-ed-Din, and Hassan Ali. + +As the strong sun of a perfect May morning in the Mediterranean leapt +above the horizon, Uruj loosed his hounds upon their prey; the oars of +the galleys churned the clear blue waters into foam, and the air was +filled with the yells of the corsairs. “Allah! Allah!” and “Barbarossa! +Barbarossa!” they cried. It was a war-cry that was destined to re-echo +over many a conflict, both by land and sea, in the years that were to +come. + +In a simultaneous, and as we have seen a concerted attack, the beaks +of the galleys crushed into the broadsides of _The Galley of Naples_, +and, ever foremost in the fray, Uruj and Kheyr-ed-Din were the first +two men to board. Then, when men were hand to hand and foot to foot, +when Moslem scimitar rang on Christian sabre, and the air was filled +with the oaths and shouts of the combatants, the third remaining pirate +craft grappled _The Galley of Naples_ by the stern, and a tide of fresh, +unwounded men burst into the fray. This was the end; the Christians +were both outnumbered and outfought, for among them were many who +were not by profession warriors, whereas no man found a footing among +the Sea-wolves, or was taken to sea as a fighting man, unless he had +approved himself to the satisfaction of his captain that he was a +valiant man of his hands. We have no record or list of the dead and +wounded in this battle, but among the latter was Uruj, who was severely +hurt. Not so Kheyr-ed-Din, who escaped scatheless and took command now +that his brother was incapacitated. The dead were flung overboard with +scant ceremony, and the wounded patched up as best might be, and then +_The Galley of Naples_ was taken in tow, and the corsairs returned in +triumph to Tunis. Faithful to their treaty, so far, they laid one-fifth +of their spoils at the feet of the Sultan. + +A great procession was formed of Christian captives marching two and +two. Four young Christian girls were mounted on mules, and two ladies +of noble birth followed on Arab horses sumptuously caparisoned. These +unfortunates were destined for the harems of their captors. The Sultan +was greatly pleased at the spectacle, and as the mournful procession +defiled before him cried out, “See how heaven recompenses the brave!” +Jurien de la Gravière remarks: “Such was the fortune of war in the +sixteenth century. A man leaving Naples to go to Spain might end his +days in a Moorish bagnio and see his wife and daughters fall a prey to +miscreants of the worse description.” + +It was not till the following spring that Uruj was fit once more +to pursue his chosen calling, so severe had been his wounds; but +once he was whole and sound again he put to sea accompanied by +Kheyr-ed-Din, and this time he had conceived a singularly bold and +desperate enterprise. Two years before the famous Spanish captain, +Pedro de Navarro, had seized upon the coast town of Bougie, and had +unfortunately left it in the hands of a totally insufficient garrison. +This departure from the sound rules of warfare had already been +punished as it deserved, as the garrison was perpetually harassed and +annoyed by the surrounding Arab tribes. The idea of Uruj was to seize +upon Bougie by a _coup de main_. The corsair, however, was a far finer +fighter than he was a strategist, and was possessed of a most impatient +temper. All went well to begin with, as he managed to intercept and +to capture a convoy of Spanish ships sent to revictual the place, +and had he been content to wait he might have counted with certainty +on reducing the garrison by starvation, as it depended on this very +convoy for its supplies. In vain the wary and cool-headed Kheyr-ed-Din +counselled prudence and delay, but these words were not to be found in +the vocabulary of his elder brother. “What had to be done,” he replied, +“had better be done at once,” and at the head of only fifty men landed +and assaulted the still uncompleted ramparts of Bougie. + +But if Uruj were rash and headstrong, so was not the commander of the +Spanish garrison, who, massing his men for the repulse of the assault, +waited till the last moment, and then received them with a volley of +arquebuses, which laid many of them low, and so badly wounded their +leader that he had to have his arm amputated on the spot: it says +much for his constitution that he survived the operation. + +For the time being the brothers had had enough of shore enterprises, +and confined themselves strictly to their piratical business at sea, +which prospered so exceedingly that they became exceedingly rich and +their fame and power increased day by day. As time went on and the +wealth of the brothers and partners increased, there entered into +the calculating brain of Kheyr-ed-Din the idea that the payment of +one-fifth share to the Sultan of Tunis was but money thrown away. +Twenty per cent, was eating into the profits of the firm in an +unwarrantable manner, he considered, and now that the active partners +therein had established so good a business connection, they were quite +strong enough to dispense with a sleeping partner. Times had changed +for the better, and Kheyr-ed-Din was anxious to take full advantage of +the fact; if possible he determined to seize upon and hold some port, +in which, not only would they be exempt from tribute, but also in which +he and his brother Uruj should be the supreme arbiters of the fate of +all by whom it might be frequented. + +Of Bougie and its stout Spanish garrison the brothers had had quite +enough for the present: they sought, in consequence, for some harbour +which presented equal advantages of situation, and their choice fell +upon Jigelli, then belonging to the Genoese, who occupied a strong +castle in this place. + +Jigelli lies well outside the confines of the kingdom of Tunis, about +equi-distant from Bougie and Cape Bougaroni, some forty miles from +each. It would appear that on this occasion it was the younger of +the two brothers who took charge of the enterprise, and there were no +slap—dash, unconsidered methods employed. By this time the fame of +the Barbarossas had gone abroad from Valencia to Constantinople, from +Rome to the foot—hills of the Atlas Mountains, and, to circumvent the +Genoese garrison of Jigelli, Kheyr-ed-Din called to his aid the savage +Berber tribes of the hinterland of this part of Northern Africa. + +Turbulent, rash, unstable as water, were these primitive dwellers of +the desert; but they were fighters and raiders to a man, and ready +for any desperate encounter if only it held out the promise of loot: +they were as veritably the pirates of the land as were the Barbarossas +pirates of the sea. + +Small chance, indeed, had the five hundred Genoese soldiers by which +Jigelli was garrisoned when attacked from the sea by the Barbarossas +and by land by an innumerable horde of Berbers who were reckoned to +be as many as 20,000. Invested by land and sea, the garrison did all +that it was possible for men to do. Provisions and water ran short, +ammunition was failing, the ring of their enemies was encircling +them day by day closer and ever closer. From the land nothing could +be expected but an augmentation of their foes, and day by day the +commander of the garrison strained his eyes seaward to watch if haply +the proud Republic, to which he and his men belonged, would send +succour, or the redoubtable Knights of Saint John would come to his aid. + +But the days lengthened into weeks, and the soldiers were gradually +becoming worn out by the perpetual strain imposed upon them. There +was one chance left, and one alone, which was to cut their way out +through the besieging lines. Massacre to a man was their fate in any +case, and thus it was that the commander, whose name has not come down +to us, mustered his men for the last supreme effort. At dead of night +the garrison, having destroyed as far as possible all that might be of +use to the enemy, sallied out to their doom. They fought as men fight +who know that the end has come; but valour could not avail against the +numbers arrayed on the side of the enemy, and they were wiped off the +face of the earth. The tribes looted the castle of everything portable, +and then retired from whence they had come. For this Kheyr-ed-Din cared +nothing; they were welcome to the poor possessions of some hundreds of +half-starved Italian soldiers—let them take the shell, for him remained +the kernel in the shape of a strong place of arms. + +Hardly, however, had the brothers succeeded in this enterprise when +that tireless fighter Uruj again attempted the capture of Bougie; +but his second attempt was even more disastrous than his first, and +he lost half his flotilla. Then he asked for succour from Tunis; but +the Sultan, much offended at the idea of the brothers setting up in +a piratical business in which he was no longer a sleeping partner, +angrily refused. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE DEATH OF URUJ BARBAROSSA + + +The events recorded in the last chapter bring us down to the end of +the year 1515, and while every endeavour has been made to present +affairs in chronological sequence, it must be remembered that the dates +of piratical expeditions are often impossible to obtain: the wrath +of the chroniclers at the nefarious deeds of the corsairs greatly +exceeding their desire for a meticulous accuracy in the matter of +the exact time of their occurrence. Uruj, as has been seen, had by +his headstrong folly once again placed his brother and himself in a +decidedly awkward situation. By the losses which he had incurred in his +second ill-advised attempt on Bougie he had so weakened the piratical +confederation that the countenance of some potentate had again become +necessary for their continued existence, and the Sultan of Tunis had +now repudiated all connection with these ingrates. + +But, if craft and subtlety were not to be found in Uruj there was one +who never failed to exhibit these qualities when they became necessary, +and Kheyr-ed-Din once more came to the front. The Russian peasantry +have a saying that “God is high and the Czar is far away.” In the +sixteenth century the Grand Turk was in every sense “far away” from +the struggling corsairs on the littoral of Northern Africa, and was a +sovereign of such great and mysterious might that any man with a less +fine instinct into the psychology of the times in which he lived than +Kheyr-ed-Din would have hesitated long and anxiously before addressing +him directly; would probably in the end not have done so at all. But +desperate diseases require desperate remedies, and the politic corsair +well knew that even the moral support of such an one as the Sultan of +Constantinople was worth more than even material aid from a Sultan of +Tunis. + +Consequently, greatly daring, he sent an embassy to the Sublime Porte +with one of his most trusted captains at its head to lay the homage of +the corsairs at the feet of Selim I. Very naturally these ambassadors +did not go empty-handed, but took with them rich presents and numerous +slaves. Selim was much pleased at the attention, coming as it did from +such a distance—we have to remember that the coast of North Africa was +an immense journey from Constantinople in those days—and the insight of +Kheyr-ed-Din was triumphantly vindicated. Not only did the Sultan send +a gracious reply in return, but—what was far more to the purpose—he +sent a reinforcement of fourteen vessels to the corsairs bidding them +to go on and prosper in their efforts to spread the true faith among +the Christian heretics. + +There is nothing more curious in the history of the corsairs than the +perpetual ups and downs of their lives. Thus in the present instance +the ill-advised attack of Uruj on Bougie had reduced them to terrible +straits; immediately afterwards the action of the Grand Turk once +more set them upon their feet and enabled them to pursue an unchecked +career of devastation. Aided by the reinforcements sent by Selim, +their depredations assumed ever larger proportions, and, had they +continued to receive this assistance, the course of history itself +might have been changed. Ground to powder beneath the iron heel of +their ruthless conquerors, the Moriscoes of Southern Spain were ever +waiting the chance to rise and shake off the yoke by which they were so +sore oppressed; from far and near reports were coming to hand of the +continued successes of the corsairs, and all Andalusia seethed with +passionate hope that the day of deliverance was at hand. + +But, alas for the vanity of human wishes! in the opening months of the +year 1516 Selim recalled his ships and the chance was gone, never again +to arise. + +It may have been that “the sorrowful sighing of the captives” never +reached the ears of the successor of Othman in his palace on the +shores of the Golden Horn; in any case, the Sultan was preparing for +the conquest of Egypt, and in consequence recalled the ships which he +had lent to assist the corsairs. The Moriscoes were thus left without +hope, but so far as the corsairs were concerned they were enabled to +strike another bargain with the Sultan of Tunis. This monarch had now +got over his fit of the sulks, and discovered that customs dues from +the peaceful trading mariners, although desirable enough, were not by +any means so lucrative a form of revenue as was the one-fifth share +of the booty of the pirates. Uruj and Kheyr-ed-Din for their part, +although they had captured Jigelli, were totally unable to hold it: +the capture had indeed been principally due to the assistance which +they had received from the Berber tribesmen, but these nomads had +disappeared into the deserts from whence they came, once the looting of +the town and fortress had been completed. + +The corsair had to be armed at all points, in the moral as well as the +material sense, as he was the enemy of all men, and all were vowed +to his destruction. Every cruise which he took raised up against him +fresh hatred and a more bitter animus, and we must remember that it +was not only men individually, but Principalities and Powers that were +arrayed in line of battle for his destruction. At the present juncture +Spain was specially hostile, for not only had her possession of Bougie +been twice attacked by the Sea-wolves, but a valuable convoy had been +captured. An expedition, in consequence, was sent by the Spaniards +against the Barbarossas, but this effort did not result in much damage +being done to the offenders. The Spaniards destroyed four piratical +vessels which had been abandoned by their crews at Bizerta, and pushed +a strong reconnaissance into the Bay of Tunis itself. Here shots +were exchanged between the Spanish fleet and the forts—under which +Kheyr-ed-Din had drawn up his ships—and the Spaniards then abandoned +the enterprise and returned from whence they had come. + +In the year 1510 the Spaniard, Count Pedro Navarre, had seized upon +Algiers, which town was at this time one of the principal refuges +of the Moorish fugitives, who had been driven from Granada, from +Còrdoba, and from Southern Spain generally by Ferdinand and Isabella +eighteen years previously. To say that the condition of these people +was desperate is to speak but the bare truth, for what could exceed the +misery of the situation in which they were left after the successful +incursion of their Christian foes? What we are apt to lose sight of in +the light of present-day circumstances is the fact that these Spanish +Moors were a most highly civilised people, far more so indeed than +their Christian contemporaries; that they had been driven with fire and +sword from the land in which they and their forefathers had dwelt for +over seven centuries, and that they now had been cast out literally +to starve on the inhospitable shores of Northern Africa. So it came +about that the common people exchanged the life of the peaceful and +prosperous artisan or husbandman for that of the hand-to-mouth pirate, +and the case of knight and noble among them was no better—perhaps +rather worse—than the meanest among those who had been expropriated. + +Those who know the region in which these unhappy folk lived are aware +of the material monuments which still exist and testify to the glorious +past; and, seeing what they have seen, it is no great stretch of the +imagination to picture to themselves the comfort, the elegance, and +the luxury with which the inhabitants of Granada and Còrdoba lived +surrounded. Over there, away across some few leagues of shining blue +water, were the ruined homes of which many of the banished people +still possessed the keys, awaiting the day when Allah and the Prophet +should vouchsafe to them that return which they so naturally and +ardently desired. To this day the key of the great Mosque at Cordoba +is preserved at Rabat as a sacred relic of former dignity and power—a +symbol to the Moslem of his perpetual banishment. If Cordoba with its +mosque—still one of the wonders of the world, with its eleven hundred +marble columns—were the principal shrine and holy of holies to these +people, there were in addition hundreds of other temples of their +faith now for ever desecrated in their eyes by the misfortune which +had placed them in Christian hands. In Andalusia were the dishonoured +graves of their kinsfolk, and, last and worst of all, in this land +still dwelt thousands upon thousands of their co-religionists held in a +degrading bondage by their implacable enemies. + +The capture of Algiers by Count Pedro Navarro was a crowning misfortune +for the exiles, and when this commander seized upon the place he +extracted from the inhabitants an oath of fidelity to the Spanish +crown; he further erected a strong tower to overawe the town, and to +keep its turbulent inhabitants in order. But such an oath as this, +extracted at the point of the sword, was writ in water; it meant, of +course, the suppression of piracy, and it also meant the starvation +of most of those persons who dwelt in the vicinity. How the Moslem +population existed for the six years after the incursion of Navarro +is a mystery; but they probably moved their galleys, of which they +possessed some twenty, further along the coast out of the range of +the guns from Navarro’s Tower, and secure from the observation of those +who held it for the Spanish king. + +In the year in which Selim descended upon Egypt the King of Spain, +Ferdinand V., died, and grave troubles immediately broke out in Spain. +This was an opportunity too good to be missed, as no reinforcements +could possibly be expected for the garrison in Algiers as long as +these disturbances lasted, and the Algerines took counsel together as +to the best means of driving out their enemies. It is a commentary on +the detestation in which they held the Spaniards that they should have +allied themselves for this purpose with the savages of the hinterland. +This, however, was what they did. As in the case of Jigelli, these +people could always be relied upon to go anywhere in search of booty, +and one Selim Eutemi entered the town at the head of his tribe. But +sheer, stark, savage valour could make no impression on Navarro’s +Tower and the ordnance that was mounted on its walls. The result was a +stalemate, as the Spaniards could by no manner of means get out, and +neither could their enemies, who swarmed innumerable in the town and +the surrounding country, get in. In time, of course, they might hope +to bring the garrison to surrender by starvation; but time pressed, +and no man knew when the troubles in Spain might be adjusted and help +come to the beleaguered. In the meanwhile Selim Eutemi and his men, who +had been taught some rude lessons in the power of firearms, kept out +of range of the cannon, while the Algerines held yet another council +of war, the result of which was that they decided to ask help from +Uruj and Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, and to them they appealed. By this +time their fame was known to all men, and they could supply that which +was lacking—namely ships, artillery, a first-class fighting force, and +last, and best of all, the moral support which would stiffen and put +heart into the motley horde which at present surged around the gates of +the fortress of Navarro. + +The Algerines did not appeal in vain, and an instant promise of +succour was forthcoming. Kheyr—ed—Din was away at sea, but Uruj, that +indomitable fighter, started at once. From whence we are not told, but +he must have been somewhere in the neighbourhood, as he and his men +marched along the shore; while, keeping pace with them, came a fleet of +eighteen galleys and three barques laden with stores. + +But before proceeding to the assistance of the Algerines Uruj had a +personal matter to which to attend, and he wished to combine pleasure +with serious business. One of his old companions had seceded from his +command and had established himself at Shershell, where he lived the +life of an independent corsair within easy striking distance of the +Balearic Islands and the coast of Spain, his following composed of a +horde of those broken men of whom mention has been made. Shershell was +an unfortified town, and surrendered unconditionally upon the arrival +of Uruj and his army. Kara-Hassan, for such was the name of this +independent corsair, came out to greet his old-time chief; he was met +with violent reproaches, and the altercation ended by Uruj having him +beheaded on the spot. It was ill to quarrel with the Barbarossas. + +Freed from this rival, the Mitylene corsair had now uncontested +supremacy on the coast, a supremacy none was likely to contest in +the future, as he brooked no opposition, and had come to consider +that independent piracy in the Mediterranean was in some sort an +infringement of the rights of himself and his brother. One of the most +salient peculiarities of the corsairs at this time was the apparent +recklessness with which they assailed others who were participants in +their nefarious business. Self-interest and policy would seem, to the +observer in the present day, to have dictated quite a different course +of action; but we shall see, when we come to deal with the life-history +of Kheyr-ed-Din, that this infinitely wiser and more intellectual man +apparently allowed himself to be swayed by gusts of passion, in which +he savagely maltreated those with whom he was associated, and from whom +dangerous hostility was certainly to be feared if they escaped with +their lives. At this distance of time it is impossible to gauge the +motives by which men such as these were actuated, more particularly in +the case of Kheyr-ed-Din, whose character was a blend of the deepest +subtlety and calculated ferocity. + +Having settled with Kara-Hassan, Uruj continued his march along the +coast. Arrived at Algiers, he opened in form a siege of Navarro’s +Tower; but, being unable to make any impression on its defences, he +abandoned the siege after twenty days’ fruitless fighting, during which +he lost a number of men in his assaults. Baffled and furious, he turned +on the Berber chieftain, the luckless Selim Eutemi, and caused him to +be assassinated, regarding him as being responsible for the failure. +The Spanish chroniclers relate, with some wealth of detail, how Uruj +personally fell upon Selim Eutemi, when that chieftain was in his bath, +and strangled him with his own hands. However this may have been, the +Spanish records of the deeds of the corsairs cannot well be taken _au +pied de la lettre_; there is no doubt that Selim was murdered, and from +that time the Berbers recognised that he who had come to help was now +remaining to plunder. Uruj now established himself in the town, and set +to work making raids into the adjoining country, carrying off sheep, +cattle, and slaves. For the Berbers this was a true awakening. He who +now oppressed them had come in the guise of a champion to assist them +in the sack and plunder of Navarro’s Tower; they had exchanged King +Log, who dwelt securely locked up, for a King Stork of the most active +description. Although we cannot sympathise with such people, it is +quite possible to understand their very natural annoyance at the turn +which things had taken, and it does not surprise us (in this age of +“punic faith”) that a conspiracy was set on foot between the dwellers +of the hinterland and the Spaniards of the fortress. + +Uruj was informed of all that was going on through his own spies, and, +although he kept his finger on the pulse of the conspiracy, he acted as +though the tribesmen were still his very faithful friends and allies. +The corsair was more patient than his wont. In this affair he wished +for ample proof of delinquency, and also for a vengeance adequate to +the occasion when he should discover all the guilty parties; and so +some weeks went by while the plot was maturing, apparently, from the +point of view of the conspirators, to a successful conclusion. But Uruj +had bided his time with a subtlety and _finesse_ which would have done +credit to Kheyr-ed-Din himself. + +It was the custom of the corsair and his chief adherents to attend the +principal mosque on Fridays; and therefore, when the conspirators were +cordially invited to attend on the following Friday, and, after the +service was over, to attend Uruj to his dwelling and there confer with +him, they went, nothing doubting, to their deaths. As the discourse of +the Mullah came to an end a crash resounded throughout the building: +six stalwart swordsmen had flung the great gates of the mosque +together, and barred all exit. Excepting the conspirators, twenty-two +in number, the remainder of the edifice was filled with the galley’s +crews of the corsair, men who, had he given the order, would have +cheerfully set alight to the sacred building itself and roasted the +Mullahs themselves in the flames. + +To the corsairs, after they were seated in the mosque, the word had +been passed that the Berber tribesmen had meditated this treachery +against them, which, had it succeeded, would have meant the death or +enslavement of them all. It was therefore a trap of a singularly deadly +description into which the countrymen of Selim Eutemi walked on this +Friday morning. + +The doors being closed, the conspirators were one by one dragged +before Uruj, who, bitterly reproaching them, gave order for their +instant death. They were haled out through rows of jeering pirates, and +beheaded in the street immediately in front of the principal entrance +of the mosque. When the slaughter of the twenty—two was accomplished +Uruj strode from the mosque over the weltering corpses of the traitors +amid the plaudits of his own men, ever ready to acclaim deeds of blood +and cruelty. After this there were no more plots against the corsair +in Algiers. News of all these desperate doings in Algiers had by this +time filtered across into Spain, and El Maestro Don Fray Prudencio de +Sandoval recounts how, when the tidings came to Fray Francisco Ximenes, +the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo, that that prelate, much scandalised +that the might of Imperial Spain should be flouted by a mere pirate, +sent Don Diego de Vera with some fifteen thousand men to recapture the +town, and relieve the beleaguered garrison in the tower. This was in +the month of September 1516. + +Don Diego landed “en el dia de San Hieronymo,” and threw up +entrenchments within gunshot of the town. Great things were expected +of this expedition, as Sandoval notes that in 1513 Don Diego de Vera, +in the war against the French, had gained the approval of Count Pedro +Navarro (“avia bien aprovado con el Conde Pedro Navarro”), and it was +not expected that a mere pirate rabble would ever make head against +the Spanish troops. De Vera opened fire on the walls of the town +from his entrenchments, but hardly had he done so when Uruj, leading +his corsairs, which formed the spearhead to an innumerable army of +Berbers and Arabs, made a sortie. + +“Upon them one day did Barbarossa make an onslaught, and when he saw +that the Spanish soldiers were ill commanded, he flung his forces upon +them with loud cries. And so great was the fear inspired by Barbarossa +that they were routed almost without loss to the Moors; and with much +ease did these latter slay three thousand men and capture four hundred +on the day of San Hieronymo in this year.” + +(“Salio un dia à el Barbarossa y como vio los soldados Españoles +desmandados diò en ellos con gran gritos. Y fue tan grande el miedo que +vieron que Barbarossa los desbaratò casi sin daño y con mucho facilidad +mato tres mil hombres y cautivo quatro cientos dia de San Hieronymo +deste año.”) + +This quotation is given in full to set out the amazing fact that in +this battle over three thousand were killed while only four hundred +were captured, which shows that it must have been in the nature of an +indiscriminate massacre; the only captive of any note was the captain, +Juan del Rio. Diego de Vera had had enough of the corsairs, and sailed +away with the remainder of his force. Of what became of him or of them +there is no record, but he must have been a singularly incompetent +commander when he could not make head against a rabble of pirates and +Moors with the army at his disposition. Sandoval does not attempt to +minimise the defeat, which, of course, would have been impossible; he +contents himself with the following delightfully quaint reflection: +“But many, many times Homer nods; this disaster must have come upon +us for our sins, upon which it is most important that we should always +think and meditate.” + +Who so triumphant now as Uruj Barbarossa? It is true that the fortress +of Pedro Navarro still remained in the hands of its splendid and +undaunted garrison, and was destined so to remain for some years to +come; but they were impotent for harm, and the conqueror of Don Diego +now turned his arms in another direction. Kheyr-ed-Din was at Jigelli +when he heard of the victory gained by his brother, and sailed at once +with six ships to his support. The town of Tenes fell into the hands of +the brothers, with an immense booty, and then Uruj marched on Tlemcen. +The Sultan of Tlemcen, the last of the royal race of the Beni-Zian, did +not await the coming of the corsair. All through the northern coasts +of Africa the name of Barbarossa was a synonym of terror; the sad fate +of Selim Eutemi, of Kara-Hassan, of the twenty-two conspirators of +the mosque, had been noised abroad, and the superstitious tribesmen +firmly believed that these red-bearded corsairs were the accomplices +of Shaitan, even if they did not represent him themselves in their +own persons. Who were these men, they asked one another tremblingly, +who feared neither God nor devil, and who caused even the redoubtable +Spaniards to fly before them like the leaves in front of an autumn gale? + +When men begin to talk and to think like this there is not much fight +left in them, and so it came about that, after the most feeble of +resistances, the Sultan of Tlemcen fled to Fez. Thus, almost without +striking a blow, Uruj found himself master of a province from which +the Spaniards were accustomed to draw the necessary provisions for the +upkeep of the garrison of Oran. But Tlemcen is but some seventy miles +from Oran, and Oran is so close to Spain as to be easily reinforced; in +consequence Uruj was soon blockaded by the Spaniards, and remained so +for seven months. But no blockade could keep Uruj Barbarossa for long +within stone walls; sortie after sortie did the gallant corsair lead +against the foe, and it was in one of these that he characteristically +came by his death. Ever rash and impetuous, he allowed himself to be +drawn too far away from possible shelter or support; and, as there was +something dramatic in the whole life of this man, so also was there +in the manner of his death. They had him trapped at last, this grim +Sea-wolf, and he stood at bay in a stone corral used for the herding of +goats. + +As the wolves in winter circle round the leaguer on the heath, So the +greedy foe glared upward panting still for blood and death. + +By his side was his faithful lieutenant Venalcadi. In a breathless +mêlée Christian sword and Moslem sabre clashed and rang. His turban +gone, his great curved scimitar red to the hilt, the undaunted corsair +fought his last fight as became the terror of his name. Almost had +he succeeded in breaking through the ring of his foes when Garzia de +Tineo, _alferez_ (or lieutenant) to Captain Diego de Andrade, wounded +him severely with a pike. Uruj stumbled, was struck on the head with +another weapon; he reeled and fell. The fight was over, and one of the +Barbarossas bit the dust. Garzia de Tineo leaped upon the fallen man +and cut off his head. It is recorded that Garzia de Tineo was wounded +in the finger by Uruj in the course of the combat, and that for the +rest of his life he proudly exhibited the scar as a sign that it was +none other than he who had killed the famous corsair. + +Uruj Barbarossa was undoubtedly a remarkable man. At a time when the +Mediterranean swarmed with warriors none was more feared, none was +more redoubtable than he. By sheer valour and tenacity he had fought +his way to the front, and the son of the obscure renegado of Mitylene +died a king. It is true that his sovereignty was precarious, that it +was maintained at the edge of the sword; none the less, in that welter +of anarchy in which he lived he had forced himself to the summit, and, +pirate, sea-wolf, and robber as he was, we cannot withhold from him a +meed of the most hearty admiration. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +KHEYR-ED-DIN BARBAROSSA + + +Uruj had arrogated to himself the title of King of Tlemcen, but with +his death this shadowy sovereignty came to an end, and the Spaniards +seized upon the province. This, however, did not avail them much, as +the Sultan of Fez sent against them an innumerable army, and they +in their turn were dispossessed. It was in the year 1518 that Uruj +fell beneath the pike of Garzia de Tineo, and now the first place in +the piratical hierarchy was taken by Kheyr-ed-Din. In this man the +genius of the statesman lay hidden beneath the outward semblance of +the bold and ruthless pirate; ever foremost in the fight, strong to +endure, swift to smite, he had by now long passed his novitiate, had +established an empire over the minds of men which was to endure until +the end of his unusually prolonged life. With a brain of ice and a +heart of fire, he looked out, serene and calm, upon the turbulent times +in which he lived, a monstrous egotist desiring nothing but his own +advancement, all his faculties bent upon securing more wealth and yet +more power. + +He played a lone hand, for he brooked even less than did his truculent +brother any approach to an equality with himself among the men who +followed in his train. Absolute supremacy was his in the life which he +lived, but none knew better than he upon what an unstable basis his +power rested. He now called himself the King of Algiers, but still that +lean, sun-dried garrison held with desperate tenacity to the tower +of the redoubtable Navarro, and any moment a fresh Spanish relieving +force might be upon him and chase him forth even as Uruj had been +chased from Tlemcen. He saw that he must consolidate his power, must +for the present, at any rate, have some force at his back which would +provide that material and moral backing which was essential to his +schemes. Once before he had successfully approached the Grand Turk, +the Padishah, the head of the Mohammedan religion, and from him he had +received that which he had asked; on this former occasion, however, he +had not been in the same position as he now occupied. + +The corsair must have meditated long and anxiously on the best way +in which to approach the autocrat of Constantinople; in the end he +probably hit upon the best solution of the problem by again sending +an ambassador with precise instructions as to the manner in which he +was to act. For this important service his choice fell upon one of his +captains, Hadj-Hossein by name, and to him he imparted all that he was +to say, and—what was almost as important—what he was not to say. + +The duty of the ambassador was to magnify the importance of his master, +but to do so in such a manner that the Padishah was not to imagine +that a rival to his own greatness had arisen at Algiers. Selim was at +this time in Egypt, where he had just completed the conquest of the +Mamelukes, and thither did Hadj-Hossein repair. He laid at the feet of +the conqueror the respectful homage of the King of Algiers, who, he +assured Selim, desired nothing better than to become the vassal of the +Commander of the Faithful. Also, he informed him, that in the name of +Selim public prayer was offered in the mosques on Fridays, that his +image and superscription were struck on the coins, that in every manner +possible recognition was made of the fact that he, and he alone, was +the chosen of God upon earth. This manner of stating the situation was +both delicate and politic. A less wise man than Kheyr-ed-Din might have +assumed a note of equality from one Moslem potentate to another, but +the corsair was perfectly conscious of his limitations—he knew exactly +how the Grand Turk could be useful to him, and he was not going to mar +his chance by the display of an untimely arrogance. + +Hadj-Hossein proved himself to be a tactful and successful ambassador. +The Sultan accepted the homage offered, and made many inquiries +concerning the war prosecuted by Hossein’s master against the enemies +of the true faith in the distant region of Algiers. His queries were +all answered with deep submission and the most subtle of flattery, much +of which latter was no doubt a perfectly honest expression of opinion. +As to the average Mohammedan of this period the Padishah was a being +set apart by Heaven to fulfil the decrees of the Prophet. + +The ambassador, when he rejoined his master, must have been a proud +man, as so well had he fulfilled his mission that he carried back with +him to Algiers not only a gracious message, but the insignia of the +Sanjak, Scimitar Horse and Tambour, conferred upon that loyal Moslem +Kheyred-Din Barbarossa, who, in the words of the Padishah, “abandoning +a sterile independence, sought in all the bloody hazards of his life +nought but the glory of God and His Prophet” To us this hyperbole, +addressed to a pirate, seems merely ridiculous, but in those days +of fanaticism the beliefs of men, both Christians and Moslems, are +something which it is impossible for us to realise. On either side the +way of salvation was the path of conquest, and the man who was heretic +to the faith which you professed was rightly served if you could cut +him and his off from among the congregation. + +It was well for the corsair to make as many friends as possible, as +among his enemies he counted all the kings of Christendom; and, looking +back on his career, it seems but little short of a miracle that he was +not crushed out of existence, not once but a hundred times. But, as has +been said already, the root of true statesmanship was in Kheyr-ed-Din. +He watched with eager eye the quarrels of the great kings on the +continent of Europe; he saw his life-long rival at sea, the greatest +of all Christian mariners, Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral, transfer +his allegiance from the French King Francis I. to the Emperor Charles +V. He noted and took full advantage of the perpetual squabbles between +the Genoese and Venetian Republics, and all the time was in touch +with the Sea-wolves, who swarmed on the coasts of Africa, and lurked in +every creek and harbour of the Ionian Sea. “In all the bloody hazards +of his life,” to quote once again the words of the Grand Turk, “he +could, in the end, depend more or less on the corsairs, whether they +ostensibly sailed beneath his banner or whether they did not, as when +danger threatened what name was so potent as that of Barbarossa, which +his followers asserted to be worth ten thousand men, when shouted on +the day of battle!” + +That which is most extraordinary in the life of Kheyr-ed-Din is the +perpetual danger and stress in which it was lived. Time and again the +heavy menacing clouds gathered around his head; strenuous and unceasing +were the efforts made by his enemies to destroy his power, to capture +the person of this militant robber who flung an insolent defiance to +the whole of Christendom. The storms gathered and broke with various +effects, which sometimes sent the corsair flying for his life a hunted +fugitive, as others saw him once more victorious. But no reverses had +the power to damp his ardour, or to render him less eager to arise, +like some ill-omened phoenix, from the ashes of defeat: to vex the +souls of those who held themselves to be the greatest men on earth. + +It was shortly after the death of his brother Uruj that the storm arose +which bade fair to sweep, not only Kheyr-ed-Din but all the corsairs +of the North African coast, clean out of their strongholds, for the +Emperor Charles V., at this time young, eager, and enthusiastic, +gave orders for their destruction. These robbers troubled the peace +of Europe; they did more than this, they insulted the Majesty of the +Emperor, and Charles regarded their perpetual incursions in the light +of an affront to his personal dignity. The divinity which hedged such +a monarch as the grandson of “Los Reyes Cathòlicos,” Ferdinand and +Isabella, was a very real thing, and, if offended, was likely to find +concrete expression in the most vigorous form. Charles, much annoyed +at the necessity for chastising a band of robbers, determined that he +would make an end of them once and for all. To Don Hugo de Moncada, the +Viceroy of Sicily, to Don Perisan de Ribera at Bougie, to the Marquis +de Comares at Oran, orders were sent to prepare their forces for an +attack on Algiers. + +There was no lack of good-will on the part of the Christian princes, +nobles, and governors. The Spanish veterans in Sicily were rusting +for want of employment, the levies on the African littoral welcomed +anything in the way of war as a distraction from the deadly monotony +of their lives. The soldier in these days who rested too long upon +his arms became in time practically useless for the purpose for which +he existed; but such rulers as Charles V. gave their fighting men but +small cause of complaint in the matter of want of employment. The Pope +sent his blessing and a contingent, and, to show how serious was the +purpose of the Emperor, who took the command in person, let us set +forth the total of the expedition which was to utterly destroy and +root out the corsairs and their leader: + + + FLEET. SAILING SHIP TRANSPORT. + + Galleys of the Pope 4 The Frigate of Malta 1 + ” of Malta 4 Division of Spezzia 100 + ” of Sicily 4 ” of Fernando Gonzaga 150 + ” of Antony Doria 6 ” of Spain 200 + ” of Naples 5 + ” of Monaco 2 + ” of Marquis of Terra Nova 2 + ” of Vicome de Cigala 2 + ” of Fernando de Gonzaga 7 + ” of Spain 15 + ” of Andrea Doria 14 + ——— + Total Galleys 65 Total Transports 451 + === + Add Transports 451 + ——— + Total Fleet 516 + === + + + We now come to the military side of the expedition, which consisted of: + + + The Household of the Emperor 200 + Noblesse 150 + Knights of Malta 150 + Servants 400 + German Corps 6,000 + Italians 5,000 + Spanish from Naples and Sicily 6,000 + Soldiers from Spain 400 + Adventurers 3,000 + Italian Cavalry 1,000 + Spanish Cavalry from Sicily 400 + Light Cavalry 700 + —————— + Total Army 23,900 + ====== + + +We next come to the Armament of the Fleet: + + + Soldiers of the Galleys (50 in each) 3,250 + Galley Slaves (average 70 in each) 4,500 + ” ” The Frigate of Malta 80 + 540 sailing ships of all sorts, mostly + small (at an average of 10 each) 4,500 + —————— + Total _Personnel_ of the Fleet 12,330 + Add Army 28,900 + —————— + Total _Personnel_ of the Expedition. 36,230 men. + ====== + + +It was late autumn when the expedition at last set sail, and the +imperious temper of Charles was such that he refused to be governed by +the advice of the seasoned mariners, such as Andrea and Antony Doria, +and others who dreaded the effect of the gales which the armada was +likely to encounter on the coast of Africa. The Emperor was not to be +gainsaid, and the fleet set sail. They arrived, says Sandoval, “en el +dia de San Hieronymo,” Saint Bartholomew’s day; and there then arose +such a storm as the Mediterranean seldom sees. Some of the army had +landed, some were still afloat, the corsairs accounted for the luckless +soldiers ashore, the elements destroyed many left in the ships: 26 +ships and 4,000 men were lost. + +Bitterly mortified, Charles, who had personally displayed valour and +conduct of unusual distinction in this disastrous expedition, returned +to Europe to turn his attention to his everlasting quarrels with the +King of France. Meanwhile Don Hugo de Moncada had escaped with a +remnant of his forces to Iviza, in the Balearics, where he wintered, +and where his men mutinied because he was unable to pay them. + +As there was depression almost amounting to despair in the camps of +Christendom, so was there concurrently the widest rejoicing in the +tents and on board of the galleys which flew the Moslem flag. What +mattered it that it was the elements which had saved Kheyr-ed-Din +from annihilation? was it not a cause the more for jubilation, as had +not the Prophet of God himself come to the assistance of those who +were upholding his holy standard? Were not his favours made manifest +in that he had sent, to lead his votaries to victory, such an one as +Kbeyr-ed-Din Barbarossa? + +Pope and Emperor, King, Duke, and Viceroy had tried conclusions with +the pirates, and their fleet and army had melted away as the mists melt +in the hot sunshine on the Mediterranean; truly were the descendants of +the dispossessed Moors of Còdoba and Granada taking a terrible revenge +on those by whom they had been expropriated. + +Barbarossa was never one to let the grass grow under his feet; he had +the Christians on the run, and he intended to take full advantage +of this pleasing circumstance. Accordingly he despatched a trusted +lieutenant, one Hassan, with instructions to harass the coast of +Valentia, to ravage with fire and sword all those unfortunate towns and +villages which he could reach. This corsair entered the Rio de Ampasta +and destroyed all before him, the inhabitants fleeing as the news was +carried by escaped fugitives and by the red glare of the villages +flaming to heaven in the night. Satiated with blood, laden with spoil, +and burdened with many wretched captives, Hassan put to sea once more +in triumph. + +It may here be mentioned how terrible was the damage wrought by the +piratical fraternity in the Mediterranean, and the manner in which +it has been brought to light in somewhat remarkable fashion quite +recently. Since the French occupation of Tunis it was charged against +them that they had taken away from the natives of the country those +fertile lands which lay upon the shores of the sea, and had given them +to French subjects. The facts of the case were that for centuries these +lands had been entirely out of cultivation, the reason being that, +until the complete suppression of piracy in the Mediterranean took +place, none dared to dwell within raiding distance of the sea for fear +of being carried off into slavery. + +But to return to Hassan. That warrior, having cleared the Spanish +coast, got separated from three of his consorts during the night. +The next day, at dawn, he sighted a Spanish sailing-vessel, which he +thought to make an easy prize. The wind was light, and the galleys—that +is to say, the one on which Hassan was aboard and his remaining +consort—were soon churning up the waters in pursuit as fast as their +oars could carry them. Hassan reckoned on an easy capture, as he made +certain she was but a peaceful trader with some score or so of throats +to cut. He was, however, badly out of his reckoning, as on board of her +was a veteran company of Spanish infantry, stark fighters to a man, who +feared no odds, and who were skilfully commanded by Captain Robeira, +grown grey in the Moorish wars. With bloodcurdling yells the galleys +swept alongside with the fighting men massed on the high poops and +forecastles of their vessels. Behind the high bulwarks of the “round +ship” (as the sailing craft of the day were denominated to distinguish +them from the long ships, or galleys) crouched the Spaniards, their +muskets in their hands. Captain Robeira had them perfectly in hand, and +not a piece was discharged until the beaks of the galleys crashed into +her sides. + +Robeira then gave the order to fire, and at the short range into packed +masses of men the volley did terrible execution. Completely surprised, +the corsairs attempted to board, but were repulsed and driven back +with more slaughter. His men becoming demoralised, Hassan withdrew +amidst the ferocious taunts of the Spaniards, who had escaped almost +unscathed. Sore and angry, the corsairs continued their voyage for +another three days, at the expiration of which they arrived at Algiers. +Hassan, who had acquired quite a considerable booty, expected a warm +reception; this he received, but hardly in the way that he expected. +He told his tale to Kheyr-ed-Din, which that commander received in +frowning silence; when he had finished the storm burst. + +“O miserable coward! dost thou dare to stand in my presence and to +confess that thou hast been whipped like a dog by those sons of burnt +fathers, the Spaniards?” + +The miserable Hassan attempted to justify himself by reference to the +booty which he had obtained and the number of captives with which he +had returned; but this, far from assuaging the wrath of Barbarossa, +only made it worse. + +“Dastard and slave! thou boastest that, thou hast destroyed defenceless +villages and brought back many captives, but that shall avail thee +nothing. No profit shalt thou derive from that. Let the captives be +brought before me.” + +This was done, and to the horror even of those hardened men of blood +who followed in the train of Barbarossa, they were all executed. Even +this wholesale massacre did not assuage the wrath of the corsair. +Standing and surveying the weltering shambles which tainted the air, +he pulled ferociously at his red beard, and commanded that they should +whip Hassan till the blood ran; when this was done thoroughly and +to the satisfaction of the despot, he gave orders that he should be +chained and thrust into the prison of the fortress. + +Terror stalked abroad in Algiers. No man knew when his turn might +come after this awful example of what it meant to incur the wrath of +Barbarossa. The corsair gave orders for the execution of Venalcadi, +who, it will be remembered, was with Uruj when that warrior came by his +death; but Venalcadi was popular among the pirates, and they connived +at his escape. + +For so cool and politic a man as Kheyr-ed-Din this outburst is wholly +inexplicable. Judged by our standards, the flogging of Hassan was not +only brutal but silly, as raising up to himself enemies of the most +bitter description in the midst of his own followers; and yet cruelty +was so engrained in this man that he never forewent his revenge. It is +a standing miracle that he escaped assassination in the age in which +he lived, and the only explanation would appear to be that men were too +much afraid of him to make the attempt. + +The immediate result of the flogging of Hassan and the attempted murder +of Venalcadi was that the latter collected a following and made war +upon Kheyr-ed-Din, who, with incredible folly, then released Hassan, +and sent him with five hundred men to fight against Venalcadi. The +result was what might have been anticipated: Hassan joined forces with +Venalcadi, and together they attacked the tyrant and drove him out of +his stronghold. + +Kheyr-ed-Din had the one supreme merit of never knowing when he was +beaten. Driven from the shore, there was for him always the sea to +which to retire; so on this occasion he embarked his family and such +of his riches as were portable, and took to the sea once more. “Yendo +a buscar nuevos asientos y nuevos amigos” (seeking a new home and new +friends), says Sandoval. + +It was well for the corsairs that the Christians had selected the +previous year for their attack, as, had they fallen upon them when +Barbarossa was no longer in power at Algiers and the pirates were +fighting among themselves, the latter would have been wiped out of +existence. It was ill fighting with Kheyr-ed-Din, whether you professed +the religion of Christ or that of Mahomet, and this the revolting +corsairs were very soon to discover. Barbarossa sailed away from +Algiers a hunted fugitive, only to return again as a conqueror. + +Eastward the dispossessed ruler of Algiers took his course, and +very soon discovered that which he sought—allies to assist him +against the revolted Venalcadi and the recalcitrant Hassan. Lurking +in the neighbourhood of Bizerta, he discovered El Judeo (the Jew), +Cachidiablo (Hunt the Devil), Salaerrez, Tabas, and other corsairs, +who collectively composed a formidable force. These were all old +acquaintances and some old followers of Kheyr-ed-Din, and to them did +he relate the piteous tale of the cowardice of Venalcadi, whom he +accused of having deserted his brother Uruj in his direst necessity, +thereby causing his death; the abominable conduct of Hassan, who had +turned and bitten the hand that fed him. With tears in his eyes did +this accomplished actor reluctantly reveal the base ingratitude of +which he had been the recipient; so much did he contrive to work upon +the feelings of his auditors that they one and all vowed to stand by +him, and to replace him as ruler of Algiers, from which he had been +thrust by men whose shameful treachery was only equalled by their +ingratitude. + +Forty sail in strength, they set out to avenge the wrongs of the gentle +and long-suffering Kheyr-ed-Din, that master of craft in every sense +of the word. Reaching Algiers, they disembarked artillery and stores +and began an attack in form; but Venalcadi, whose forces were equal, +in fact slightly superior, to those of his antagonists, made a sally, +and battle was joined in the open. A most sanguinary combat ensued, +in which the forces of Kheyr-ed-Din were decidedly worsted. For a +considerable period his fate hung in the balance. Then occurred one +of those singular and remarkable things only possible in such an age +of anarchy and bloodshed. Barbarossa had in his train sixty Spanish +soldiers captured by him from the force of Don Hugo de Moncada. Well +did the corsair know their value: there were no finer fighting men in +all the Christian armies. Hastily summoning them, he promised them +their freedom if they would now throw in their lot with him and assist +in the downfall of Venalcadi. + +The offer was no sooner made than accepted, and the Spanish veterans, +fresh and unwearied, threw themselves into the heart of the fray. +Shoulder to shoulder and blade to blade in their disciplined valour, +they broke through all opposition; they fought for liberty as well as +life, to exchange the noisome confinement of the piratical galley for +the free air of their homes and their country. Soon the soldiers of +Venalcadi turned and fled back to the city; the day was once again with +Kheyr-ed-Din. For four days longer did Algiers hold out, and then a +traitor betrayed Venalcadi into the hands of his enemies. Instantly his +head was struck off, placed on a pole, and paraded in full sight of the +garrison, who were promised their lives on condition of surrender. + +The city opened its gates once more, and Barbarossa entered in triumph. +The corsair was as good as his word to his Spanish captives, and +restored to them their liberty. He went even further, and was liberal +in his _largesse_ to those who had fought so well for him. If he can +be credited with such an emotion as gratitude, he must have felt it +for Moncada’s stout infantrymen, as, had it not been for them, it +would have been his head and not that of Venalcadi which would have +decorated the pole. The Spaniards departed to their own country—that is +to say, such of them as desired to do so; but one Hamet, a Biscayan, +declared that life was so intolerable for a common man such as he in +his own country that he desired to throw in his lot with Barbarossa. +Thirty-nine others followed his example, abjuring the Christian faith +and becoming renegadoes. + +Those of the garrison left alive were glad enough to return once more +to their allegiance to their former master. The episode of the mutiny +of Venalcadi and Hassan was a lesson not only to them: the fame of it +spread far and wide throughout the Mediterranean. Who now could be +found to combat Barbarossa? and all along the coasts of the tideless +sea echo shudderingly answered—Who? + +With the new accession to his strength Kheyred-Din had no difficulty in +making himself master of Tunis, and he sent Cachidiablo with seventeen +galleys to harry once more the coast of Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE TAKING OF THE PEÑON D’ALGER; ANDREA DORIA + + +Although Kheyr-ed-Din had made himself master of Algiers, there still +remained the fortress of Pedro Navarro in the hands of the Spaniards. +This strong place of arms had now been in their practically undisputed +occupation for twenty years; from out of its loopholed walls and +castellated battlements the undaunted garrison had looked forth while +the tide of war both by land and sea had swept by. They had been +unmolested so far, but now their day was to come. + +In command of the Peñon d’Alger, as it was called by the Spaniards, +was a valiant and veteran cavalier, by name Martin de Vargas. For +twenty years, as we have said, the gold-and-crimson banner of Spain +had floated from its crenulated bastions; since the days of Pedro +Navarro it had held its own against all comers. It must have been with +a sinking heart that Martin de Vargas and his brave garrison beheld +the town fall once again into the hands of Kheyr-ed-Din; they knew, as +by this time did all the Mediterranean and the dwellers on the coasts +thereof, the implacable enmity of the corsair to the Christians, and +how short a shrift would be theirs should they fall into his hands. + +On his side Kheyr-ed-Din looked with longing eyes on this remnant of +the power of Spain in Africa. Could he but dislodge Martin de Vargas, +he had the whole of Northern Africa practically at his disposal; +Algiers would then be really his, to fortify for all time against +the inroads of his foes. He was master by land and sea, the time was +propitious; the corsair decided that the hour had come. He had seen the +repulse of his brother Uruj, none knew better than did he the temper of +the men by whom the Peñon was held, or the valiance and the unswerving +fidelity of that caballero of Spain, Martin de Vargas. He tried to +induce that officer to surrender to him, offering every inducement +to the Spanish commander to come to terms. He was met with a haughty +refusal, couched in the most contemptuous language. He tried the most +blood-curdling threats, which were no empty menaces, as his adversary +well knew: these were received in silence. + +One more embassy he tried, and to this he received the following answer: + + “I spring from the race of the De Vargas, but my house + has never made it a practice to boast of the glory of + their long descent: they professed merely to imitate + the heroism of their ancestors. Spurred forward by this + worthy desire, I await with calmness all your efforts, + and will prove to you, with arms in my hands, that I am + faithful to my God, my country, and my king.” + +[Illustration: ANDREA DORIA, PRINCE OF ONEGLEA, ADMIRAL TO CHARLES V.] + +Barbarossa summoned to his palace his kinsman and trusted adherent +Celebi Rabadan, and they mutually decided that there was nothing +they could do save take up arms against this most insolent and +uncompromising warrior. In the meanwhile they would try what craft +would do; and accordingly two young Moors were introduced into the +Peñon, under the pretext that they had seen the error of their ways +and were anxious to embrace the Christian religion. Martin de Vargas, +like all Spanish caballeros, was an ardent proselytiser, and he ordered +the two young men to be taken into his own house and instructed by the +chaplain of the garrison. The next day was Easter Day, and the two +young Moors, while the entire garrison were at Mass, signalled to their +co-religionists a prearranged sign indicating that now was the time to +attack. Unfortunately for them, a woman in the employment of De Vargas +saw them, and they were immediately hanged from the battlements in full +view of Barbarossa. That potentate was filled with fury at what he +considered an insult to the Mohammedan religion, and again consulted +with Celebi as to the feasibility of another assault. It was true, +he said, that his messengers had been hanged, but they had made the +prearranged signal. Still, the walls were hardly sufficiently breached, +he thought, and his own men were singularly disheartened by the ill +success of their previous efforts. Did Celebi Rabadan think another +attempt desirable? + +That person was in a quandary, because he could not gather what it was +that Barbarossa wished him to say. He knew that if he recommended an +assault, and that it proved once again unsuccessful, that the full +fury of the tyrant would fall upon his head; at the same time he was +almost equally afraid to broach the idea which had been prevalent in +Algiers for some time that Martin de Vargas must assuredly be in league +with Shaitan, or he could never have held out in the way that he had +done. In consequence he temporised and hesitated, while Barbarossa +pulled at his famous red beard and regarded him with scowling brows. + +The situation was saved for Celebi Rabadan by an accident. There +swam off to the ship a traitor from the Spanish garrison, and this +man informed them that his whilom comrades were positively at their +last gasp, ammunition all but exhausted, and the food-supply barely +sufficient to last another two days. + +“To such an end come those who deny the Prophet of God,” exclaimed +Barbarossa, and gave orders that this news be communicated to all +his men, who were to prepare for the final assault on the morrow. He +further offered a reward for the capture of Martin de Vargas alive. + +On May 16th, 1530, the corsairs once again advanced to the assault. By +this time the walls had been battered until a practicable breach had +been formed, and over this swarmed thirteen hundred of the starkest +fighters of the Mediterranean, In the breach, bareheaded, his armour +hacked and dinted, stood the undaunted chieftain of the Spaniards: over +his head floated that proud banner which had never cast its shadow on +a worthier knight of Spain. The garrison, worn to a shadow by their +hardships and their hunger, most of them wounded, and all of them +sore spent, were in no case to resist this, the most formidable attack +to which they had been subjected. It was all over in a very short time, +and a dreadful massacre ensued. + +Martin de Vargas, though sorely wounded, was taken alive and conducted +to the presence of Barbarossa. Wounded, shaken, bruised, his fortress +in the hands of his enemy, the dying shrieks of his murdered garrison +still ringing in his ears, the amazing spirit of the man was still +utterly unsubdued. “It is to the treason of a ruffian that you owe +your triumph,” he said to his captor, “and not to your valour: had I +received the smallest relief I could still have repulsed and kept you +at bay. You have my maimed and mutilated body in your possession, and I +hope that you are satisfied. But my body is accustomed to pain, and I +therefore defy you and your dastardly cruelty.” + +To do Barbarossa justice he admired the undaunted spirit of his +prisoner, and he replied: + +“Fear nothing, De Vargas, I will do all in my power to ease your hurts +if you will do that which I ask of you.” + +De Vargas replied: + +“As an earnest of your faith, I demand the punishment of the traitor +through whose information you were enabled to take the citadel.” + +Barbarossa ordered the soldier to be brought before them, and, having +nearly flogged him to death, had him beheaded. He then presented the +head to De Vargas, saying: + +“You observe my complaisance. I now ask you to embrace the Mohammedan +faith; then I will overwhelm you with benefits and honours, and make +you the Captain-General of my guards.” + +De Vargas looked at him in indignation and replied: + +“Dost thou believe that I, who but now demanded the just punishment of +a man who had forsworn himself, could stoop to such an act of baseness +as this? Keep your ill-gotten riches; confer your dignities on others; +insult not thus a caballero of Spain.” + +There was a breathless pause. None had ever used such language to +Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa and lived to tell the tale. Nor was it to be so +in this case. + +“You and yours have caused me too much trouble,” he answered +indifferently. He made a sign to the executioner who had beheaded the +soldier, and the next moment the head of De Vargas was swept from his +body. + +The gallant Spaniard, it is to be hoped, came by his end in the way +just narrated; but the chroniclers disagree among themselves, and +“El Señor Don Diego de Haedo, Arcobispo de Palermo y Capitan General +del Reyno de Sicilia por El Rey Felipe nuestro señor,” states that +Barbarossa kept De Vargas in confinement for three months and then had +him beaten to death. One can only sincerely hope that the first account +is the true one; but Haedo was nearer to the time of the occurrence, +and, as he wrote in the reign of Philip II., is more likely to have +known the facts. But however this may have been, there was an end for +all time of Spanish domination on the north coast of Africa, and from +this we may date the permanent establishment of those piratical States +in that part of the world. + +The star of Kheyr-ed-Din was once more in the ascendant. Not only had +he crushed out the incipient mutiny of Venalcadi and taken his life, +but he had consolidated his power by the taking of the Peñon d’Alger. +He celebrated this occasion in the most practical manner possible: a +stop was put to the indiscriminate massacre of the garrison, and five +hundred of the Spaniards were captured alive; it was their dreary +fate to pull down entirely the tower of Pedro Navarro, which they had +defended so gallantly and to utilise the material in making a causeway +from the Peñon to the shore. Barbarossa was determined that on no +future occasion should his enemies have the chance of dominating his +town of Algiers. He was now a sovereign in fact and in deed, regarding +even so mighty a monarch as Charles V. with comparative equanimity. +Terrible was the wrath of the latter when the news of the fall of +the Peñon, the massacre of the garrison, and the death of his trusty +servant De Vargas, was brought to him. The Sea-wolves seemed to exist +but to exasperate him, and this latest news came just at one of the +most prosperous epochs of his career. + +The titles of “Carlos Quinto,” as recorded by Sandoval, read like the +roll of some mighty drum. Nor were these titles mere vain and empty +boastings, as was so often the case at that time among the minor +rulers of the earth. On February 22nd, 1580, just before the fall of +the Peñon, he had placed on his own head the iron crown of Lombardy; +his viceroys ruled in Naples and Sicily, his dukes and feudatories +in Florence and Ferrara, in Mantua and in Milan; there was no more +Italy. All these recent acquisitions had been rendered possible by +the defection of Andrea Doria, the Genoese seaman, from Francis I. of +France to the side of the Emperor. From henceforward it was against +this modern Cæsar that Barbarossa had to contend; the monarch under +whose banner swarmed the terrible Schwartz-Reiters of Germany, for +whose honour marched the incomparable infantry of Spain, for whom the +fleets of the gallant Genoese sailed in battle-array under the orders +of the greatest admiral of the day, Andrea Doria. All these disciplined +legions of Christendom were arrayed against the corsair king; banded +together for the destruction of that daring pirate whose flag floated +in insolent triumph above the white walls of Algiers. + +As from this time onwards we shall hear much concerning Andrea Doria, +it is fitting that some account should here be given of this great +patriot, great soldier, and still greater seaman. Andrea Doria, of +the family of the Princes of Oneglia, of Genoa, was born at Oneglia +on November 30th, 1468, and was the son of Andrea Coeva and Marie +Caracosa, both of the family of Doria. At the death of his mother the +young Andrea, then nineteen years of age, was sent to Rome, where his +kinsman Dominique Doria, of the elder branch of the family, was captain +of the Papal Guard of Pope Innocent VIII. Here he rose rapidly: owing +to his extraordinary address in all military exercises, he was marked +out for preferment, and would probably have succeeded his kinsman as +grand officer, had it not been for the death of Innocent VIII. The +successor to Innocent, Alexander VI., was not favourable to the claims +of the Dorias; so young Andrea, acting on the advice of Dominique, +repaired to the court of Duke Urbino, then regarded as the best school +for young nobles desirous of following a military career. After some +time spent at the court of Urbino, Dominique counselled that Andrea +should enter some other service, as there was no glory to be obtained +under a prince who was never at war. Accordingly Andrea passed into the +service of the King of Aragon, who, having invaded Naples, was giving +plenty of employment to all would-be warriors. + +In the record of his early days we find that in the year 1495 he made +a journey to Jerusalem to visit the holy places, and that he then +returned to Italy, where Ferdinand of Aragon was attempting to recover +the kingdom of Naples. “The Great Captain,” Gonsalvo de Cordoba, was +warring against Doria’s kinsman, Juan Roverejo; this commander had +rendered a great service to the Dorias by rescuing David Doria from +imprisonment at Ancona, and Andrea decided to throw in his lot with +him. He accordingly armed twenty-five cavaliers at his own expense, +and joined Roverejo, who put him in charge of the fortress of Rocca +Guillelma. In this place Andrea was besieged by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, +the first warrior of the age; here he displayed such extraordinary +ability in defence that, on the occasion of a truce, Gonsalvo urged +upon Andrea to join the Spaniards. Andrea made answer that +honour bound him to Roverejo, but, could he be released from his +arrangement with him, he might then consider the proposition of “The +Great Captain.” Roverejo refused, but, as Charles VIII. immediately +afterwards evacuated Italy, Andrea was free to follow his own +inclinations, and took service with Lodovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. + +From this time onward until 1503 Andrea was constantly employed in war, +and made for himself such a reputation that in this year the Republic +of Genoa requested him to take command of their navy. This offer he +refused, as he said that he knew nothing about the sea. They pressed +him, saying that to a man of his genius nothing was impossible, and +in the end he gave a somewhat reluctant consent. He soon proved his +competence in his new sphere of activity, as his first act was to +capture the Fort of the Lantern, in the neighbourhood of Genoa, which +was then held by the French for Louis XII. The Republic confirmed his +appointment as General of the Galleys with many compliments, and he +put to sea and captured three of the war-galleys of the corsairs, also +two Turkish ships laden with valuable merchandise. He fitted out the +galleys for his own service, sold the merchantmen, and made an immense +sum of money. + +His next act was to defeat the corsair, Cadolin, who had eight galleys +to Doria’s six; these he added to his own fleet, which now consisted +of fourteen vessels, he having begun with three. As Cadolin was one +of the most famous corsairs of the day, this capture made an immense +sensation, and all men, Moslems as well as Christians, were asking +one another, “Who was this Doria?” + +They had their answer, as time passed, in the career of this +astonishing warrior, who in his time played so many parts, who served +under so many flags, and yet who remained consistently a patriot all +the time. As this is not a history of Doria, we have no space to trace +out his life step by step as it was lived; suffice it to say that, +disapproving of the government of his native Republic under the family +of the Adorno, Andrea offered his sword and his fleet to the King of +France, Francis I. His offer was received with joy, and he was made +Captain-General of the Galleys of France. In his new capacity he sailed +for the coast of Provence, which was being devastated by the fleet of +Charles V. He sank several of the Spanish vessels, captured others, and +secured sufficient booty to pay his soldiers and sailors—a fact most +welcome to Francis, who was in desperate straits for money. + +Eventually, however, a dispute arose between Francis and Doria, which +was to have disastrous effects for the King. At this time Charles V. +was suzerain of Genoa, which was held for him by the Adorno. Philippin +Doria, nephew of the admiral, met at sea with Hugo de Moncada outside +the Gulf of Salerno; a battle ensued, in which Philippin was victorious +and Moncada was slain. Amongst others who were captured was the Marquis +de Guasto and Camille Colonna; these high officers, together with three +of the captured galleys, were sent by Philippin to his uncle at Genoa. + +In the meantime some malcontents reached the Court of France and +complained to the King that Andrea Doria had not captured Sicily, which +they averred he could easily have done. These men were backed up by +a certain number of the courtiers, who were bitterly jealous of the +fame of Doria and the esteem in which he had been held by Francis. +The monarch, easily swayed by any determined and persistent attack, +decided to levy a fine on the inhabitants of Genoa as a punishment for +the supineness of their countryman, who was his Captain-General of the +Galleys; his argument being that they must pay him for the plunder +Doria had missed by not taking Sicily when he should have done so. + +This was worse than a crime—it was blunder of the very first magnitude, +and such a blunder as could only have been made by a very stupid as +well as a very arrogant man. Doria by this time was a warrior of +European celebrity, and one to whom even kings used the language of +persuasion; to attempt to browbeat him was to court disaster. + +Francis sent the Vicomte de Tours to Genoa to levy the fine, but the +Vicomte did not prosper on his mission. Outside of Genoa he was met by +the outraged admiral on horseback at the head of some fifty Genoese +nobles and a numerous company of foot-soldiers. De Tours reported that +the name and authority of the King of France was held in derision +by the fierce old admiral, who so alarmed the envoy himself that he +thought it prudent to retire to Florence, from whence he wrote a long +letter to his master complaining of his reception by Doria. + +This attempt to levy a fine on Genoa was not, however, the only +deadly blow which the King of France was aiming at her. The children of +Francis were at this time in Madrid, as hostages for the good behaviour +of their father, and that monarch was in treaty secretly with Charles +to restore Italy to the _status quo ante bellum_, which would have had +the effect of handing over Genoa to Antony Adorno. He also began the +fortification of Savona, in order that from there he might be in a +position to strike at the Genoese—from a military point of view, if +necessary—but in any event to cripple the trade of that city. Andrea +Doria, as soon as he became aware of this latter action on the part of +Francis, was thoroughly roused, and wrote him the letter quoted below, +which illustrates the fact that he was quite aware of his own great +importance in Europe. It was not a time in which men held such language +as did Doria on this occasion unless they were very sure of themselves +and their followers. + + “GREAT PRINCE, + + “It is an ill use of power to reverse order in human + affairs. Genoa has always been the capital of Liguria, + and posterity will see with astonishment that your + Majesty has deprived it of this advantage with no + plausible pretext. The Genoese are well aware how + inimical to their interests are your projects with regard + to Savona. They beg of you that these may be abandoned, + and that you will not sacrifice the general good to the + views of a few courtiers. I take the liberty to add my + prayers to theirs, and to ask of you this grace as the + price of the services I have rendered to France. Should + your Majesty have been put to expense, I shall join to + my request the sum of forty thousand gold crowns. + + “With the humble duty of Andrea Doria, + + Captain-General of the Galleys of France.” + +Theodore Trivulce, who held Savona for the King of France, was roundly +told by Doria that “the people of Genoa would never suffer the taking +of Savona by the King of France, as it had from time immemorial +belonged to them,” and added, “for myself I will sacrifice the +friendship of the King in the interests of my fatherland.” + +The last straw came, however, when the Marshal de Lautrec demanded +from Andrea the prisoners taken by Philippin Doria at Salerno. To this +Doria returned a curt negative, whereupon Francis sent one Barbezieux +to supersede Doria and to seize upon the person of the veteran admiral. +But that seaman, now sixty years of age, was not to be taken by any +king or soldier. He moved his twelve galleys from Genoa to Lerici, on +the east coast of the Gulf of Spezzia, and when Barbezieux arrived +he sarcastically told him to take the galleys. Barbezieux had no +better fortune than his predecessor, the Vicomte de Tours, and retired +discomfited and boiling over with rage to report matters to the King. + +It has been said that among the prisoners of Philippin Doria was the +Marquis de Guasto. This nobleman had been an interested spectator +of the quarrel, and now approached Doria suggesting that he should +throw in his lot with Charles. The admiral, who all through had been +acting in the interests of his native country, seeing its ruin +approaching from the ambitions of Francis, consented, and wrote to +his nephew Philippin telling him of his decision, and his reasons +for that which he proposed to do. Philippin therefore rejoined his +uncle at Lerici with his eight galleys. The negotiations were short, +sharp, and decisive, and were conducted through the medium of De +Guasto. Charles offered the admiral sixty thousand ducats a year; +this was accepted. The only other stipulation made by the Emperor was +natural enough, which was that all the Spanish galley-slaves in the +fleet of Andrea should be released and their places taken by men of +other nationalities. This was of course conceded, and the transaction +was complete. Henceforward the most formidable force at sea on the +Christian side was at the disposal of the Spanish King. + +This transference took place in the year 1528, and it was in the same +year that the citizens of Genoa, in recognition of the unexampled +services of the admiral to the State, elected him perpetual Doge. + +This honour Doria declined, declaring that it was more glorious to have +deserved than to possess the honour, and that he considered he could be +of more use to his fellow citizens by gaining for them the protection +of great princes than by remaining as chief judge in his own country. + +The Senate of Genoa, astonished by his noble modesty, hailed him as +the father and liberator of his country, ordered that a statue of him +should be erected in the public square, that in the same place a palace +should be built for him at the public expense, and that it should be +called Plaza Doria; further, that he and his posterity should be +for ever exempted from taxation, and that a device should be engraved +on a plate of copper and attached to the walls of the palace, where it +could be seen of all men, announcing to posterity the services that +this great man had rendered to his fellow citizens, to be for ever a +memorial of their gratitude. + +The chronicler of these events draws a parallel between Doria and +Themistocles, who, when discontented with the Athenians, passed into +Persia and offered his services to Xerxes, to the great joy of that +monarch, who cried aloud, “I have Themistocles, I have Themistocles.” + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE APOTHEOSIS OF THE CORSAIR KING + + +If Charles V. made no such outward manifestation of his joy as did the +Persian monarch, he possibly was no less pleased than Xerxes; this he +showed by his acts, and the value that he attached to the services of +Doria was instanced in the directions which he gave. He ordered the +Governors of all his possessions in Italy to do nothing without first +consulting the admiral; to lend him prompt aid, whether he demanded +it in his own name or in that of the Republic of Genoa. He made him +Admiralissimo of his navy, with power to act as he liked without even +consulting him, as his Emperor. It will be seen that Charles had in him +sufficient greatness to trust whole-heartedly when he trusted at all; +the faith which he reposed in the Genoese seaman was amply justified +by events, and no action of his during the whole of his singularly +dramatic reign was ever to result so entirely to his profit. When in +after-life Charles had received from the Pope the Imperial Crown, and +when, on his return, he put into Aigues-Mortes in Doria’s galley, he +there met with Francis, who, in a burst to confidence, advised the +Cæsar never to part with his admiral. + +On that stage, which was the blue waters of the tideless sea, we +shall, from this time forward, watch the fortunes of those two great +sea-captains, Andrea Doria and Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa. With them the +ebb and flow of conquest and defeat alternated. Great as was the one, +it cannot be said that he was greater than the other; but when the +supreme arbitrament was within the grasp of both, as it was at the +naval battle of Prevesa, neither the Christian admiral nor the Moslem +corsair would reach out his hand and grasp the nettle of his fate. +Hesitation at this moment, when, in the fulness of time, the rivals +stood face to face with arms in their hands, was the last thing that +would have been expected of such dauntless warriors, such born leaders +of men! and the battle of Prevesa presents a psychological problem +of the most baffling and perplexing description. We are, however, +anticipating events which will fall into their proper sequence as we +proceed. + +Kheyr-ed-Din, now firmly established in Algiers, devoted his energies +to the undoing of his Christian foes by the systematic plunder of their +merchant-vessels. At this period he, personally, seems to have remained +ashore, and sent his young and aspiring captains to sea to increase his +wealth by plunder, his consequence by the hordes of slaves which they +swept into the awful bagnios of Algiers; and Sandoval, that quaint and +delightful historian, is moved to indignation and complains with much +acrimony of “las malas obras que este corsario hizo a la Christiandad” +(the evil deeds done to Christianity by this corsair). These were on +so considerable a scale at this time that he had to devote to them far +more space than he considered consonant with the dignity of history. + +But if all were going on well on the coast of Africa for the Crescent, +such was far from being the case in the northern waters of the +Mediterranean; for Andrea Doria, serving His Most Catholic Majesty at +sea, had defeated the Turks at Patras and again in the Dardanelles, +which unpleasant fact caused no little annoyance to Soliman the +Magnificent. On land the Sultan was sweeping all before him; at sea +this pestilent Genoese was dragging into servitude all the best +mariners who sailed beneath the banner of the Prophet. There was +wrath and there was fear at Constantinople, and the captains of the +galleys which sailed from the Golden Horn felt that their heads and +their bodies might at any moment part company—the Grand Turk was in +an ill humour, which might at any moment call for the appeasement of +sacrifice; so it was that men trembled. + +It was at this time, in 1533, that Soliman bethought himself of +Kheyr-ed-Din. There was no better seaman, there was no fiercer fighter, +there was no man whose name was so renowned throughout the length and +breadth of the Mediterranean, than was that of the corsair king who was +vassal to the Sublime Porte. Soliman was confronted with a new, and, to +him, an almost mysterious thing, for the onward conquering step of the +Moslem hosts was being checked by that sea-power so little understanded +of the Turk, and the imperious will of the Sultan seemed powerless to +prevent the disasters conjured from the deep. + +[Illustration: SOLIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT.] + +Soliman the Magnificent, who was not inaptly described by this title, +for he was successful as both warrior and statesman, meditated both +long and anxiously on the new development of affairs before he made up +his mind to the step of calling to his assistance the corsair king. But +he possessed that truest attribute of greatness in a ruler, the faculty +of discerning the right man for any particular post. Brave and reckless +fighters he possessed in super-abundance, but somehow—somehow—none of +these fiery warriors had that habit of the sea which enabled them to +make head against such a past-master in the craft of the seaman as +Andrea Doria. The Genoese was chasing the Turkish galleys from off the +face of the waters. Constantinople itself was a sea-surrounded city; it +was necessary that a check should be administered to the arms of the +Christians on this element. It is easy to imagine the preoccupations +of the Turkish monarch. The despot rules by force, but he also holds +his power by the address with which it is wielded, and he can by no +means afford to disregard his personal popularity if he is to make the +best use of his fighting men in such a turbulent epoch as was the first +half of the sixteenth century. Soliman had the wit to know that he had +no mariner who was in any way comparable to Doria; he was also aware +that Kheyr-ed-Din had risen from nothing to his present position by his +sheer ability as a seaman. It would appear, therefore, a very natural +thing that he should invite the co-operation of the King of Algiers, +but that with which he had to reckon was the furious jealousy that such +an appointment must inevitably arouse among his own subjects. + +It says much for the steadfast moral courage of the man that he +eventually decided to take the risk; it says even more for the absolute +correctness of his judgment that he never afterwards repented of the +step which he then took. + +Once the mind of the Grand Turk was made up he hesitated no longer. The +Capitan de Rodas, one of his personal guard, was sent to Barbarossa to +request him to come to Constantinople and take command of the Ottoman +fleet. There were no conditions attached; the honour was supreme. +Barbarossa loaded the messenger with rich gifts, and overwhelmed him +with honours. For Kheyr-ed-Din this was in a sense the apotheosis of +his career. The Grand Turk, the head of the Mohammedan religion, had +not only recognised his kingship, but had conferred on him an honour +unprecedented, unlooked for, and one of the highest value to a man of +such an insatiable ambition. Into the cool and crafty brain of this +prince among schemers instantly sprang the thought that now at last his +kingdom was secure, that in future the whole of the Barbary coast would +own no other lord than he. + +Preparations for the voyage were immediately begun, and, as an earnest +of the new importance which he derived from the advances of Soliman, +the corsair actually sent presents to the King of France and proffered +him his aid against his enemies. To such a pass as this had one of the +most powerful monarchs in Christendom been reduced by the defection of +Andrea Doria. Algiers he left in the keeping of his son Hassan, and +in charge of Hassan his kinsman Celebi Rabadan and a captain of the +name of Agi. In the middle of August, 1533, Barbarossa left Algiers, +his fleet consisting of seven galleys and eleven fustas. Sailing +northward, he fell in with a fleet which he at first feared was that +of Doria, but which, fortunately for him, was that of a corsair named +Delizuff from Los Gelues. Courtesies were interchanged between the two +leaders, and Barbarossa succeeded in persuading Delizuff to accompany +him to Sicily, where it was possible they might fall in with Doria, and +with their combined forces inflict defeat upon the Christian admiral. +Delizuff was nothing loath to join forces with so noted a commander as +Kheyr-ed-Din, as he had no desire to tackle Doria single-handed, and at +the same time wished to extend the sphere of his plunderings, which had +been cruelly restricted recently by the wholesome fear instilled into +the Sea-wolves by the new admiral of Charles V. + +Accordingly, reinforced by the fifteen fustas and one galley of +Delizuff, the Algerian fleet once more proceeded on its voyage. +Although bound for Constantinople at the request of Soliman, at a time +when it would have been thought that delay was not only dangerous but +impolitic, and although the corsair was endeavouring to merge the +pirate in the king who dealt on terms of equality with those whom +he now regarded as his brother monarchs, still the old instinct of +robbery was too strong to be resisted; the lust of gain and the call +of adventure were still inherent in the man whose famous beard was now +far more white than red. Advancing age had not tamed the spirit nor +weakened the frame of this leader among the Moslems. + +Sailing through the Straits of Bonifacio, they touched Monte Cristo, +a small island where they found a slave who had formerly belonged to +Delizuff. This man was base enough to betray his own native island +of Biba into the hands of the corsairs, who sacked it thoroughly and +carried off its inhabitants; they also captured thirteen large ships +going to Sicily for wheat, and burnt them, making slaves of their +crews. In the fight with these vessels Delizuff was killed. Shortly +after this, some disagreement arising between the crews of the ships +of Barbarossa and the men in Delizuff’s fleet, the Algerian commander +seized a man out of one of Delizuff’s galleys and had him summarily +shot. The death of Delizuff naturally caused some confusion in his +command, and the high-handed proceeding of Kheyr-ed-Din caused great +resentment, not unmixed with fear, as the terror inspired by the +Barbarossas was a very real sentiment. Under their command no man knew +when or at how short notice his life might not be required of him; +but the glamour of success was ever around them, and they never, in +consequence, lacked for followers. But the taking out and shooting of +one of their comrades was too much for the pirates from the islands of +Los Gelues, from whence Delizuff was in the habit of “operating.” In +the words of Sandoval, “they were not used to such tyranny and cruel +usage.” In consequence they concerted among themselves and one dark +night sailed off, leaving Kheyr-ed-Din to continue his voyage with +his original following. + +That warrior, nothing disconcerted, pursued his way to the island of +Zante, where he fell in with a Turkish “flota,” under the command +of the Bashas Zay and Himeral. To these officers of the Grand Turk +Barbarossa used most injurious language, bitterly reproaching them with +not having sought out and destroyed Andrea Doria, which he declared +they ought to and should have done. This is yet another instance of +the extraordinary character of the man. These persons were the highest +officers in the fleet of the Ottoman Empire; it was more than possible +that they would be placed under the command of Barbarossa as soon as +his new position as Admiralissimo was adjusted at Constantinople; and +yet, in spite of these facts, the corsair had taken the very first +opportunity which presented itself grossly to insult these men. It is +true, as we shall see, that his injurious words came home to roost in +the future; but arrogant, conquering, contemptuous, Barbarossa seems to +have shouldered his way through life, fearing none and feared by all. + +The fact of his known cruelty accounts for much of the dread which he +inspired, but it was something far more than this which caused the son +of the Albanian renegado to ride roughshod as he did over all with whom +he was brought into contact. Men felt, in dealing with Barbarossa, +that here was a rock against which they might dash themselves in vain. +In all his enterprises he spared not himself. He asked no man to do +that which he was not prepared to do, but if any failed him there +was no mercy for that man; and, although in deference to modern +susceptibility no mention is made of the tortures he so frequently +caused to be inflicted on his victims, they were none the less a daily +spectacle to those who lived under his rule. He possessed, it is true, +the rough geniality of the fighting man, a certain “Hail fellow, well +met!” manner in greeting old comrades, and yet none of these men there +were who did not tremble in an agony of fear when the bushy brows were +bent, when the famous red beard bristled in one of his uncontrollable +furies. The real secret of his success must have been that, no matter +how uncontrollable did his passions appear to be, the man was always +really master of himself. Further, he possessed a marvellous insight as +to where his own interests lay. He used as his tools the bodies and the +minds of the men who were subject to him, and he carried his designs to +an assured success by the aid of that penetrating, far-seeing mental +power with which, above all else, he must have been gifted. He could +drive men, he could lead them, he could invariably persuade when all +else failed him. In this we have had an instance when he was chased +from Algiers by the combined efforts of Venalcadi and Hassan, whom he +had flogged; for no sooner did he meet with other corsairs than he +persuaded them to take up his quarrel—which, it must be understood, was +none of theirs—and to replace him on that precarious throne from which +he had been so rudely thrust. We have already said that he was a man +who never knew when he was beaten, and in the years which we have yet +to chronicle this characteristic appears again and again; for age +had no effect apparently, either mentally or physically, on this man of +iron who had by this time reached the age of seventy-seven. + +Leaving the high officers of his future master, the Grand Turk, +smarting under the opprobrium which he had heaped upon their heads, +Barbarossa fared onward with his fleet to Salonica, capturing a +Venetian galley on the voyage: from thence he made his way to the +Dardanelles, where he anchored and remained several days, to make ready +his fleet for the spectacular entry which he intended to make into +Constantinople. + +The city on the Golden Horn was all agog for the arrival of Barbarossa; +no matter what private opinions the inhabitants might have had +concerning him, of which we shall hear more presently, they were none +the less all curious to a degree to catch sight of this man, so famous +in his evil supremacy on that distant shore of Northern Africa. + +Kheyr-ed-Din, among his other qualities, possessed in the highest +degree that of a successful stage-manager; no pageant which he +undertook was ever likely to fail from the want of the striking and +the dramatic. It was now his business to impress the citizens of +Constantinople with an idea of his greatness, and none knew better +than he that it is the outward and visible sign which counts among +the orientals, more perhaps than the inward and spiritual grace: he +may also possibly have felt that he did not possess the latter to any +overwhelming extent. + +Even before he left Algiers this entry to the chief city of the +Ottoman Empire had been in the mind of Barbarossa, who had caused to +be embarked a quantity of flags and pennons for the decoration of +his grim war-galleys when they should stream into the Golden Horn. +There were also bands of music, which, it is to be presumed, utilised +the delay in the Dardanelles to attain to something like “a concord of +sweet sounds,” as the incidents of the voyage from Algiers, so far, +had hardly been conducive to much time to spare for band-practice. The +galleys were scrubbed and gaily painted; round the ship of Kheyr-ed-Din +ran a broad streak of gold on the outer planking to denote the presence +of a King of Algiers, and at last all was ready. The fleet weighed +anchor, and, with banners flying and bands playing, entered the +harbour. The shores were black with spectators; even the Sultan himself +deigned to look forth on the coming of the man from whom he expected +such great things. + +Ceremonial was the order of the day. Soliman the Magnificent was too +wise a man not to know what was being said in his capital that day; +it was his part to accustom the minds of men to the fact that he, +Soliman, had chosen Barbarossa to command his fleet, and that there +could be no looking back. The decree had been signed, the invitation +had been sent, the man had arrived, there could be no possible retreat +from the situation. The anchors splashed into the placid waters close +to the shore, and the ships were soon so surrounded by boats as to be +almost unapproachable; then came official persons from the Sultan with +greetings to the famous seaman; also came Bashas and officers (“con +carga de guerra,” says Sandoval), to offer a welcome and to stare +in undisguised curiosity at the man chosen by their sovereign to +make head against the famous Andrea Doria. This preliminary courtesy +completed, there came the next act in the drama, which consisted in the +immemorial custom of the East in the offering of gifts from Barbarossa +to the Sultan, from the vassal to his suzerain. The Janissaries, +splendid in scarlet and gold, tall above the ordinary stature of man, +bristling with weapons inlaid in gold and silver, cleared the common +vulgar from the streets approaching the palace of the Sultan; they +formed the spearhead of the procession clearing a way for the King +of Algiers, who, mounted on a splendid bay stallion, the gift of the +Sultan on his arrival, headed the captives who bore the gifts. Of these +the exact number is not stated, but the procession was headed by two +hundred women and girls, each of whom carried in her hand a gift of +gold or silver; one hundred camels were loaded with silks and golden +ornaments, and other “curious riches” (“con otras mil cosas de que hizo +ostentacion”), says Sandoval. There were also lions and other animals, +brocades and rich garments. + +All of this reads no doubt somewhat too like the tales in the “Arabian +Nights”; but we have to remember that, if you have led a long and +eminently successful life as a robber, you have necessarily accumulated +a store of riches. In the case of Barbarossa he had begun in extreme +youth, and was now an old man; he had been quite in the wholesale way +as a thief, and now desired to pay a good price for that which he +coveted, namely, the post of Admiralissimo to the Grand Turk. It may +be objected that he had already been offered and had already accepted +the post; this is quite true, but there were certain conventions to +be fulfilled on the side of the recipient of the bounty of the Sultan +quite understood on both sides, although no word had passed on the +subject. In those days the man who desired the favour of an Eastern +potentate never dreamed of approaching him empty-handed, and the more +liberal that he was in the matter of gifts the greater was the favour +with which he was regarded. Therefore the principle acted upon by +Kheyr-ed-Din on this occasion was both wise and politic; that is to +say, he placed certain of his riches in a perfectly sound investment, +certain to yield him an admirable percentage, not only in added +personal prestige, but also in the placing under his command of such a +force as he had never before commanded, with unlimited opportunities +of preying on the detested Christian on a far larger scale than it had +ever been his good fortune to do before. + +The Sultan Soliman was not called “the Magnificent” without just cause; +his life was splendid in its social prodigality, as it was in war and +in statesmanship; yet even he was somewhat astonished at the amazing +richness of the gifts which were laid at his feet by a man whom he knew +to be, in spite of the kingly title which he had assumed, merely a +rover of the sea. Therefore, in spite of himself, he was impressed. To +him, it is true, in his splendour and magnificence, the intrinsic value +of that which was brought to him by Barbarossa mattered but little; but +the fact that the corsair was in a position to do so opened the eyes +of the Sultan to the manner of man with whom he had to deal. Hitherto +he had but known of him by hearsay, as the one Moslem seaman who +was likely to be capable of making a stand against the terrible Doria, +who had now become the plague of the Sultan’s existence. He now knew +that the man who disposed of such incredible riches must be, no matter +what his moral character, a man who stood a head and shoulders over any +commander in the Ottoman fleet sailing out of the Golden Horn. + +Both materially and psychologically this man somewhat bewildered the +despot: and his _alter ego_, the Grand Vizier, happening to be away on a +mission to Aleppo, Soliman had no one with whom to confer in a strictly +confidential manner; for, after the manner of autocrats, he had but +few familiars, in fact it may be said none at all save the statesman +mentioned. His reception of the corsair lacked, however, nothing in +cordiality. He inquired after the incidents of the voyage, interested +himself graciously in all that he was told concerning Africa and the +conflicting claims of Christian and Moslem in that region, and was +generally courteous to his distinguished visitor. He placed at his +disposal a palace and attendants on a scale commensurate with the state +of a reigning sovereign, and sent his most distinguished generals to +confer with Kheyr-ed-Din. The latter, for the first time in his life, +was thoroughly out of his element. His had been the life of the seaman +and the soldier to begin with, and of later years that of a rude and +unquestioned despot on a savage coast, surrounded by myrmidons to whom +his voice had been as the voice of a god. Never had it been his lot +before to dwell within the limits of such a comparative civilisation +as that which obtained in Constantinople at this date; never before +had it been necessary for him to restrain that naturally fiery and +impetuous temper of his and to speak all men fairly. + +The strain must have been great, the effort enormous, and he knew, +as he was bound to know, that his coming had unloosed jealousies and +heart-searchings innumerable, with which he could not deal in the usual +drastic fashion common to him. The winter was coming on, which was, +as we have before remarked, very much of a close season both for the +pirate and the honest merchant seaman. In consequence there was not +very much chance against the foes of Soliman for the present. When that +opportunity offered he promised himself that the courtiers and the +soldiers of the Grand Turk would very soon discover that the fame of +Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa was no empty matter, and that there existed no +seaman in all the Ottoman dominions with whom they could compare the +“African pirate,” as he had reason to believe that he was scornfully +called behind his back. + +A weaker man would have been daunted by his surroundings, by the +manifestly unfriendly atmosphere in which he lived, and by the dread +that perhaps, after all, Soliman might go back upon his word. There +were no lack of counsellors, he knew very well, who would advise the +Sultan to his undoing, if that monarch gave them the opportunity; +and, as time passed, so his anxiety grew. Soliman also could not have +felt particularly comfortable at this juncture, with a sullen spirit +possessing his men “con carga de guerra,” bitterly resenting the +step which he had taken, and the appointment which he had made. For +the present, however, he made no sign, treating Kheyr-ed-Din with +distinguished courtesy, but making no reference to the future. Soliman +was revolving the problem in his acute mind, doubtless weighing the +unpopularity of the step which he had taken against the services likely +to be rendered to him by his strange guest. And thus several weeks +passed at Constantinople, probably amongst the most trying of all those +in the unusually prolonged life of Kheyr-ed-Din. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE RAID ON THE COAST OF ITALY; JULIA GONZAGA + + +The Grand Turk had spoken, the appointment had been made, Barbarossa +had arrived; but though autocrats can cause their mandate to be obeyed, +they cannot constrain the inward workings of the minds of men. In +spite of the awe in which Soliman the Magnificent was held, there +were murmurs of discontent in the capital of Islam. The Sultan had +been advised to make Barbarossa his Admiralissimo by his Grand Vizier +Ibrahim, who was, as we have said, his alter ego. This great man had +risen from the humblest of all positions, that of a slave, to the giddy +eminence to which he had now attained by the sheer strength of his +intellect and personality. The Grand Vizier it was who had pointed out +to his master that which was lacking in the Ottoman navy: brave men +and desperate fighters he had in plenty, but the seaman who cleared +the Golden Horn and made his way through the archipelago into the open +sea beyond had forces with which to contend against which mere valour +was but of small avail. Out there, somewhere behind the blue line of +the horizon, did Andrea Doria lie in wait; and if the Moslem seaman +should escape the clutches of the admiral of the Christian Emperor, +were there not those others, the Knights of Malta, who, under the +leadership of Villiers de L’lsle Adam, swept the tideless sea in an +unceasing and relentless hostility to every nef, fusta, and galley +which flew the flag of the Prophet? + +It had come to a pass when the Ottoman fighting man was by no means +anxious to go to sea. He was still as brave as those marvellous +fanatics of seven centuries before, who, in the name of God and of +His Prophet Mahomet, had swept all opposition aside from the path of +Islam, had conquered and proselytised in a manner never paralleled +in the world before. At the call of the Padishah, for the honour of +the Prophet, the sons of Islam were as ready to march and to fight as +had ever been the warriors of the earlier Caliphs. But they had ever +been soldiers; the habit of the sea was not theirs, and they found +that, time after time, such sea-enterprises as they did undertake were +shattered by the genius of Doria, or broken into fragments by the +reckless, calculating assaults of the knights. And so it came about +that there was but little heart in the navy of the Padishah, and those +who served therein had but slight confidence in those by whom they +were led. To use a metaphor from the cricket-field, it was time “to +stop the rot” by sending in a really strong player. He was not to be +found within the confines of orthodox Islam, and must be imported from +outside. + +The man had been found; could he be forced on an unwilling and +discontented populace? + +Who, it was asked in Constantinople, was this man who had been called +in to command the ships of the Ottomans at sea? They answered their own +question, and said that he was a lawless man, a corsair: were there not +good seamen and valiant men-at-arms like the Bashas Zay and Himeral, +who should be preferred before him; this man who had come from the ends +of the earth, and of whom nobody knew anything good? Again, could he be +trusted? Something of the history of the Barbarossas had penetrated to +the capital of Turkey, and it was known that scrupulous adherence to +their engagements had not always characterised the brothers: who should +say that he might not carry off the galleys of the Grand Turk on some +marauding expedition designed for his own aggrandisement? There was yet +more to be urged against him: not only was he infamous in character, +but he was no true Mussulman, for had not his father been a mere +renegado, and—worst of all—had not his mother been a Christian woman? + +It was thus that the talk ran in that blazing autumn in Constantinople. +Naturally there were plenty of persons who carried reports to +Kheyr-ed-Din, and that astute individual soon made up his mind as +to the most advantageous course for him to pursue. With the full +concurrence of the Sultan, he left Constantinople and journeyed to +Aleppo to see Ibrahim. The latter was both cunning and tenacious. +Removed from the capital, the tide of gossip and discontent only +reached him at second-hand; but he was not to be deterred by popular +clamour even had he been in the midst of it. None knew better +than he who and what was Barbarossa; in fact, it may be confidently +asserted that none in Constantinople had anything like the same +knowledge of this man and all that concerned him. Ibrahim had not named +Barbarossa to his sovereign without weighing all the pros and cons of +the matter, and that which was now happening in the capital had been +fully anticipated by him. It pleased the Grand Vizier very much that +Kheyr-ed-Din should take this long journey to see him; not from any +ridiculous idea that this was an act of homage due to the dignity of +his position—Ibrahim was far too great a man for such pettiness—but +because it enabled him to see for himself what manner of man was this +redoubtable pirate on whom he was relying to defeat the enemies of the +Sublime Porte at sea. The corsair must have made the most favourable +impression possible on the Grand Vizier, as that statesman wrote to +Soliman: + + “We have put our hands on a veritable man of the sea. + Name him without hesitation Basha, Member of the Divan, + Captain-General of the Fleet.” + +The Grand Turk had no intention of going back upon the appointment +already made, but he was none the less pleased to receive from his +Vizier so strong an endorsement of his policy; and now the time had +come to stop the mouths of the murmurers and scandal-mongers of +Constantinople. Accordingly he formally recalled Barbarossa from +Aleppo, gave him, with his own hand, a sword and a royal banner, and +invested him with plenary power over all the ports of his kingdoms, +over all the islands owning his jurisdiction, command of all ships, +vessels, and galleys, and of all soldiers, sailors, and slaves therein. +The die was cast, the erstwhile corsair, the son of the renegado of +Mitylene and his Christian wife was henceforward the supreme head of +the Ottoman fleet. + +The following description of the famous corsair may be found +interesting at this juncture. + +Barbarossa was at this time seventy-seven years of age. Courageous +and prudent, he was as far-seeing in war as he was subtle in peace. +A tireless worker, he was, above all things, constant in reverse of +fortune, for no difficulties dismayed him, no dangers had power to +daunt his spirit. His ruddy skin, his bushy eyebrows, his famous red +beard, now plentifully streaked with white, his square, powerful frame, +somewhat inclined to stoutness, above all, his penetrating and piercing +eyes, gave to his aspect a certain terror before which men trembled and +women shrank appalled. + +All this harmonised well with his reputation as a chief so resolute, +so pitiless, that it was the boast of his followers that his very +name shouted in battle put to flight the Christian vessels. His smile +was fine and malicious, his speech facile, revealing beneath the rude +exterior of the corsair the subtle man of affairs, who, from nothing, +had made himself King of Algiers, and was now, by the invitation of +Soliman the Magnificent, Admiralissimo of the Ottoman navy. + +Well may Jurien de la Gravière say that “in the sixteenth century +even the pirates were great men.” + +It has been stated that in speech Barbarossa was facile. He was not +only so, but he possessed a power of addressing such a man as Soliman +in terms which, while delicately flattering that mighty monarch, gave +him also a lead which he might follow in the future disposition of such +power as he possessed at sea. + +On his return from Aleppo Kheyr-ed-Din was received in audience by +the Sultan. We must be pardoned if we give the long speech which he +addressed to his new master in its entirety; and we have to remember +that the man who made it was now an old man who, all his life, had been +absolutely free and untrammelled, owing allegiance to no one, following +out his own caprices, and sweeping out of his path any whom he found +sufficiently daring as to disagree with him. That this ruthless despot +should have been able so to change the whole style and manner of his +address so late in life is only one proof the more of the marvellous +gifts which he possessed. + +It was in the following words that the corsair addressed the Sultan: + + “Dread Sovereign, fortune itself has made it a law + to second you in all your enterprises because that + you are always ready to declare war upon the enemies + of Mahomet the Prophet of God, on whom be peace. You + have extended the limits of your vast possessions, you + have vanquished and slain the King of Hungary, you + have humiliated Charles V., this Emperor with whom the + Christians dare hold you in comparison. These have been + the recompenses received by you for the pure flame + with which your zeal for the religion of Mahomet has ever + burned. + + “But these successes and these triumphs are not capable + of contenting that thirst for glory with which your being + is animated, and I am humbly desirous of indicating to + you the means of culling fresh laurels. Experience has + taught me the way, and I can assert, without fear of + being accused of vanity, that in this matter I can be of + great assistance to your Majesty. + + “That which fortune has done for me in the past that + will it continue to do for me in the future. Age has + not enfeebled me, continual exercise has but rendered + me stronger; I can therefore promise to you the most + ready service both by land and sea. The desire which has + always been mine to persecute the Christians caused me to + conceive the idea of serving in your sea-army. + + “If Heaven is favourable to my vows, the Spaniards will + soon be chased from Africa; the Carthaginians, the Moors, + will soon be your very submissive subjects; Sardinia, + Corsica, Sicily, will obey your will. As for Italy, it + will soon be desolated by famine when I attack it in + formidable force, without fearing that the Christian + Princes will come to its aid. + + “Mahomet II., your illustrious grandfather, formed + the project of conquering this country; he would have + succeeded had he not been carried off by death. If I + counsel you, dread Sovereign, that you should carry war + into Europe and Africa, it is not that I desire your arms + should be turned back in Asia from against the Persians, + the ancient enemies of the Ottomans. I require but your + sea-army, which is no use against the Persians. While you + shall be conquering Asia I shall be subduing Africa. + The first enterprise which I shall undertake will be + against Muley Hassan, the King of Tunis; he has all the + vices and possesses not one single virtue. He is a man of + sordid avarice, of unexampled cruelty; he has rendered + himself odious to the entire human race. + + “He had twenty-two brothers, all of whom he has caused + to be murdered. That which is a common failing among + tyrants is his: he dare not place himself at the head of + his troops. He prefers to endure the outrages which he + suffers at the hands of the Moors to taking up arms and + inflicting upon them a salutary vengeance. He had the + baseness to enter into an alliance with the Spaniards, + and to favour their conquests in Africa. It will be all + the easier for me to exterminate this wild beast because + I have with me his brother, who prayed me to save him + from the cruelty of Muley Hassan. + + “When I besiege Tunis I shall present him to the + inhabitants, who love him as much as they hate Muley + Hassan. They will open their gates to me, and I shall + gain the town without the loss of a single man: it will + be then you who will be master. On my way thither I will + do what harm I can to the Christians; I will endeavour + to defeat Andrea Doria, who is my personal enemy and my + rival in glory: should I succeed in defeating him your + Majesty will possess the empire of the sea. Be then + persuaded, great Prince, by me, and believe that he who + is master of the sea will very shortly become master on + land.” + +It is somewhat difficult to fathom the reasons which induced +Barbarossa to treat Soliman to his sanctimonious diatribe concerning +the King of Tunis; coming, as it did, from a pirate, it was merely +ludicrous, and could not for one instant have deceived the remarkably +shrewd person to whom it was addressed. The corsair stated the facts +correctly, but the reasons which led to an Eastern autocrat disposing +of his family in this manner were so obvious at the time that, if +Soliman felt any emotion at all concerning the event, it was probably +one of admiration! Regarded from the practical, apart from the +sentimental side, what the proposition amounted to was that Barbarossa +should attack a king with whom the Grand Turk had no sort of quarrel, +and that, once his territory had been reft from him, that it should be +handed over to the ruler of Constantinople for the greater glory of the +Sublime Porte. What mental reservations there were on the part of the +corsair we are not told, but had Soliman known him better he would have +been aware that never had Barbarossa pulled any chestnuts from the fire +of life which were not intended for his own eating; and that it was +extremely unlikely, at his time of life, that he was now going to alter +the habits of his long and strenuous career. + +There was one thing, however, that Kheyr-ed-Din was not; he was no +bragger or boaster, and, whatever may have been his mental reservations +in his interview with the Sultan, that which he stated he would do, +that he did. And now the time had come when the grim old Sea-wolf had +done with intrigue and the unaccustomed atmosphere of a Court and went +back to his native element, the sea. + +Soliman, it must be said to his credit, was no man to deal in +half-measures, and when once he had given his trust he gave it +whole-heartedly, generously. In consequence he gave Barbarossa +eighty galleys, eight hundred Janissaries, eight thousand Turkish +soldiers, and eight hundred thousand ducats for expenses (some three +hundred thousand pounds sterling of our money). All the necessary +preparations were carried out under the orders of Barbarossa, who +was given a roving commission to do what seemed best to him for the +advancement of the glory of his master and the discomfiture of his +Christian foes. The commission which he now received was practically +that which had been given by Charles V. to Doria, the most flattering +with which any man can be entrusted, as in his hands were left issues +of peace and war usually only vested in the sovereign. + +All through the early summer of 1534 the dockyards and the arsenals +of Constantinople hummed with the note of preparation; Ibrahim had +returned from Aleppo and threw himself, heart and soul, into these +activities, which meant the sailing of the Ottoman fleet under the +command of “that veritable man of the sea,” Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa. +Stilled were the murmurs of the year before; the corsair, invested with +plenary powers by the Sultan himself, was now in a position to make his +authority felt; added to this, the more sensible of the malcontents had +been won round by the Grand Vizier to the view that as, so far, the +Ottoman navy had been conspicuously unsuccessful at sea, it was just as +well to make use of the most capable Moslem seaman upon whom they could +lay their hands. As to his moral character, that they could afford to +discount, and as to the question of his faithfulness or the reverse, +it was pointed out with irresistible logic by Ibrahim, that never +before had the Sea-wolf had such glorious opportunities of plunder as +now, when he could count ten ships for every one that had followed in +his wake before. + +It was in July 1534 that the Ottoman fleet left Constantinople, and +Kheyr-ed-Din began operations by a descent upon Reggio, which he +sacked. On August 1st he arrived at the Pharos of Messina, where he +burnt some Christian ships and captured their crews; then he worked +north from Reggio to Naples, ravaging the coast and depopulating +the whole littoral, burning villages, destroying ships, enslaving +people. In this expedition he is said to have captured eleven thousand +Christian slaves. There is perhaps nothing more amazing in the whole +history of this epoch than the number of the slaves captured by the +corsairs, and the damnable cruelties exercised upon them; these were, +of course returned by the Christians with interest whenever possible. +As an instance of the treatment to which the slaves were subjected +it is only necessary to mention the course taken by Barbarossa when +he left Algiers in the previous year. There were at that time seven +thousand Christian captives in his power; immediately before starting +he had the entire number paraded before him, and, under the pretext +of having discovered a plot, which in no circumstances could possibly +have existed, owing to the supervision of the slaves, he caused twenty +of them to be beheaded on the spot in order to strike terror into the +remainder during his absence. + +Back to the Golden Horn streamed ship after ship laden with plunder +and with slaves. “The veritable man of the sea” was proving the +correctness of the choice of the Sultan, the acumen of the Grand Vizier +who had recommended his appointment. Barbarossa was determined to leave +nothing undone to prove to Soliman that his choice had indeed been +a worthy one when he had selected him as admiral of his fleet: also +he had in his mind those others who spoke slightingly of him as “the +African pirate”; they should know as well as their master of what this +pirate was capable. Northward the devastating host of Barbarossa took +its way; the fair shores of Italy smoked to heaven as the torches of +the corsairs fired the villages. Blood and agony, torture and despair, +followed ever on the heels of the Sea-wolves of the Mediterranean. And +now a fresh pack had been loosed, as it was, of course, in enormously +increased strength that Barbarossa returned to the scene of so many of +his former triumphs. + +Plunder and slaves were all very well in their way, and acceptable +enough on the shores of the Golden Horn; but Kheyr-ed-Din had a pet +project in view on this particular cruise, which was to capture Julia +Gonzaga and to present her to Soliman for his harem. The lady destined +by him for this pleasant fate was reported to be the loveliest woman +in Europe, a fitting gift for such an one as the Grand Turk. The fame +of her surpassing loveliness had reached even the corsairs. She was +the widow of Vespasian Colonna, Duchess of Trajetto, and Countess of +Fundi; she had now been a widow since 1528, and lived at Fundi, some +ninety miles north-east of Naples. Barbarossa laid his plans with +his accustomed acuteness, and it was only through an accident that they +miscarried. + +There was one undeniable advantage in the system which swept off into +slavery the whole of the inhabitants of a country-side, and that was, +if at any time you required a guide at any particular point on the +coast, he was sure to be forthcoming from one of the vessels in the +fleet. Now Barbarossa did not exactly know where Julia Gonzaga was to +be found, so he set his captains to work to discover the necessary +slave. This was soon accomplished, and there was really no occasion for +a slave on this occasion, as a renegado of Naples knew the castle in +which Julia Gonzaga was residing at the time, and readily agreed to act +as guide to the expedition sent to accomplish her capture. Kheyr-ed-Din +had made a sudden dash along the coast with some of the swiftest of his +galleys for the purposes of this capture. In consequence the people in +Naples and the neighbourhood were not even aware that the piratical +squadron was on the coast before they anchored, as near as it was +practicable to do, to the residence of the Duchess of Trajetto. The +fleet actually arrived after dark, having kept out to sea and out of +sight during the day. + +As soon as the anchors were down a party of two thousand picked men +were landed and marched silently and with all expedition to the castle +of Fundi. The escape of the Duchess was really providential. She had +already gone to bed, and the fierce marauders were actually within the +grounds of the castle before her distracted people became aware of +their presence. But fortunately some among them kept their heads, +and it also so happened that her bed-chamber was the opposite side +of the castle to that by which the pirates approached. A horse was +brought round under the window of the room, and, in her night-dress +with nothing but a shawl wrapped around her, was Julia Gonzaga lowered +out of her window on to the back of her horse. As she galloped for dear +life down the avenue of her home she heard the shrieks of her miserable +household murdered in cold blood by the furious pirates who had thus +been balked of their prey. + +Dire was the vengeance taken by the corsairs. They sacked Fundi and +burned the town; they killed every man on whom they could lay their +hands, and carried off the women and girls to the fleet. + +Kheyr-ed-Din was furious with anger and disappointment. “What is the +value of all this trash?” he demanded, with a thundering oath, of +the commander of the unsuccessful raiders, surveying as he spoke the +miserable, shivering women and girls. “I sent you out to bring back a +pearl without price, and you return with these cattle.” + +Thus balked of his prey, Barbarossa swung his fleet round to the +southward and westward and sailed for Sardinia, where, from the Straits +of Bonifacio to Cape Spartivento, he left no house standing that would +burn, or man alive who was not swept in as a captive. The descent of +the corsairs in force, such as Kheyr-ed-Din now had at his disposal, +was one of the most awful calamities for a country that it is possible +to imagine. When Sardinia had ceased to yield up either booty or +slaves the fleet sailed for Tunis, where it arrived before Bizerta on +August 15th. The arrival of the corsairs was totally unexpected, and +caused the greatest consternation. The story which Barbarossa had told +to Sultan Soliman concerning the reigning King Muley Hassan was correct +in every detail, and there is no doubt that he was a bloody and cruel +tyrant of the worst description. + +Therefore when the wily Barbarossa sent on shore and informed the +sheiks and ulemas of the place that he had come in the name of the head +of the Mohammedan religion to free them from this monster by whom they +were oppressed, and that he intended to place on the throne the brother +of Muley Hassan, Raschid, who had miraculously escaped from the fate +which had overtaken all the other members of his house, the townspeople +were inclined to listen to his advances and to admire the picture which +he drew of the peace and prosperity which would accrue to them should +Raschid, and not Muley Hassan, be on the throne of their country. That +which he inferred in all his dealings with these people was that he had +Raschid with him ready to step into the shoes of his unpopular brother +as soon as the latter should be deposed by a justly indignant populace. +The fact of the matter was that Kheyr-ed-Din had taken the fugitive +prince with him to Constantinople, thinking to make use of him, and +that, when he was sailing, Soliman had absolutely forbidden him to +remove Raschid from his capital. + +Completely deceived, the townspeople allowed the landing of eight +hundred Janissaries. The tyrant, who was, as Barbarossa had told the +Sultan, a craven coward, waited for no further demonstration of force, +but incontinently fled into the interior with such valuables as he +could carry. As soon as this was reported to Barbarossa he landed in +force and entered the town, and then the townspeople noticed that the +soldiers were all shouting for Soliman and for Barbarossa. They then +demanded that Raschid should be produced according to promise, but +naturally he was not forthcoming. Those who had acclaimed the soldiers +of Soliman as liberators now began to arm against them, and they very +shortly discovered, from some Tunisians who had come in the fleet from +Constantinople, that Raschid had been left behind in that city. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +BARCELONA, MAY 1535; THE GATHERING OF THE CHRISTIAN HOSTS + + +Some idea of the terror inspired by the actions of the Sea-wolves at +this date is contained in the following extract from “The Golden Age of +the Renaissance,” by Lanciani: + + “The Bastione del Belvedere, which towers in frowning + greatness at the north-east end of the Vatican Garden and + commands the approach to the Borgo from the upper-end + valley of the Tiber, was begun by Antonio de Sangullo + the younger, and finished by Michel Angelo after the + death of Antonio, which took place on September 30th, + 1546. This great piece of military engineering must not + be considered by itself, but as a part of a great scheme + of defence conceived by Paul III, to protect the city + against a hostile invasion from the sea. The Pope could + not forget that, in August 1534, the fleet of infidels + commanded by Barbarossa had cast anchor at the mouth of + the Tiber to renew its supply of water, and that if its + leader had thought fit they could have stormed, sacked, + and plundered the city, and carried off the Pope himself + into slavery without any possibility of defence on the + Christian side. This point has not been taken into due + consideration by modern writers; the fortifications of + Rome, designed or begun or finished at the time of + Paul III., have nothing to do with the sack of 1527, with + the Connétable de Bourbon, or with the Emperor Charles V. + All the bastions, that of the Belvedere excepted, point + towards the sea-coast, which was perpetually harried and + terrified by Turkish or Barbary pirates. These would + appear with lightning-like rapidity in more than one + place at a time, and carry off as many unfortunate men, + women, and children as they could collect.... To prevent + the recurrence of such disasters the sea-coast was lined + with watch-towers, the guns of which could warn the + peasants of the approach of suspicious vessels.” + +That Paul III. had good warrant for the precautions which he designed +to take is not only instanced by the fact of Barbarossa anchoring in +the mouth of the Tiber on the occasion of the raid with which we are +at present concerned, but from what had occurred to his predecessor on +the Papal throne in 1516. Pope Leo, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, +was accustomed to leave Rome in the autumn for hunting, and fishing in +the sea, of which latter pastime he was particularly fond. One of his +favourite resorts was the castle of Magliana, five miles from Rome, +on the banks of the Tiber. On September 18th, 1516, he left Rome and +proceeded to Civita Lavinia, on the Laurentian coast. Here he was +waited for by the corsair Curtogali, who, with fifteen ships off the +coast and an ambush on shore, was ready to carry him off. Curtogali is +supposed to have derived his information as to the movements of the +Pope from some traitor about the Papal Court who desired the downfall +of “the fatal House of Medici.” + +Some one, however, warned the Pope, who fled, accompanied by his +retinue, at a headlong gallop to Rome, never drawing bridle until he +reached the safe seclusion of the Vatican. + +We must now return, however, to that eagle who fluttered so sorely the +dovecotes, both Christian and Moslem, and whose loudly proclaimed faith +in the Prophet never permitted his religion to stand inconveniently +in the way of his material advancement in the world. The soldiers +and sailors of the corsair entered Bizerta shouting for Soliman and +Barbarossa. There was no mention of Raschid, that Prince of the Hafsit +dynasty, whom Kheyr-ed-Din had declared to the townspeople he had +come to restore to the throne of his ancestors. Too late the town +sprang to arms, under a chief named Abdahar, and in the first instance +accomplished a considerable success. Barbarossa’s men were unprepared, +and a number of them were slain. Driven into a bastion of the walls, +a party of the corsairs were desperately defending themselves, when +one Baetio, a Spanish renegado, discovered that a cannon behind them +pointing seawards was loaded. He succeeded, with the assistance of +others, in slewing it round and discharged it at close quarters into +the packed masses of the enemy. This caused a frightful demoralisation +to set in; the corsairs rallied and soon swept all before them. The +massacre turned from the one side to the other, and it is said that no +less than three thousand of the unfortunate townspeople were slain. +Barbarossa only called off his men when they were wearied out by the +slaughter. + +Kheyr-ed-Din now graciously accepted the submission of the +townsfolk; that is to say, such of them as were left, and took charge +of the entire kingdom as governor for the Sultan of Turkey. He sent +out ambassadors to the neighbouring Arab and Berber chieftains of +the hinterland, repaired fortifications, appointed magistrates—all +ostensibly in the name of that phantom prince whom the Tunisians were +destined never to see, and who never returned to his native country. + +King of Algiers, _de facto_ King of Tunis, Admiralissimo to Soliman the +Magnificent, his name a portent in Christendom, his fame reaching from +Spartel to Tunis, and from the shores of France to the foothills of the +Atlas, Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa was at the height of his power. Never +before had a corsair risen to such eminence, never again was there +destined to be so magnificent a sea-robber. Thus it was that the year +1535 opened gloomily for all those Powers whose coasts were washed by +the tideless sea. Italy, torn and bleeding, her strong men slain, her +fairest matrons and maids carried off into the most odious captivity, +was lamenting the terrible fate to which she had been exposed by the +raids of the pirate admiral. In Catalonia, in Genoa, in Venice, along +what is now known as the Riviera, men trembled and women wept; for who +could say that it might not be upon them that the next thunderbolt +might fall? In Venice taxation was raised to the breaking strain +to provide galleys wherewith to combat the foe, while the Genoese +fortified their coasts and poured out money like water upon arms, +armaments, and ammunition. Says Sandoval: + +“Desde el Estrecho de Meçina hasta el de Gibraltar ninguno de la parte +de Europa pudiera tomer comida ni sueño seguro de lo que viviera en las +riberas del mar.” (From the Straits of Messina to those of Gibraltar +none living in Europe on the shores of the sea were able to eat in +peace or to sleep with any sense of security.) + +The Emperor Charles V. was roused to action, stung by the intolerable +humiliation of the position into which he had been placed by a mere +corsair. + +King of Sicily, Naples, and Spain, as well as Emperor of Germany, in +any direction he might turn he would find a trail of blood and fire +over the fair face of his dominions in the Mediterranean. Although it +might gall his pride to admit that his enemy was formidable, Charles +was too wise a man, too experienced a warrior to underrate his foe. +He repaired the fortifications of Naples and Sicily at great cost: +he wrote letters to the Pope, to Andrea Doria, to the Viceroys of +Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, to the Marquis de Vasto, and Antonio de +Leyva to collect all the arms and munitions necessary for the attack +on Barbarossa. He sent orders to Don Luis Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis +de Mondejar, Captain-General of the Kingdom of Granada, to collect +money and to have men ready in the ports of Andalusia. He gave orders +for eight thousand German soldiers to hold themselves in readiness; +these were to be joined by the veterans of Coron and Naples, which +body counted four thousand more; in Italy he also raised another eight +thousand men. All this was done under the seal of secrecy, which the +Emperor most peremptorily ordered was to be observed. + +But news travelled in the first half of the sixteenth century, although +newspapers, war correspondents, and telegraphs were not; when all +the feudatories of the greatest king in Christendom were busy it was +impossible for the matter to remain hidden. Even had it been within +the range of possibility to conceal what was going on there was one +circumstance which would have rendered all effort to this end nugatory. +Charles had invited Francis of France to join in this holy war against +the scourge of Christendom: not only did Francis refuse to join, but +he had the incredible baseness to betray the scheme to Barbarossa. +It would be pleasanter to think that some mistake had been made in +this matter, but unfortunately it is beyond dispute, as the facts +have been placed on record by Sandoval, whose history, it must be +remembered, was published in 1614. In this matter he is quite precise, +as he states that a “Clerigo Francese,” one Monsieur de Floreta, was +sent with despatches from Francis to Barbarossa at Tunis, and that +this treacherous envoy from Christendom gave the corsair king all the +available information that he had been able to collect before starting. + +This was typical of that “Golden Age of the Renaissance” in which it +took place; when real devotion to all arts, sciences, and amenities of +a higher civilisation went hand in hand with crime of the vilest and +treachery of the basest description. Well might Barbarossa, and such as +he, laugh to scorn the pretension that his Christian enemies were +one whit better than were they, when they could point to the fact that, +to serve a private revenge, a great Christian king could betray his +co-religionists to their Moslem foes. Shamelessly did the Sea-wolves +seek their prey wherever it was to be found; their methods were +villanous and seemingly without excuse, but, after all, there was some +colour, some shadow of right in what they did, for their argument was +that they were merely getting back from Christendom that which had been +reft from them in the near past in the kingdoms of Còrdova and Granada. +But who shall find excuse for the Christian kings, governors, and +princes at this epoch? They sought their prey no less ravenously than +did the pirates, and with just about the same amount of justification: +witness the sacking of Rome by Charles V. in 1527, and the unexampled +act of treachery just recorded of Francis of France. + +Kheyr-ed-Din had lived all his turbulent life among wars and rumours +of wars: the head of the tiller, the hilt of the scimitar, the butt of +the arquebus, had been in his hand since early youth; bloodshed and +strife were the atmosphere in which he lived and breathed. Desperate +adventures by land and sea had been his ever since he could remember; +there was no hazard that he had not run, no peril which he had not +dared. But now even he, the veteran of far more than one hundred +fights, was grave and preoccupied when he considered the greatness, +the imminence of his peril. The “Clerigo Francese” had put him in +possession of the fact that Carlos Quinto was exerting all his strength +for the combat which was to come; and Barbarossa was far too old +a fighter, far too wise a warrior, to underrate by one soldier or by +one galley the forces that the Emperor could put into line against +him; from far and near his foes were gathering for his destruction, +and he did not deceive himself in the least as to what the fate of his +followers and himself would be should the Christian hosts be victorious. + +But, nevertheless, such an emergency as this found the man at his +best: ready to take fortune at the flood when she smiled upon him, +he was perhaps at his very greatest in adversity; and when all +around him trembled and paid one of their infrequent visits to the +Mosque to implore the aid of the Prophet, the veteran corsair was +coolly reviewing the situation, seeking a way to weather the tempest +before which lesser men shrank appalled, declaring that the end had +come. The storm was coming in a squall of such violence as even he +had never before experienced, but, thanks to his friend the King of +France, he had been forewarned. He sent at once to his master, Soliman +the Magnificent, at Constantinople, to impart to him the direful +intelligence; then the bagnios were thrown open, and, under pitiless +lash and scourge, the Christian captives toiled from dawn till dark +to repair the fortifications of Tunis. Silent and unapproachable, +conferring with none, the grim old Sea-wolf sat in his palace +overlooking the bay and considered the question of whether he should +give battle by land or sea when the time came. If it were possible, +he came to the conclusion that it should be the latter; he had been +evicted from his kingdom on land once before, but he knew that in +the open ocean few cared to face Barbarossa, and he might fall on Doria +first and the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem second if matters +turned out favourably for him. In any case, he must summon all the aid +that was possible. + +East and west flew the galleys of Kheyr-ed-Din, scudding before the +wind if that were favourable, or churning the surface of the sea with +straining, strenuous oars should the wind be foul or a calm prevail. + +It was an appeal for aid to the Moslem corsairs from Algiers, from +Tlemcen, from Oran, from Los Gelues (or Jerbah), and from all the +countless islands of the Archipelago, where they lurked to seize +their prey—Tunis, which flew the Crescent flag of the Prophet, was in +danger—let them rally against the grandson of the man who expelled the +Moors from Spain. + +Grim and sinister, the corsairs came flocking to the standard of +Barbarossa. Well they knew that, should he fall, it was but a matter +of time for them all to be chased from off the face of the waters. Of +cohesion there was but little among them, and, in spite of the bond +of a common religion and a common hatred of the Christian, they were +swayed far more by a lust for plunder than by such considerations as +these. In times of imminent danger, however, men naturally crave for +a leader, and in piratical circles all was now subordinated to the +instinct of self-preservation. + +Meanwhile, in Christendom their great enemy was maturing his plans. +To the Marquis de Cañete, Viceroy and Captain-General of the Kingdom +of Navarre, Charles wrote, confiding to his care the charge of +the Empress, with instructions that her orders were to be implicitly +obeyed during his absence. Having done this he journeyed to Barcelona, +at which city he arrived on April 8th, 1535. Here he was immediately +joined by the armada of Portugal—twenty caravelas raised, armed, and +paid for by the King, Don Juan of Portugal. This fleet was commanded by +the Infante Don Luis, brother to the Empress, and carried on board the +vessels of which it was composed a whole host of nobles and gentlemen +of quality, who had come to fight under the approving eyes of the Cæsar +of the modern world. + +On May 1st came Andrea Doria with twenty-two galleys, and those already +in the harbour crowded the sides of their vessels to watch the arrival +of the famous Genoese seaman. + +Four abreast in stately procession the great galleys swept into +the harbour. With that love of “spectacle” so inherent in the +southern nature, everything was done to ensure the military pomp and +circumstance of the coming of the first sea-commander of the Emperor. +At first with furious haste, and then slowing down to make the approach +more stately, the fleet of Andrea moved on. From mast and yard and +jackstaff of the galleys of the admiral floated twenty-four great +banners of silk and gold embroidered with the arms of the Emperor, +with those of Spain, of Genoa, and of the Dorias, Princes of Oneglia. +The principal standard bore upon it a crucifix, broidered at the sides +with pictures of Saint John and the Virgin Mary; another represented +the Virgin with her Son in her arms. With the sound of trumpets, +clarions, chirimias, and atambours the fleet moved to within a short +distance of the Portuguese and saluted them; then, as the thunder of +the guns ceased and the light wind blew away the smoke, they circled +round and stopped abreast of the royal vessel on which Charles had +embarked. Once again the guns barked a royal salute, while knights and +nobles, seamen and soldiers hailed their Emperor with frenzied shouts +of “Imperio! Imperio!” + +Then Andrea Doria stepped into his boat and was rowed across the +shining water to visit the Emperor, who received him, we are told, +“with great honour and many tokens of love.” + +On May 12th arrived Don Alvaro de Bazan, General of the Galleys of +Spain. This magnificent caballero made an entrance in much the same +state and circumstance as did Doria, and during the remainder of the +stay of the armada in Barcelona there was much banqueting and feasting +and drinking of healths to the Emperor and confusion to the Moslem foe. +It was once again as it had been in those days in which Ferdinand and +Isabella had descended upon the doomed city of Granada, and had built, +in full sight of its defenders, the town which they called Santa Fe (or +the Holy Faith) as an earnest that they would never leave until that +symbol of their faith had triumphed. To witness this victory the best +blood of Europe had flocked, and now, forty-three years later, when +the audacious Moslem had raised his head once more, the descendant of +the warriors who had followed “Los Reyes Católicos” rallied to that +standard which Carlos Quinto, their grandson, had set up on the +shores of Catalonia. Sandoval devotes pages of his work to the names, +styles, and titles of the noble caballeros who joined the army for the +destruction of Barbarossa. + +On May 16th Charles embarked in the _Galera Capitana_ of Andrea Doria, +accompanied by many grandees and caballeros of the Court, as well as +illustrious foreigners like Prince Luis of Portugal, and held a review +of the armada. There was much expenditure of powder in salutes to the +Emperor, and all vied with one another in shouting themselves hoarse +in honour of the great monarch who deigned to lead in person the hosts +of Christendom against the infidel, who had defied his might and dared +to offer him battle. On May 28th the Emperor travelled some leagues +inland, starting before dawn, to visit the Monastery of Nuestra Señora +de Monferrato, in which was kept a singularly holy image of the Virgin. +Here he confessed and received the sacrament, and then returned to +Barcelona. + +[Illustration: THE EMPEROR CHARLES V.] + +On May 30th he embarked in the Royal Galley, the _Galera Bastarda_, +which had been prepared for him by Andrea Doria, his Captain-General +of the Galleys. This vessel seems to have somewhat resembled the barge +of Cleopatra in the magnificence of its appointments, as its interior +was gilded, and it was fitted up with all the luxury that could be +devised at this period. Silken carpets and golden drinking-vessels, +stores of the most delicate food and of the rarest wines, were embarked +to mitigate, as far as possible, the inevitable hardships of a +sea-passage, and there were not lacking instruments of music wherewith +to beguile the Cæesar with concord of sweet sounds. Perhaps that +which strikes the modern seaman most in this recital of all the useless +matters with which the vessels of the great were burdened at this +period is the extraordinary number of flags and banners with which they +went to sea. + +The catalogue of those in the _Galera Bastarda_ makes one rather wonder +how there was room for anything else of more practical usefulness when +it came to fighting. There were in this galley twenty-four yellow +damask banners, inscribed with the imperial arms; a pennon at the +main of crimson taffeta of immense length and breadth, with a golden +crucifix embroidered thereon. Two similar ones bore shields with the +arms of the Emperor, and there was a huge flag of white damask sewn +with representations of keys, communion chalices, and the cross of +Saint Andrew, in crimson, with a Latin inscription. There were yet two +others of scarlet damask “of the same grandeur,” embroidered round the +edge with “Plus Ultra,” the device of Spain. Among a further varied +assortment was one which bore the inscription: “Send, O God, thine +angel to guard him in all his goings.” + +The fleet under the command of Andrea Doria numbered sixty-two galleys +and one hundred and fifty nefs. There were also a miscellaneous +assortment of small craft, known in those days as “brigantines,” +employed in the carriage of stores and ammunition. We have seen, on a +former occasion, what terrible losses attended one of these armadas +when really bad weather was encountered, and therefore it is not +surprising that, on his second venture, Charles should have selected +the finest season of the year for his descent upon the coast of Africa. +They were brave men, these Mediterranean seamen, and the risks which +they ran in their strangely formed, unseaworthy craft were of course +much enhanced when they were loaded to the gunwale with stores, +provisions, horses, banners, and last, but by no means least, a mob of +seasick soldiery. + +Into this armada were crowded twenty-five thousand infantry and six +hundred lancers with their horses. + +Cagliari, in Sardinia, was the last rendezvous of the expedition, and +here it arrived in the early part of June, where a week was spent in +making the final preparations; and at last, on June 10th, a start was +made for the coast of Africa. + +Meanwhile in Tunis Kheyr-ed-Din was working double tides. He was +kept well informed by his spies of all that was going on, and his +preparations for defence were as adequate as they could be made; +the corsairs, as we have said, had come flocking in at his call. He +had withdrawn as many of his fighting men from Algiers as he deemed +prudent. Knowing that the attack was directed against him personally, +he had not much fear that it would be diverted at the last moment. +It would have been true strategy on the part of Charles to have done +this, but the Emperor considered that his honour required that the +attack should be an absolutely direct one, and so Algiers was left on +one side, to the ultimate upsetting of his plans. We say this because, +although in this case he was to take Tunis and to restore to the +throne of that country the puppet King Muley Hassan, and although +he was to rescue some twenty thousand Christian captives, he did not +capture Barbarossa, who was to live for many years to continue and to +carry on his unceasing war against the Christians. + +There was no artifice left untried by the despot of Tunis. To the +African princes, Moors as well as Arabs and Berbers, did Kheyr-ed-Din +send embassies. For these he chose cunning men well versed in the means +of exciting the furious passions of these primitive and ferocious +peoples, and it was their mission to represent Muley Hassan as an +infamous apostate who was prompted by ambition and revenge, not only +to become the vassal of a Christian king, but to conspire with him +to extirpate the Mohammedan faith. The subtle policy inflamed these +ignorant and bigoted Mohammedans to the point of madness, and from +far and near they threw in their lot with the man who represented +himself to be the rallying-point for all those in Africa who desired +not only to preserve their holy religion but also their personal +liberty. From Tripoli and Jerba, from Bougie and Bona, from the shores +of Shott-el-Jerid, through all the dim hinterland that stretches from +thence north-westwards to Algiers, the tribesmen came flocking in. The +wild riders of the desert had been rounded up, and it is said that +no less than twenty thousand horsemen, in addition to an innumerable +crowd of infantry, responded to the call of the master schemer who +was but using these guileless savages to further his own personal +ends. The land-pirates of the desert, those stormy petrels whose +lives only differed from those of the followers of Kheyr-ed-Din in +that they carried on their depredations on the land instead of on the +sea, camped in their thousands in the environs of Tunis and boasted of +the deeds which they were about to perform. Kheyr-ed-Din stimulated +their enthusiasm with presents of the most costly description. Ever +wise and politic, he knew when it was necessary to pay royally, and +on this occasion surpassed himself in prodigality. For all this he +himself cherished no illusions; he had the measure of the fighting +men of his foes at his fingers’ ends, and the most that he expected +from these wild irregulars was that they might, perchance, stay an +onset and worry the imperial army with dashing cavalry raids. But that +they should hold their own with the incomparable infantry of Spain, +or make head against the stolid valour of the German men-at-arms, was +not contemplated by Barbarossa. In his Janissaries, in his hard-bitten +fighting men from the galleys, he could expect much; but there were but +some few thousands of these, while the disciplined host against which +he was called upon to combat was at the least twenty-five thousand—the +flower of the imperial forces. The situation was unique, one on which +the world had never looked before—all the might of Christendom going +up against one who, no matter by what titles he might choose to +describe himself, was no more than a vulgar robber. He was, however, a +robber on such a scale as had never before been equalled—a force which +remained unsubdued during the whole of his extraordinary and unusually +protracted career. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE FALL OF TUNIS AND THE FLIGHT OF BARBAROSSA + + +Autocracy in the sixteenth century was a very real and concrete fact. +The orders of great kings were, as a rule, implicitly obeyed, and, when +they were not, there was likely to be trouble of the worst description +for those by whom they had been contravened. It is this that causes us +to regard as most extraordinary one of the happenings in the armada +which sailed from Barcelona for the coast of Africa. A most peremptory +order was issued that no women, no boys, no one, in fact, save fighting +men of approved worth, should find a place in the ships. Says Sandoval, +“No se consintiesen en la armada mugeres ni muchachos ni otra gente +inutil, mas de aquellos solos que eran para pelear.” (There were not +allowed in the armada women, boys, or useless persons, but only those +who were capable of fighting.) It appears, however, that the women +paid no sort of attention to this ordinance, and the historian gravely +relates that “it was no use turning them out of the ships as, as soon +as you sent them down one side they returned and climbed up the other,” +It seems almost incredible, but is none the less a fact, that four +thousand women accompanied the expedition and landed at Tunis. The +autocracy of the Emperor apparently stopped short where women were +concerned, or else he was indifferent whether they came or not. + +On June 16th the armada arrived before Tunis, and the army disembarked +to attack the fortress known as La Goletta. Into this strong place of +arms Barbarossa had sent some six thousand of his best men, mostly +Turkish soldiers, under the command of Sinan-Reis, a renegado Jew, and +one of the fiercest and most faithful of his followers. To the camp of +the Emperor came the fugitive King, Muley Hassan, in whose cause the +armada had nominally been assembled—how nominal this was we shall see +later by the light of the treaty concluded between him and the Emperor. +Charles had complete command of the sea for the time being, and, in +consequence, the ex-Sultan was amazed at the profusion and luxury which +reigned in the camp of the Christians; and he concluded that these +indeed must be the lords of the earth, as luxury and profusion was +hardly the note of such courts as then existed in the northern portion +of the African continent. + +Although the army was landed, and with it artillery for the bombardment +of the Goletta, there remained, of course, “the army of the sea,” +under the orders of the redoubtable Doria; and while the Marquis del +Guasto, who was in supreme command on shore, prepared to batter down +the defences of the fortress on the land side, the attack was carried +on simultaneously from the sea by the galleys. The actual presence of +the Emperor stimulated the various nationalities under his eyes +to vie with one another in deeds of daring, and they contended among +themselves for the posts of the most honour and danger. The attacks of +the African horsemen were brushed on one side by the disciplined valour +of the Andalusian cavalry, while the great guns thundered from land +and sea against the walls of the doomed Goletta. Sinan and his Ottoman +soldiers performed prodigies in the way of repairing breaches in the +walls as soon as they were made; but Kheyr-ed-Din from the city watched +the progress of the bombardment gloomily, as he saw and knew that the +fall of the Goletta was but a matter of days. All this time he was far +from idle; sortie after sortie did the dauntless old warrior lead in +person against those engaged in the task of bombardment. Time and again +he heartened the Arab and Berber levies to attack, but the sallies were +repulsed, and the lightly armed Africans were driven like chaff before +the wind when they swooped down on the lines of investment. + +But the time came at last when Sinan and his gallant Turks could hold +the place no longer; the walls were breached in six or seven places, +and Spaniards, Germans, and Italians made a simultaneous attack. Sinan +fighting to the last, evacuated the fortress, and retired actually +through the water across a shallow part of the bay to the city, with +the remnant of his once magnificent force; and now Barbarossa knew that +the end was come, and that Tunis must pass from his hands to those of +the Christian Emperor. It was not only the fall of the Goletta that +troubled him, but the equally important fact that by this the fleet +of the enemy was enabled to lay hands upon his own fleet, consisting +of eighty-seven galleys and galliots, together with his arsenal, and +no less than three hundred cannon, mostly brass guns of excellent +construction, mounted on the walls and planted on the ramparts. The +surprising amount of this artillery gives a measure of the strength of +the fortress and the efforts it must have cost the besiegers with such +a man as Sinan in command. + +That the end was near was known to all, and not the least of their +embarrassments was the presence within the city walls of some twenty +thousand Christian captives. The city was large, the defences were +spread out over a great area, it was abundantly evident that it could +not be held, and, in consequence, Barbarossa summoned his principal +officers and communicated to them his decision. + + “We will not remain here to be slain like rats in a trap + by the accursed of God by whom we are attacked. No, + rather will we perish, sword in hand, as our fathers + have done before us; but first there is a danger against + which we have to guard. Within these walls are twenty + thousand prisoners who will rise against us at the first + opportunity; let us, then, first put them to death, and + then we will leave this place and show our enemies how + the true Moslems can die.” + +Even those hardened men of blood shrank before the horror which was +proposed to them by their chief, and Sinan-Reis took up his parable and +spoke the minds of all when he said that follow him to the death they +would cheerfully do, but stain themselves with so awful a massacre +was to place themselves outside the pale of humanity for ever. It was +seldom that they crossed his mood, and Barbarossa listened in frowning +silence, accepting as a partial excuse that time pressed, and to put +to death twenty thousand persons would occupy longer time than they +could spare. On the morrow a battle was fought which, as Kheyr-ed-Din +anticipated, ended in the complete rout of the Moslems. Everywhere the +Corsair King was in the forefront of the battle, and it is said that he +disposed of fifty thousand men on this occasion; but this is probably +an exaggeration, and in any case the bulk of his forces consisted +of those African levies which, in a pitched battle against European +troops, were practically useless owing to their want of discipline +and cohesion. Very soon the hosts of the Emperor had prevailed, and +the Arabs and Berbers had fled back into the wilderness from whence +they had come and whither it was useless to pursue. Barbarossa, at the +head of such of his corsairs and Turks as were left—a number estimated +at some three to four thousand—burst through all opposition and also +escaped, travelling so rapidly that pursuit was abandoned almost at +once. And then the event happened which the Moslem leader had foreseen: +some of the Christian captives managed to get free from their shackles +within the city and released others; they overpowered those left to +guard them, and threw open the gates to the soldiery of the Emperor. + +Then occurred one of those awful horrors of which this time was so +prolific: before Charles or his generals could prevent them the +soldiery had swept into the town and commenced to slay, to plunder, +and to ravish, without distinction of age, sex, or nationality. +Ostensibly these Christian warriors had come to rescue the inhabitants +of Tunis from the oppression of Barbarossa, but while that chieftain +was in full flight across the mountains to Bona, those by whom he +had been defeated entered the town, which they had come to save, +and perpetrated a massacre so awful that it is said that no less +than thirty thousand people perished. It is a terrible blot on the +escutcheon of the Emperor; as, although he and his generals deprecated +the massacre—and indeed to do them justice tried to prevent it—this is +no excuse for allowing their men to get out of hand, when they must +have been aware of the inevitable result: as the Moslem corsairs at +their worst were equalled in their iniquities by the European soldiery, +once the strong hand of discipline had relaxed its grip. + +It may have been that the Emperor was displeased with this excess of +zeal on the part of his army; but, if it were so, the chroniclers are +silent concerning the matter, being far too busy singing the praises +of the Cæsar to think of such a trifle as the massacre of most of +the persons whom he had come to deliver. The wretched inhabitants of +Tunis must have found it somewhat difficult to distinguish between the +corsair, who killed three thousand of their fellow townsmen, and the +Christian Emperor, who had massacred ten times that number. Charles, +however, reaped great glory from an expedition which had but one good +result, which was, that he succeeded in rescuing twenty thousand +captives; these men, very naturally, on their return to their homes +in every corner of Europe, magnified the wonderful deeds of that prince +who had been instrumental in securing their release, and the massacre +of the Tunisians was conveniently ignored. Charles had defeated +Barbarossa and expelled him from Tunis; he had now displayed his +magnanimity and altruism by the terms which he imposed on the miserable +Muley Hassan. As far as that individual was concerned, he certainly +deserved nothing better; but, as a _finale_ to an expedition blessed by +the Pope, and looked upon almost in the light of a modern crusade, it +certainly displays a remarkably keen eye for the main chance. + +The preamble of the treaty runs as follows: + + “That the King of Tunis, recognising that he had been + expelled from his kingdom by Barbarossa, and that the + Emperor in person, with a powerful armada, had come + and expelled this tyrant, taking from him the fortress + and town of Tunis and restoring them to the King + Muley Hassan: that this monarch is most grateful for + so magnificent a service, and in recognition thereof + contracts to liberate all Christian captives who may be + in his realm, to give them a free passage to their homes, + and from this time forward binds himself to extend to all + Christians kind and generous treatment.” + +There can be no exception taken to this, which was the least which the +Emperor had the right to expect; but this was only, as we have said, +the preamble. + +Muley Hassan was further made to contract to hold his kingdom in fee to +the Spanish Crown, to covenant that no corsair should use his ports +for any purpose whatsoever, that the Emperor should not only retain +the Goletta but that all other fortified seaports should be put into +his hands, that the King of Tunis should in future pay twelve thousand +crowns per annum ‘for the subsistence of the Spanish garrison of the +Goletta, that he should enter into no alliance with the enemies of +the Emperor, and should annually present, as an acknowledgment of his +vassalage, six Moorish horses and six hawks. + +Muley Hassan had exchanged the comparatively dignified position of a +prince in exile, who has been expropriated by the strong hand, for that +of the puppet of one of the greatest enemies of his religion. Neither +he nor his people were one whit the better for the change, and, as far +as vassalage was concerned, they would in all probability, in the state +of religious feeling at the time, have sooner been subordinate to the +Moslem corsair than to the Christian King. + +[Illustration: MULEY HASSAN, KING OF TUNIS.] + +Barbarossa, as we have seen, frankly acknowledged that he sought +his own advantage, and, when he possessed himself of Tunis, made no +pretence of any altruistic motive. The Emperor, on the other hand, +having come in the guise of a Christian reformer, simply stole the +kingdom from Barbarossa and kept it for himself. Incidentally he +released the captives, which enabled him to pose once more as the great +champion of the oppressed. But, however this may have been, there is +no doubt that he had performed a notable feat of arms, and even the +most mighty monarch then in Europe felt uplifted by the fact that he +had defeated the greatest of the corsairs: accordingly, on July 25th +Charles wrote to England, France, Portugal, Milan, Florence, Venice, +Genoa, Siena, Mantua, and Naples: “De manera que en pocas dias se supo +in toda Europa su buena fortuna.” (So it was in a few days the whole of +Europe was acquainted with his good fortune.) + +Martin Nunez, “Caballero de Toledo,” was sent on a special embassy to +the Pope to acquaint the Pontiff at first hand of all that happened, +and the success which had attended the arms of the Emperor, and also to +thank his Holiness for the assistance which he had rendered by sending +the Papal galleys. Jorge de Melo, a Portuguese caballero, was sent to +his own country with despatches, and other nobles and high officials +were despatched to the Emperor’s Viceroys in the various parts of his +dominions. In the long circular letter which Charles addressed to all +these potentates—and which is reproduced in its entirety by Sandoval—he +says “that the Christian captives found in Tunis amounted to something +like eighteen to twenty thousand, that Barbarossa had escaped with some +five thousand Turks, corsairs, and renegadoes, of which three thousand +were on horseback and two thousand afoot; that, as they suffered from +great scarcity of provisions, and the almost total lack of water, many +were falling by the way, and many others were being murdered by their +quondam allies for such goods as they possessed, or for the value of +their arms and clothing.” + +We must now return to Kheyr-ed-Din. What the sufferings of that +chieftain and the remnant of his gallant army must have been in their +flight to Bona they alone knew. It was the height of summer, +and burning tracks of desert and rugged mountain passes had to be +surmounted; naturally they could have carried but very little food, +and water they had to find on the way. In addition to this, as we have +seen in the despatch of Charles, the tribesmen turned against them, +cutting off stragglers and murdering and plundering as opportunity +offered. Barbarossa himself was an old man, so old that it seems +nothing short of a miracle that he should have survived the hardships +of this awful march. Not only did he do this, but apparently arrived +at Bona in condition to continue his journey by sea at once, had he +cared to do so. He had lost his newly acquired kingdom, he had lost +nearly his entire fleet, his arsenal and stores were in the hands of +his enemies; if ever a man was completely crushed it was he on this +memorable occasion. As we have said before, however, it was in times of +the greatest stress when the indomitable character of this man rose to +meet the occasion, and, while his foes were congratulating one another +that at last there was an end of the scourge of the Mediterranean and +the bugbear of Christendom, the hunted fugitive was merely preparing +himself for fresh acts of aggression. + +The real fact of the matter was that he was above all and before all +a seaman. The defeat of Kheyr-ed-Din meant merely the transference of +his malign activities from one sphere to another—from the sea to the +land, or from the land to the sea. King he called himself, and king _de +facto_ he was both in Algiers and Tunis, reigning with unexampled +cruelty, a prototype of those other corsair kings by whom he was +succeeded. But the real source of his power lay, not in stone walls +and fortifications, nor in ill-trained levies of African tribes, but +in his own genius for command at sea, and the manner in which he was +able to inspire with his own dauntless and desperate spirit those hardy +mariners who followed in his train, the descendants of the “Moriscoes” +who hailed from the ancient Moorish kingdoms of Cordoba and Granada. + +Thus it was in the present instance. He had been unable to withstand +the might of Cæsar and his legions, but Tunis was not the whole +of Northern Africa, nor had quite all his eggs been kept in that +one basket. He had kept fifteen galleys in reserve at Bona, and, +in consequence, on his arrival there, was able to embark at once. +This he did, and hardly had he done so when there appeared upon the +scene fifteen galleys commanded by Adan Centurion and John Doria. +Kheyr-ed-Din had had enough of fighting just for the present; his +men and he were wearied out by the hardships of their flight, and +accordingly he drew up his galleys under the fort at Bona and awaited +an attack, should the enemy care to deliver one. But Adan Centurion’s +heart failed him; to cut out the old Sea-wolf from under one of his +own batteries was more than he had the stomach for, and he accordingly +sailed away. “Fue sin duda la perdida grande” (this no doubt was a +great pity), is the comment of Sandoval, who goes on to say that, had +the Genoese been the men that they had been aforetime, this would never +have been, and that they would have gone in and burnt or disabled +the galleys of the corsair, slain their leader, or driven him ashore. +Hot on the tracks of Adan Centurion and his nephew John came the +veteran Andrea Doria with forty galleys, but he was too late, and the +bird had flown; had it been he who had arrived in the first instance, +then it is more than probable that matters would have turned out +differently, and Kheyr-ed-Din had then and there terminated his career. +It is true that Andrea possessed himself of Bona, and the Corsair King +was shorn of yet another of his land-stations, but for the time he had +cut himself adrift from the land, and had gone back to that element in +which he was particularly at home. + +Doria left Bona in the charge of Alvar Gomez and a company of +Spanish troops and then sailed away, if possible to find and capture +Barbarossa, thus to set the seal of completeness on the victory which +had been won by his master the Emperor. Another stronghold of the +corsairs was now in most competent hands, as Alvar Gomez Zagal was +one of the most renowned caballeros of Spain, son of that Pero Lopez +de Horusco on whom the Moors themselves had bestowed the title of “Al +Zagal,” or “The Valiant,” on account of his extraordinary bravery. + +On August 17th Charles re-embarked his army and evacuated the country, +leaving, however, one thousand Spanish veterans, under the command of +Bernard de Mendoza, in charge of the Goletta, as a permanent memorial +of the expedition, and as a guarantee that the wretched Muley Hassan +should fully comply with the treaty obligations which had been +imposed upon him. It is true that Barbarossa had not been captured, +but his city had been taken, his fleet had been destroyed, and he +himself was now a fugitive, unable any further to trouble the peace +of Christendom or the dignity of the Emperor by whom he had been so +soundly chastised. In consequence the Cæsar departed well pleased with +himself and with those who had been acting under his orders, to whom he +distributed orders and titles, as a memento of the occasion upon which +they had finally broken up the power of those by whom his peace had so +long been troubled. + +One of the difficulties in dealing with the career of Kheyr-ed-Din +Barbarossa is that, in times when he was unsuccessful, or when, as on +the present occasion, he had received a severe setback, it is next +to impossible to find out what he was doing or where exactly he was +preparing for his next coup. In this case, in particular, the old-time +historians were thanking God that the Emperor had rid the world of a +particularly pestilent knave, and ceased to trouble themselves much +about him until he forced himself once more upon their notice. Had +Charles at this time recognised the greatness of the man whom he had +just so signally defeated he might have changed the course of history. +Had he, instead of sailing back to Europe, content with that which +he had accomplished in Tunis, pushed his attack home on Algiers, he +might have made himself master of the whole of Northern Africa, as, +in the disorganised state in which the corsairs now found themselves, +they could certainly have offered no effective resistance. But to +the Emperor these rovers of the sea presented themselves merely in +the light of robbers. Robbers, it is true, on a somewhat large scale, +but still not persons of sufficient importance to detain him from the +infinitely more pressing affairs which awaited him on the opposite +shores of the Mediterranean Sea. + +In addition to the fifteen galleys which Kheyr-ed-Din picked up at Bona +he had in reserve at Algiers some fifty others. Escaping the attention +of Adan Centurion and John Doria, and the infinitely more formidable +squadron of Andrea, he headed once more for Algiers, and for a time +seems to have remained quiet, no doubt recuperating from the fatigues, +disappointments, and physical hardships which he had so recently +undergone. He was apparently undisturbed during the winter by his +Christian enemies, and was in consequence able to think out his future +plans of campaign and to collect and put heart into his scattered +followers, who, in ones and twos, were gradually, such of them as were +left, finding their way back to the headquarters of piracy and its +indomitable chieftain. + +That cool calculator of the chances of life knew that this must be so; +the power of the corsairs generally had received the worst blow it had +ever encountered since the dispossessed Moriscoes had taken to the sea +for a living; those of them who remained alive were without ships—that +is to say, without their only means of making a livelihood—and that +they should gravitate towards Algiers and its master was as nearly a +certainty as anything human could be. And, as was anticipated by the +chief, so it came to pass. Into the city straggled broken, starving, +sullen men who had lost their all, for whom the future held nothing but +misery and despair unless they could get to sea once more. + +It was on occasions such as this that the intellectual eminence of +Barbarossa was so marked. Rough and cruel as he was, he possessed +nevertheless a magnetic power over the minds of men, on which, when +it so pleased him, he could play with the most extraordinary effect. +And now, when the rank and file of the corsairs were ragged, hungry, +and smarting under defeat, he dealt with them tenderly and graciously; +and the sum of his teaching was to the effect that they had but to +follow him once more and all the evils from which they were suffering +would be presently remedied. So it came about that men who, before the +defeat, had commanded ships of their own, were glad enough to become +units on board the galleys of Kheyr-ed-Din, animated by the pleasing +hope that soon again, under the leadership of this man, they might +regain all, nay more, than they had lost. It must be remembered that +Barbarossa argued from sound premises when he held out such hopes as +these to the desperate remnant of the corsairs in Algiers in that sad +winter of 1535. He was the greatest of them all, and they, as well as +he, knew this to be a fact: if they had lost their all in the past +battles, they had been fighting in a common cause to preserve their own +lives and their liberty to plunder the Christian at sea. And now there +was work and there was bread to eat for those who once again would +throw in their lot with their old leader; and, although it may be +said that these men had no alternative, still they threw themselves +with heartiness into that which the master mind decreed should be their +work, and this was none other than the preparation of the galleys for +another campaign against the Christian. + +“What matter, comrades?” said the veteran on one occasion when he was +superintending the fitting out of the galleys. “These dogs have gone +back from whence they came, and they have left that creature, Muley +Hassan, to do their will in Tunis. It is true that there is Mendoza and +his thousand Spaniards in the Goletta, but did not Martin de Vargas +hold the Peñon here? And where is De Vargas, and in whose hands is +the Peñon now? We know from whence the garrisons of Spain draw their +supplies, and believe me that there will be hungry men in the Goletta +in this coming year. Once we get to sea again, there will be more than +enough for every good man who believes in the Prophet, and who has the +sense to follow Barbarossa. For every ducat that you have lost see, in +the coming year, if you do not gain ten; the Christians are off their +guard now, and they think that they have done with me because they have +captured Tunis.” He laughed his great, jovial laugh. “By the beard of +the Prophet—upon whom be peace!—they have yet to find out the man with +whom they have to deal.” + +It took a master mind to instil heart of grace into men who so recently +had had so bad a beating as these; but in the end they began to cheer +up, and to recollect how Barbarossa had sooner or later always risen +from defeat as strong or stronger than before; also they recalled the +fact that he was the chosen of the Padishah, and that that potentate, +the representative of the Prophet on earth, would assuredly come to his +assistance now that Tunis, which had been taken in his name, had been +reft from Barbarossa by the Christians. Gradually hope took the place +of despair, and when the corsairs took to the sea in the early part of +the following year it was with renewed confidence in both themselves +and their leader. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +ROXALANA AND THE MURDER OF IBRAHIM + + +At the coming of spring Barbarossa was at sea again with thirty-two +ships ready for any eventuality, his crews aflame with ardour for +revenge against those by whom they had been so roughly handled. He +chose for the scene of operations a place on the coast of Majorca some +fifteen miles from Palma; from here he commanded the route of the +Spaniards from their country to the African coast, and it was against +this nation that he felt a great bitterness owing to recent events. +Eagerly did the corsair and his men watch for the Spanish ships, the +heavier vessels lying at anchor, but the light, swift galleys ranging +and questing afar so that none might be missed. Very soon the vigilance +of the Moslems was rewarded by the capture of a number of vessels, +sent by Bernard de Mendoza laden with Turkish and Moorish slaves, +destined to be utilised as rowers in the Spanish galleys. These men +were hailed as a welcome reinforcement, and joyfully joined the forces +of Kheyr-ed-Din when he moved on Minorca, captured the castle by a +surprise assault, raided the surrounding country, and captured five +thousand seven hundred Christians, amongst whom were eight hundred +men who had been wounded in the attack on Tunis—all these unfortunates +were sent to refill the bagnio of Algiers. + +This private war of revenge was, however, destined soon to come to +an end, as Soliman the Magnificent in this year became involved in +disputes with the Venetian Republic, and recalled “that veritable +man of the sea,” as Barbarossa had been described by Ibrahim, to +Constantinople. + +In this city by the sea there had taken place a tragedy which, +although it only involved the death of a single man, was nevertheless +far-reaching in its consequences; for the man was none other than that +great statesman Ibrahim, Grand Vizier, and the only trusted counsellor +of the Padishah. He who had been originally a slave had risen step by +step in the favour of his master until he arrived at the giddy eminence +which he occupied at the time of his death. It is a somewhat curious +commentary on the essentially democratic status of an autocracy that a +man could thus rise to a position second only to that of the autocrat +himself; and, in all probability, wielding quite as much power. + +Ibrahim had for years been treated by Soliman more as a brother than +as a dependent, which, in spite of his Grand Viziership, he was in +fact. They lived in the very closest communion, taking their meals +together, and even sleeping in the same room, Soliman, a man of high +intelligence himself, and a ruler who kept in touch with all the +happenings which arose in his immense dominions, desiring always to +have at hand the man whom he loved; from whom, with his amazing grip +of political problems and endless fertility of resource, he was certain +of sympathy and sound advice. But in an oriental despotism there are +other forces at work besides those of _la haute politique_, and Ibrahim +had one deadly enemy who was sworn to compass his destruction. The +Sultana Roxalana was the light of the harem of the Grand Turk. This +supremely beautiful woman, originally a Russian slave, was the object +of the most passionate devotion on the part of Soliman; but she was as +ambitious as she was lovely, and brooked no rival in the affections of +Soliman, be that person man, woman, or child. In her hands the master +of millions, the despot whose nod was death, became a submissive slave; +the undisciplined passions of this headstrong woman swept aside from +her path all those whom she suspected of sharing her influence, in no +matter how remote a fashion. At her dictation had Soliman caused to be +murdered his son Mustafa, a youth of the brightest promise, because, in +his intelligence and his winning ways he threatened to eclipse Selim, +the son of Roxalana herself. + +This woman possessed a strong natural intelligence, albeit she was +totally uneducated; she saw and knew that Ibrahim was all-powerful with +her lover, and this roused her jealousy to fever-heat. She was not +possessed of a cool judgment, which would have told her that Ibrahim +was a statesman dealing with the external affairs of the Sublime Porte, +and that with her and with her affairs he neither desired, nor had he +the power, to interfere. What, however, the Sultana did know was +that in these same affairs of State her opinion was dust in the balance +when weighed against that of the Grand Vizier. + +Soliman had that true attribute of supreme greatness, the unerring +aptitude for the choice of the right man. He had picked out Ibrahim +from among his immense entourage, and never once had he regretted his +choice. As time went on and the intellect and power of the man became +more and more revealed to his master, that sovereign left in his hands +even such matters as despots are apt to guard most jealously. We have +seen how, in spite of the murmurings of the whole of his capital, and +the almost insubordinate attitude of his navy, he had persevered in the +appointment of Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, because the judgment of Ibrahim +was in favour of its being carried out. This, to Roxalana, was gall +and wormwood; well she knew that, as long as the Grand Vizier lived, +her sovereignty was at best but a divided one. There was a point at +which her blandishments stopped short; this was when she found that her +opinion did not coincide with that of the minister. She was, as we have +seen in the instance of her son, not a woman to stick at trifles, and +she decided that Ibrahim must die. + +There could be no hole-and-corner business about this; he must die, +and when his murder had been accomplished she would boldly avow to her +lover what she had done and take the consequences, believing in her +power over him to come scatheless out of the adventure. In those days, +when human life was so cheap, she might have asked for the death of +almost any one, and her whim would have been gratified by a lover who +had not hesitated to put to death his own son at her dictation. But +with Ibrahim it was another matter; he was the familiar of the Sultan, +his _alter ego_ in fact. It says much for the nerve of the Sultana that +she dared so greatly on this memorable and lamentable occasion. + +On March 5th, 1536, Ibrahim, went to the royal seraglio, and, following +his ancient custom, was admitted to the table of his master, sleeping +after the meal at his side. At least so it was supposed, but none knew +save those engaged in the murder what passed on that fatal night; the +next day his dead body lay in the house of the Sultan. + +Across the floor of jasper, in that palace which was a fitting +residence for one rightly known as “The Magnificent,” the blood of +Ibrahim flowed to the feet of Roxalana. The disordered clothing, the +terrible expression of the face of the dead man, the gaping wounds +which he had received, bore witness that there had taken place a +grim struggle before that iron frame and splendid intellect had been +levelled with the dust. This much leaked out afterwards, as such things +will leak out, and then the Sultana took Soliman into her chamber +and gazed up into his eyes. The man was stunned by the immensity of +the calamity which had befallen him and his kingdom, but his manhood +availed him not against the wiles of this Circe. Ibrahim had been +foully done to death in his own palace, and this woman clinging so +lovingly around his neck now was the murderess. The heart’s blood of +his best friend was coagulating on the threshold of his own apartment +when he forgave her by whom his murder had been accomplished. This was +the vengeance of Roxalana, and who shall say that it was not complete? + +The Ottoman Empire was the poorer by the loss of its greatest man, the +jealousy of the Sultana was assuaged, the despot who had permitted +this unavenged murder was still on the throne, thrall to the woman +who had first murdered his son and then his friend and minister. But +the deed carried with it the evil consequences which were only too +likely to occur when so capable a head of the State was removed at so +critical a time. Renewed strife was in the air, and endless squabbles +between Venice and the Porte were taking place. With these we have no +concern, but, in addition to other complaints, there were loud and +continuous ones concerning the corsairs. Venice, “The Bride of the +Sea,” had neither rest nor peace; the pirates swarmed in Corfu, in +Zante, in Candia, in Cephalonia, and the plunder and murder of the +subjects of the Republic was the theme of perpetual representations to +the Sultan. The balance of advantage in this guerilla warfare was with +the corsairs until Girolame Canale, a Venetian captain, seized one of +the Moslem leaders known as “The Young Moor of Alexandria,” The victory +of Canale was somewhat an important one as he captured the galley of +“The Young Moor” and four others; two more were sunk, and three hundred +Janissaries and one thousand slaves fell into the hands of the Venetian +commander. There being an absence of nice feeling on the part of the +Venetians, the Janissaries were at once beheaded to a man. + +The whole story is an illustration of the extraordinary relations +existing among the Mediterranean States at this time. Soliman +the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey, had lent three hundred of his +Janissaries, his own picked troops, to assist the corsairs in +their depredations on Venetian commerce. Having done this, and the +Janissaries having been caught and summarily and rightly put to death +as pirates, the Sultan, as soon as he heard of what had occurred, +sent an ambassador, one Yonis Bey, to Venice to demand satisfaction +for the insult passed upon him by the beheading of his own soldiers +turned pirates. The conclusion of the affair was that the Venetians +released “The Young Moor of Alexandria” as soon as he was cured of the +eight wounds which he had received in the conflict, and sent him back +to Africa with such of his galleys as were left. There was one rather +comical incident in connection with this affair, which was that when +Yonis Bey was on his way from Constantinople to Venice he was chased by +a Venetian fleet, under the command of the Count Grandenico, and driven +ashore. The Count was profuse in his apologies when he discovered +that he had been chasing a live ambassador; but the occurrence so +exasperated Soliman that he increased his demands in consequence. + +Barbarossa, who had spent his time harrying the Spaniards at sea ever +since the fall of Tunis, was shortly to appear on the scene again. He +received orders from the Sultan, and came as fast as a favouring wind +would bring him. Kheyr-ed-Din had been doing well in the matter of +slaves and plunder, but he knew that, with the backing of the Grand +Turk, he would once again be in command of a fleet in which he might +repeat his triumph of past years, and prove himself once more the +indispensable “man of the sea.” + +Soon after his arrival his ambitions were gratified, and he found +himself with a fleet of one hundred ships. Since the death of Ibrahim, +and the incident which terminated with the despatch of Yonis Bey to +Venice, the relations between the Grand Turk and the Venetian Republic +had become steadily worse, and at last the Sultan declared war. On May +17th, 1537, Soliman, accompanied by his two sons, Selim and Mohammed, +left Constantinople. With the campaign conducted by the Sultan we are +not concerned here; it was directed against the Ionian Islands, which +had been in the possession of Venice since 1401. On August 18th Soliman +laid siege to Corfu, and was disastrously beaten, re-embarking his men +on September 7th, after losing thousands in a fruitless attack on the +fortress. He returned to Constantinople utterly discomfited. It was +the seventh campaign which the Sultan had conducted in person, but the +first in which the ever-faithful Ibrahim had not been by his side. + +This defeat at the hands of the Venetians was not, however, the only +humiliation which he was destined to experience in this disastrous +year; for once again Doria, that scourge of the Moslem, was loose +upon the seas, and was making his presence felt in the immediate +neighbourhood of Corfu, where the Turks had been defeated. On July +17th Andrea had left the port of Messina with twenty-five galleys, +had captured ten richly laden Turkish ships, gutted and burned +them. Kheyr-ed-Din was at sea at the time, but the great rivals +were not destined to meet on this occasion. Instead of Barbarossa, +Andrea fell in with Ali-Chabelli, the lieutenant of Sandjak Bey of +Gallipoli. On July 22nd the Genoese admiral and the Turkish commander +from the Dardanelles met to the southward of Corfu, off the small +island of Paxo, and a smart action ensued. It ended in the defeat of +Ali-Chabelli, whose galleys were captured and towed by Doria into Paxo. +That veteran fighter was himself in the thickest of the fray, and, +conspicuous in his crimson doublet, had been an object of attention +to the marksmen of Chabelli during the entire action. In spite of the +receipt of a severe wound in the knee, the admiral refused to go below +until victory was assured. He was surrounded at this time by a devoted +band of nobles sworn to defend the person of their admiral or to die +in his defence. His portrait has been sketched for us at this time by +the Dominican Friar, Padre Alberto Gugliel-motto, author of “La guerra +dei Pirati e la marina Pontifica dal 1500 al 1560.” The description +runs thus: “Andrea Doria was of lofty stature, his face oval in shape, +forehead broad and commanding, his neck was powerful, his hair short, +his beard long and fan-shaped, his lips were thin, his eyes bright and +piercing.” + +Once again had he defeated an officer of the Grand Turk; and it may be +remarked that Ibrahim was probably quite right in the estimation, or +rather in the lack of estimation, in which he held the sea-officers of +his master, as they seem to have been deficient in every quality save +that of personal valour, and in their encounters with Doria and the +knights were almost invariably worsted. For the sake of Islam, for the +prestige of the Moslem arms at sea, it was time that Barbarossa should +take matters in hand once more. + +The autumn of this year 1537 proved that the old Sea-wolf had lost +none of his cunning, that his followers were as terrible as ever. +What did it seem to matter that Venetian and Catalan, Genoese and +Frenchman, Andalusian and the dwellers in the Archipelago, were +all banded together in league against this common foe? Did not the +redoubtable Andrea range the seas in vain, and were not all the efforts +of the Knights of Saint John futile, when the son of the renegado from +Mitylene and his Christian wife put forth from the Golden Horn? What +was the magic of this man, it was asked despairingly, that none seemed +able to prevail against him? Had it not been currently reported that +Carlos Quinto, the great Emperor, had driven him forth from Tunis +a hunted fugitive, broken and penniless, with never a galley left, +without one ducat in his pocket? Was he so different, then, from all +the rest of mankind that his followers would stick to him in evil +report as well as in the height of his prosperity? Men swore and women +crossed themselves at the mention of his name. + +“Terrible as an army with banners,” indeed, was Kheyr-ed-Din in this +eventful summer: things had gone badly with the crescent flag, the +Padishah was unapproachable in his palace, brooding perchance on that +“might have been” had he not sold his honour and the life of his only +friend to gratify the malice of a she-devil; those in attendance on the +Sultan trembled, for the humour of the despot was black indeed. + +But “the veritable man of the sea” was in some sort to console him +for that which he had lost; as never in his own history—and there +was none else with which it could be compared—had the Corsair King +made so fruitful a raid. He ravaged the coasts of the Adriatic and +the islands of the Archipelago, sweeping in slaves by the thousand, +and by the end of the year he had collected eighteen thousand in the +arsenal at Stamboul. Great was the jubilation in Constantinople when +the Admiralissimo himself returned from his last expedition against +the infidel; stilled were the voices which hinted disaffection—who +among them all could bring back four hundred thousand pieces of gold? +What mariner could offer to the Grand Turk such varied and magnificent +presents? + +Upon his arrival Barbarossa asked permission to kiss the threshold +of the palace of the Sultan, which boon being graciously accorded to +him, he made his triumphal entry. Two hundred captives clad in scarlet +robes carried cups of gold and flasks of silver behind them came thirty +others, each staggering under an enormous purse of sequins; yet another +two hundred brought collars of precious stones or bales of the choicest +goods; and a further two hundred were laden with sacks of small coin. +Certainly if Soliman the Magnificent had lost a Grand Vizier he had +succeeded in finding an admiral! + +All through the earlier months of 1538 the dockyards of Constantinople +hummed with a furious activity, for Soliman had decreed that the +maritime campaign of this year was to begin with no less than one +hundred and fifty ships. His admiral, however, did not agree with this +decision; to the Viziers he raged and stormed. “Listen,” he said, “O +men of the land who understand naught of the happenings of the sea. +By this time Saleh-Reis must have quitted Alexandria convoying to the +Bosphorus twenty sail filled with the richest merchandise; should he +fall in with the accursed Genoese, Doria, where then will be Saleh-Reis +and his galleys and his convoy? I will tell you: the ships in Genoa, +the galleys burned, Saleh-Reis and all his mariners chained to the +rowers’ bench.” + +The Viziers trembled, as men did when Barbarossa stormed and turned +upon them those terrible eyes which knew neither fear nor pity. “We be +but men,” they answered, “and our lord the Sultan has so ordained it.” + +“I have forty galleys,” replied the corsair; “you have forty more. With +these I will take the sea; but, mark you,” he continued, softening +somewhat, “you do right to fear the displeasure of the Sultan, and I +also have no wish to encounter it; but vessels raised and equipped +in a hurry will be of small use to me. In the name of Allah the +compassionate and his holy Prophet give me my eighty galleys and let me +go.” + +In Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa sound strategical instinct went hand in hand +with the desperate valour of the corsair. To dally in the Golden +Horn while so rich a prey was at sea to be picked up by his Christian +foes was altogether opposed to his instincts: never to throw away a +chance in the game of life had ever been his guiding principle. + +Soliman, great man as he undoubtedly was, had not the adamantine +hardness of character which enabled his admiral to risk all on the +hazards of the moment; or possibly the Grand Turk was deficient in that +clearness of strategical instinct which never in any circumstances +forgoes a present advantage for something which may turn out well in +a problematical future. Soliman, sore, sullen, and unapproachable, +dwelt in his palace brooding over the misfortunes which had been his +lot since the death of Ibrahim. Barbarossa, who so recently had lost +practically all that he possessed, and who had reached an age at which +most men have no hopes for the future, was as clear in intellect, as +undaunted in spirit, as if he had been half a century younger: to be +even once more with those by whom he had been defeated and dispossessed +was the only thing now in his mind. The capture of Saleh-Reis and +his convoy would be a triumph of which he could not bear to think. +Further, it would add to the demoralisation of the sea forces of the +Sultan, which were sadly in need of some striking success after the +defeats which had so recently been their portion. The Sultan had +decided that one hundred and fifty ships were necessary; his admiral +thought otherwise. There was too much at stake for him to dally at +Constantinople; his fiery energy swept all before it, and in the +end he had his way. On June 7th, 1538, he finally triumphed over the +hesitations of the Viziers and put to sea with eighty sail. + +The Sultan, from his kiosk, the windows of which opened on the +Bosphorus, counted the ships. + +“Only eighty sail; is that all?” he asked. + +The trembling Viziers prostrated themselves before him. + +“O our Lord, the Padishah,” they cried, “Saleh-Reis comes from +Alexandria with a rich convoy; somewhere lurking is Andrea Doria, the +accursed; it was necessary, O Magnificent, to send succour.” + +There was a pause, in which the hearts of men beat as do those who know +not but that the next moment may be their last on earth. + +The Sultan stared from his window at the retreating ships in a silence +like the silence of the grave. At last he turned: + +“So be it,” he answered briefly; “but see to it that reinforcements do +not lag upon the road.” + +If there had been activity in the dockyards before it was as nothing to +the strenuous work that was to be done henceforward. + +Before starting on this expedition Kheyr-ed-Din had made an innovation +in the manning of some of the most powerful of his galleys, which +was of the utmost importance, and which was to add enormously to the +success of his future maritime enterprises. The custom had always been +that the Ottoman galleys had been rowed by Christians, captured and +enslaved; of course the converse was true in the galleys of their foes. +There were, for the size of the vessels, an enormous number of men +carried in the galleys of the sixteenth century, and an average craft +of this description would have on board some four hundred men; of +these, however, the proportion would be two hundred and fifty slaves +to one hundred and fifty fighting men. That which Kheyr-ed-Din now +insisted upon was that a certain proportion of his most powerful units +should be rowed by Moslem fighting men, so that on the day of battle +the oarsmen could join in the fray instead of remaining chained to +their benches, as was the custom with the slaves. It is, however, an +extraordinary testimony to the influence which the corsair had attained +in Constantinople that he had been able to effect this change in the +composition of some of his crews; it must have been done with the +active co-operation of the Sultan, as no authority less potent than +that of the sovereign himself could have induced free men to undertake +the terrible toil of rower in a galley. This was reserved for the +unfortunate slave on either side owing to the intolerable hardship of +the life, and results, in the pace at which a galley proceeded through +the water, were usually obtained by an unsparing use of the lash on the +naked bodies of the rowers. + +This human material was used up in the most prodigal manner possible, +as those in command had not the inducement of treating the rowers well, +from that economic standpoint which causes a man to so use his beast of +burden as to get the best work from him. In the galley, when a slave +could row no more he was flung overboard and another was put in his +place. + +The admiral, however, even when backed by the Padishah, could not +man a large fleet of galleys with Moslem rowers, and, as there was a +shortage in the matter of propelling power, his first business was to +collect slaves, and for this purpose he visited the islands of the +Archipelago. The lot of the unhappy inhabitants of these was indeed a +hard one. They were nearer to the seat of the Moslem power than any +other Christians; they were in those days totally unable to resist an +attack in force, and in consequence were swept off in their thousands. + +Seven islands cover the entrance to the Gulf of Volo. The nearest +to the coast is Skiathos, which is also the most important; it was +defended by a castle built upon a rock. This castle was attacked by +Barbarossa, who bombarded it for six days, carried it by assault, and +massacred the garrison. He spared the lives of the inhabitants of the +island, and by this means secured three thousand four hundred rowers +for his galleys. He had to provide motor-power for the reinforcements +which he expected. In July he was reinforced from Constantinople by +ninety galleys, while from Egypt came Saleh-Reis, who had succeeded +in avoiding the terrible Doria, with twenty more; the fleet was thus +complete. + +Barbarossa ravaged Skios, Andros, and other islands, putting them under +contribution, and in this manner raised some eight thousand ducats; +from a pen of guinea-fowl to a king’s ransom, nothing escaped the maw +of this most rapacious of corsairs. Candia and some other islands +yielded up some small spoil, but the sufferings of such insignificant +folk as the wretched islanders were soon lost to the sight of the +Christian world in the magnitude of the events which were now +impending. + +Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, Corsair, Admiral, and King, the scourge of +the Mediterranean, and Andrea Doria, Prince of Oneglia, Admiral of the +modern Cæsar, Charles V., Emperor and King, were at last to meet face +to face. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE PREVESA CAMPAIGN; THE GATHERING OF THE FLEETS + + +Some thirty-five miles to the south-eastward of Cape Bianco (the +southernmost point of the island of Corfu) lies Prevesa, at the +entrance of the Gulf of Arta, or, as it was known in classic times, +the Ambracian Gulf. In these seas, in the year 31 B.C., was fought +one of the most memorable battles of antiquity, for it was here that +Octavius, afterward Augustus Cæsar, defeated the forces of Antony and +Cleopatra. There have been many controversies of late years as to +whom the original idea of breaking the line in naval combats is due: +anyhow, it can claim a respectable antiquity, as it was practised at +the battle of Actium by Octavius, who by a skilful manoeuvre caused +Antony to lengthen his line, which he then cut through and attacked the +ships of Cleopatra, which were in support: this was too much for the +lady, who fled with her sixty ships, followed by Antony, to his eternal +disgrace. The remainder of his fleet fought bravely for a time, but +was eventually defeated, the land army also surrendering to Octavius. +The date of the actual battle of Actium was September 2nd, 31 B.C.: +it was in September 1538 that the battle of Prevesa between Andrea +Doria and Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa took place, and the conditions of the +battle were almost exactly similar. + +To this very place came, 1569 years later, the Christian and the +Moslem, the Crescent and the Cross, each under its most renowned +leader, each side burning with an inextinguishable hate. It was one of +the peculiarities of this warfare that into it entered so much actual +personal feeling, each side hating the other for the love of God in +the most poisonous fashion. Save and except the battle of Lepanto in +1571 (with which we shall deal later in the story of Ali Basha, or +Occhiali as he was called by his Christian opponents) the contest +at Prevesa was far the most important ever fought by those strange +oar-propelled vessels known as galleys. It was memorable in many ways, +but particularly so for the ages of the men in chief command. Andrea +Doria was at this time seventy years of age; in fact, Guglielmotti +gives the date of his birth as 1466, thus making him two years older. +That amazing veteran Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, who died in his bed at +Constantinople on July 4th, 1546, at the age of ninety, must have been +eighty-two. Vicenzo Capello was sixty-eight, as the epitaph on his +tomb at Venice in the church of Santa Maria Formosa says that he was +seventy-two in the year of his death, 1542. + +Once again Christendom was nerving itself for a supreme effort against +the corsairs, and, during the time that Barbarossa was raiding and +ravaging among the islands of the Archipelago, the Christian fleet +was gradually assembling. At first it numbered some 150 galleys, +81 Venetian, 36 Pontifical, and 30 Spanish; Charles V. sent, at the +last moment, 50 ships on which were embarked 10,000 troops. The force +totalled altogether 59,000 to 60,000 men, 195 ships, and 2,594 cannons. +This was no doubt a most formidable armada, but the policy of those +by whom it was composed was not all directed to the same end. While +Charles desired, above all things, to exterminate the corsairs for +good and all, which was, in the circumstances, the only sound view +of the matter, the Venetians were for fighting defensive actions to +maintain their supremacy in the Ionian Islands, and were disposed to +let the future take care of itself. There was not, in consequence, that +absolute unanimity among the various commanders of the expedition as +was necessary for its complete success. + +The concentration of the Christian fleet took place at Corfu. The +Venetians arrived first, with Vincenzo Capello in command; Marco +Grimani brought thither the Papal contingent; they anchored and waited, +but Andrea Doria did not appear. Days lengthened into weeks, and +Grimani and Capelli chafed and fumed; provisions were running low and +the dignity of Venice and of the Pope were flouted by this strange +remissness on the part of the Admiral of the Emperor. At last, furious +with impatience, Grimani made a raid into the Gulf of Arta, which was +defended at the entrance by the fortress of Prevesa. The only result +of this ill-timed attack was that two Papal captains and a number of +soldiers were killed. Grimani then returned to Corfu, to find Capello +irritated to the last extent by the non-appearance of Doria. + +At last, on September 5th, the Imperial fleet hove in sight. It was +composed of forty-nine galleys, but these were supplemented by a great +number of sailing ships; the sailing craft, however, did not arrive +till September 22nd. These vessels were gradually making way among the +Spaniards since the discovery of the new world. + +At this time the Venetians possessed fourteen nefs. Doria had augmented +these by twenty-two of his own, and the total number of thirty-six +was commanded by Franco Doria, a nephew of the admiral. The Venetian +nefs were commanded by Alessandro Condalmiero, captain of the _Galleon +of Venice_. This was the most formidable fighting vessel in the +Mediterranean; she was reckoned an excellent sailor, she was by far the +most heavily armed sailing ship then afloat; in fact, in the opinion of +contemporary seamen, she was “an invincible fortress.” + +Doria, Grimani, and Capello had now nearly 200 ships carrying nearly +60,000 men. Such a force, in all ages, has been considered great. +William the Conqueror conquered Britain with a less number; it is +almost half the total of the personnel of the British fleet in the +present day which has to defend a country with 40,000,000 inhabitants, +and all this force had been raised, armed, and equipped to combat with +a Moslem corsair. + +Barbarossa had succeeded in assembling 122 ships. He was accompanied +by all the most famous corsairs of the day, among whom was Dragut, +who fell at the siege of Malta, and of whom we shall have more to say +in due time. Far and wide ranged the swift galleys of the Ottoman +fleet, for the plan of the commander of the Moslems was to locate and +destroy his enemies in detail if possible. At last news came to him +that Grimani’s ships had been sighted in the Gulf of Arta. Not one +moment did he lose; he would fall upon the Papal contingent with his +whole force and destroy it utterly. Such, at least, was his plan when +he sailed for Prevesa; but, notwithstanding his haste, he was too late. +Happily for himself, Grimani had returned to Corfu before the arrival +of his enemy. + +At this juncture Barbarossa hesitated; had he not done so, and had +he followed Grimani to Corfu, he might have destroyed both him +and Vincenzo Capello in detail before the arrival of Doria. The +Prevesa campaign is a curious study of hesitation on both sides, and +the idea naturally occurs were not the corsair and the Christian +commanders-in-chief too old for the work on which they were engaged? +Men of over seventy are not impetuous, but grave and deliberate as +a rule; but there is no rule without its exceptions, and Doria and +Barbarossa were not as other leaders. Up to the present their dash and +initiative had been unimpaired. There was no question that Barbarossa +not only made a mistake in hesitating, but that by it he lost the +game. Instead of striking at once he did what he had never done before +in the whole of his career, which was to send to Constantinople for +instructions. Some of his galleys had captured a fishing-boat off +Corfu, the crew of which had seen Doria’s fleet. The Moslem leader +sent the fishermen themselves to report to Soliman exactly what they +had seen, and to ask for and bring back instructions from that +potentate. What Barbarossa had discovered was that the odds were very +much against him; so much, in fact, that he would have to act on the +defensive. In consequence, he steered for Prevesa and entered the Gulf +of Arta, which is approached by a long narrow strait, dominated by +the castle of Prevesa. Once inside he anchored his galleys in such a +position that they could fire direct out to sea, thus overwhelming with +their fire any vessel attempting to enter. + +Barbarossa now occupied the same position as did Octavius in his +combat with Antony. The rôle of the latter general was now taken by +Doria. Antony, like Doria, had heavy ships which could not advance +to the attack owing to their too great draught. Octavius, with his +light-draught ships, could both attack and retreat into safety if +overmatched. + +On September 22nd Doria, having collected all his ships, gave orders +to fill up with wood, water, and fresh provisions. On the 25th, to +the sound of the trumpet, the Commander-in-Chief, with his fleet of +two hundred sail, weighed anchor and sped before the wind rapidly +southwards. Grimani commanded the advance-guard, Doria was in the +centre, Vincenzo Capello, with his Venetians, brought up the rear. +Formed in two columns, the nefs followed the galleys; the _Galleon of +Venice_, commanded by Condalmiero, a squadron in herself, preceded them. + +[Illustration: GALEASSE UNDER SAIL.] + +From the anchorage at Corfu to the entrance of the Gulf of Arta is +about fifty-eight miles, and, traversing this distance during the hours +of daylight, the fleet anchored, as night fell, under Cape Prevesa. +The Galleon which acted as what we should now call the guide of the +fleet, anchored in sixteen feet of water, which was barely sufficient +to keep her afloat. + +The Gulf of Arta, in which, as we have said, the fleet of the Moslems +were now anchored, presents very curious physical peculiarities: it +is twenty-two miles in length from east to west, and fifteen miles in +breadth from north to south. This sheet of water is formed into an +immense bay by the configuration of the land, and its depth, in places, +is from one hundred and thirty to two hundred feet. Inside it all the +navies in the world might ride at anchor, were it not for the fact that +the entrance is closed by a bar upon which the depth varies from six +and a half to thirteen feet. With his light-draught ships Barbarossa +occupied the interior position, while the heavy ships of Doria must in +any event remain outside. A strong sea-breeze was blowing on shore; +all night the nefs and the galleys were nearly rolling their gunwales +under. In these packed and crowded vessels the misery and discomfort of +their crews may be imagined. On the morning of the 26th, however, the +west wind dropped, and a light wind sprang up from the northward. + +The position at this time was one of surpassing interest. Here at long +last the two most renowned sea-captains of the time were face to face. +Each was aware that his antagonist was worthy of his steel, also that +great issues, political and national, hung upon this conflict; which +was no mere affair of outposts, but a struggle to the death as to +whether the Crescent or the Cross was in time to come to be supreme +in the tideless sea. And yet—such is the irony of fate—this battle +proved indecisive, and it was not until thirty years later, at the +battle of Lepanto, that this momentous question was set at rest for a +time. + +Would Doria, greatly daring, go in and risk all in attacking a +fortified position; or would Barbarossa make a sally and fight it out +to the death on the element on which he was so supremely at home? + +But Doria had no mind to attack a fleet anchored under the guns of +a fortress; Barbarossa would not risk all in an encounter with a +foe possessed of great numerical superiority without orders from +Constantinople. On Doria’s side nothing but a disembarkation and a +land-attack would offer a fair security for success, Kheyr-ed-Din, +who held, as we have said, the interior position, was well aware of +this fact, and in this supreme moment of his career was not disposed +to give away any advantage. The situation occupied by Kheyr-ed-Din +at the battle of Prevesa was, in a sense, different from any which +he had held before, as he was in this case hampered by his sense of +responsibility as Admiralissimo to the Grand Turk. What happened on the +distant shores of Africa mattered but little to that monarch, and he +had been content to allow his admiral an entirely free hand; here in +Europe, on the shores of Greece, so close relatively to his own capital +city, it was a very different matter, and Soliman was kept in touch +with the happenings of his fleet as far as was possible in those days. +But if the great corsair did not add to his reputation in this eventful +campaign he still displayed an aptitude in realising the situation +which, it is safe to say, was shown by none of those under his +command. + +Prevesa illustrates for us more than any other action the difficulties +with which the path of the partisan leader in these days must always +have been filled; and how it was that personal ascendancy was the only +force to which such a leader had to trust Sheer dominance of the minds, +the wills, and the bodies of others had placed Kheyr-ed-Din where he +was; all his life he had commanded undisciplined pirates, and yet now, +when he was the properly accredited officer of a mighty monarch, when +he might have expected far more discipline and subordination than had +ever been his lot in the past, he was met with a contumaciousness which +he was unable to quell, and was forced into taking steps which, in his +own unequalled knowledge of war, he knew to be doomed to disaster. + +Around him the Reis, or captains of the Moslem galleys, clamorously +demanded that he should take precautions against a land-attack. It +was true that the raid which had been made by Grimani had been easily +repulsed, but in present circumstances there was no question of a mere +raid, as, should the Christian admiral so decide, he could land twenty +thousand men. Sinan Reis, an old Osmanli warrior, furious with jealousy +that the chief command should be in the hands of a corsair, sustained +his opinion in a manner which augured ill for the hearty co-operation +of all the Turkish forces. Sinan was just one of those blindly valiant +fighters from whom the politic Ibrahim had desired to deliver his +master when he had urged the appointment of Kheyr-ed-Din: brave as +a lion, keen as the edge of his own good scimitar, fanatical, as +became a Hodja who had visited the Holy Places, Sinan was a type of +the Turkish sea-officer: devoid of strategical instinct and tactical +training, his one idea was a headlong attack, then victory or the +houris of Paradise. It will be seen that Barbarossa had not only Doria +and the Christian fleet and army against which to contend on this +occasion. + +The peril conjured up by Sinan Reis on this occasion was not altogether +an imaginary one: the idea of a disembarkation had, in point of fact, +been seriously discussed that very morning by Andrea Doria and his +council of war, at which Hernando de Gonzaga, Generalissimo of the +troops embarked, had advised a landing. His argument, embodied in a +long and technical harangue, may be reduced to the following: + + “If we cannot go straight at the enemy and force our way + through the entrance under his cannon why should we not + reduce the fortress of Prevesa by a siege? Once masters + of this height, we could close the strait by sinking + in it vessels laden with stones, and we then have the + Ottoman fleet at our mercy.” + +But Doria the sailor was not to be led by Gonzaga the soldier. He said: + + “The advice seems sound, but in reality it would prove + most dangerous if followed. Barbarossa must have + landed some of his men, the cavalry which defeated + Grimani’s raid will no doubt come again from the + interior, if necessary. If we deprive our ships of their + soldiers we expose ourselves to a sea-fight under most + disadvantageous conditions. But most, important of + all is the fact that time presses; the season is far + advanced; at any time the fleet may be driven off these + shores by a storm, in which case what would become of + the troops left on shore? Again, if it comes on to blow + a tempest from the westward we may lose not only our + troops, but our ships, in fact the whole expedition.” + +At the battle of Actium, Octavius occupied the shore upon which +Hernando Gonzaga wished to land and assault; but notwithstanding this +fact Octavius did not attempt the passage of the gulf but waited for +his enemy outside. Doria was therefore all the more justified in not +sacrificing ships and men in attempting to force an entrance now +that this same shore was in the hands of the enemy. He was asked, he +said, to thrust his head into the mouth of the wolf, and this he was +determined not to do. + +In the meanwhile Barbarossa was using much the same language to his +captains as was Doria. + +“My brothers,” said he, “you wish to transport cannon and raise +redoubts on this uncovered shore because you think that the Christians +will disembark and seize it: if you attempt this I tell you that the +guns of the enemy will annoy you terribly., Not only this, supposing +that Doria, profiting by the moment that our vessels are empty of +troops, should attack in force, we cannot with five thousand men +repulse twenty thousand. The fort of Prevesa will defend itself quite +sufficiently well with its own garrison; our business is to think +of the fleet and not to weaken in any way our means of attack and +defence, If the infidels force, or attempt to force, an entry into +the port, they will be most likely merely losing time and ammunition +in cannonading us. You know that it is principally in this that these +accursed dogs do trust, whereas we, O men of Islam, will place our +confidence in God, in Mahomet his Prophet, in the strength of our right +arms, in the keenness of our scimitars; we will carry them by boarding, +therefore we must keep our crews on board,” + +But Barbarossa had not that absolute domination of the forces under +his command which should be the prescriptive right of any leader. +Sinan-Reis, the implacable be-turbaned old Osmanli, held him in bitter +scorn. “Your advice may be good,” he retorted, “but we think our plan +the better.” + +The admiral suggested a reconnaissance of the site, which was merely +a ruse to gain time. This was carried out under his own supervision, +and confirmed him in the idea that disembarkation was folly; but +Sinan-Reis and the Janissaries held obstinately to their opinion, while +the “Joldaks,” or Turkish soldiers in the galleys, grumbled among +themselves that Kheyr-ed-Din must indeed be full of vanity to reject +the counsels of one like Sinan-Reis. + +Both commanders-in-chief, Christian and Moslem, seem on this occasion +to have taken an absolutely correct view of the problem as it was +presented; but whereas Andrea Doria was a real commander-in-chief, +Barbarossa was forced to consider and to defer to the opinions of men +whom he knew to be in the wrong. + +It was against his better judgment that Kheyr-ed-Din at last +yielded; the men were backing up their officers, a spirit of +disaffection was abroad in the armada: such a thing as this a wise +chief must gauge at its true value, and stop before it goes too far. +The Osmanli were murmuring against “the corsair”; it was time to let +them see whether they or their war-worn leader possessed the greater +wisdom. + +According to Moslem chroniclers the valour of Kheyr-ed-Din was only +equalled by his piety; consequently he murmured a prayer into that +famous beard of his, which was now so much nearer to white than red, +and gave orders that the cannon shall be immediately disembarked. “Let +the will of God and of His Prophet be accomplished; that which is +written is that which will take place,” exclaimed this pious man as he +watched the preparations being carried out under the supervision of +Mourad-Reis. + +That which “took place” was precisely and exactly what the +Commander-in-Chief had predicted from the first: no sooner had +Mourad-Reis landed upon the exposed beach, and attempted to open a +trench, than he was met by a furious and concentrated fire from the +galleys and nefs of the Christian fleet. To entrench themselves was +impossible in the circumstances, as they had been told by the Admiral +before they started on this harebrained adventure. There could be +only one result, which was that, after a cruel and perfectly useless +slaughter, the soldiers of Mourad-Reis had to retreat before the hail +of shot poured upon them, and to return ignominiously to their vessels. + +It is not on record what Kheyr-ed-Din said to Sinan, Mourad, and +those other tacticians who had recommended the landing; which perhaps +is a pity. + +Doria then made a tentative movement against the strait by a detachment +of galleys; Barbarossa told off an equal number to oppose them, and +they mutually cannonaded and skirmished during the day. There was much +noise and excitement, but practically no advantage was gained by either +side, as Doria’s men could not risk passing the guns of the fort, nor +could those of Barbarossa the chance of being cannonaded by the heavy +vessels lying in wait-for them outside. And so the day closed down with +no success on either side, but with a decisive demonstration to the +Moslems that, if they desired victory, to their admiral had better be +left the organisation by which it was to be obtained. + +Whether Doria really desired a pitched battle can never be known; that +which is certain is that, during the whole time the fleets were in +touch, all his dispositions make it appear there was nothing of which +he was so much afraid. And yet it was the opportunity of his life; he +had superiority in numbers, he had valiant and experienced leaders, +and sixty thousand men thirsting for battle, under his command. Also +he had his opportunity, which, had he seized upon, must have ended +in victory, did those who were under his orders only fight as he had +every reason to believe that they would. As it was, he threw away +the gift of fortune, and left to the Osmanli the practical dominance +of the Mediterranean Sea until that great day in 1571 when Don John +of Austria, the natural son of Charles V., proved to the world at +Lepanto that the Turk was not invincible upon the waters. + +It is true that Doria was awkwardly situated; Kheyr-ed-Din held the +interior position, and that leader was a great believer in the adage +that “if Brag is a good dog, Holdfast is a better.” He was well aware +of his numerical inferiority, and in consequence refused to listen +to the frenzied appeals of the excited Moslems to be led against the +Christian dogs. It may seem a contradiction in terms to speak of the +moral courage of a pirate; but if ever that quality were displayed +to its fullest extent it was exhibited by Barbarossa in the Prevesa +campaign. In his intellectual outlook on all that was passing, both +inside and outside of the Gulf of Arta, in this September of 1538, we +see Kheyr-ed-Din at his best. Ever a fighter, he knew when to give +battle and when to refrain, when to sweep headlong upon the foe, but +also when to hold back and to baffle by waiting till the psychological +moment should arrive. Around him Sinan-Reis, Mourad-Reis, and half a +hundred others of their kidney were clamouring; they hurled insults at +his head, they heaped opprobrium on “the corsair,” they practically +incited their troops to mutiny in their mad appeals to be led against +the foe. + +But “the corsair” kept his head, and kept his temper, and saved the +Ottoman fleet for his master from his great rival, Doria. That noble +Genoese seaman was for once in his life “letting I dare not wait upon I +would”; he would not order the attack for which his men were waiting, +and no provocation, apparently, could tempt Barbarossa to play +Antony to the Octavius of Doria; the Christian admiral was tempting +Providence at that advanced season of the year in keeping the sea on an +hostile coast on which at any time he might be driven by a tempest. His +old and experienced antagonist was well aware that the winds and the +waves might save him the trouble of destroying the fleet of the enemy; +an equinoctial gale would do that far more effectually than could he. +If Doria had an uneasy consciousness that he might at any time see the +shore littered with oarless galleys and dismasted nefs, while the sea +was filled with drowning men, the same vision had been vouchsafed to +his imperturbable adversary. Had it been left to the entire initiative +of Barbarossa, his Fabian tactics would assuredly have prevailed in +the end; but as it was he was surrounded by a clamouring host of men, +soldiers by trade, who, understanding nothing of the happenings of the +sea, merely derided as cowardice any postponement of what they regarded +as the inevitable battle. The admiral of the Sultan held out as long as +it was possible, but at last, owing to a new factor in the case, was +forced, against his better judgment, to offer the battle which it was +in his power to have withheld. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE BATTLE OF PREVESA + + + How Alessandro Condalmiero fought the _Galleon of Venice_— + “The King of the Sea is dead.” + +There is something almost pathetic in the spectacle of a really great +leader badgered and importuned by lesser men to adopt a course which +he, with a superior insight, knows to be unsound. In the matter of the +landing Barbarossa had demonstrated that it was he whose knowledge of +war was superior to those who were so ready to thrust upon him their +opinions; this, however, did not content them, and they now desired to +close with the foe waiting for them outside. If ever a commander was +justified in waiting on events it was Barbarossa at this juncture; the +business of a commander-in-chief is to ensure victory, and if he sees, +as did the Moslem admiral on this occasion, that more is to be gained +by delay than by fighting, then he is justified in refusing battle: +particularly is this the case when the enemy is in greatly superior +force blockading on an open and dangerous coast at an inclement +season of the year. Every day that Doria was kept at sea added to +his difficulties, as fresh water and provisions would be running +short, and the energies of the human engines by which his galleys +were propelled would be weakened; naked men chained to a bench were +suffering from the blazing heat of the days, the cold and drenching +dews of the nights. All these things had the veteran seaman weighed in +his mind, they all inclined him to wait still longer in that secure +anchorage where he could not be touched by his foe. + +There was one counsellor, however, whom even Kheyr-ed-Din could not +resist, and who had hitherto kept silence; this was the eunuch Monuc, +legal counsellor to Soliman, who had accompanied the armada. He now +brought the weight of his influence to bear upon the side of Sinan-Reis +and his colleagues. + +“Are you going,” he asked the admiral, “to allow the infidels to escape +without a battle? Soliman can find plenty of wood to build new fleets, +plenty of captains to command them; he will pardon you if this fleet +is destroyed: that which he will never pardon is that you should allow +Doria to escape without fighting. You have brave men in plenty; why not +lead them to the attack?” + +The patience of the veteran gave way at last; none who knew Barbarossa +had ever seen him shrink from fighting—to this his whole career bore +witness. He had delayed the issue from the soundest of strategical +reasons, which those under his command were too stupid and too +prejudiced to understand: what cared they for reason in their blind +valour?—they wished only to do or die heedless of the fact that +their lives might be spent in vain. Truly it was no thanks to the +subordinates of Kheyr-ed-Din that this campaign did not end in disaster +to the arms of the Ottoman Porte. Such backing as the admiral had +came from among his own men, the corsairs whose lives had been spent +at sea, but their opinions were but dust in the balance once the +all-powerful Monuc ranged himself on the side of the malcontents. + +“Let us then fight,” said the admiral to Saleh-Reis, “or this fine +talker who is neither man nor woman will accuse us before the Grand +Turk and we shall all probably be hanged.” + +The Christian fleet during the night of September 26–7th had made some +thirty miles to the southward; just before daybreak the wind freshened +and drew right ahead; Doria approached the island of Santa Maura and +anchored under the small islet of Sessola. + +Barbarossa had now decided to leave his anchorage, but the veteran +seaman did not disguise from himself the risks which he ran: a greater +sea captain than he once said “only numbers can annihilate,” and it was +at annihilation that both the Moslem and the Christian aimed: in this +case, however, he knew that he could but hope for a hard-won victory, +and only that if Allah and his Prophet were unusually favourable to +his cause. He assembled his captains, many of whom had served with him +during long periods of his career, and directed them to form line: he +said, “I have but one order to give, follow my movements attentively +and regulate your own accordingly.” + +With fustas, brigantines, galleots, and galleys, the Ottoman fleet +amounted in all to one hundred and forty sail. With shouts of joy the +soldiers hailed the command to weigh the anchors, and in a very short +time all were slowly moving seaward. + +The die was cast: Doria from his anchorage at Sessola saw the sea white +with the sails of the enemy, the blue water churning to foam beneath +the strokes of his oars; the Ottoman fleet was issuing from the Gulf +of Arta manoeuvring with precision and deploying into a single line +abreast; which line being slightly concave, either from accident or +design, resembled the form of a crescent. In advance came six great +fustas commanded by Dragut; the left wing hugged the shore as closely +as possible; the Ottoman commander-in-chief intended to commence +operations on the first principles of strategy by flinging his whole +force on a portion of that of the enemy. + +Andrea Doria remained undecided: he was on a lee shore, and that shore +was the coast of the enemy; although his foes were advancing to the +attack it seemed as if he had no mind to fight: whether he had or +had not he displayed a most remarkable sluggishness, hesitating for +three hours before getting up his anchors; these he only weighed at +last under pressure from the bellicose Patriarch of Aquilea, Vincenzo +Capello, and the Papal captain, Antonio Grimani. Doria had counted on +the support of the _Galleon of Venice_ and the nefs; but the galleon was +becalmed four miles from the land and ten miles from Sessola, where +Doria was at the beginning of the action. + +Condalmiero sent a light skiff from the _Galleon of Venice_ to the +commander-in-chief demanding orders and help from the galleys. + +“Begin the fight,” answered the admiral, “you will be succoured.” + +The position of Condalmiero was that of a modern battleship which is +disabled and surrounded by foes in full possession of their motive +power; the great galleon floated inert upon the waters while the +galleys could fight or fly as they wished. The captain of the galleon, +however, had no alternative save to surrender or fight; but there was +no hesitation on his part, for a more gallant officer never trod the +decks of a warship of the proud Republic to which he belonged. + +The Moslem galleys were now close upon him, although as yet out of +gun-shot; around him they wheeled and circled like a flight of great +sea-birds, their ferocious crews shouting their war-cries calling +upon Allah and the Prophet to give them the victory for which they +craved; many a brave Venetian who heard for the first time the name of +Barbarossa shouted in battle must have braced himself for the coming +conflict, knowing all that was imported by that terrible name. The +sun shone in a cloudless sky, the galleon lay becalmed in the middle +of furious and ravening foes, the succour promised by Doria was ten +miles away; they saw no movement which indicated help, and the odds +against them were heavy indeed. But all the nervousness was not on +one side, for the _Galleon of Venice_ was something new in the naval +warfare of the time; she carried engines of destruction in the shape +of great guns which the corsairs could by no means equal. Of this they +were well aware, and the attack was delayed while the oarsmen in the +galleys rested on their oars out of range to allow them breathing time +before the supreme moment arrived. But the hounds were only held in +leash; there came a signal which was answered by a concentrated yell +of fury and of hate; then from right ahead, right astern, on the port +side and the starboard, the galleys were launched to the attack. But +all on board the great Venetian vessel was as still as that death which +awaited so many of the combatants in this supreme struggle. + +Condalmiero had caused the crew of the galleon to lie down upon her +decks, and stood himself, a gallant solitary figure in his shining +armour, a mark for the hail of shot so soon to be discharged. It came, +and with it the mast of the galleon bearing the Lion Standard of St. +Mark crashed over the side into the water; renewed yells of triumph +came from the Moslems, but still that ominous silence reigned on board +the galleon. Untouched, unharmed, the Osmanlis came on firing as +rapidly as possible until they were absolutely within arquebuss range. +Closer they came and closer; then the sides of the galleon burst into +sheeted flame, and the guns levelled at point-blank range tore through +the attacking host. Condalmiero was throwing away no chances; he had +directed his gunners to allow their balls to ricochet before striking +rather than to throw them away by allowing them to fly over the heads +of the enemy. + +The first broadside did terrible execution; a ball one hundred and +twenty pounds in weight, fired by the chief bombardier, Francisco +d’Arba in person, burst in the prow of a galley so effectually that +all her people flew aft to the poop to prevent the water rushing in; +but the vessel was practically split in twain, and sank in a few +moments. All around were dead and dying men, disabled galleys, floating +wreckage; the _Galleon of Venice_ had taken a terrible toll of the +Osmanli; the order to retreat out of range was given, and never was +order obeyed with greater alacrity. + +With accuracy and precision the galleon played upon such vessels as +remained within range, doing great execution. But she was now to be +subjected to an even severer test than the first headlong attack. She +had demonstrated to the Moslem leaders that here was no vessel to be +carried by mere reckless valour; a disciplined and ordered offensive +was the only plan which promised success; the Osmanli must use their +brain as well as their courage if that tattered flag, rescued from the +water, and nailed to the stump of the mast of the galleon, was ever to +be torn down. There was something daunting in the very aspect of the +solid bulk of the huge Venetian, something weird in the manner in which +her crew never showed, save only the steadfast figure of her captain +immovable as a statue of bronze, where he stood on her shot-torn poop. + +This Homeric conflict was a triumph of discipline and gunnery on the +part of the Venetians; alert, accurate, and cool, the gunners of the +galleon threw away none of their ammunition: inspired by the heroic +spirit of their captain, great was the honour which they did on this +stricken field to the noble traditions of their forbears and the +service to which they belonged. + +The first attack had been most brilliantly repulsed, but this was +only preliminary to a conflict which was to last all through the +day; the Moslem galleys withdrew out of gunshot and re-formed; then a +squadron of twenty advanced, delivered their fire, and retired; their +place was then taken by a second squadron, which went through the same +performance, and then came on a third. In this manner the attack, which +began one hour after noon, and which was continued until sunset, was +conducted. The galleon had thirteen men killed, and forty wounded; no +doubt the slaughter would have been much greater had it not been for +the enormous thickness of her sides and for the fact that the guns +carried by the galleys were necessarily light. Notwithstanding, the +galleon suffered terribly, she was a mass of wreckage; twice fire had +broken out on board of her, she was cumbered by fallen masts, battered +almost out of recognition, but still Condalmiero and her gallant crew +fought on imperturbably with no thought of surrender. Covered with +blood, wounded in the face and the right leg by flying splinters, her +captain preserved his magnificent coolness, and his decimated crew +responded nobly to his call. At eventide the fire from the galleon +was almost as deadly as it had been at the first onslaught, and many +galleys of the Turks were only saved from sinking by the activity +and bravery of their carpenters, who, slung over their sides in +“boatswains’ chairs,” drove home huge plugs of wood with their mallets +into the shot-holes made by the Venetian guns. + +At the hour when the sun dipped below the horizon all the Turkish fleet +seemed assembled to assault the colossus which so long had resisted +their attack; there was a pause in the combat, and the firing died +down. Condalmiero and his men braced themselves for the assault which +they felt to be inevitable: for now the darkness was swiftly coming, in +which they could no longer see to shoot, and under cover of which their +numerous foes could assail them by boarding in comparative safety. Now +the moment had come for the last act in this terrible drama of the sea. +They had held their own at long odds throughout the whole of a hot +September day, and as the level beams of the setting sun shone on their +shattered ship they were prepared to die, fighting to the last man for +the honour of Venice and the glory of St. Mark. + +Stiff and worn, wearied almost to the breaking strain, there was no man +on board who even dreamt of surrender; all the guns were charged to the +muzzle with bullets and broken stone, the artillerists match in hand +stood grimly awaiting the order to fire, straining their eyes and their +ears in the gathering darkness; in a few minutes at most they knew that +the fate of the _Galleon of Venice_ must be decided. + +On board his galley, decorated for this occasion with scarlet banners, +Barbarossa himself directed the assaulting line. Never before when the +battle was joined had the gallant corsair been known to draw back; and +yet on this occasion he not only hesitated but actually hauled off. The +Venetians saw to their amazement that the expected attack was not to +be pushed home; for Barbarossa and his captains fell upon some lesser +vessels: the _Galleon of Venice_ was victorious. + +Meanwhile Doria was displaying his mastery of tactics when it was +hard fighting that was wanted; he pretended that he wished to draw +the Ottoman fleet into the high seas in order that he might destroy +their galleys by means of the broadsides of his nefs; consequently +he executed useless parade movements when he should by all the rules +of warfare have closed with his enemy who was in distinctly inferior +force; as he had a fair wind there is only one conclusion to be drawn, +and that is that he did not want to fight. + +His manoeuvres certainly mystified the Turks, who viewed his tactics +with mistrust, thinking them the outset of some deeply laid scheme; it +never entered into their calculations for one moment that the great +Andrea Doria, the terror of the Mediterranean sea, and the victor in +scores of desperate engagements, was anxious to avoid a fight. + +Grimani and Capello, docile to the orders of their admiral, followed +him full of uneasiness and distrust; they were fighting men of the most +fiery description; to them the issue seemed of the simplest: there was +the enemy in inferior force to themselves, they had the weather gauge, +why delay the attack? + +“For much less than this,” says Admiral Jurien de la Gravière, “the +English shot Admiral Byng in 1756.” The conduct of Doria on this +occasion has certainly never been explained; the two other leaders went +on board and remonstrated with their commander-in-chief; they were +neither of them men who could be treated as negligible quantities on +the field of battle; both belonged to that brilliant Venetian nobility +so renowned in commerce and in war. Marco Grimani was in command of the +Papal galleys, in itself a mark of the highest esteem and confidence +from a potentate second to none in his influence in the civilised +world. To Vincenzo Capello, Henry the Seventh of England confided +his royal person and the command of his fleet when he crossed the +Channel to encounter Richard the Second at Bosworth field. Five times +had he filled the office of Providiteur in Venice, twice had he been +commander-in-chief of her fleet, he was in perpetuity Procureur of St. +Mark, to him Venice owed her naval discipline. He wore on this day the +mantle of crimson silk with which the Republic invested her generals. +Bitter was the rage in his heart, and bitterly must he have spoken +to Doria, who, in spite of all remonstrances, continued his futile +manoeuvrings. + +There was glory won on this day, but it was gained neither by Andrea +Doria nor Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa. The _Galleon of Venice_ with +Alessandro Condalmiero and his gallant crew had shown to all a splendid +example of disciplined valour unexcelled in sixteenth-century annals. + +Barbarossa had captured a Venetian galley, a Papal galley, and five +Spanish nefs, but he had recoiled from the assault on Condalmiero +when the prize was actually within his grasp. For the rest it was a +day of manoeuvring and tactics; tactics when sixty thousand men had +been embarked on board two hundred ships for a specific and definite +object on the side of the Christians and under the command of their +most celebrated admiral; and yet the balance of advantage was actually +gained by the inferior force. No subsequent glories can ever wipe this +stain from the scutcheon of Doria, or can excuse the fact that at +the most supreme moment of his career he failed to fight the battle +that he was in honour, in conscience, and in duty bound to deliver. +Next day the wind came fair for Corfu, and Doria, his ships untouched, +unscathed, unharmed, put his helm up and sailed away followed by his +fleet. + +Sandoval records the fact that Barbarossa, roaring with laughter the +while, was accustomed to say that Doria had even put out his lanterns +in order that no one might see whither he had fled. This was an +allusion to the fact—or supposition—that Doria extinguished on that +night the great poop lantern carried by him as admiral. + +When Soliman the Magnificent heard of the result of this battle +he caused the town of Yamboli, where he was at the time, to be +illuminated, and in the excess of his joy he added one hundred thousand +aspres to the revenues of the conqueror; there were processions to +the Grand Mosque, and all Islam rejoiced and sang the praises of +the invincible admiral who had humbled to the dust the pride of the +Christian and caused the dreaded Doria to fly from before the fleet of +the Sultan. + +This, the most historical, if not the greatest feat in the life of +Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, was for him a triumph indeed; with a vastly +inferior force he had driven from the field of battle his “rival +in glory,” as he himself had denominated Andrea Doria, and he had +accomplished this feat notwithstanding the almost mutinous condition +of his own forces. In spite of this it is with Condalmiero and with +him alone that the glory of this day must rest; alone, absolutely +unsupported as we have seen, he fought one of those fights which bring +the heart into the mouth when we read of them; the stern pride of the +Venetian noble, who despised as canaille the pirate hosts by whom +he was assailed, had its counterpart in the sturdy valour of Chief +Bombardier Francisco d’Arba and the other nameless heroes of which +that good company was composed; to them we render that homage which so +justly is their due. + +The whole campaign of Prevesa, as we have said, is a curious study +in hesitation, in dilatoriness, in absolute lack of initiative and +virility on the part of the two chief actors in the drama: that Doria +should fly from the field of battle in an untouched ship is only one +degree less incredible than that Barbarossa should have relinquished +his attack on the _Galleon of Venice_. It would almost seem as if on this +occasion each of the great rivals was hypnotised by the presence of +the other; all their lives they had been seeking honour and riches on +the sea, they knew, of course, that all men in both the world of Islam +and that of Christendom looked upon them in the light of the special +champions of the opposing sects, that the eyes of the entire world +were fastened on this meeting of theirs in the classic waters of the +Ambracian Gulf. In consequence neither man was at his best; indeed, +we might go further than this, and say that on this occasion both +lamentably failed. There is no fault to be found with the strategic +preliminaries to the final conflict, each admiral acting with prudence +and wisdom in the situation in which he found himself placed. That the +perfectly correct idea of not giving battle to a superior force when he +held so strong an interior position was given up by Barbarossa, was, as +we have seen, not his fault; and when he issued from his anchorage, in +deference to a sentiment among those under his command which he could +no longer resist, his dispositions seem to have been made with his +usual skill. Where he failed, however, was where, from all his previous +history, we should least have expected failure, in his abandonment of +the attack on the _Galleon of Venice_; this, of course, was inexcusable, +and can only be set down to failure of nerve at the supreme moment. The +ship had been battered by artillery all day long, a huge percentage +of her company were dead and wounded, and the remainder worn out with +fatigue. On the Moslem side we have seen that there were squadrons of +galleys able to relieve one another with no interference from Doria, +who was persisting in his futile manoeuvring miles away. Had the +galleon been boarded, as she might and should have been, at nightfall, +nothing could have saved Condalmiero and his crew: so strenuous, +however, had been their resistance, that the Turkish seamen feared the +issue; in consequence the battle between them and the Venetians was a +drawn one, with all the honours on the Christian side. + +It is here that we shall take leave of Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, as +although he was yet to live another eight years before he died in his +bed at Constantinople in July, 1548, there are no further happenings of +any great importance in his career. + +“Valorous, yet prudent, furious in attack, far-seeing in preparation, +he ranks as the first sea-captain of his time;”[1] as the story of his +life has unfolded itself in these pages we have seen what manner of +man it was who terrified Europe, who made for himself a reputation +which stands out clear and distinct among all the great men of which +this century was so prolific. One of the surest methods of estimating +a strenuous man of action is to seek for the names of those by whom +he was surrounded: the men selected by him to assist in the carrying +out of the work of his life; thus in reading of Napoleon Bonaparte +we interest ourselves in his marshals, in reading of Nelson we note +the captains by whom he was supported. In the case of Kheyr-ed-Din +Barbarossa, a great man of action if one ever lived, we find no trace +of devoted adherents on that high plane of command we have indicated +in the cases cited above. That he had devoted followers enough is +absolutely certain, but of high officers we very seldom find a trace, +and these he treated with contumely and offence on many occasions; +witness the treatment meted out to Hassan and to Venalcadi. There +is practically no trace of his domestic life to be found, we cannot +discover that he possessed any intimate friend. There is none other in +all history to whom he can be satisfactorily compared; there are few +who in their generation have wielded such enormous powers, who have +climbed so high from the sheer unassisted force of their own intellect +and their own character. + +[1] Stanley Lane Poole. + +Physical strength such as is vouchsafed to one man in a million, a +constitution nothing could impair, endurance incomparable, were his +bodily attributes: an intellect cold, clear, and penetrating was +his, joined to an imperturbability of temperament which enabled him +to accept with a cheerful philosophy blows by which weaker men were +absolutely prostrated; his outlook on life was not dimmed by any +affections, and pity was a sensation which to him was entirely alien. +In this record of his deeds the reader has been spared all mention of +the atrocious tortures he was in the habit of inflicting on his victims +for any or no provocation, and many of them are as incomprehensible as +they are sickening. That in which he was supreme was his craft as a +seaman in an age when real seamen were rare; on land he was frequently +defeated, at sea there seems to be no record of such an occurrence. To +sum up, he appears to us in the light of history as a body, a brain, +and an intellect, without any trace of a heart. His path through life +was one unending trail of blood and fire, moistened by the tears of his +countless victims, followed by the curses of those whom he despoiled. +Yet, in spite of this, it is impossible not to admire the man who, by +his own superhuman energy, ever swept all obstacles from his path, +and caused the whole of the civilised world to quail at the name of +Barbarossa. + +He died peacefully in his bed at Constantinople in July, 1546, to the +grief of the world of Islam and the inexpressible joy of Christendom. +“The king of the sea is dead,” expressed in three Arabic words, gives +the numerical value 953, the year of the Hegira in which he died. + +For many years after his death no Turkish ship ever left the Golden +Horn without her crew repeating a prayer and firing a salute over the +tomb of Beshiktsah, where lie the bones of the first and greatest of +Turkish admirals, the corsair who was at one and the same time admiral, +pirate, and king. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE NAVY OF OARS. THE GALLEY, THE GALEASSE, AND THE NEF + + +In the sixteenth century the vessel of war in the Mediterranean was +essentially that oar-propelled craft known to us as the galley. As time +went on she was gradually superseded by the sailing man-of-war which +was able to carry that heavy ordnance which the light scantling of the +galley did not permit of her mounting; but for the use of the corsairs +who lived by means of raids and surprise attacks, whose business it was +to lie perdu on the trade routes, the mobility of the galley was of +prime importance, and they could not afford to trust to the wind alone +as a motive power. The galley was analogous to the steam vessel in that +it was independent of the wind to a large extent: human bone and muscle +supplied the part of engines, and those who fought upon the sea caused +themselves to be moved over the face of the waters by the exertions +of their enemies. It is true that upon one occasion, as we have seen, +Kheyred-Din Barbarossa did possess a fleet of galleys the rowers of +which were all Moslems, which crew upon battle being joined dropped +their oars, seized their weapons and assisted in the conquest of the +foe. But this was an isolated instance, as it was almost impossible +at any time and in any circumstances to procure free men ready to +undertake a life of such intolerable suffering as that of a rower +on board a galley; in consequence these men were almost invariably +slaves, or else in later times condemned felons whose judges had sent +them to work out their sentences upon the rowers’ bench. The great +characteristic of the galley was her mobility, and in a comparative +degree her speed, as for a short burst, when her crew of rowers were +fresh, their trained muscles were capable of tremendous exertion; for +any length of time, however, it is obvious that her speed must have +declined as the rowers became exhausted. She was long, narrow, of +extremely low freeboard, and slight depth of hold; a galley of 125 feet +between perpendiculars would perhaps be 180 feet over all taking in +the poop and the prow. A galley of this length would only have a beam +of 19 feet and a depth of hold of 7 feet 6 inches. The sailing ship +of contemporary times would for the same length have had a beam of +about 40 feet and an extremely high freeboard; she was in consequence +necessarily slow and incapable of sailing on a wind. + +So distinct at this time was the line drawn between the sailing vessel +and the galley that the actual terminology used was entirely different; +that is to say, the names of such things as masts, sails, rudder, +tiller, stern, stempost, cutwater, etc., were not the same words; the +sailor who used sails could not understand his brother mariner who used +oars, and _vice versa_. + +[Illustration: GALLEY UNDER OARS.] + +What was necessary of course in the galley was many oars and many +hands to use them; the vessel was most skilfully constructed for this +purpose so as to get the fullest power from her human engines; the +result was that men were crowded on board of her to such an extent that +there was scarcely room to breathe, such a craft as the one of which +the dimensions have been given having on board some four hundred men. + +Barras de la Penne, a French officer who in 1713 first went on board a +galley, thus describes what he saw: + + “Those who see a galley for the first time are astonished + to see so many persons; there are an infinite number of + villages in Europe which do not contain an equal number + of inhabitants; however, this is not the principal cause + of one’s surprise, but that so many men can be assembled + in so small a space. It is truth that many of them have + not room to sleep at full length, for they put seven men + on one bench; that is to say, on a space about ten feet + long and four broad; at the bows one sees some thirty + sailors who have for their lodging the floor space of the + rambades (this is the platform at the prow of the galley) + which consists of a rectangular space ten feet long by + eight in width. The captain and officers who live on the + poop are scarcely better lodged, and one is tempted to + compare their grandeur with that of Diogenes in his tub. + + “When the unpitying Libyan Sea surprises these galleys + upon the Roman coasts, when the Norther lashes to foam + the Gulf of Lyons, when the humid east wind of Syria + is driving them off shore, everything combines to make + life on board a modern galley a hell of misery and + discomfort. The creaking of the blocks and cordage, the + loud cries of the sailors, the horrible maledictions + of the galley slaves, the groaning of the timbers, + mingled with the clank of chains and the bellowings of + the tempest, produce sentiments of affright in the most + intrepid breasts. The rain, the hail, the lightning, + habitual accompaniments of these terrific storms, the + waves which dash over the vessel, all add to the horror + of the situation, and although devotion is not as a rule + very strongly marked on board a galley, you will hear + these folk praying to God, and others making vows to the + Saints; these would do much better not to forget God and + his Saints when the danger is past. + + “Calm itself has also its inconveniences, as the evil + smells which arise from the galley are then so strong + that one cannot get away from them in spite of the + tobacco with which one is obliged to plug one’s nostrils + from morning till night.” + +The gallant officer here goes into further details concerning the +vermin on board which it will be as well to spare the reader. + +Jean Marteille de Bergeraq, who died at Culenbourg in 1777, was +condemned to serve on board the galleys in 1707 “in his quality of +Protestant”; he must indeed have been a man of iron constitution as he +lived to the age of ninety-five. This is his description of the life of +a _forçat_: + + “They are chained six to a bench; the benches are four + feet wide covered with sacking stuffed with wool over + which are thrown sheepskins which reach to the floor. + The officer who is master of the galley slaves remains + aft with the captain to receive his orders; there are + two under officers, one amidships and one at the prow; + all of these are armed with whips, with which they flog + the absolutely naked bodies of the slaves. When the + captain gives the order to row, the officer gives the + signal with a silver whistle which hangs on a cord round + his neck; the signal is repeated by the under officers + and very soon all the fifty oars strike the water as + one. Imagine six men chained to a bench as naked as they + were born, one foot on the stretcher the other raised + and placed on the bench in front of them, holding in + their hands an oar of enormous weight, stretching their + bodies towards the after part of the galley with arms + extended to push the loom of the oar clear of the backs + of those in front of them who are in the same attitude. + They plunge the blades of the oars into the water and + throw themselves back, falling on to the seat which bends + beneath their weight. Sometimes the galley slaves row + thus ten, twelve, even twenty hours at a stretch, without + the slightest relapse or rest, and on these occasions + the officer will go round putting into the mouths of + the wretched rowers pieces of bread soaked in wine to + prevent them from fainting. Then the captain will call + upon the officers to redouble their blows, and if one of + the slaves falls fainting upon his oar, which is a common + occurrence, he is flogged until he appears to be dead and + is then flung overboard without ceremony.” + +The Italian captain, Pantero Pantera, of the _Santa Lucia_ galley, in his +work on “L’Armata Navale” published in 1614, gives it as his opinion +that although soldiers and sailors could be obtained for service in the +galleys if good pay were given, still no money could tempt any free man +to adventure himself as a rower for any length of time owing to the +intolerable sufferings which the “gallerian” was called upon to endure. +As, however, in the opinion of the captain it was most necessary +that the galleys should be manned, he thought that all judges should +in future send criminals aboard; those who had committed murder as +“lifers,” those who had committed lesser crimes _pro rata_. Those who by +the nobility of their birth or their physical incompetence were unable +to handle the oar should be called upon to pay for substitutes to act +for them; these were called “Buone-Voglie.” + +There was not much difference after all between the methods used by the +seventeenth-century Italian to those actually in force in England at a +much later date when the Press Gang swept the honest and the dishonest +into its net in its midnight raids. + +“The galley slaves,” observes Pantera, “cherish repose and sincerely +wish to avoid fatigue; in order to incite them to do their duty it is +necessary to use the whip as well as the whistle; by using it with +severity the officers will find that they are better obeyed, and it +will in consequence be good for the service, for fear of the whip is +the principal cause of good behaviour among the gallerians.” Further on +he observes that it is well not to flog them too severely and without +reason, “for this irritates the gallerians, as I have frequently +observed: this may cause them to despair and to wish for death as the +only sure way out of their troubles.” The excellent Pantera a little +later on even says that he cannot agree that the attempt to cure a sick +gallerian “is all nonsense, as is maintained by some persons,” as sick +men are a source of danger on board. He apparently was not prepared to +throw them overboard alive, but urges that the best way to avoid such +pestilences among them as killed forty thousand Venetians at the +port of Zara in 1570 is to embark sound and good victuals. + +It is interesting to have a contemporary view of the correct treatment +of the galley slave from those who had to do with him. In the case +of the corsairs and their adversaries the gallerians were as a rule +prisoners of war, but as time went on and wars became less frequent +than they were throughout the sixteenth century, another source of +supply was tapped by sending to the galleys the criminals of any +country which desired to fill up the rowers’ benches. In consequence +there was always one thing which was feared above all others on board a +galley, and that was a rising of the slaves. + +If they were not your enemies officially, they were a set of desperate +criminals ripe for any mischief should they get loose, and chained, +starved, beaten, frozen with the cold, baked by the summer heats, +tortured, murdered, they had nothing earthly for which to hope except +escape. If in the heat of battle there should occur a rising of the +slaves, then their masters knew that victory would declare itself +surely on the side of the enemy. Therefore that they should be +securely chained was the first and most important thing to which the +boatswain of a galley and his mates had to see. If by a bold stroke +they once freed themselves from their shackles it was a fight to the +death for those who erstwhile had been in command, as the gallerians, +outnumbering them and caring nought for their lives in comparison to +their liberties, were far the most formidable foes that they could be +called upon to encounter. When men are so treated that their daily +life is one long martyrdom they become the most dangerous force +in existence, and on the occasions which sometimes happened that the +slaves got the upper hand, there were none left of the fighting men of +the galley to tell the tale of their discomfiture. + +In time of battle the gallerians were of course equally exposed to +death and wounds from the projectiles of the enemy as were the orthodox +fighting men; but to them came no rejoicing at the sound of victory; +rather they prayed for the defeat of their masters, as it frequently +happened that those against whom they were arrayed were their own +countrymen and friends by whom they hoped for release. Thus at Lepanto, +the Christian slaves, seeing the right wing of the Turkish fleet thrown +into disorder by the galleys of the Allies, broke out into furious +mutiny, succeeded in shattering their fetters and chains, attacked +their masters the Turks in the rear with incredible energy with any +weapons upon which they could lay their hands, and thus contributed in +no small measure to the ultimate triumph of the Christian arms. + +The Captain Pantero Pantera and Barras de la Peine have written +exhaustively on the galley, her crew, her armament, her manner of +provisioning, her masts, sails, rigging, etc., and Admiral Jurien de +la Gravière has given a most painstaking exposition concerning the +technicalities of these craft. But to enter into too much detail would +be to weary the reader unnecessarily, who, it is apprehended, merely +desires that a general idea should be given of the way in which these +vessels were handled and fought. + +It would appear that during the whole time that oar-propelled vessels +were used as warships their form did not differ to any material +extent, as certain limitations of size were obviously imposed on them +by the mere fact that they had to be moved by so finite and feeble a +force as human muscles, hearts, and lungs. No cruelty, however ghastly, +could extract from the gallerians more than a certain amount of work, +and the Captain Pantero Pantera, as we have seen, even advocates that a +certain minimum of consideration should be shown to them in order that +better work might be obtained. It was probable, however, that in the +case of the Christian slaves captured by the corsairs even this minimum +was to seek, as the numbers swept off by them were so enormous that +they could be used up and replaced without inconveniencing these rovers +of the sea, to whom compassion for suffering was absolutely unknown. + +The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, or the Knights of Malta as they +were also called, used the galley in their unceasing warfare with the +Moslem. The General of the Galleys was a Grand Cross of the Order; the +captains were knights, and the second officer, or first lieutenant, was +known as the Patron. The crew of a galley of the knights had twenty-six +rowing benches and carried two hundred and eighty rowers and two +hundred and eighty combatants; the armament consisted of one bow cannon +which discharged a forty-eight pound ball, four other small guns, eight +pounders, and fourteen others which discharged stones. + +“The Religion,” as the Knights were in the habit of describing +themselves, had certain definite stations assigned to each knight, +seaman, or officer during action. It is to be imagined, however, +that these were merely for the preliminary stages of the fight, +as it was seldom that time allowed for more than one discharge, or +at the most two, of the artillery, before the opposing galleys met +in a hand-to-hand conflict which must have immediately become an +indiscriminate mêlée. + +The manner in which the galley should engage is thus contained in an +answer to a question of Don John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto. He +wrote to Garcia de Toledo, fourth Marquis of Villafranca, and General +of the Galleys of Sicily, to ask his opinion as to what distance it was +most efficacious to open fire in a naval action. Toledo replied that +“one cannot fire more than twice before the galleys close. I should +therefore recommend that the arquebussiers should hold their fire +until they are so close to the enemy that his blood will leap into the +face of him who discharges his piece. I have always heard it said, and +this by captains who are well skilled in the art of war, that the last +discharge of the cannon should be coincident with the noise made by the +breaking of the spurs carried in the prows of the galleys; in fact that +the two noises should be as one; some propose to fire before the enemy +does: this is by no means my advice.” + +Artillery, it will be seen from this, played a comparatively +unimportant part in the combats between galley and galley; that in +these craft men still relied on the strength of their right arm and the +edge of their swords; there was still a certain contempt for villainous +saltpetre, which was looked upon as a somewhat cowardly substance, +preventing the warrior from settling his disputes in the good old +fashion of his forbears. In any case, when you practically had to +push the muzzle of your gun against your enemy’s body in order to hit +him, it was not a weapon upon which much reliance was to be placed. + +There were, in addition to the galley, the nef and the galeasse; +the former of these was a sailing vessel pure and simple like those +remarkable caravels in which Columbus discovered America. + +What these caravels were exactly like it was the good fortune of +the writer to see in the year 1893. This was the date of the great +exhibition of Chicago, and the American Government were most anxious to +have, and to exhibit if possible, an exact replica of these historic +craft. They accordingly communicated with the Spanish Government and +inquired if by any chance they possessed the plans and specifications +of the caravels of Columbus? Search was made in the archives of Cadiz +Dockyard and these priceless documents were discovered. From them the +ships were built in every respect the same as the wonderful originals +and then towed across the Atlantic by the United States cruiser +_Lancaster_. On their way they were brought to Gibraltar, where the +writer’s ship was then stationed, and were anchored inside the New +Mole. The _Santa Maria_, the flagship of Columbus, was a three-masted +vessel with a very high “forecastle” and “sterncastle” and very deep in +the waist; she had three masts, the foremast carrying one square sail, +the mainmast having both mainsail and main-topsail, the mizzen was +rigged with a lateen sail, on the mainsail was painted the Maltese and +on the foresail the Papal cross, and on deck she carried a brick-built +cooking galley. A most beautiful model of this vessel is to be seen +in the Science and Art Department of the South Kensington Museum. + +The nef in its later manifestations became a much more seaworthy vessel +than this, with four masts, the two foremost ones square-rigged and +carrying courses and topsails, the two after ones carrying lateen +sails; the latter from their small size and their proximity to one +another could not have had much effect on the sailing qualities of the +ship. The nefs in the fleet of Don John of Austria in 1571 were rigged +in this fashion and comprised vessels of eight hundred, nine hundred, +and even one thousand tons, while a contemporary English vessel, the +_Great Harry_ or _Henri Grace à Dieu_, was as much as fifteen hundred +tons, and carried no less than one hundred and eighty-four pieces +of ordnance. It was from the nef and the galeasse that the sailing +man-of-war arrived by the process of evolution. The galley in the first +instance was the vessel of men who fought hand to hand, the men in +whom personal strength and desperate valour were blended, who desired +nothing so much as to come to close grips with their enemy. Such rude +engines of war as the pierriers, or short cannons which discharged +some forty or fifty pounds of broken stone upon the enemy, were first +mounted in the galley; these were followed by improved artillery as +time went on. But although the galleys eventually carried quite big +guns, as instanced by the forty-eight pounder in the galleys of the +Knights of St. John, still it soon became apparent that the limit was +reached by guns of this weight; the galley was essentially a light +vessel and was not built to withstand those rude shocks caused by +firing heavy charges of powder. + +The galeasse was the connecting link between the navy of oars and the +navy of sails. The navy of oars was in its generation apt for warlike +purposes; but it was in its essence a force analogous to the light +cavalry of the land; useful for a raid, a sudden dash, but without that +great strength and solidity which came in later years to the building +of the sailing line of battleship. + +The galeasse was really a magnified galley, one which used both sails +and oars, on board of which the rowers were under cover; she was built +with a forecastle and a sterncastle which were elevated some six feet +above the benches of the rowers, and her very long and immensely heavy +oars were of course proportionate to the size of the vessel. The +description of a galeasse of nearly one thousand tons burden is set +forth as follows by Jurien de la Gravière: + + “Her draught of water was about 18 feet 6 inches, she + was propelled by 52 oars, 48 feet in length, each oar + being worked by 9 men. Her crew consisted of 452 rowers, + 350 soldiers, 60 marines, 12 steersmen, 40 ordinary + seamen, 86 cannoneers, 12 petty officers, 4 boatswains’ + mates, 3 pilots, 2 sub-pilots, 4 counsellors, 2 surgeons, + 4 writers, 2 sergeants, 2 carpenters, 2 caulkers, 2 + coopers, 2 bakers, 10 servants, a captain, a lieutenant, + a purser. In all some thousand men, or about the same + number as the crew of a three-decker of a later date.” + +The fleet of the “Holy League” at the battle of Lepanto had in it +six galeasses from the arsenal of Venice; and whereas an average +galley carried 110 soldiers and 222 galley slaves, the crews of these +galeasses comprised 270 soldiers, 130 sailors, and 300 galley slaves. + +The speed of the galley was calculated by the French engineer Forfait +to be in the most favourable circumstances, that is to say in a flat +calm, but four and a half knots for the first hour, and two and a +quarter to one and a half miles per hour for subsequent hours; the +exhaustion of the rowers consequent on their arduous toil would not +admit of a greater speed than this. The studies of Forfait were made +when the invasion of England by rowing boats was a topic of burning +interest. It is evident from this that long voyages, trusting to the +oar alone, could not be undertaken; but as we have seen, the galley was +also provided with motive power in the shape of two masts carrying the +lateen sail, which may be still seen in so many Mediterranean craft. + +That the galley was no vessel in which to embark in bad weather is +instanced for us by the disasters which befell a Spanish fleet of +these craft in 1567 under the Grand Commander of Castile, Don Luiz +de Requesens. A revolt of the Moors in Granada had caused Philip the +Second to wish to withdraw a certain number of Spanish troops from +Italy. Requesens was sent to Genoa with twenty-four galleys to embark +a detachment of an army corps then stationed in Piedmont. Each galley +embarked one hundred and fifty soldiers; they then got under way and +reached the island of Hyères, where they anchored, the weather being +too bad to proceed. At the end of their eighth day in port a number +of vessels were seen flying to the eastward before the wind; it was +a squadron of Genoese. + +Requesens, who was no seaman, was furious. Here were the Genoese at +sea, and he wasting his time in harbour; if they could keep the sea +why could not he, he demanded? He instantly ordered the anchors to be +weighed. The commander of the Tuscan galleys, of which there were ten +in the fleet, immediately went on board the galley in which Requesens +was embarked and represented that the wind was foul and that should +they leave their anchorage they could make no headway once they got +clear of the land. But Requesens was obstinate: “if others can go +on their way it is shameful that I should not proceed on mine,” he +protested. Alfonso d’Aragona argued with him in vain, representing +that his master, the Duke of Tuscany, would hold the Grand Commander +responsible for damage to his galleys. It was all in vain, as the Grand +Commander was too arrogant and stupid to listen to advice from anybody. +The fleet put to sea and struggled out a mile from the land; when they +got thus far Requesens discovered his mistake and regretted that he had +not taken the advice of the mariners; but it was now too late, they had +drifted to leeward of their anchorage and could not get back again. + +One galley, a new vessel, ran into another which was an old one, and +sank her on the spot, carrying all her luckless crew to the bottom. +The remaining vessels scattered far and wide; Alfonso d’Aragona +found refuge in the Bay of Alghieri, two more of his galleys reached +an anchorage in the Isle of St. Pierre, another sheltered in the +Gulf of Oristano; three galleys were shipwrecked on the coast in +this neighbourhood and lost many of their men; yet another, called +the _Florence_, was twice nearly wrecked on the coast of Barbary, and +eventually reached the Bay of Cagliari. A Genoese captain found himself +as far afield as the Island of Pantellaria, two galleys were never +heard of again, and the Grand Commander himself anchored eventually in +the Bay of Palamos on the Spanish coast. Of the twenty-four galleys +which left their anchorage twelve were lost and the twelve which +remained were practically valueless until large sums had been spent in +repairs. + +It is small wonder in the light of these events that the seamen who +ranged the Mediterranean in vessels propelled by oars regarded the +winter as a close season and laid up their galleys in harbour. They +were seaworthy enough for ordinary weather, but could not withstand +such a tempest as the one in which Requesens put to sea. The whole +story is only a further proof of the folly of putting supreme command +of a sea-going venture in the hands of a man totally ignorant of the +hazards he was called upon to encounter. In the sixteenth and even in +the seventeenth centuries this was done perpetually, and if no disaster +occurred it was because no bad weather was encountered. + +[Illustration: BRIGANTINE CHASING FELUCCA.] + +As time went on the sailing ship became larger and larger and was +able to mount more and more powerful ordnance; this had the effect of +discounting the value of the galley as a fighting ship; in consequence +she became practically obsolete, for the line of battle, after the +combat at Lepanto. In spite of this she was to linger on for many +long years to come as the weapon of the corsairs who had established +themselves on the coast of Africa. The “long ship” was still to be the +cause of many an awful sea tragedy, whether the actors therein were +the pirates who hailed from the Barbary coast or their most capable +imitators the notorious rovers of Sallee. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +DRAGUT-REIS + + + How he became Lieutenant to Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa—His + capture by Jannetin Doria—His four years as a galley + slave—His ransom by his old chief. + +In character, in capability, in strategic insight, in tactical +ability, not one of the predecessors or the successors of Kheyr-ed-Din +Barbarossa can be compared to him; he was the greatest and most +outstanding figure of all those corsairs of whose deeds we hear so +much during the sixteenth century, the man above all others who was +feared and hated by his contemporaries in Christendom. He lived, as we +have said, for another eight years after the battle of Prevesa, but +his great age prevented him from pursuing a very active career. There +were, however, other and younger men, trained in the terrible school +of hardship in which his life had been passed, who proved themselves +to be his very worthy successors, even if they did not display the +same genius in war and statecraft. The conditions of this period are +somewhat remarkable when we come to consider them; Europe, which had +been sunk in a rude and uncultured barbarism during the middle ages, +was emerging under the influence of the Renaissance into a somewhat +higher and nobler conception of life. It is true that the awakening +was slow, that morally the plane on which the peoples stood was far +from being an elevated one, that altruism was far from being the note +of the lives lived by the rulers of the so-called civilised nations. +For all this they had emerged from that cimmerian darkness in which +they had lived so long, and the dawn of better things, of more stable +government, of some elementary recognition of the rights of those +governed, was beginning to show above the murky horizon. + +But if the sun of European progress was slowly and painfully struggling +through the clouds, the light which had shone brightly for over seven +centuries of Moslem advance was certainly and surely dying. Beneath the +mail-clad heel of the Christian warrior the torch of learning which +had burned so brightly in Cordova and Granada had been extinguished +and ground into the dust, and the descendants of the alumni of those +universities were seeking their bread in the Mediterranean Sea in the +guise of bloodthirsty and desperate pirates. + +There were no longer among the Moors of Andalusia learned philosophers, +expert mathematicians, wise astronomers, and practical agriculturists; +there was among them but one art, one science, one means of gaining a +livelihood—the practice of war—and their very existence depended on the +spoils which could be reft from the hereditary enemy. The corsair who +grew to man’s estate, brought up in Algiers, Tunis, Tenes, Jerba, or +any other of the lurking places in which the sea-wolves congregated, +had as a rule no chance but to follow the sea, to exist as his father +had existed before him; he must fight or starve, and in a fighting +age no youngster was likely to be backward in taking to the life of +wild excitement led by his elders. Unless following in the train of +one of the leaders, such as Barbarossa, the Moslems were apt to take +to the sea in a private capacity; a certain number of them joining +together to man a small craft which was known as a brigantine. As has +been said in a previous chapter, this word must not be understood in +the light of the terminology of the modern seaman: the brigantines of +the Moslem corsairs were really large rowing boats, carrying fourteen +to twenty-six oars, and made as seaworthy as the small size of such +craft would allow. Should the venture of the crew of a brigantine prove +successful, then the reis, or captain, might blossom out into the +command of a galley, in which his oars would be manned by his slaves; +but, in the first instance, he would man his brigantine with a crew of +Moslem desperadoes working on the share system and dividing anything +that they could pick up; in this manner most of those corsairs who +became famous commenced their careers, and rose as we have seen from +the thwart of a brigantine to the unstable eminence of a throne in +Algiers, Tunis, or Tlemcen. + +This life which they led made of them what they were, namely desperate +swordsmen, efficient men at arms, incomparably skilful in the +management of the craft in which they put to sea; but it did nothing +else for them in the way of education; in consequence he who would rise +to the top, who aspired to be a leader amongst them and not to remain a +mere swash-buckling swordsman all his life, was bound to acquire that +dominance necessary for control of the wild spirits of the age. Nor +was this ascendancy by any means easy to obtain, as the rank and file +led lives of incredible bitterness, almost inconceivable to modern +ideas. What they suffered they alone knew, but it was compounded of +hunger, thirst, heat, cold, sickness unrelieved by care or tending, +wounds which festered for lack of medicaments, death which ever stared +them in the face, and last, and worst of all, the risk of capture by +some Christian foe, by whom they would be chained to the rowers’ bench +and taste of a bitterness absolutely unimaginable. As a set-off to +this the man who aspired to lead must offer to his followers at least +a record of success in small things; also he had to be something of an +enthusiast, something of an orator, some one subtly persuasive. Against +all the disagreeables of the strenuous life of the corsair he had to +hold before the dazzled eyes of Selim, Ali, or Mahomet the promise of +fat captures of the merchant vessels of the foe; when they had but +to slit a few throats and to return with their brigantines laden to +the gunwale with desirable plunder. Again he had to hearten them for +possible encounters with Spaniards, with the terrible Doria, or worst +of all with the dreaded Knights of St. John themselves; to point out +that to die in conflict with the infidel was a sure passport to heaven +and its houris, and to invoke great names, such as that of Barbarossa +to show to what dizzy heights the fighting Moslem could climb. In such +an age and among such men as these it was no mean feat to become a +leader by whom men swore and to whom they yielded a ready obedience. + +Fashioned by the hammer of misfortune on the anvil of racial +expropriation, such leaders arose among the Moslems, men of iron, +before whom all who worshipped at the altars of Islam bowed the knee. +These men, whose fame extended throughout all the length and breadth +of the Mediterranean, taught to European rulers something of the value +of that great force which is known to us under the modern name of “Sea +Power.” + +Next in importance to Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa himself and in many ways +his very worthy successor, was Dragut Reis. We have it on the authority +of Messire Pierre de Bourdeille, the Seigneur de Brantôme, that Dragut +was born at a small village in Asia Minor called Charabulac, opposite +to the island of Rhodes, and that his parents were Mahommedans. Being +born within sight and sound of the sea, the youthful Dragut naturally +graduated in the school of the brigantine and completed his education +on board of a galley. His training was that which makes the best of +fighting seamen, as from contemporary records he appears to have passed +all his life actively engaged on board ship. At a very early age he +entered the service of a master gunner who served on board the galleys +of the Grand Turk. Under his auspices the youngster became an expert +pilot in his own home waters, and likewise a most excellent gunner. +Dragut was evidently a youth of ability and determination, as almost +before he reached man’s estate he had succeeded in buying a share in +a cruising brigantine where his venture prospered so exceedingly that +he was soon able to become sole proprietor of a galeasse. Here again +fortune favoured the enterprising young man; his name began to be +known as a formidable corsair in the Levant, where he was remarkable +for his knowledge of that portion of the Mediterranean. + +To better his condition he offered his services to Barbarossa at +Algiers, who accepted this new subordinate with joy, delighted to have +so valiant and capable a man under his orders. + +“During some years,” says J. Morgan in his _Compleat History of Algiers_, +1728, “he was by that basha intrusted in the direction of sundry +momentous expeditions; in which he acquitted himself much to the +satisfaction of his principal: as having never once been unsuccessful.” +When we remember the treatment meted out by Barbarossa to some of his +unsuccessful lieutenants, Dragut must be esteemed a very fortunate +man. His master, we are told, advanced him to all the military offices +of the State—it would be interesting to know what these were in a +purely piratical confederation ruled by a pirate! In the end Dragut +was appointed to be kayia, or lieutenant, and given entire command of +twelve galleys. + +“From thenceforward this redoubtable corsair passed not one summer +without ravaging the coasts of Naples and Sicily; nor durst any +Christian vessel attempt to pass between Spain and Italy; for if +they offered it he infallibly snapped them up, and when he missed +his prey at sea, he made himself amends by making descents along the +coasts plundering villages and towns and dragging away multitudes of +inhabitants into captivity.” + +That “no vessel durst pass from Spain to Italy” is no doubt a +picturesque form of exaggeration on the part of the historian; at +the same time, when Dragut was at the height of his activities there is +no doubt that any one passing through those seas ran a great risk of +capture; so much so in fact that at this period, from 1538, the date +of the battle of Prevesa, until Lepanto in 1571, all maritime commerce +in the Mediterranean was greatly circumscribed. At the beginning of +this epoch, which saw the rise of the Moslem corsairs, these robbers +perforce confined themselves more to the North African coast than +was the case later on. The pioneers of the piratical movement, after +the fatal date 1492, which saw the wholesale expulsion of the Moors +from Spain, were comparatively speaking inexpert practitioners in the +art and mystery of piracy; they had not the habit of the sea, and in +consequence confined their depredations to the neighbourhood of their +own selected ports in Africa, which dominated that sea lane running +east and west through the Mediterranean, which then, as now, was one of +the greatest highways of commerce of the world. Gradually, as we have +seen, under the able guidance of the two Barbarossas, but particularly +that of the second and greater of the two, piracy became a commonplace +in the north, as well as in the south, of the tideless sea; the +corsairs, as time went on, even devoting more time and attention to +the coast of Italy and the islands of the archipelago than they did to +the recognised trade routes. These latter had become by 1540 similar +to an estate which has been shot over too frequently; birds had become +both wild and scarce, it was hardly worth while to go over the ground, +except now and again on the chance of picking up a straggler. Towns +and islands, on the other hand, even if they did not yield much in +the way of actual plunder, were always good cover to beat for slaves, +which had a certain value in the markets of Algiers and Tunis. Another +circumstance which had led to the now frequent raids on the littoral of +the European countries was the countenance and support accorded to the +corsairs by the Grand Turk: so admirably did they fit into the scheme +of his ambitions, that by the time Dragut arrived at a commanding +position they were, so to speak, officially recognised as a fighting +asset of the Sublime Porte; and, as we have seen, the Sultan did not +hesitate to lend his picked troops, the Janissaries, to the corsairs +when engaged in their ordinary piratical business. To the Grand Turk +the corsairs were Moslems who were prepared to fight on his side, +and who, taking it all in all, really cost him hardly anything; in +fact, at this date, owing to the magnificent gifts made to the Sultan +by Kheyr-ed-Din, the Padishah must have made something out of his +association with the sea-wolves. + +By the year 1540 Dragut had distinctly “arrived”; that is to say, he +had succeeded in making himself so dreaded that Charles V. ordered +Andrea Doria to seek him out and destroy him at any cost. The Christian +admiral was “to endeavour by all possible means to purge the sea of so +insufferable a nuisance.” + +Andrea got ready a fleet, which he entrusted, together with the care +and management of this affair, to his nephew Jannetin Doria. This was +the nephew who, in the disastrous attack by Charles on Hassan Aga +at Algiers in the following year, was so nearly lost in the storm +which destroyed the fleet of the emperor; and of whom Andrea Doria is +reported to have said, “It was decreed that Jannetin should be reduced +to such an extremity purposely to convince the world that it was not +impossible for Andrea Doria to shed a tear.” Certainly from what we +know of the celebrated Genoese admiral it is hard to imagine him in a +tearful mood. Jannetin Doria put to sea, and, after a long hunt, found +the object of his quest at Andior on the coast of Corsica; Dragut was +at anchor in the road of Goialatta, under a castle situated between +Cabri and Liazzo. The corsair knew nothing of his enemies being at sea, +and was in consequence keeping no particular look-out. Although we are +not told the composition of the fleet of Jannetin Doria, it must have +been a large one, as Dragut had under his orders thirteen galleys, and +was unable to withstand the attack to which he was subject. He was also +assailed from the shore, as well as the sea, as the castle under which +he was at anchor opened fire upon him as soon as it was discovered by +its garrison that the new arrivals were Christians. The fire was too +hot for the corsair to withstand, and, to add to his embarrassments, +the beach soon became lined by hundreds of the fierce Corsi, awaiting +the inevitable end when they should be able to fall upon the defeated +Moslems and wipe them from off the face of the earth; it was a warfare +in which there was no mercy, and if the pirates were to fall into the +hands of the islanders they knew well that they would be exterminated. + +In all his venturesome life things had never gone so badly with Dragut +as upon this occasion. On the one side, should he and his men land +they would be massacred; on the other hand, his road to the open sea +was barred by an immensely superior force. Recognising the logic of +circumstances, and seeing no way of escape, the white flag was hung out +by the Moslem leader. The only terms, however, which he could obtain +were immediate surrender or instant death. It must have been a moment +of anguish to the man who hitherto had always ridden on the crest of +the wave of success and achievement to be thus trapped like a rat; +and to have the added bitterness of the thought that had he exercised +seamanlike care and precaution in keeping a good look-out he might +have escaped. As it was, he was allowed no time for reflection, but +had to decide on the instant: he did the only thing possible in the +circumstances, which was to haul down his flag and to become the thrall +of his lifelong foes. + +The principal captives were made to pass before young Doria. When +Dragut beheld him he cried out in a fury: “What! Am I a slave to that +effeminate Caramite?” for Doria was but a beardless youth. These +opprobrious epithets being interpreted to the young nobleman, “highly +incensed he flew at Dragut, tore out his beard and moustaches, and +buffeted him most outrageously: nay his passion was so great it is said +that had he not been prevented, he certainly would have sheathed his +sword in the bowels of that assuming prisoner.” + +For four long years Dragut rowed in Doria’s galley. No distinctions +were made in those days, and knight or noble, companion or grand +master, basha or boy, was, if caught, condemned to the rowers’ bench to +slave at the oar beneath the boatswain’s lash, perchance alongside some +degraded criminal, filthy and swarming with vermin. While Dragut was +employed as a galley slave there came on board the craft in which he +rowed Monsieur Parisot, Grand Master of the Knights of Malta. This high +officer, recognising his old enemy, called out to him in Spanish: + +“Hola, Señor Dragut, usanza de guerra” (“The usage of war, Señor +Dragut”). + +To which the undaunted corsair merely replied with a laugh: + +“Y mudanza de fortuna” (“And a change of luck”). + +The Grand Master, who had known the chain and lash himself, smiled and +passed on—there was no pity in those days. + +But Dragut was not destined to end his life as a galley slave, for, +when indeed hope must have died within him, after more than four years +of this veritable hell upon earth, there sailed one day into the +harbour of Genoa the great Kheyr-ed-Din himself. The Admiralissimo of +the Grand Turk, full of years, honours, and booty, was on his last +cruise, and one of the last acts of his active life was the rescue of +Dragut, the man who had served him so well, and for whom he had so high +a regard as a resourceful mariner, from the degrading servitude into +which he had fallen. The Spanish historian, Marmol, recounts that the +sum of three thousand ducats was paid by Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa for +the redemption of Dragut. As this history was published in 1573, we +must conclude that the author who wrote of these events so soon after +they had happened is correct; at the same time, Barbarossa was in +command of one hundred galleys of the Grand Turk, and it was never his +custom to pay for anything which he could take by force. However this +may have been, and the point is not one of very great importance, the +Genoese Senate was terrified lest their territory should be ravaged; +they wrote accordingly to their Grand Admiral, requesting that Dragut +might be released and sent on board of the galley of the admiral basha. +This was immediately done, and the man who for four years had tugged at +the Christian oar was once again in a position to make war on those who +had been for that period his masters. + +Not only had he tugged at the Christian oar, but also he had tasted of +the Christian whip—and of very little else, as the food of the rower +was as scanty as it was disgusting; in consequence, if he had been an +implacable foe to Christendom before this event, he was not likely to +have become less so while toiling in the Genoese galley. + +The practical retirement of Barbarossa from that sphere of activity in +which his life had been passed now left Dragut-Reis the most feared and +the most formidable of all the Moslem corsairs in the Mediterranean. +From the time of his release by Barbarossa until the day of his death +at the siege of Malta in 1565, he followed the example shown him by +that prince among pirates with so much assiduity as to render him only +second to Kheyr-ed-Din in the detestation in which he was held. +Says Morgan: “The ill-treatment he had met with during his four years’ +captivity was no small addition to the Innate Rapaciousness of his +Disposition.” + +In the year 1546, Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa died, and to replace him the +Sultan Soliman ordered all the mariners in his dominions to acknowledge +Dragut-Reis as their admiral, and to obey him in the same manner as +they had obeyed his predecessor. From this date he was the foremost +corsair in the Mediterranean, and the feats which were performed by him +showed that the Padishah had not erred in his selection. + +The ambition of Dragut increased with his power, and he determined, +following the example of the Barbarossas, to seize and hold some strong +place of arms possessed of a commodious port in which he might be the +supreme ruler. Accordingly, in the depth of winter in the year 1548, at +a time which was, as we have pointed out, a close season for piratical +enterprises, and during which attack from the sea was not expected, +he collected all the corsairs whom he could gather, and fell upon the +Spaniards on the coast of Tunis, at Susa, at Sfax, and at Monastir. +These places had been taken from the corsairs in the previous summer +by Andrea Doria; they formed a sort of regular battle-ground when the +combatants were in want of something to do, and were held alternately +by the King of Tunis, the Spaniards, and the corsairs. + +Dragut was well aware that as soon as the spring arrived he would be +attacked; he also knew that the attack would come in sufficient force +to drive him out, as none of these towns was really strong or easily +defended; in consequence he concentrated his attention on the town of +“Africa,” otherwise known as Mehedia, and in the Roman histories as +Adrumentum. + +This great city lay some leagues to the east of Tunis on a tongue of +land projecting into the sea; its fortifications were regular, its +walls of great thickness, height, and solidity, and were strengthened +by many towers and bulwarks; the guns were large, numerous, and in +good condition. At the back of the town, on an eminence, stood a large +fortress, the citadel of the place; the harbour was large and secure, +with an inner basin forming a port for galleys; the entrance to this +was closed by a strong chain. The sea washed the walls of the city; +indeed, it was entirely surrounded, except where by a narrow neck of +land it joined the shore. + +The inhabitants, natives of the place, had shaken off the yoke of the +King of Tunis, and had formed themselves into a kind of independent +republic. They admitted neither Turk nor Christian within their walls, +trusting neither party, and fearing from them the fate which befell +Susa, Sfax, and Monastir. + +“Africa” was the goal of the desires of Dragut-Reis: once in possession +of this, by far the strongest city on the littoral of Northern Africa, +he thought that he might abide secure against the attacks of Charles +and of Andrea Doria. He had seen the enormous expedition of 1541 +against Algiers come to naught on account of the wholesale wrecking of +the fleet in which it had sailed by a tempest of unexampled violence. +But he was too level-headed a man to think that a miracle like this +would be likely to come to pass a second time for his own special +behoof, and preferred to act the part of the strong man armed who +keepeth his goods in peace. He had, however, first to gain over the +inhabitants of “Africa” to his views, and they proved anything but +anxious to listen to his blandishments. The more he tried to ingratiate +himself the less inclined did these people seem to listen. + +“My ambition,” said the silver-tongued corsair, “is to become a +citizen of your great and beautiful city. If you will admit me to its +privileges it shall be my business to render you the richest people in +the whole Mediterranean, and your city the most dreaded place in the +world.” + +The “Africans,” however, were obdurate; they knew a pirate when they +saw him quite as well as any one else, and they were quite aware that, +should they open their gates to Dragut, sooner or later they would have +to stand a siege from the Christian forces, which was a thing they by +no means desired. + +But Dragut was not yet at the end of his resources; he was rich, and +he spent money freely in order to gain over to his side those men of +importance by whom such a question as this was bound to be decided. +By rich presents and other blandishments he succeeded in securing the +friendship of one Ibrahim Amburac, who was not only a leader among +the inhabitants, but also governor of one of the towers by which the +city was surrounded. Through him he approached the Council by which +the town was ruled, only to receive a very decided negative: the +Council observed the outward forms of politeness to this formidable +person who was speaking them so fair: in reality, they hated and feared +the corsairs only one degree less than they did Andrea Doria and his +Christians. To admit the one was to bring upon themselves the vengeance +of the other; therefore if they could keep them both out they intended +so to do. The ill-omened courtesy of the corsair filled their hearts +with apprehension, and they viewed his immediate departure, after the +refusal of the council had been conveyed to him, with undisguised +relief. Had they but known their man a little better, their uneasiness +would have been far greater than their joy at his temporary absence. +Those things desired by Dragut which he could not obtain by fair means +he usually seized by the strong hand; and when he left so hurriedly, +and at the same time so unostentatiously, he had already entered into a +plot with Ibrahim Amburac. This leader, furious at the rebuff which he +had received at the hands of his fellow councillors on the subject of +the admittance of Dragut to the citizenship of “Africa,” was now ready +to deliver that city into the hands of the corsairs by treachery. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +DRAGUT-REIS + + + How the corsairs captured the town of “Africa”; of + its recapture by Andrea Doria and its eventual total + destruction by Charles V. + +Dragut had made it a practice never to appear in the harbour of +“Africa” in any great force, as he had no desire to frighten the birds +whom he desired to snare; on the occasion of which we are now speaking +he had but two galleys, and their departure from the outer harbour +passed almost unnoticed, as the ruck of the population were accustomed +to visits from the corsairs, who came to fill up with provisions +and fresh water. Swiftly as hawks his vessels swept along the coast +collecting the garrisons of Susa, Sfax, and Monastir to aid him in +his latest design; they were all picked men and singularly apt for +the stern business which their leader destined them to undertake. In +this manner he soon collected five hundred of the stoutest and most +reckless fighters who sailed out of the ports of Northern Africa, and, +when it became noised abroad among them what the service was for which +they were required, there was universal joy and eagerness. True the +adventure was a formidable one: to capture “Africa” was no light task, +even for such men as these under so renowned a leader; there was +further the difficulty that the persons against whom they went up to +fight were no Christians but Moslems like themselves. But against this +was the declaration of Dragut, who represented to his following that +there was really no choice in the matter; that to these stiffnecked +and singularly ungrateful people he had offered the protection of the +corsairs, that they had refused in the most contumelious manner, and in +consequence there was nothing for it but the strong hand. They—that is +to say the corsairs—knew right well that some strong place of arms in +which to shelter themselves and their vessels was an absolute necessity +for their continued existence, as at any moment Doria or the Knights +of Malta might be on their track in superior force, and then what was +their fate likely to be if they had no harbour under their lee in which +to shelter? Further it was hinted that “Africa” would provide very +nice pickings in the way of loot, and when this came to be generally +understood the promptings of the Mahommedan conscience yielded easily +to the sophistries with which it was lulled. + +The council of the town of “Africa” troubled themselves but little more +concerning Dragut, his ships, and his corsairs; he had departed, and +as the days wore on and no further tidings of him came to hand, these +simple folk thanked God that they were rid of a knave and went about +their usual avocations as unconcernedly as if no sea-wolves lurked +under the shadowed headlands of that continent in which their homes +were situated. They were a people essentially of the land; although +they dwelt on the confines of the ocean the ways and habits of those +who earned a precarious living on the waters were a sealed book to +them, and with the “Africans” it was a case of “out of sight out of +mind” so far as the corsairs were concerned. But that black-hearted +traitor Ibrahim Amburac and the few others who had been gained over by +the gold of Dragut watched and waited for the attack which they knew to +be impending. + +The inhabitants of the doomed city never saw their assailants until +they were actually upon them, so well had the surprise attack been +planned by the leader of the corsairs. He had collected five hundred +men, and this was but a small number with which to assail so strong a +place; but Dragut knew exactly what he was doing and the effect likely +to be produced by the introduction of this number of highly trained +men-at-arms among a population which, although brave and warlike, +lacked the elements of organisation for the defence of their city. + +So it was that, all preparations being completed, he stood along the +coast anchoring out of sight of his objective, but close enough to +reach it by midnight after darkness had fallen. He had every confidence +in himself, an absolute trust in the hardbitten fighters whom he was +about to lead; success or failure now rested in the hands of traitors +within the city. + +“Faith unfaithful kept them falsely true,” for when Dragut and his +followers arrived at a certain rendezvous outside the walls which had +been agreed upon previously, there they found Ibrahim Amburac and +his men ready to assist them in scaling this obstacle. It will be +remembered that Ibrahim Amburac was personally in charge of one +of the towers with which the walls were guarded, and thus his task +of aiding those who came from without was a singularly easy one. But +even at midnight the passage of five hundred men could not remain long +undiscovered as they clambered in over the walls. Soon an alarm was +raised and the “Africans” rushed to arms and hurried to the quarter +from which danger threatened. The townsmen were well armed and brave, +also they were numerous; but it was the old story of the break-up of +undisciplined valour by highly organised attack. + +In the choking heat of the African night townsmen and corsairs wrestled +in deadly conflict hand to hand and foot to foot; but these untrained +landsmen stood but a poor chance against the picked fighting men of the +Moslem galleys who had been inured to bloodshed from their earliest +youth and trained by such a master in the art of war as Dragut. That +warrior, his great curved scimitar red to the hilt, the blood dripping +from a gash in his cheek, his clothing torn and in disarray, followed +by a gigantic negro bearing a flaming torch, was ever in the thickest +of the fray. Behind him his lieutenants Othman and Selim strove to +emulate his prowess, while all around surged his devoted band of +fanatics. + +“Allah! Allah!” and “Dragut! Dragut!” pealed the war-cry of the +corsairs; foot by foot and yard by yard that spearhead of dauntless +dare-devils pressed onwards into the packed masses of the “Africans,” +who, fighting stubbornly, nevertheless were borne back by the fury of +the terrible onslaught. + +Torch-bearers among the pirates leaped into houses and set them ablaze, +the flames volleyed and crackled, the dense smoke rolled upwards to the +stainless sky, the night was a hell of blood and fire. + +There was a sharp order repeated and passed on, the corsairs drew +back, and the “Africans” shouted that the triumph was theirs; but they +little knew Dragut, the sea-hawk who poised to strike anew. A blazing +beam dropped across the street, the townsfolk shouted in insult and +derision; but the joy which they had experienced at seeing their +adversaries recoil was but a short and fleeting emotion. Giving himself +and those who had hitherto been engaged time to breathe and recover +themselves, Dragut waited while the noise of the strife died down, +and nought was heard but the roar of the flames and the crash of the +burning buildings. + +The leader turned to his followers, among whom dwelt an ominous +silence. “Dost remember Prevesa,” he cried, “when Andrea Doria and the +best of the Christian warriors fled before you like sheep before a dog: +are these miserable townsmen to stay your onward march?” + +There remained for an appreciable period after he had spoken a tense +silence; the red light from the burning houses shone on the lean faces +alight with the fierce fire of fanaticism, with an inextinguishable +lust of slaughter. There came an answering frenetic roar, “Lead! +Lead! Dragut! Dragut! Dragut!” It was enough: the corsair had tried +the temper of the steel, he had now but to use the edge. There was an +ordered movement on the part of the pirates: a fresh hundred men, +who had hitherto taken no part in the combat, now pressed to the front +and formed the advance, those who had been before engaged now forming +the supports; that which had been the shaft of the spear now forming +its head. With Dragut leading, these fresh unwounded men swept forward +over the burning beam; irresistible as some mighty river in spate, +these disciplined ruffians, headed by this master spirit, burst through +the ill-organised resistance opposed to them, and slew and slew and +slew. + +Behind them, alert and wary, came the supports, asking no quarter and +giving none, cutting up the wounded, trampling under foot friend and +foe alike who fell in the weltering shambles which marked the onward +path of their leader and the advanced party. Very soon the broken hosts +of the “Africans” cried piteously for mercy; the fight was over, and +Dragut-Reis, wounded, breathless, but victorious, stood master of the +strongest place of arms in all the continent of Africa. It is true that +treachery had given him his opportunity, but once that was obtained +the rest he had done for himself: the stealthy advance by sea, the +midnight march to the exact spot on the walls where he was awaited by +Ibrahim Amburac, the marshalling of his five hundred for the conflict, +and the actual conduct of the fight itself, were all to the credit of +this apt pupil of the great Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, As warriors his +followers were worthy of their leader: defeated the corsairs frequently +were, but, in the combats in which they engaged, they were frequently, +as we have seen in the course of this story, largely dependent +upon auxiliaries in whom no trust could be placed; and at Prevesa, at +the siege of Malta, and later on at the battle of Lepanto, the spot +on which they fought, were it on the land or on the sea, was ever +the one which formed the nucleus of resistance. It was not only that +fighting was their particular trade; that, of course, might be said +also of any man who trailed a pike or carried an arquebus and marched +in the ranks of Spain, France, Genoa, or Venice. In the case of the +sea-wolves it was the perpetual practice in the art of war, as it was +then understood, that caused them to be the men that they were. Much of +their fighting could hardly be dignified by such a name, as in their +everlasting raids on villages and undefended places they seldom lost +many of their number: when, however, it came to the real thing, as it +did on the occasion we have just recounted, the long years of training +told, and opposition had to be strong indeed if it were not to be +beaten down by such a leader as Dragut, by such men as his picked five +hundred. + +What passed between Dragut and the council of “Africa,” who in so +unqualified a manner had refused that warrior as a citizen, is not on +record; all that we know is that the Moslem leader dispensed with their +services, and did not invite his new fellow-townsmen to share with him +the burden of government. There was hurry in the administration of the +corsair states, as the form of rule which they adopted was apt to irk +the rulers in Christendom. In this particular instance Dragut, having +expelled the Spaniards from the coast towns, knew that a reckoning with +the Emperor and his militant admiral, Andrea Doria, was but a matter +of time, and, in all probability, of a very short time. + +Promptly, hurriedly, but efficiently, the corsair organised his +new possession: such laws as he decreed did not err on the side of +tenderness towards a people so ungrateful as to have refused his +protection in the first instance, and who had only accepted the gift +at the point of the sword. His nephew Aisa, a man young in years but a +past-graduate in the school of his terrible uncle, was left in charge, +while Dragut himself sailed once more with his fleet, for, as it is put +by the Spanish historian Marmol, “truly the sea was his element.” + +Once again had a Moslem corsair bid defiance to that ruler whom +Sandoval and Marmol in their histories greet by the name of the “Modern +Cæsar.” It was told to Charles that Susa, Sfax, and Monastir had +fallen, that “Africa” was in the hands of the corsairs; “was he never +to be free from these pestilent knaves,” he demanded of his trembling +courtiers? Hot-foot came the couriers from Charles to Andrea Doria, +with orders to take Dragut dead or alive, but alive for choice; and up +and down the tideless sea in the summer of 1549 did the great Genoese +seaman range in search of the bold corsair. Doria was getting a very +old man now, but his eye was undimmed, his strength yet tireless, his +vigilance and zeal in the service of his master unabated. + +Dead or alive, great was the reward offered for the capture of Dragut, +but the veteran admiral required no stimulus of this sort to urge +him to put forth his utmost endeavours, to strain every nerve and +sinew in the chase. All his life he had been fighting the corsairs, +mostly with conspicuous success; but what Andrea could never forget—and +what his enemies never allowed him to forget even had he been so +inclined—was the fact that, at the supreme crisis of his valiant life, +when he met with Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa at the battle of Prevesa, he +had come off so badly that his under officers of the Papal and Venetian +fleets had made representations, on their return to their respective +headquarters, which had detracted from his fame, and lowered him in the +estimation of Europe. Further than this, he knew that Barbarossa had +laughed at and made game of him among his wild followers: this to the +aristocrat, the Prince of Oneglia, the admiral who treated on almost +equal terms with such men as the Pope, Charles of Spain, and Francis of +France, was an insult hard to be borne; the next corsair with whom he +should meet should not escape so easily as had Kheyr-ed-Din, that the +admiral had sworn. + +Personal pique and vanity, racial detestation, and religious fanaticism +were in his case all allied together to spur him on in the chase of +this the last of the Emperor’s foes; but, search as he might, during +that summer Doria could never get on to the track of Dragut. The +corsairs, as we have just remarked, were fine fighters on occasion when +it was necessary for the purposes of loot, or of escape from those +who, like Doria, interfered with their particular method of gaining a +livelihood; but, on the other hand, they were no fools, they did not +covet hard knocks and the possibility of defeat from such a one as +the admiral of the Emperor, when by the exercise of a little ingenuity +they could keep out of his way. Dragut was not going to fight a general +action at sea merely to please Doria; in this summer his luck stood to +him, and he never came across this man, who, with a sombre hatred in +his heart, was seeking him high and low. If the corsair were bold as a +lion when occasion offered, he was no less as slippery as an eel when +he desired to escape; to face twenty-two royal galleys with Doria in +command was no part of his programme. An occasion might arise when he +would be forced to action; should this happen Dragut had not forgotten +his four years in the galley of Jannetin Doria, the nephew of the +admiral, and next time he intended to fight to win. Just at present the +Christian admiral was in too great strength for him to do aught but +keep out of his way, and much to Andrea’s annoyance this was what he +succeeded in doing. + +Doria got information that Dragut was at Monastir, information that was +perfectly correct; but by this time the corsair knew that not only had +he raised all Christendom, but that the admiral was on his track. In +consequence, he slipped out of Monastir, “for,” as it is pithily put by +Marmol, “our corsair cared not to be shut up in so defenceless a port; +he had good heels and loved sea-room.” + +Dragut did not fear for his new possession, “Africa,” as he knew +that Doria had not sufficient force to attack so formidable a place; +therefore, leaving it to its destiny and the valour and conduct +of his nephew Aisa, on whom he knew that he could rely, “he went,” +according to the chronicler, “on his old trade making Horrid +Devastations on the coast of Spain and its islands.” + +While Dragut was pursuing his “Horrid Devastations,” Doria was not +idle, but was ranging the northern coast of Africa in his fruitless +search; in the course of this he landed at Cape Bona, on which was the +castle of Calibia, held by the corsairs; these men, who were a portion +of Dragut’s following, made a most valiant defence; they were, however, +few in number, and when their captain was killed by the ball from an +arquebus they surrendered. Encouraged by this success, the Christian +fleet then stood along the coast to inspect “Africa.” Sailing quite +close to the shore they came within range of the guns of the garrison, +who, under the direction of Aisa, were very much on the alert. As the +admiral’s galley at the head of the line passed the walls of the town, +she was received with a hot fire, and one large cannonball struck +the stern of Doria’s ship, doing considerable structural damage, and +killing five of his men. This occurrence took place in broad daylight +in full view of all the garrison, who signalled their delight at the +discomfiture of their foes by the noise of cymbals and atambours, and +by wild and ferocious yells. Doria, who was in no position to land and +make reprisals, fell into the greatest paroxysm of fury, and we are +told that “he swore the destruction of that detested city.” + +The season being now advanced, Doria returned home, where he found +orders awaiting him from Charles that preparation was to be made for +the capture of “Africa”. While the admiral was in harbour, Dragut, +finding the seas open to him once more, returned from his “Horrid +Devastations,” and employed his time profitably in throwing provisions +and men into the city, which he knew would be beleagured in the +following year. + +During the ensuing winter Doria, in conjunction with the viceroys of +Naples and Sicily, prepared the expedition which was to accomplish not +only the capture of “Africa,” but what was, in his opinion, equally +important, the destruction of Dragut-Reis, Early in the spring of 1550, +all was in readiness, and the armada of Charles sailed from Palermo +to Trapani, where it met with the forces of Don Juan de Vega, Viceroy +of Sicily, those of Don Garcia de Toledo, the son of the Viceroy of +Naples, and likewise the Maltese squadron. The galleys, accompanied by +a fleet of transports, set sail early in June, and on the 20th of that +month landed an army a little to the east of Mehedia or “Africa”. + +It must be remembered that the inhabitants of Mehedia were by no means +enamoured of Dragut-Reis and his piratical followers: King Stork had +succeeded to King Log, the part of the former monarch being taken by +that singularly capable and ferocious person, Aisa, whose rule was far +from being to the liking of the richer and more respectable portion of +the townsfolk. + +When, therefore, Andrea Doria and his captains laid siege to the city, +they murmured against its defence, desiring ardently to enter into some +sort of treaty with the besiegers; they had had enough of war, they +said, and wished to end their days in peace if possible. + +Aisa Reis, however, would hear no word of surrender, telling those who +murmured against the defence that “if he heard a word more of these +plots he would infallibly sacrifice every mother’s son amongst them, +and then lay the town in ashes.” Having already had a taste of the +quality of this redoubtable corsair, and feeling perfectly certain +that should the occasion arise he would be as good as his word, there +was no more disaffection among the inhabitants, who had to put up with +their native place being made a cockpit for Doria and Dragut to fight +out their quarrel. It is permissible to sympathise very sincerely with +these unfortunates, who, having been betrayed in the first instance, +were compelled to stand a siege in the second. + +Aisa had a picked force of his uncle’s men, some seventeen hundred +foot and six hundred horse, all seasoned and formidable veterans, +inured to warfare by land and sea. On these of course he could rely to +the death. The common folk of the town were inclined to make common +cause with the corsairs in resistance to their hereditary enemy the +Christians; but the magistrates and members of the council, the grave +and reverend signiors, held so conspicuously aloof that Aisa was +constrained into forcing them to aid in the defence when he had time +to attend to the matter. As Dragut was not actually present at the +siege it falls outside the scope of this chronicle; he was without +the walls when the besiegers arrived, but all that he could do, that +he did. With a body of his own men reinforced by a rabble rout of +Berber tribesmen, he harassed the Christian army; they were, however, +in far too great numbers for him to make any impression, and after +several desperate skirmishes he recognised that the day was lost, and +re-embarking in his galleys sailed away. The town after a desperate and +prolonged resistance was at last taken by storm; and Doria captured +Aisa, a Turkish alcaid, and ten thousand prisoners of the baser sort. +Of these, however, there was scarce one who owed allegiance to Dragut; +the warriors of this chief neither gave nor accepted quarter, as they +feared the wrath of the terrible corsair even more than death itself. + +Don Juan de Vega put his son Don Alvaro in command of the city and set +out in search of Dragut with twenty galleys, but the sea leaves no +traces by which a fugitive can be tracked, and his search proved as +fruitless as had been that of Doria in the previous year. The rage and +the disappointment of the admiral were beyond all bounds; what to him +was the value of the capture of Aisa, of the Turkish alcaid, of the ten +thousand of the baser sort; nay, what to him was the value of “Africa” +itself when once again like a mocking spirit Dragut had glided beyond +the sea horizon to devastate, to plunder, and to slay once more, the +scourge and the menace of Christendom. + +It will be interesting to record briefly the fate of this city which we +have seen taken and retaken. Don Alvaro de Vega remained as governor +till the end of July, 1551, when his place was taken by Don Sancho de +Leyva; at which time there took place one of those curious military +mutinies so characteristic of the sixteenth century. The soldiers, +unpaid for months, possibly for years, mutinied, expelled the +governor and other officers, even the sergeants, from the city, and +placed themselves under the direction of a stout soldier called Antonio +de Aponte, to whom they gave the title of “Electo Mayor.” + +Don Sancho repaired to Brussels to report matters to the Emperor, +and during his absence a circumstance which is also singularly +characteristic of this faithless epoch took place, for the Prior of +Capua, then general of the French galleys, entered into negotiations +with the mutineers for the surrender of the city to the French King. + +Bluff Antonio de Aponte would have none of this treachery; he held +the city for the Emperor Charles and only wanted his pay. Eventually +a mutiny within a mutiny was fomented from without, and with the +mutineers divided the Emperor regained possession of the city; some of +the mutineers were hanged, and Aponte, who had been captured by the +Turks, died at Constantinople. + +The Emperor offered “Africa” to the Knights of Malta with a yearly +allowance of twenty-four thousand ducats; the Knights refused, much to +the chagrin of Charles, who gave orders for its complete destruction. +This was accomplished by blowing up with gunpowder the walls, towers, +and fortifications which Al-Mehedi, after whom the city had been +named, “had erected with such art and strength, and had his mind so +fixed upon that work that he used to say, ‘If I thought building these +fortifications with iron and brass would render them more durable, I +would certainly do it.’” + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +DRAGUT-REIS + + + How Dragut was blockaded in the Island of Jerbah—How he + left Andrea Dona “with the dog to hold”—His return to + Constantinople, and how he sailed from thence with a + great expedition against the Knights of Malta. + +Charles V. had “smoked out the fox,” but his admiral in so doing had +not succeeded in capturing that remarkably wily animal; for Dragut was +not only still at liberty, but was burning for revenge on those by +whom he had been dispossessed. He had lost “his city,” as he called +“Africa”; he had lost two thousand five hundred men—among them some +of the fiercest and most experienced of his corsairs; he had lost ten +thousand slaves, representing a large sum of money, and much wealth +besides. The corsair, however, was not one of those who merely sit +down and repine; for him strenuous and continued action was the law +of his being, and he at once repaired to Constantinople. Here he was +well known as an adroit and skilful seaman and a most determined enemy +of the Christians, and, in consequence, was not only certain of a +welcome, but of substantial help as well, if he could but win over +the Grand Turk to take the same view of his grievances as he did +himself. In reality, the corsairs, as we have seen, played the game of +the Padishah, as a rule, at no expense to that potentate; when they +were in trouble he was therefore by no means indisposed to render them +assistance. + +Dragut, like all the sea-wolves, was fond of money, fonder still of +what money could buy; he now hankered after revenge as the sweetest +morsel that his hoarded ducats could procure for him. That the Sultan +was well disposed to him he had every reason to think; none the less +did he spend royally among the venal favourites of the Court in order +that nothing might be left undone to inflame the ardour of Soliman +against those whom he considered to be his hereditary foes. + +With such skill and address did the corsair manage his suit that he +prevailed upon the Sultan to address a letter to Charles demanding the +immediate return of the towns of Susa, Sfax, Monastir, and “Africa.” +This, of course, meant war; as Charles immediately replied that these +places were dependencies of the King of Tunis, and that that ruler was +under his special protection; further that they were his by right of +conquest; finally that the matter was no concern whatever of the Sultan +of Constantinople. The stern and imperious Christian Emperor was in no +mood to brook interference, the more so that he discerned plainly that +though the demand was that of Soliman, the mover in the affair was none +other than Dragut. He therefore by way of a rider to his answer to the +Sultan informed that monarch that these places which he had taken on +the coast of Africa had been reft by him “from one Dragut, a corsair +odious to both God and man”; that without in any way departing from +the treaty which he had made with Soliman “he intended to pursue this +pirate whithersoever he might go.” + +Whether or no this denunciation of Dragut had any influence on the +Sultan it is impossible to say; he was in the habit of employing +the corsairs, and apparently cared nothing about their piratical +reputation, so long as their depredations were confined to Christian +vessels. Shortly after the receipt of the answer of Charles, however, +the Sultan conferred upon Dragut the title of Sandjak or governor of +the island of Santa Maura, thus constituting him a Turkish official. + +Once again was Andrea Doria ordered to put to sea to fight against +neither small nor great save Dragut alone; he was to take him dead or +alive, but alive for choice, in order that he might be made to answer +at the bar of Christian justice for all the atrocities committed by +him both by land and sea. The corsair had returned in the meanwhile +to Jerbah, an island on the east coast of Tunis much affected by the +sea-wolves, and which in contemporary histories is known as Jerbah, as +Los Gelues (by the Spanish writers), as Gelves, and various other names +which greatly confuse its identity. + +Doria put to sea with twenty-two royal galleys before Dragut was aware +of the fact. The Genoese admiral heard that his prey was at Jerbah; +he repaired thither without losing a moment, found that he had been +correctly informed, and anchored at the mouth of the harbour, at a +place known as La Bocca de Cantara. Dragut was completely hemmed +in, Doria was in such strength that he could not, reckless as he +was, attempt to force the passage. But as the hour came the spirit +of the corsair rose to answer the challenge: it was one thing to get +Dragut-Reis into a trap, it was quite another to keep him there. +Accordingly, he assembled all his troops, dragged cannon to the mouth +of the harbour, and opened so brisk a foe on the Christian ships as to +compel them to haul out of range. These tactics left Doria unaffected; +there was but one way out of the harbour, and he felt quite convinced +that when Dragut had had enough of starvation he would either surrender +or else fight a hopeless action. The admiral surveyed his anchored +fleet with a contented mind; his enemy had been delivered into his +hand, he had nothing to do now but wait for that final triumph of +appearing before his master the Emperor with the famous corsair as his +prisoner. He saw a great fort rising before his very eyes at the mouth +of the harbour, and merely smiled serenely; he sent off to Sicily and +Naples for reinforcements in order that when the psychological moment +should arise he might crush the corsair stronghold so thoroughly that +it should never rise again. In the despatches which he sent he said +“the fox is trapped”—“which news rejoiced all parts of Christendom, and +most powerful succours came daily flocking to the seaports from every +quarter; so eager were the sufferers to revenge themselves on this so +much dreaded corsair.” + +The history of what now happened is given by Don Luys de Marmol +Caravajal in his “Descripcion general de Affrica,” which was printed +in Granada, “en casa de Rene Rabat impresor de libros año de 1573,” or +only some twenty years or so after these occurrences; it is set forth +in his chapter entitled “Como Andrea Doria fue en buscar de these +occurrences; it is set forth in his chapter Dragut Arraez.” We have +also the authority of that eminent historian, M. L’Abbé de Vertot. + +Captain Juan Vasquez Coronado journeyed to Naples carrying with him +letters from Andrea Doria to Don Pedro de Toledo, requesting that the +Viceroy would send him all the galleys in Naples, carrying as many +soldiers as possible, pointing out that he had Dragut in a trap, from +which he could not possibly escape, but that this time he wished to +make security doubly secure. Letters to the same purport were also sent +to Don Juan de Vega, the Viceroy of Sicily, and to Marco Centurion at +the admiral’s own city of Genoa. Doria was leaving nothing to chance +this time. Meanwhile, great earthworks had been thrown up at the Bocca +de Cantara at the entrance of the harbour by Dragut, and any ship which +approached within range was most furiously bombarded. This served +to amuse Andrea Doria, who, confident that the jaws of the trap had +closed, kept a sharp look-out for vessels issuing from the harbour, but +otherwise concerned himself not at all about the entrenchments. Was +not Naples humming with the note of preparation? Would not the Genoese +come in their thousands to the summons of their renowned chieftain? +Could not the Viceroy of Sicily be trusted to work his best to gain the +favour of his Imperial master? + +“Time and I are two” was the favourite expression of King Philip +II. of Spain; the same idea might have crossed the mind of Doria on +this memorable occasion. He had only to wait; the longer he waited the +more secure he would be of success, the more certain would he be of +the complete undoing of his enemy. But even yet the admiral did not +know the man to whom he was opposed; in all the years in which he had +done battle against Dragut, he had never gauged the limitless resource +and calculated audacity of this lineal successor of Kheyr-ed-Din +Barbarossa. While the admiral had been sending his despatches, and +idly watching that which he considered to be the futile construction +of earthworks on the shore at the Bocca de Cantara, his enemy was +preparing for him that surprise which was shortly afterwards to make of +him the laughing-stock of the whole of Europe. Dragut was in a trap, +and he was quite aware of the fact; by way of the Bocca de Cantara +escape was impossible, and neither a tame surrender nor complete +annihilation was by any means to the taste of the pirate leader. Had +Doria gone in and attacked at once, the fate of the corsair had been +sealed; the policy of delay adopted by the Christian admiral was his +salvation. + +A man less able, less determined, than Dragut, might well have +despaired; but he brought to bear on the problem with which he was +confronted all the subtlety of his nature, all the resourcefulness +of the born seaman that he was. His mind had been made up from the +very beginning: the earthworks at the Bocca de Cantara, the movements +of troops, the furious cannonading, had all been nothing but a blind +to hide the real design which he had in view. In addition to his +fighting men he had at his command some two thousand islanders, +stout Mohammedans to a man, ready and willing to assist him in his +design of cheating the Christians of their prey. Day and night, with +ceaseless silent toil, had garrison and islanders been at work on the +scheme which the leader had devised. From the head of the harbour +Dragut had caused a road to be made right across the island to the +sea on the opposite side: on this road he caused planks to be laid, +bolted to sleepers and then thickly greased. The vessels of the day +were of course comparatively speaking light, and capable of being +manhandled, supposing that you had sufficient hands. At dead of night +Dragut assembled his forces, and before morning every galley, galeasse, +and brigantine had been dragged across the island and launched in the +sea on the opposite side. There was then nothing left to do but to +embark stores, guns, and ammunition and to sail quietly away, and this +was what happened. Once again Dragut faded away beyond the skyline, +“leaving Andrea Doria with the dog to hold,” in the quaint language of +the chronicler of these events, Don Luys de Marmol Caravajal. + +Not only did the indefatigable corsair get clear away without any +suspicion on the part of the admiral, but his first act on gaining the +open sea was to capture the _Patrona_ galley sent from Sicily by Don Juan +de Vega to say that reinforcements were on the road. In this ill-fated +craft was Buguer, the son of Muley Hassan, King of Tunis, who was +sent as prize to Soliman at Constantinople, where the Sultan caused +him to be shut up in the “Torre del Mar Negro.” Here he remained +till he died, as a punishment for that he, a Mussulman, had aided the +Christians. + +Never again was Dragut to be in such sore straits as he was on this +occasion at the island of Jerbah, when, by sheer wit and cunning, he +escaped from the trap in which he had been held by Doria. What the +emotions of the admiral must have been when he found that once again +he had been fooled, it is not difficult to imagine, as by no possible +means could the story be hushed up; and, in spite of the annoyance +of Christendom generally at the escape of Dragut, no one could help +admiring his extraordinary cleverness, or roaring with laughter at the +discomfiture of Doria and the viceroys of Naples and Sicily. + +Dragut now returned to Constantinople to receive congratulations +upon his escape, and to take part in a fresh design of stirring up +the Sultan against the Christians. All who professed this faith were +naturally obnoxious to the corsair; but his private and personal hatred +was entirely directed against the Knights of Malta, with whom he had +been at war all his life. The present preoccupation of the Sultan was +to regain the towns on the coast of Africa which had been taken by +the Spaniards; but it was represented to him by Dragut that “until he +had smoked out this nest of vipers he could do no good anywhere.” The +Bashaws and the Divan, heavily bribed by the corsair, held the same +language, until Soliman heard of nothing from morning till night but +the ill deeds of the Knights of Malta. They were represented to him as +corsairs who ruined his commerce and defeated his armadas, who let +slip no opportunity of harrying the Moslem wheresoever he was to be +found. In this there was more than a grain of truth, as we shall see +when we come to the next chapter, which will be devoted to a sketch of +this militant order. Suffice it to say here that the Knights fought for +what they termed “the Religion” (it was in this manner they designated +their confederacy), and to harry and enslave the Mussulman, to destroy +him as a noxious animal wherever he was to be found, was the reason for +which they existed. It is true that they plundered not for individual +gain, but many was the rich prize towed into Malta past St. Elmo and +the ominously named “Punta delle Forche” (the “Point of the Gallows,” +where all captured pirates were hanged), the proceeds of which went to +the enrichment of the Order; to buy themselves the wherewithal to fight +with the Mahommedan again. + +The abuse of the Knights fell upon sympathetic ears; in his early days +Soliman the Magnificent had expelled the Knights from Rhodes; since +then Charles V. had given them the islands of Malta and Gozo, and the +town of Tripoli in Barbary as their abiding place; from Malta they +had never ceased their warfare against the corsairs, and incidentally +against the Sultan and his subjects. Therefore, in this year 1551, +Soliman ordained that an expedition should be prepared with the object +of crushing once and for all these troublers of the peace of Islam. +The preparations were on so large a scale that very soon it became +noised abroad in Europe that something really serious was in the wind: +in Constantinople, however, men kept their own counsel; it was ill +talking of the affairs of the Padishah, and, further than that, beyond +Dragut and the proposed leaders of the expedition, the Sultan took +no one into his confidence. Charles V., well served as he was by his +spies, was as much in the dark as to the destination of this new armada +as were humbler folk; in it he recognised the hand of Dragut again, +and Doria had standing orders to catch that mischievous person if he +could. At present, however, there was no chance of so desirable a thing +happening, as Dragut was superintending the fitting out of the new +expedition at Constantinople. + +Anxious and suspicious of the designs of the Turks, Charles ordered a +concentration of his fleet at Messina. + +The Grand Master of the Knights of Malta at this time was a Spaniard, +one Juan d’Omedes; he was, says de Vertot, “un Grand Maître Espagnol,” +meaning by this that he was completely under the domination of the +Emperor and ready at any time to place the galleys of “the Religion” +under the orders of that monarch. The Knights, like every one else, +had watched with anxiety the preparation of this great expedition in +Constantinople, and when the Grand Master proposed to send the galleys +of the Order to join forces with Doria at Messina, there was great +dissatisfaction at the Council Board. That which it behoved them to +do, the members informed the Grand Master, was not to help a great +potentate like Charles, but to make provision for their own security +by attending to their fortifications, which were in anything but a +satisfactory condition. D’Omedes maintained that this expedition was +destined to serve with the King of France against the Emperor, and +that Malta was not the objective. He accordingly sent away the galleys +of “the Religion” under the Chevalier “Iron-Foot,” the General of the +Galleys, to join the fleet which had its rendezvous at Messina. Hardly +had he done so when news came from the Levant that the fleet of the +Grand Turk was at sea heading for Sicily. The fleet was composed of +one hundred and twelve royal galleys, two great galeasses, and a host +of brigantines and transport vessels. Sinan-Reis was in command with +twelve thousand Janissaries, numerous pioneers and engineers, and all +the necessary appliances for a siege. + +The embarkation of so large a number of Janissaries was the measure of +the serious purpose of the expedition, as the Sultan did not readily +part with the men of this _corps d’élite_ unless he was in person taking +the command. It may be as well to explain here exactly what the +Janissaries were, and it cannot be better done than by an extract from +the famous historian Prescott: + +“The most remarkable of the Turkish institutions, the one which may +be said to have formed the keystone of the system, was that relating +to the Christian population of the Empire. Once in five years a +general conscription was made by means of which all the children of +Christian parents who had reached the age of seven and gave promise of +excellence in mind or body were taken from their homes and brought to +the capital. They were then removed to different quarters and placed +in seminaries where they might receive such instruction as would fit +them for the duties of life. Those giving greatest promise of +strength and endurance were sent to places prepared for them in Asia +Minor. Here they were subjected to a severe training, to abstinence, +to privations of every kind, and to the strict discipline which should +fit them for the profession of a soldier. From this body was formed the +famous corps of the Janissaries.... Their whole life may be said to +have been passed in war or in preparation for it. Forbidden to marry, +they had no families to engage their affections, which, as with the +monks and friars of Christian countries, were concentrated in their +own order, whose prosperity was inseparably connected with that of +the State. Proud of the privileges which distinguished them from the +rest of the army, they seemed desirous to prove their title to them +by their thorough discipline and by their promptness to execute the +most dangerous and difficult services. Clad in their flowing robes, so +little suited to war, armed with the arquebus and the scimitar—in their +hands more than a match for the pike or sword of the European—with +the heron’s plume waving above their head, their dense array might +ever be seen bearing down in the thickest of the fight; and more than +once when the fate of the Empire trembled in the balance it was this +invincible corps which turned the scale, and by their intrepid conduct +decided the fortune of the day. Gathering fresh reputation with age, +so long as their discipline remained unimpaired they were a match for +the best soldiers in Europe. But in time this admirable organisation +experienced a change. One Sultan allowed them to marry; another to +bring their sons into the corps; a third opened the ranks to Turks as +well as Christians; until, forfeiting their peculiar character, the +Janissaries became confounded with the militia of the Empire. These +changes occurred in the time of Philip the Second.” + +But to resume: just before the sailing of the galleys of “the Religion” +from Malta there had arrived in that island from France the famous +Chevalier, the Commandeur de Villegagnon. This great noble told the +Grand Master to his face that he was neglecting his duty, that the +expedition of the Grand Turk was bound for Malta and Tripoli: further, +that he was charged by Anne de Montmorency, Constable and First +Minister of France, to advise the Grand Master that this armament was +directed against “the Religion.” The interview between the Grand Master +and de Villegagnon took place at a chapter of the Grand Crosses of the +Order; when the Commandeur had finished speaking, he was coldly thanked +by D’Omedes, who then bowed him out. Turning to the Knights Grand +Cross he said with a sneer, “Either this Frenchman is the dupe of the +Constable or he wishes to make us his.” He then proceeded to give at +length the reasons why Soliman would not direct so huge an expedition +against “the Religion.” Many of the Knights dissented vehemently from +his conclusions, but D’Omedes refused to listen to their arguments. +Even advices which arrived on July 13th, representing that the armada +was moving southwards devastating the Italian ports, did not move him +from his obstinate pre-occupation; till on July 16th the arrival of the +Ottoman fleet put an end to all speculation. + +The armada which had sailed from Constantinople was under the command +of Sinan Basha: but he had explicit orders that he was to take no +important step without first consulting Dragut, who was nominally his +lieutenant. It was well for the Knights that on this occasion the +corsair was not in supreme command; had this been the case the islands +must have been taken, as no preparations had been made to repulse an +attack in force, and Juan D’Omedes was a Grand Master who excited +little enthusiasm either among the Knights or the inhabitants. The +choice of Sinan was not one which did great credit to the penetration +of the Sultan. Let us explain. We are all of us conscious at one time +or another of a desire to express some fact in the fewest possible +words; to place the transaction or the circumstance which we wish +to describe in the searchlight of truth in so undeniable a fashion +that the illumination consequent upon this mental effort of our own +shall throw up our meaning in immediate relief on the intelligences +of those whom we address. This attribute is possessed by but few even +among great writers—indeed, some historic sayings which have come +down to us have not emanated from the writing fraternity at all, but +from soldiers, sailors, statesmen, and other busy men of affairs. +The quality which distinguishes a man of action above all others is +fearlessness of responsibility; the possession of sufficient greatness +of soul and of moral fibre to seize upon an opportunity and to make +the most thereof when an occasion arises which has not been foreseen +by those in authority over him. But far more often in the history +of the world has it happened that brave and capable leaders have +failed for the lack of the indefinable quality that separated their +sterling merits from that absolute and real supremacy which marks the +first-class man. + +How then is it possible to differentiate, to describe where and in +what manner this luck occurs? + +Fortunately, this has been done for us in seven words by Seignelay, the +Minister of Marine to Louis Quatorze in 1692. Speaking of Admiral de +Tourville, who defeated the English and Dutch at the Battle of Beachy +Head, July 10th, 1690, Seignelay says of him that he was “poltron +de tête mais pas de coeur.” The judgment was just: de Tourville, as +recklessly gallant as any French noble of them all, failed to live up +to his responsibilities two years later at the Battle of La Hogue. +Mahan says: “The caution in his pursuit of the Allies after Beachy +Head, though so different in appearance, came from the same trait +which impelled him two years later to lead his fleet to almost certain +destruction at La Hogue because he had the King’s order in his pocket. +He was brave enough to do anything, but not strong enough to bear the +heaviest burdens.” + +We see the application of this truth in the period which we are +considering; particularly is it borne in upon us in the case of the +leaders of the Ottoman Turks. Serving as they did a despot of unlimited +powers, failure in the success of his arms was apt to lead to the +immediate and violent death of the man in command. If, therefore, +precise instructions were issued, they were, as a rule, carried out +to the letter; as in case of defeat an effort could be made to shift +responsibility on to the shoulders of the Padishah. Failure owing to +initiative was certain of prompt retribution; success complete and +absolute would be the only justification for a departure from orders. + +Far otherwise was it with the Sea-wolves, who were a law to themselves +and to themselves alone. Should they care “to place it on the hazard of +a die to win or lose it all,” there was none to say them nay, there was +no punishment save that of defeat. This it was that so often conduced +to their success. Despots as were such men as Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa +and Dragut, they were none the less dependent on the goodwill of their +followers. If, therefore, they decided on a desperate enterprise, they +appealed to the fighting instincts, the cupidity, and the fanaticism +of these men. Should they succeed in gaining their good will for the +attempt which they meditated, then all was well with them, and behind +them was no grim sinister figure whose word was death and whose breath +was destruction. + +Freed from all the trammels which bound the ordinary warrior of the day +in which they lived, they were able, as we have seen, to go far; for +the man in whom supreme ability is united to absolute unscrupulousness +is the most dangerous foe of the human race. The despotism of the +leaders among the sea-wolves was not theirs by right divine, as men +considered it to be in the case of the Padishah; none the less in its +practical application it was but little inferior to that wielded by +the Sultan. For reasons of policy, the Sea-wolves allied themselves +to the Grand Turk; for reasons of policy that monarch employed them +and entrusted them with the conduct of important affairs. The bargain +was really a good one on both sides; as to the sea-wolves was extended +the ægis of one of the mightiest empires of the earth; while to +the Sultan came “veritable men of the sea,” hardened in conflict, as +fearless of responsibility as of aught else; capable in a sense that +hardly any man could be capable who had grown up in the atmosphere of +the court at Constantinople. To Kheyr-ed-Din the Sultan had extended +his fullest confidence; he had been rewarded by seeing the renowned +Doria forsake the field of battle at Prevesa, and by the perpetual +slights and insults put upon his Christian foes by that great corsair. +To Dragut he had now turned, and, as we have said, when Sinan Basha +sailed from the Golden Horn he had orders to attempt nothing important +without the advice of the corsair. It is impossible to say why the +command-in-chief had not been entrusted to him, as the Sultan had the +precedent of Kheyr-ed-Din upon which to go. It can only be conjectured +that Soliman, having discovered how unpopular that appointment had been +amongst his high officers, did not care to risk the experiment the +second time; and in consequence employed Sinan. To this officer the +aphorism of Seignelay applies in its fullest force. He was as brave a +man as ever drew a sword in the service of his master; he was, however, +a hesitating and incompetent leader, with one eye ever fixed on that +distant palace on the shores of the Golden Horn in which dwelt the +arbiter of his destiny and of all those who sailed beneath the banner +of the Crescent. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN + +The Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, afterwards known as the Knights +of Rhodes, and eventually as the Knights of Malta—A brief sketch of the +Order, including the relation of how Gozon de Dieu-Donné, subsequently +Grand Master, slew the great Serpent of Rhodes; also some account of +Jean Parisot de la Valette, forty-eighth Grand Master, who commanded at +the Siege of Malta, in which the arms of Soliman the Magnificent were +defeated after a siege lasting one hundred and thirteen days. + +Amongst all those principalities and powers against which Dragut +contended during the whole of his strenuous existence, there was no +one among them which he held in so much detestation as the famous +Knights of Saint John, known in the sixteenth century as the Knights +of Malta. This militant religious organisation had its origin in +Jerusalem in peculiar and interesting circumstances. After the death +of Mahomet, his followers, burning with zeal, put forward the tenets +of their religion by means of fire and sword; during the years which +followed the Hegira, 622 A.D., the arms of the Moslems were everywhere +successful, and amongst other places conquered by them was Palestine. +So great was the renown acquired by the Emperor Charlemagne that his +fame passed even into Asia, and Eginard states that the Caliph +Haroun Raschid permitted the French nation to maintain a house in +Jerusalem for the reception of pilgrims visiting the holy places, and +that, further, the Prince permitted the Patriarch of Jerusalem to send +to the Christian Emperor, on his behalf, the keys of the Holy Sepulchre +and those of the Church of Calvary, together with a standard which was +the sign of the power and authority delegated by the Moslem ruler to +his mighty contemporary. In the middle of the eleventh century Italian +merchants coming from Amalfi, who had experienced the hard lot of the +Christian pilgrims in reaching the Holy City, secured from the Caliph +Moustafa-Billah a concession of land, on which they built a chapel +known as St. Mary of the Latins, to distinguish it from the Greek +church already established at Jerusalem, and also constructed a hospice +in which to receive the pilgrims, whether in sickness or in health, +known as the Hospice of St. John. + +In 1093 the untiring efforts of Peter the Hermit, with the support of +Pope Urbain II., brought about the first Crusade, and in 1099 we first +hear of Gerard, the founder of the Order of St. John. Gerard was a +French monk who, seeing the good work done by the Hospice of St. John, +had attached himself to it, and had at this time been working in the +cause of charity, and devoting himself to the pilgrims for many years. + +Godfrey de Bouillon, having defeated the Saracens outside the walls +of Jerusalem, entered that city and visited the Hospice of St. John; +he there found many of the Crusaders who had been wounded during the +siege, and who had been carried thither after the taking of the +place: all of these men were loud in their praises of the loving +kindness with which they had been received and tended. + +Great was the honour and reverence in which these simple monks were +held ever after by the Crusaders; for was it not common talk that these +holy men had themselves subsisted on the coarsest and most repulsive +fare in order that the food in the hospice should be both pure and +abundant? Fired by this fine example of Christian charity, several +noble gentlemen who had been tended in the hospice gave up the idea of +returning to their own countries, and consecrated themselves to the +Hospice of St. John, and to the service of the pilgrims, the poor, and +the sick. Among these was Raimond Dupuy. + +The great Prince Godfrey de Bouillon fully approved of the steps taken +by these gentlemen, and for his own part contributed to the upkeep of +the hospice the seigneurie of Montbirre, with all its dependencies, +which formed a part of his domain in Brabant. His example was widely +copied by the Christian princes and great nobles among the Crusaders, +who enriched the hospice with many lands and seigneuries, both in +Palestine and in Europe. All these lands and properties were placed +unreservedly in the hands of the saintly Gerard to do with as he would +for the advancement of his work. In 1118 Gerard died in extreme old +age; “he died in the arms of the brothers, almost without sickness, +falling, as it may be said, like a fruit ripe for eternity.” + +The choice of the Hospitallers as his successor was Raimond Dupuy, +a nobleman of illustrious descent from the Province of Dauphiny, and +it is he who first held rule under the title of Grand Master. In all +charity and loving kindness the life of Gerard had been passed, the +brethren of St. John occupying themselves merely in tending the sick, +in helping the poor and the pilgrims; but Raimond Dupuy was a soldier +of the Cross, and he laid before the Order a scheme by which, from +among the members thereof, a military corps should be formed, vowed +to a perpetual crusade against the Infidel. This, in full conclave, +was carried by acclamation, and the most remarkable body of religious +warriors that the world has ever seen then came existence. + +This pact against the Infidel was in the first instance directed +against the barbarians who swarmed around the Holy City, and the +Hospitallers, who nearly all had been knights and soldiers of Godfrey +de Bouillon, joyfully took up their arms again to employ them in the +defence of this locality which they cherished, and in defence of +the pilgrims who were robbed, murdered, and maltreated in all the +surrounding country. In becoming warriors once more, they vowed to turn +their arms against the Infidel, and against him alone; to neither make +nor meddle with arms in their hands in any dispute between men of their +own faith. The composition of the Order as it was arranged by Raimond +Dupuy caused it to consist of three classes. In the first were placed +men of high birth and rank who, having been bred to arms, were capable +of taking command. In the second came priests and chaplains, who, +besides the ordinary duties attached to their religious profession, +were obliged, each in his turn, to accompany the fighting men in +their wars. Those who were neither of noble houses nor belonging to +the ecclesiastical profession were known as “serving brothers”: they +were employed indifferently in following the knights into battle or +in tending the sick in the hospital, and were distinguished by a +coat-of-arms of a different colour from that worn by the knights. + +As the Order prospered amazingly, and as to it repaired numbers of the +young noblesse from all parts of Europe to enrol themselves under its +banner, it was accordingly divided into seven “Languages”; those of +Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Arragon, Germany, and England. To +the Language of Arragon was in later years allotted those of Castile +and of Portugal. The dress consisted of a black robe, with a mantle +of the same colour, the whole being called _manteau à bec_, having upon +the left side thereof a white cross in cloth, with light points. The +eight-pointed cross, or the Maltese Cross, as it came to be known in +subsequent centuries, will be seen upon the armour, engraven on the +breastplate, of all the pictures of the Grand Masters. + +In the year 1259 the Pope, Alexander IV., finding that men of noble +birth objected to be habited as were the “serving brothers,” ordained +that the knights on a campaign should wear a “sopraveste” of scarlet +embroidered with the cross in white; further, that should any knight +abandon the ranks, and fly from the battle, he should be deprived +of his order and his habit. The form of government was purely +aristocratic, all authority being vested in the Council, of which +the Grand Master was the chief, the case of an equal division of +opinion being provided for by giving to the Grand Master the casting +vote. There were in the Order certain aged knights who were called +“Preceptors,” who, under authority delegated to them by the Council, +administered the estates and funds accruing, and also paid for the hire +of such soldiers or “seculars” whom the Knights took into their service. + +Incidentally, it may be mentioned that the establishment of the +Knights of St. John led to the foundation of the famous Order of the +Knights Templars. In 1118 Hugues de Payens, Geoffrey de St. Aldemar, +and seven other French noblemen, whose hearts were touched by the +sufferings which the pilgrims underwent in their journey to Jerusalem, +formed themselves into a society with the object of the protection +of these inoffensive persons on their transit from the coast inland. +Hugues de Payens, received in audience by Pope Honoré II., was sent +by the Pontiff to the Peers of the Council, then assembled at Troyes +in Champagne; the Council approving of so charitable an enterprise, +the Order was formed, and Bernard, known as “Saint” Bernard, drew up +the code of regulations by which it was to be governed. The movement +spread, and many princes and nobles returned to the Holy Land in the +train of de Payens and his companions. + +So famous did the Order of St. John become, that in 1133 Alfonzo, King +of Navarre and Arragon, who called himself Emperor of Spain, carried +his zeal so far as to bequeath to the knights his kingdoms of Navarre +and Arragon: this, however, was naturally and hotly contested in these +places, and Raimond Dupuy, who attended a Council to regulate the +matter, was content to compromise on certain lands and benefits being +allocated to those whom he represented. + +On August 15th, 1310, the knights, under the Grand Master, Fulke de +Villaret, conquered the Island of Rhodes and established themselves +there, and from this time onward, while they held the island, were +known as the Knights of Rhodes. No sooner were the knights firmly +established in Rhodes and the fortifications placed in a proper +state of repair, than a tower was built on the highest point of the +island, of great height, from which a view could be obtained of the +sea and the surrounding islands, and from which information could be +signalled as to the movements of any vessels which were observed. It +was then decided to fortify the small island of Cos or Lango in the +vicinity, as it contained an excellent harbour; a fortress, planned +by the Grand Master himself, was erected on the island, a knight was +left in command, and we are told that under the successors of de +Villaret—himself twenty-fourth Grand Master—the island, which was very +fertile, flourished exceedingly, producing much fruit and some most +excellent wine. + +There was reigning in Bithynia, at the time when the knights seized +upon Rhodes, that Ottoman whose name has come down to us when we speak +of the Ottoman Empire; it is a somewhat strange coincidence that +the Christian warriors, sworn foes of the Mussulman, should have so +established themselves just when the tide of the Mohammedan conquest +was about to rise and sweep away Byzantium; that they should arrive +upon the scene just as the curtain was about to rise on the tragedy +which, in its onward march, was to make of the church of St. Sophia a +mosque for the worship of the Ottoman Turks. + +Ottoman—the descendant of one Soliman, the chief of a nomadic tribe +of Tartars who had been chased from the Empire of Persia in the year +1214—was not only a soldier and a conqueror, but also a great and +beneficent ruler in those regions in which he held sway. Approached +by those of his co-religionists who had been driven out of Rhodes by +the Knights, Ottoman embarked an army and attacked the place, assuring +himself of an easy conquest. In spite, however, of the fortifications +having been hastily constructed, his troops were defeated with great +loss, and he was obliged to raise the siege. In this manner did the +indomitable champions of Christendom begin that long and bloodthirsty +war between the Cross and the Crescent in the Mediterranean which +was to endure for nearly another five centuries. GOZON DE DIEU-DONNÉ + +[Illustration: SLAYING THE GREAT SERPENT OF RHODES.] + +In the long, chequered, and glorious history of the Knights there are +many strange and semi-miraculous deeds recounted of them in the wars +and adventures in which they took so prominent a part; the following, +which is gravely set out by the historians of the time, may be left to +the judgment of the reader. In 1324 Fulke de Villaret was succeeded in +the Grand Mastership by Helion de Villeneuve, a knight of exemplary +piety and a strict disciplinarian. Under his rule the Order regained +those habits of severe simplicity from which they had been allowed to +lapse by his predecessor. In 1329 Rhodes was greatly agitated by the +fact that a crocodile or serpent—as it is indifferently described—had +taken up its abode in the marshes at the foot of Mount St. Etienne, +some two miles from the town. This ferocious creature devoured sheep +and cattle; also several of the inhabitants had lost their lives by +approaching the neighbourhood in which it dwelt. Several attacks +were made upon it, but, as there were no firearms, all the missiles +projected against it rebounded harmlessly from the scales with which it +was covered. So dangerous had it become, that the Grand Master thought +it his duty to forbid any of the knights to attempt its destruction; +an order which was obeyed with a right good will. There was, however, +a knight of the Language of Provence called Gozon de Dieu-Donné, who +secretly determined that he would slay the serpent, and he accordingly +made it his occupation to observe as closely as possible the habits +of the monster. Having satisfied himself on certain points, he then +returned to his chateau of Gozon in the province of Languedoc. The +point which Gozon had wished to determine was in what portion of its +body was the serpent vulnerable; and he had convinced himself that +the belly of the creature was unprotected by scales. He accordingly +modelled in wood as exact a representation of the serpent as he could +accomplish, colouring it the same as the original; the belly of the +model was constructed of leather. He then trained some large and +ferocious hounds, at a certain signal, to dash in under the model +and fix their teeth in its leathern underpart. For months did the +ingenious knight persevere with the training of his dogs, himself on +horseback in full armour cheering them to the assault. At last he +considered them to be perfect in their parts, and, taking two servants +and the hounds with him, returned to Rhodes. Avoiding everybody, he +caused his arms to be carried to a small church in the neighbourhood +of Mount St. Etienne by his servants. The knight went into the church, +where he passed some time in prayer, recommending his soul to God in +the enterprise which he was about to undertake. + +He then donned his armour and mounted his horse, ordering his servants, +if he were killed, to return to France but if he succeeded in +killing the serpent to come at once to him, or to aid him if he were +wounded. He then rode off in the direction of the marsh accompanied +by his hounds. No sooner did the serpent hear the ring of bit and +stirrup-iron, the trampling of the charger and the baying of the +hounds, than it issued forth with wide-open slavering jaws and terrible +burning eyes to slay and to devour. Gozon, recommending his soul to +his Maker, put spurs to his horse and charged. But his lance shivered +on the hide of the serpent as though it had struck a stone wall. His +horse, mad with terror at the sight and the foul odour of the serpent, +plunged so furiously as to unseat him. He fell to the ground, uttering +as he did so his call to the hounds; had it not been for these faithful +auxiliaries he would instantly have been slain, but they rushed in and, +fastening their teeth in the belly of the serpent, caused it to writhe +and twist in its anguish. Instantly Gozon was upon his feet again, +and, watching his opportunity, plunged his sword into the exposed +vitals of his enemy. Mortally wounded, the serpent flung itself high +in the air with a convulsive effort, and falling backwards pinned the +knight to the ground beneath its enormous bulk. The servants, who had +been the horrified spectators of this terrific conflict, now rushed to +the assistance of their master, and succeeded in freeing him from his +unpleasant predicament. Gozon, they thought, was dead, but upon dashing +some water in his face he opened his eyes, to behold the pleasing +spectacle of his monstrous enemy lying by his side a corpse. + +Naturally elated, he returned to Rhodes, where he became on the instant +the popular hero; for who could say or do enough for the man who had +slain the serpent. He was conducted in triumph to the palace of the +Grand Master by his fellow knights, but here a remarkably unpleasant +surprise was in store for him. Very austerely did Helion de Villeneuve +regard the triumphant warrior, and stern and uncompromising was the +voice in which he asked him how he had dared to contravene the express +order of his Grand Master by going forth to combat with the serpent? +Calling a Council immediately the implacable de Villeneuve, in spite of +all entreaties, deprived Gozon de Dieu-Donné of the habit of a knight. +“What,” said this just and severe disciplinarian, “is the death of this +monster, what indeed do the deaths of the islanders matter, compared +with the maintenance of the discipline of this Order of which I am the +unworthy chief?” + +But Helion de Villeneuve was of too wise and kindly a nature to +make his decree absolute, and having thus vindicated his authority he +shortly afterwards released Gozon and made him happy by his praises and +more material benefits. + +The Abbé de Vertot tells us that the learned Bochart argues that the +Phoenicians gave to this island the name of Gefirath-Rod (from whence +the name “Rhodes”), or the Isle of the Serpents, and that when the +Romans were at war with the Carthaginians Attilius Regulus slew a +monster in the island of Rhodes the skin of which measured one hundred +feet. Thevenot, in his Travels published in 1637, states that he saw +the head of Gozon’s serpent still attached to one of the gates of the +town of Rhodes, and that it was as large as the head of a horse. + +Upon the death of Helion de Villeneuve in 1346, a Chapter of the Order +was held as usual to elect his successor. When it came to the turn of +the Commander Gozon de Dieu-Donné to speak, he said: + +“In entering this conclave I made a solemn vow not to propose any +knight whom I did not consider to be most worthy of this exalted +office, and animated by the best intentions for the glory and +well-being of the Order. After considering carefully the state of +the Christian world, of the wars which we are perpetually obliged to +wage against the infidel, the firmness and vigour necessary for the +maintenance of discipline, I declare that I find no person so capable +of governing our ‘Religion’ as myself.” + +He then proceeded to speak in a purely impersonal tone of the +magnificent services which he had rendered, not forgetting the +famous episode of the serpent, and drew their attention to the fact +that the late Grand Master had constituted him, Gozon, his principal +lieutenant. He ended: “You have already tried my government, you know +well that which you may hope to expect. I believe that in all justice I +shall receive your suffrages.” + +Naturally the assemblage was stupefied at hearing a man thus recommend +himself; on reflection, however, they decided that he had spoken +no less than the truth, and Gozon de Dieu-Donné, “the hero of the +serpent,” became twenty-sixth Grand Master of the Order. He died in +1353, when he was succeeded by Pierre de Cornillan, and upon his tomb +were graven these words: “Cy Gist le Vainqueur du Dragon.” + +In the years 1480 and 1485 under the Grand Master Pierre D’Aubusson, +Rhodes withstood two great sieges from the Turks. The first of these is +described at length by the knight Merri Dupuis “temoin oculaire” who +sets down: “Je, Mary Dupuis gros et rude de sens et de entendement je +veuille parler et desscrire au plus bref que je pourray et au plus pres +de la verite selon que je pen voir a lueil.” The description of that of +1485 is written by another eye-witness, the Commandeur de Bourbon, to +whom “ma semble bon et condecent a raison declairer premierement les +causes qui out incite mon poure et petit entendement a faire cest petit +oeuvre.” + +But we have no space to follow these gallant Knights, and it must +suffice to say that on both occasions, after incredible exertions +and terrible slaughter on both sides, the attacks of the Turks were +eventually repulsed. + +It was reserved for Soliman the Magnificent to finally vanquish the +Knights and to expel them from Rhodes; from July 1522 until January +1523 the Knights under the heroic Villiers de L’Isle Adam maintained an +all unequal struggle against the vast hosts of the Crescent, which were +perpetually reinforced. At last, on January 1st, 1523, the Knights, +by virtue of a treaty with Soliman, which was honourably observed on +both sides, evacuated the island in which they had been established for +nearly two hundred and twenty years. + +By favour of Charles V. the Knights on October 26th, 1530, took charge +of the islands of Malta and Gozo, and established themselves therein; +still under the Grand Mastership of L’Isle Adam, whose sword and helmet +are still religiously kept in a small church in Vittoriosa, just at the +back of the Admiral Superintendent’s house in the present dockyard. + +The knights fortified the islands and there abode, until in 1565 the +Ottoman returned once more to the attack. + +It may be said that heroism is a relative term, that it has many uses +and applications all equally truthful. On the side of mere physical +courage almost every man who took part in that memorable siege of +Malta in the year 1565 may have been said to have earned the title of +hero. No man’s foot went back; no man’s courage quailed; no man’s face +blanched when called upon to face perils so appalling that they meant +an almost inevitable and speedy death; this was true or Christian +and Moslem alike. The death-roll on either side was so tremendous as to +prove this contention up to the hilt. From May 18th to September 8th, +1565—that is to say, in one hundred and thirteen days—thirty thousand +Moslems and eight thousand Christians perished—an average of some three +hundred and thirty-six persons per day. In that blazing torrid heat +the sufferings of those who survived from day to day must have been +accentuated beyond bearing by the myriads of unburied corpses by which +they lived surrounded; and that the contending forces were not swept +away by pestilence is an extraordinary marvel. + +[Illustration: CARRACK IN WHICH THE KNIGHTS ARRIVED AT MALTA, 1530.] + +In many, nay, in most campaigns, personal feeling enters but little +into the contest. Nationality strikes against nationality, army against +army, or navy against navy; but no burning hatred of his adversary +animates the breast of the combatant on either side; it may even be +said that frequently some pity for the vanquished is felt, when all is +over, by the side which has conquered. At Malta the element of actual +personal individual hatred was the mainspring by which the combatants +on both sides were moved; each regarded the other as an infidel, the +slaying of whom was the sacrifice most acceptable to the God they +worshipped. “Infidel” was the term which each hurled at the other; to +destroy the infidel, root and branch, was the act imposed upon those +whose faith was the one only passport to a blessed eternity, and those +who fell in the strife, whether Christian or Moslem, felt assured that +for them the gates of heaven stood wide open. + +Great as were those others who perished, faithful to the death as +were those noble knights who died to a man in the culminating agony +of St. Elmo, adroit, resourceful, master of himself and others as was +the famous Dragut, there is one name and one alone that shines like +a beacon light upon a hill-top when we think of the siege of Malta. +Jean Parisot de la Valette, whose name is enshrined for ever in that +noble city which crowns Mount Sceberass at the present day, was the +forty-eighth Grand Master of the Noble Order of the Knights of Saint +John of Jerusalem the charter for which, contained in the original Bull +of Pope Paschal II., dated 1113 (in which the Holy Father took the +Order under his special protection), may be seen to this day in the +armoury of the palace at Valetta. At the time when the supreme honour +was conferred upon him, in the year 1557, he had passed through every +grade of the Order: as soldier, captain, general, Counsellor, Grand +Cross: in all of them displaying a valour, a piety, a self-abnegation +beyond all praise, A man of somewhat austere manner, he exacted from +others that which he gave himself—a whole-hearted devotion to the Order +to which he had consecrated his life. Fearing no man in the Council +Chamber, even as he feared no foe in the field, he ever spoke his +mind in defence of that which he deemed to be right. Proud, with the +dignity becoming a man of his ancient lineage, he merged all personal +haughtiness in the zeal he felt in upholding the rights and privileges +of that splendid confederation of knights of the best blood in Europe +over which he had been called upon to preside at the mature age of +sixty-three. There is no instance in history of any man more absolutely +single-minded than La Valette; that in which he believed he cherished +with an ardour almost incredible in these days, and that the sword of +the Lord had been confided into his hand for the utter extermination +and extirpation of the Moslem heresy was the leading feature in his +creed. That he had been advanced to a dignity but little less than +royal in achieving the Grand Mastership was but as dust in the balance +to him compared with the opportunities which it gave him to harry his +life-long foes; and he who had known so well how to obey throughout all +his youth and manhood was now to prove, in the most emphatic manner, +that he had learned how to command. In all those terrible hundred +and thirteen days during which the siege lasted there was none to be +compared to him. As occasion occurred this man’s soul rose higher and +ever higher; beseeching, imploring, commanding, by sheer force of +example did he point out the way to the weaker spirits by whom he was +surrounded. + +To speak of weaker spirits in connection with the siege of Malta seems +almost an insult; these gallant knights and soldiers were only so in +comparison with their leader. Twice during the siege of St, Elmo did +the garrison send to La Valette and represent that the place was no +longer tenable; but Garcia de Toledo, Viceroy of Sicily for Philip of +Spain, was writing specious letters instead of sending reinforcements, +and every moment gained was of importance. Coldly did La Valette remind +the Knights of their vows to the Order, and when renewed assurances +came that it was only a matter of a few hours before they should be +overwhelmed he replied that others could be found to take their places, +that he, as Grand Master, would come in person to show them how to die. +A passion of remorse overcame these noble gentlemen, who, thus nerved +by the indomitable spirit of their chief, died to the last man in the +tumbled ruins of that charnel-house which had once been a fortress. + +La Valette was ready to die; there was no man in all that garrison so +ready. With pike and sword this veteran of seventy-one years of age +was ever at the post of the greatest danger, repelling the assaults +of Janissaries and corsairs, fighting with the spirit of the youngest +among the Knights in the breaches rent in the walls of Il Borgo. In +vain did his comrades try to prevent him from this perpetual exposure; +in vain did they point out that the value of his life outnumbered that +of an army. He was very gentle with these remonstrances, but quite +firm. There were plenty as good as he to take his place should he fall, +he insisted; till that time came it was his duty to inspire all by his +example, to show to the simplest soldier that he was cared for by his +Grand Master. + +As things went from bad to worse, when Il Borgo became in little better +case than had St. Elmo before it, La Valette never hesitated, never +looked back, never ceased to hope that the sluggard Garcia de Toledo +might send relief; and, if he did not, then would they all perish with +arms in their hands, as had their brethren across that narrow strip of +water who had held St. Elmo to the last man. What man or woman can read +without something of a lump coming in their throat of those noble +words of the Grand Master in the last few days of the siege when all +had utterly abandoned hope? + +Grimed, emaciated, covered with sweat and blood and dust, did La +Valette move from post to post exhorting and encouraging his soldiers. +So few had the gallant company of the Knights become that command was +necessarily delegated to the under-officers; yet who among them did not +find fresh courage and renewed strength when that great noble, the head +of the Order, stood by their sides and spoke thus to them as man to +man?— + +“My brothers, we are all servants of Jesus Christ; and I feel assured +that if I and all these in command should fall you will still fight on +for the honour of the Order and the love of our Holy Church.” + +We have to think of what it all meant, we have dimly to try and realise +the burden which was laid upon this man, before we come to a right +conception, not only of what he endured but the terrible sacrifices +he was called upon to make. Here was no man of iron lusting for blood +and greedy of conquest for the sake of the vain applause of men; but +one full of human love and affection for those among whom he had lived +all the days of his life. Upon him was laid the charge of upholding +the honour of the Order, the majesty of the God whom he served. To +this end he doomed to certain death those brethren of his in St. Elmo, +his own familiar friends, reminding them that it was their duty so to +die, while his heart was breaking with the agony of this terrible +decision, which no weaker man could have given. When his beloved nephew +was slain, together with another gallant youth, he smiled sadly and +said that they had only travelled the road which they all had to tread +in a few days; that he grieved as much for the one as for the other. In +speaking of this man, it may truly be said that there is no character +in history more elevated; there is none which shows us the picture of a +more perfect, gentle, and valiant knight. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +DRAGUT-REIS + + + How Sinan Basha and Dragut raided the islands of + Malta and Cozo and captured the town of Tripoli. How + the Knights of Malta captured “the puissant galleon” + belonging to the Kustir-Aga and the Odalisques of the + harem of the Grand Turk. The despair of the ladies and + the advice of the Imaum to Soliman the Magnificent. + A great armada is fitted out in Constantinople. The + preparations for defence on the part of La Valette and + the Knights. The expedition sails from Constantinople and + lands in Malta. + +Great must have been the consternation of the Knights when the armada, +commanded by Sinan Basha, appeared off their coasts, and bitter must +have been the reflections of Juan d’Omedes, the Grand Master, who had +all along contended that so formidable an expedition could not possibly +be directed against Malta. The inhabitants of that island were, +however, not left long in doubt, as Sinan, immediately on his arrival, +entered the Grand Harbour, or “the Great Port,” as it was called in +those days. Sinan, in his royal galley, led the way in, contemptuously +assured of an easy victory over so insignificant a place of arms. He +had his first rude awakening before he had traversed some quarter of a +mile of the placid waters of the Great Port. The harbour, as is well +known, though long, is very narrow, and, on the starboard hand of the +Turkish galleys as they entered, the Commandeur de Guimeran, a +Spanish Knight, had ambushed three hundred arquebusiers. As the galley +of Sinan came abreast of the ambush, the Commandeur gave the order to +fire. The volley at so close a range had a terrible effect, especially +among the “chiourme,” or the slaves who rowed the galley, some hundred +of whom were placed _hors de combat_. Sinan, in a furious rage, ordered +an immediate disembarkment; but when his men landed and scaled the +heights of Mount Sceberras (the elevated land on which the city of +Valetta now stands) there was no one to be found, the Commandeur and +the men who had formed the ambush having disappeared. Gazing from the +heights at Il Borgo, the fortress on the opposite side of the harbour +where the Knights then dwelt, Sinan demanded of Dragut, “If that,” +pointing to the fortress, “was the place which he had told the Sultan +could easily be taken?” + +Dragut, whom no peril ever daunted, coolly replied: + +“Certainly, no eagle ever built his nest on a rock more easy of access.” + +A corsair, who had been slave to the Knights, now approached Sinan, and +told him that he had assisted at the building of the fortress; which, +he averred, was so strong that if the admiral delayed until he had +taken it that the winter would be upon them, although it was then only +the month of July. Sinan, as we have said, was a hesitating commander. +He had the ever-present fear of the Grand Turk before his eyes, and was +not inclined for so difficult and dangerous an enterprise as this was +represented to be. Leaving the fortress in his rear, he marched off +to the high land in the centre of the island, on which was situated the +Città Notabile, the capital of Malta, some seven miles distant from +the sea. On their march through the island the Turks committed their +usual atrocities, murdering the wretched inhabitants, firing their +dwellings, destroying their crops, and carrying off their women. Had +the siege of Notabile been pressed, the city must have fallen; but +Sinan declared to Dragut that the principal object of the expedition +was the reduction of Tripoli, and, in consequence, he had not the time +to devote to its reduction. Dragut, furious at this temporising policy, +urged an immediate assault, and, while the contention was waxing +sharp between the two leaders, a letter was brought to Sinan which +had been captured in a Sicilian galley. It was from the “Receiver” of +the Order, who dwelt at Messina, to the Grand Master, informing him +that he had expressly sent this ship to inform him that Andrea Doria +had just returned from Spain and was hastening with a large fleet to +attack the Turks. The letter was a ruse on the part of the “Receiver,” +and contained not a particle of truth. It was, however, quite enough +for Sinan, who immediately called a council of war and imparted this +alarming news to its members. The council, after the invariable fashion +of such bodies, decided to take the safest and easiest course: the +name of the terrible Andrea was one of evil omen to the Ottomans, and, +as one man, they voted for prosecuting their voyage to Tripoli before +the Genoese seaman should put in an appearance. In vain was the fury +of Dragut, who had counted on a full revenge on his ancient enemies +the Knights. The armada sailed to the adjacent island of Gozo, which +was thoroughly sacked with every refinement of cruelty. Every house +on the island was burned, and six thousand of its inhabitants carried +off to slavery. One incident is deserving of record. In Gozo dwelt a +certain Sicilian with his wife and two daughters: sooner than that they +should fall into the hands of the Turks this man stabbed his wife and +daughters and then threw himself, sword in hand, into the ranks of his +enemies, where he slew two of them, wounded several others, and was +then hacked to pieces. The fleet then proceeded to Tripoli, which was +taken almost without opposition, as it was defended by a mere handful +of the Knights and some utterly unreliable Calabrian infantry, who +had never before seen a shot fired: these men very soon mutinied and +refused to fight any longer. Dragut became the autocrat of Tripoli, as +his great predecessor Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa had been of Algiers: from +hence, in the years that were to come before his death, he carried on +his sleepless and unending warfare with his Christian foes, on whom he +was destined to inflict another terrible defeat when they attacked this +stronghold which he had made his own. + +Claude de la Sangle dying on August 18th, 1557, Jean Parisot de la +Valette was chosen Grand Master of the Knights of Malta in his stead +on August 21st of the same year. He was, as we have said before, in +succession, soldier, captain, councillor, general, and Grand Cross; he +was as wise in council as he was terrible in battle; he was as much +esteemed by his brethren as he was feared by the infidel. Under his +governorship “the Religion” regained the ancient authority which it +had once possessed, especially in some of the German Provinces and in +the Republic of Venice. So great was the influence of La Valette that +he succeeded in making the “Languages” (or confederations of Knights) +of Germany and Venice pay their “responsions,” which had been allowed +to get into arrear. These “responsions” were a tax levied on the +“Languages “ exclusively for the purpose of combatting the infidel, +and La Valette brought all the firmness of his high character to bear, +in order to induce these Knights to do what, he reminded them, was +their simple and obvious duty. Fired by the highest conception of the +office he had been called upon to execute, La Valette allowed none +of those under his command to be slack in their performance of their +duties. In him dwelt the real old crusading spirit. He saw life with +the single eye, for that which was paramount was the utter destruction +of the infidel. There are many men who have a high conception of duty; +there are but few who can inspire those with whom they are brought +in contact. Of these latter was Jean Parisot de la Valette; in him +the pure flame of religious enthusiasm burnt with so clear a light as +to act as an illuminant for the paths of others. In him dwelt that +rare quality of lifting others almost to that plane on which he dwelt +himself, of making men nobler and better almost in spite of themselves. +So it was that, when La Valette stooped to remind others of his brother +Knights that they owed money to the Order, that money was paid at once. + +Having thus restored order to the finances, the Grand Master turned his +attention to the state of affairs (as he had received them from his +predecessor) connected with the territorial possessions of the Knights. +For long years now the fortress of Tripoli had been in the hands of the +renowned Dragut, who was the scourge and the terror of the Christians. +The corsair dwelt in his stronghold in insolent defiance of the +Knights, whose property it once had been. Years before he had wrested +it from them by the strong hand: what, then, more necessary in the +eyes of such an one as La Valette than to expel this audacious pirate? +The Grand Master invited the co-operation of Juan la Cerda (a Spanish +Grandee, Duke of Medina-Celi, and Viceroy of Sicily for the King of +Spain) in this enterprise. The Viceroy joyfully acceded to the request, +and informed his master. Philip II. approved the project, and sent +orders to the Duke of Sesse, Governor of Milan, to the Duke of Alcala, +Governor of Naples, and to John Andrea Doria, General of the Galleys, +to join forces and to repair to Sicily, placing themselves under the +orders of the Duke of Medina-Celi, who was expressly charged to take +no action save by the advice of the Grand Master. The expedition +assembled, the Duke took it to Malta, where it wintered, and in the +spring it sailed and attacked Tripoli. + +They found this fortress, however, in a very different state from that +which they expected. Dragut, says De Vertot, “avoit faire terasser les +murailles de cette place.” Bastions had been constructed, and every +advantage taken for defence which was permitted by the terrain, or +that the art of fortification admitted at this epoch. The castle, which +was not advantageously placed, was, notwithstanding, put in a state of +defence by an enormous expenditure of money. Great towers, in which +were mounted many big guns, defended the entrance to the port, which +had become the headquarters of the vessels owned by Dragut, and also of +those corsairs who sailed their craft under the crescent flag of the +Sultan of Constantinople. It was against such a fortress as this that +the Duke of Medina-Celi went up: we have no space to deal here with the +details of this attack, which ended in the hopeless and irremediable +defeat of the Christian forces. The Duke was an incompetent commander; +he was opposed to one of the greatest leaders of the age—an expert +in almost every branch of the science of war, in command of a large +body of the fiercest fighters of the day, who ever feared the wrath of +Dragut more than the swords of the enemy. + +La Valette, though he mourned over the repulse of the Christian +forces from Tripoli, did not on that account allow his pursuit of +the infidel to grow faint; the galleys of “the Religion” were always +at sea, and both the corsairs and the Ottoman Turks were perpetually +losing valuable ships and costly merchandise. Under the General of +the Galleys, the Commandeur Gozon de Melac, and that celebrated +chevalier, the Commandeur de Romegas, the sea forces of the Knights +were everywhere in evidence. Into the hands of the Christians fell the +Penon de Velez, situated on the northern coast of Africa opposite to +Malaga—a fortress much frequented by the corsairs; the Goletta at +Tunis was also taken, and the pirates became so much alarmed that they +demanded succour from Constantinople. They represented to Soliman that, +at this rate, the whole of Northern Africa would soon be in the hands +of the Christians to the total exclusion of the true believer. + +Soliman listened to their complaints and promised that soon he would +send forth an armament which should put an end to the misfortunes from +which they were suffering. Once again preparations were begun in the +arsenals of Constantinople, and while these were in progress an event +took place which had an important bearing on the situation. Just after +the taking of the Penon de Velez seven galleys of “the Religion,” +under the command of the chevaliers de Giou and De Romegas, which were +cruising in the neighbourhood of Zante and Cephalonia, fell in with +“a puissant galleon” filled with the richest merchandise of the East, +armed with “twenty great cannons of bronze,” and a number of smaller +guns, under the command of the Reis Bairan-Ogli, having on board +“excellent officers of artillery,” as well as two hundred Janissaries +for her defence. This great ship was the property of Kustir-Aga, the +chief Eunuch of the Seraglio of the Sultan, and many of the ladies of +the harem were interested in a pecuniary sense in the safe arrival of +this vessel at Constantinople. The galleys of “the Religion” attacked, +and, after a most obstinate resistance, in which one hundred and twenty +of the Christians and an even larger number of the Turks were killed, +the galleon was captured. + +If there had been an outcry in Constantinople before this occurrence +it was all as nothing to that which now arose. Kustir-Aga and the +Odalisques of the Harem prostrated themselves at the feet of Soliman +the Magnificent, and with streaming eyes, dishevelled hair, and frantic +gestures, demanded the instant despatch of an expedition to utterly +exterminate these barbarian corsairs, the Knights of Malta, who had +thus injured them and lacerated their tenderest susceptibilities. +The Grand Turk, autocrat as he was, had no peace day or night; he +was surrounded by wailing women and sullen officials, all of whom +had lost heavily by the capture of the puissant galleon. The Imaum, +or preacher in the principal mosque, called upon the Sultan in his +discourse to fall upon the audacious infidel and smite him hip and +thigh. He reminded the Padishah that, in the dungeons of the Knights, +true believers were languishing; that on the rowers’ benches of the +galleys of “the Religion” Moslems were being flogged like dogs. In +a furious peroration he concluded: “It is only thy invincible sword +which can shatter the chains of these unfortunates, whose cries are +rising to heaven and afflicting the ears of the Prophet of God: the +son is demanding his father, the wife her husband and her children. +All, therefore, wait upon thee, upon thy justice, and thy power, for +vengeance upon their cruel and implacable enemies.” + +Contrary to all precedent, which enjoins the most perfect silence in +the mosque, these bold utterances were received with something more +than murmurs of applause: never in all his long and glorious reign had +the great and magnificent despot heard so plainly the voice of his +people. Apart, however, from eunuchs, women, and Mullahs, Soliman had +long been importuned by Dragut to take the course which was now being +urged upon him with so much insistence. There was at this time no +warrior in all his _entourage_ for whose opinion the Sultan had the same +respect as he had for that of the ruler of Tripoli. Dragut had more +than a tincture of learning: he was first of all an incomparable leader +of men and an entirely competent seaman. He was also a scientific +artillerist, and was learned in the technique of the fortification of +his time. Added to this he was—albeit by no means so cruel as most of +his contemporaries—one of those men before whom all trembled: as we +have seen in the case of the corsairs who defended “Africa,” “they +feared the wrath of Dragut more than death itself.” + +It was this renowned leader who warned Soliman against the Knights; he +pointed out that they were far more dangerous now than they had been +in 1523, the year of their expulsion from Rhodes. When established +there they were, so to speak, surrounded by the Turkish Empire; in +Malta, on the contrary, they were easily succoured from Sicily, which +belonged to Spain, another implacable enemy of the Moslem; that Malta +lay right on the route which all the ships of the Sultan must take on +passage from the East to Constantinople; and in consequence the Order +was a standing and perpetual menace to the trade of the Empire. All +this was so undeniably true that so shrewd a man and so competent a +ruler as Soliman could not fail to be impressed by the soundness of the +reasoning. Besides all this, he knew quite well that now he could +not hold back, had it been even against his inclination—which was by +no means the case; for there had arisen one of those storms of popular +opinion—all the more formidable because of their infrequency—before +which even the most hardened of despots must bend. Accordingly the +Sultan called a conference of his fighting men, which was held on +horseback in the open-air. The inclination of the Sultan being known, +most of the generals, like good courtiers, voted for immediate war +with the Knights. At this conference was present that Ali Basha, or +Occhiali, or Uluchali, as he was indifferently called, of whom we shall +have more to say later on. Upon this occasion he was present as the +representative of Dragut, and urged, on behalf of his master, that the +time was not yet ripe for an attack on Malta. First, he contended, it +was necessary to recapture the Goletta and the Peñon de Velez, and to +defeat the Moors of Tunis, who were feudatories of the Spanish king and +avowed enemies of the Ottoman Empire. Ali was supported by one Mahomet, +an old warrior who had grown white in the service of the Sultan, who +strongly opposed the contemplated campaign on the ground that the +Knights would in all probability have the full strength of Europe at +their backs. + +Numbers, however, added to the personal inclination of the Sultan, +carried the day. The die was cast, the memorable expedition was decided +upon, and all the Sultan’s vast Empire soon rang with the note of +preparation. The Capitan Basha, Piali, was in command of the fleet, and +the direction of the land forces was confided to Mustafa, an old +officer sixty-five years of age, a severe disciplinarian, and of a +sanguinary and cruel disposition to any of his enemies who had the +misfortune to fall into his hands. + +Once again did Europe lose itself in speculation: against whom, all +men were asking, was this new expedition to be directed? Spain feared +for her African possessions, as the Goletta was the key to the kingdom +of Tunis, while the Peñon de Velez was one of the bulwarks of Algeria. +In consequence Don Garcia de Toledo passed over from Sicily to confer +with the Grand Master of the Knights. Garcia de Toledo was by no means +a favourable specimen of the illustrious race from which he sprang, +and was a complete antithesis to La Valette; he was to prove himself +in the terrible days that were to come to be sluggish, incompetent, a +ruler who could not rule, a person for ever letting “I dare not wait +upon I would.” Just as long as Spain considered this new expedition +was directed against herself considerable activity was shown; when the +attack developed and it was seen that the objective of the Turks was +Malta, the procrastinating Spanish king and his incompetent viceroy +allowed matters so to drift that, had any other man than La Valette +been in command at Malta, the fall of that island had been inevitable. + +We have seen how Juan d’Omedes had dealt with a previous crisis +in the affairs of the Order; very different was it in the opening +months of the year 1565. La Valette was well served by his spies in +Constantinople, and the Grand Master was under no illusions from the +very first as to what the destination of the army of the Sultan would +be. He recognised that against the small islands of Malta and Gozo +all the strength of the mightiest Empire in the world was about to be +directed, and with serene confidence set about the task of preparation. +His first care was to send out “a general citation” to those Knights +living in their own homes in different countries in Europe, commanding +them to repair at once to Malta and take part in the defence of that +Order to which they had vowed to consecrate their lives. The agents +of the Order in Italy succeeded in raising two thousand infantry, and +the Viceroy of Sicily sent over two companies of Spanish infantry +which he had promised. All the galleys of “the Religion” were called +in from distant service and were set to work importing ammunition, +stores, provisions, and all requisites for the withstanding of a +siege. As the galleys passed backwards and forwards to Sicily, in each +returning vessel came noble gentlemen of every country in Europe, in +answer to the summons of their Grand Master. They were received with +the tenderest affection by him and by those others already assembled; +never in all its long and glorious history had the Order assembled in +circumstances more grave; never in its history, either in the past +or in the future, did it quit itself with so supreme a heroism as in +those days of 1565 which were yet to come. In Malta the orderly bustle +of preparation went on ceaselessly; the Italian and Spanish troops +and the inhabitants of the island, for the most part hardy mariners +well accustomed to the ceaseless _guerre de course_ of the Knights, were +formed into companies, officered by the members of the Order, and +assigned to different posts. + +Meanwhile the Grand Master caused copies of the letters which he had +received from Constantinople to be sent to all the great princes of +Europe; showing them the straits to which the Order was shortly to be +reduced and imploring of them to send timely succour. But it was not +upon outside aid that La Valette counted overmuch; he was preparing +to confront the Turks with such forces as he had at his own disposal; +content, if necessary, to leave the issue in the hands of the God in +whom he trusted. As the chevaliers came flocking to the standard of +St. John he received them, we are told, “as a kind father receives +his beloved children, having provided in advance for their food and +lodging.” He personally entered into the most minute details of his +charge; he reviewed his infantry, he instructed his artillery, he +planned sites for hospitals, he sketched out new fortifications, and +then went among the humblest of his followers and wielded the pick and +shovel in the burning sun. Everywhere his cheering presence was felt, +his equable and serene temperament diffused confidence and hope. + +All things being thus in train he assembled his brethren and addressed +them in the following terms: + +“A formidable army, composed of audacious barbarians, is descending +on this island; these persons, my brothers, are the enemies of Jesus +Christ. To-day it is a question of the defence of our faith as to +whether the book of the Evangelist is to be superseded by that of the +Koran? God on this occasion demands of us our lives, already vowed +to His service. Happy will those be who first consummate this +sacrifice. But that we may indeed be worthy to render it come, my dear +brothers, to the foot of the altar, where we may renew our vows. Let +each one rely on the blood of the Saviour of men and in the faithful +practice of the sacraments; in them we shall find so generous a +contempt for death that we shall indeed be rendered invincible.” + +The Knights then, headed by the Grand Master, took themselves in +procession to the church. Here they confessed and received the +sacrament. “They went out from thence as men who had received a new +birth.” The Knights, we are then told, tenderly embraced one another +in all solemnity; vowing to shed the last drop of their blood in +defence of their religion and its holy altars. It was in this lofty +frame of mind that the Knights of Malta awaited the coming of their +hereditary foe. Into the hearts and minds of these gallant gentlemen +of the best blood in the world the Grand Master had instilled some +leaven of the greatness by which he himself was inspired. When belief +is so wholehearted as it was in the case of La Valette; when it is +allied to a genius for war, and a supreme gift for the inspiration of +others, then that man and the force which he commands are as near to +invincibility as it is permitted to fallible human beings to attain. +There were two things in which the Knights were supremely fortunate on +this occasion: the first was that they had La Valette as Grand Master, +the second that Dragut was not in supreme command of the Turks, and +that the siege had opened before he arrived upon the scene. In this +expedition, as in previous ones, the Turkish commanders had orders to +attempt nothing really important without the advice of Dragut. They +found themselves without him when they arrived and made an initial +mistake. With La Valette in command there was no room for blundering; +the ultimate result of their blunder was the defeat which they +sustained. + +Grand Master, Knight, and noble, soldier, peasant, and mariner, strove +valiantly with the task of putting the island into a state of defence, +and when at last the long-expected armada of their foes rose above that +distant blue horizon in the north all had been done that skill and +experience could dictate. + +It was upon May 18th in the year 1565 that the Turkish fleet arrived +at Malta. It was composed of one hundred and fifty-nine galleys +and vessels propelled by oars: on board of these was an army for +disembarkation of thirty thousand men, composed of Janissaries and +Spahis, the very pick and flower of the Turkish army. Soliman the +Magnificent was leaving as little to chance as was possible on this +occasion; he well knew the temper of the Knights, and that this +expedition had before it a task which would try both the army and its +leaders to the very utmost of their strength. Behind the main body of +the fleet came a host of vessels, charged with provisions, the horses +of the Spahis, the siege-train of the artillery, all the innumerable +appliances and engines of war which were in use at that day. The +initial mistake on the part of the Turks was in embarking cavalry for a +siege; they knew, or they should have known, of the extreme smallness +of the island which they were about to attack, and that they were by +no means likely to be met with armies in the field owing to the +enormous preponderance of numbers which they had assured to themselves. + +Piali, as we have said, was in command of the fleet, and Mustafa of +the army; the corsairs did not arrive on the scene till some days +afterwards. + +The Turks landed some men who encountered the Chevalier La Riviere +and some Maltese troops, with whom they had some lively skirmishes. +Unfortunately, in one of these the Chevalier was captured, put to +the torture, and eventually beheaded for having wilfully misled +the Turks. A council of war was held by Piali, Mustafa, and their +principal officers, to deliberate on the best manner of prosecuting +the enterprise on which they were engaged. The admiral, wishing to +conform strictly with the instructions of Soliman, voted to delay all +initiative until the arrival of the famous corsair. Mustafa, however, +held a different opinion: the unfortunate Chevalier La Riviere had, +before his death, informed the Turkish general that large and powerful +succours were expected daily from Sicily. Secretly disquieted by this +news, which he had at the time affected to disbelieve, Mustafa now +urged immediate action. His opinion was that, in the first instance, +they had better attack the castle of St. Elmo. It was a small and +insignificant fort which at best would only delay them some five or +six days; when this had fallen they could proceed to the more serious +business of taking Il Borgo, the principal fortress on the island in +which the Grand Master and most of the Knights were established. By the +time St. Elmo had been taken they might reasonably expect that Dragut +and his corsairs would have arrived, and, with these seasonable +reinforcements, proceed to the really formidable portion of their +task. In their decisions both admiral and general were wrong; to delay +attack, once the troops were landed, was a counsel of pusillanimity +hardly to be expected of Piali, but showing at the same time how +he dreaded above all else departing one iota from the instructions +which he had received. To attack the castle of St. Elmo first was a +military mistake, because it could be—and was during the whole of the +siege—reinforced from its larger sister Il Borgo. + +The discourse of Mustafa prevailed in the council of war, and the siege +of St. Elmo was decided upon and immediately begun. + +[Illustration: JEAN PARISOT DE LA VALETTE, GRAND MASTER OF THE KNIGHTS +OF MALTA, AT THE SIEGE OF THAT ISLAND BY THE TURKS IN 1565.] + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE SIEGE OF MALTA + + + The siege of Malta by the Turks; The capture of the + fortress of St. Elmo; The death of Dragut-Reis + +There was an entire disregard of human life among the leaders of the +Ottoman Turks at this time which is almost incredible; to attain their +end in war they sacrificed thousands upon thousands of men with an +absolutely callous indifference. In no chapter of the bloodstained +history of their Empire was this trait more in evidence than it was +at the siege of Malta. There was, however, a reason for this, which +developed itself more and more as the ceaseless assaults on the +positions of the Knights went on. From a military point of view, all +the operations which took place were those of the siege of a fortress; +as when at length St. Elmo fell the Turks turned their attention to +the fortress of Il Borgo. The time-honoured method of the attack on +a fortress, of approaching it by sap and mine, was here almost an +impossibility, as the island of Malta is composed of solid rock through +which it was practically impossible to drive trenches. It is true that +the rock is of an exceptionally soft nature, easily cut through with +proper tools; but you cannot cut through rock, no matter how soft +it may be, when your operations are opposed at every step by a brave +and vigilant enemy. Mustafa and the council of war had, as we have +said, decided to begin operations by the siege of the fortress of St. +Elmo. This place had been built from the designs of the Prior of Capua, +an officer of the Order, and was situated at the extreme end of the +promontory of Mount Sceberass, which juts out between the Great Port +and the harbour of Marsa Muzetto. The fort was in a commanding position +and dominated the entrance to the two principal harbours in the island. +It was admirably adapted for repulsing an attack from the sea; but, +owing to the proximity of other points of land upon which artillery +could be mounted, was easily capable of attack by such an enemy as that +by which it was now assailed. + +The principal preoccupation of the militant Prior of Capua had been to +make it formidable on the side facing the sea; perhaps the designer +had never contemplated the possibility that the day might dawn when +it would be attacked from the landward side! However this may have +been, Mustafa decided that it could and should be carried on this, its +weakest face, and made his preparations accordingly. + +As far as it was possible to open trenches this was done, at the most +prodigal expenditure of the lives of the pioneers. Where the rock +proved absolutely impossible of manipulation redoubts were constructed +of massive beams on which thick planks were bolted, the whole covered +with wet earth which had to be collected with incredible toil from the +country at the back. Disembarking their siege-guns, and utilising +the cattle of the islanders for transporting them, the great cannon +of the Turks were dragged up the slopes of the Mount and got into +position; and by the 24th of May fire was opened on St. Elmo with ten +guns which threw balls weighing eighty pounds. Besides these there were +two culverins which threw balls of sixty pounds, and a huge basilisk, +the projectile from which weighed no less than one hundred and sixty +pounds. A terrible fire was opened against the walls of the fort, and +so destructive did it immediately become that the Bailli of Negropont, +the Knight in command, very soon became aware that his trust must be in +the stout hearts and strong arms of his garrison; as the walls by which +they were surrounded were hourly crumbling into nothingness. + +Regarding the matter from this point of view, he sent at once to the +Grand Master by the Chevalier La Cerda demanding succour; this officer, +“rendered eloquent by fear,” exaggerated the peril to which the fort +was exposed and stated that it could not possibly hold out for more +than another eight days. + +“What losses have you had?” demanded the Grand Master. + +“Sire,” replied La Cerda, “the fort may be compared to a sick man in +his extremity, in the last stage of weakness, unable to sustain himself +except by perpetual cordials and remedies.” + +“Then I myself will be your physician,” said the Grand Master with +contempt, “and I will bring others with me. If that cannot cure you of +fear it will, at all events, prevent the infidels from seizing upon the +fort.” + +There was no real hope in the mind of La Valette that St. Elmo could +be saved from the enemy. The place was too weak, and none knew this +fact better than the man to whom all the defences of the island were +as familiar as the hilt of his own good sword; but, though he secretly +deplored the necessity, he felt that if Malta were to be preserved it +could only be done by delaying until succour should come from outside; +every day, nay, every hour, was of importance, and he was prepared to +sacrifice St. Elmo and the lives of its entire garrison to attain his +end. He did not, however—to continue the simile of La Cerda—prescribe +for others a medicine which he himself was not prepared to take, and +when he said that he would go to the fort of St. Elmo it was no mere +figure of speech. The council of the Knights, however, would not hear +of the Grand Master thus sacrificing himself; well did these noble +gentlemen know that there was none among them like unto him, that his +name and his influence were worth an army in themselves. The outcry was +so loud that La Valette had to yield; which he did the more readily +when he saw the splendid emulation among his brethren to cross over +to the beleaguered and crumbling fortress which promised nothing but +the grave to those who should pass within the circle of fire by which +it was now surrounded. To the Chevaliers Gonzales de Medran and de la +Motte was conceded the proud privilege for which all the Knights were +clamouring; and, accompanied by the tears and the prayers of their +brethren, they passed to that place where, if death were certain, +honour at least was immortal. Truly the heart warms somewhat to the +days of chivalry when one reads of what was done at the siege of +Malta. The motto of _Noblesse oblige_ was no dead letter in the sixteenth +century. By this time the whole of Europe was awake to the peril +of the Order, and, galloping for dear life across Europe, came the +Knights, anxious and willing to share in the danger. For most of these +gentlemen Sicily was the goal at which they aimed; arrived there they +flung themselves into any boat or shallop which they could hire, and, +heedless of the risk of capture by the Turkish fleet, totally ignorant +of what was passing in Malta save that the infidel was at her gates, +they passed across the channel which separates the two islands and +joined their fellows at Il Borgo. + +Greatly heartened by the reinforcements brought to them by de Medran +and de la Motte, the garrison of St. Elmo made a sortie, surprised the +Turks in their entrenchments, and, under cover of the guns of the fort, +succeeded in destroying nearly all the works which the enemy had so +painfully built up. The Turks, however, when they had recovered from +the surprise, were in such large numbers as to be able to rally and +drive the Christians from the vantage points which they had gained; +and to oblige them once again to retire into the fort. From this time +onward there was never a day in which the garrison and the besiegers +were not hand to hand in the trenches. + +Just after the first reinforcements had been thrown into St. Elmo there +arrived on the scene Ali, the Lieutenant of Dragut. This corsair came +from Alexandria with six galleys, on board of which were nine hundred +men, reinforcements for the Turkish army. A few days after this the +famous Dragut himself appeared, with thirteen galleys and two galleots, +on board of which were sixteen hundred men. + +What must not have been the despairing feelings with which the +defenders viewed the arrival of this augmentation to the swarming +ranks of their foes! From afar they noted the vessels and knew, while +Philip of Spain and Garzia de Toledo still procrastinated, that now +was added to the number of their enemies the most famous captain who +served the autocrat of the Eastern world. Very naturally the arrival +of Dragut was hailed with acclamation by the Turks: every gun in that +vast armada spoke in salute, every trumpet blared, every drum rolled +to welcome the man honoured of the Padishah, notorious throughout the +whole world of Europe for his implacable enmity to the Knights. The +first preoccupation of the corsair was to inform himself as to the +conduct of the operations. These, when disclosed to him, by no means +met with his approval. This real leader immediately made it clear to +Piali and Mustafa that which they should have done. In the first place +they should have made themselves masters of the castle of Gozo, and +then captured the Città Notabile. By doing this the supplies to the +town and fortress of Il Borgo would have been cut off: besides—and +more important than aught else—they would in this manner have closed +the road to those succours expected by the Christians. Piali, who had +desired from the first to undertake nothing without the advice of +Dragut, now said that the siege of St. Elmo was not so far advanced +after all, and, if the Basha of Tripoli should so direct, it could +be raised at once. To this, however, Dragut would by no means consent. + +“That would have been well enough,” he said, “if the affair had not +gone so far; but, after the opening of the trenches and several days +of attack, it is not possible to raise the siege without sullying the +honour of the Sultan and discouraging the valour of the soldiers.” + +It cannot be denied that, in acting as he did, the corsair displayed +a self-restraint and a loyalty to the Sultan hardly to be expected in +the circumstances. The jealousy which so often obtains among rival +commanders was singularly in evidence in the forces of the Padishah: +Dragut had good cause to be dissatisfied with the dispositions which +had been made, and yet, for the reasons which we have quoted, he +allowed them to proceed. Before the Basha had left Tripoli he had been +engaged in communications with Muley Hamid, the then King of Tunis, who +was feudatory of Spain. Anxious as was the corsair to aid in attacking +his implacable enemies, the Knights, he could not afford to leave his +own flank unguarded in Africa. He succeeded, however, in arriving at an +understanding with the King of Tunis, and, further than this, he had +assured himself, by means of his spies, that the succours which were +to be sent from Sicily by the Spanish King could not possibly arrive +for another two months. It was the negotiations which he was obliged to +undertake with Muley Hamid which had caused his late arrival. As far +as it is possible to judge, it was this circumstance, which (added +to their own incomparable valour) turned the scale in favour of the +Knights. + +Among all those brave men at Malta, on both sides, in this flaming +month of June 1565, there were none who excelled the Basha of Tripoli. +“No one had ever seen a more intrepid general officer,” says de Vertot. +“He passed entire days in the trenches and at the batteries. Among his +different talents none understood better than did he the direction +and conduct of artillery, which was his special _métier_. By his orders +on June 1st a second battery was constructed closer to the fort and +parallel to the one already in existence, in order that an absolutely +continuous fire might be maintained. He mounted four guns on the +opposite side of Marsa Muzetto Harbour on a projecting point of land, +from which a further enfilading fire smote the doomed fortress on the +flank: this point has been known ever since as the Point Dragut.” + +A ravelin in advance of the fortress on the land side was scourged +without ceasing by the arquebus fire of the Janissaries. One evening, +as the return fire had slackened and all seemed quiet within this work, +some Turkish engineers stole forth from the trenches to reconnoitre. +Approaching the cavalier, all was still as death; the bold sappers +pushed on as far as the ditch by which the work was surrounded, +creeping on hands and knees. They let themselves down noiselessly into +the ditch, and then, one standing on the shoulders of another, peeped +in upon their Christian foes. Whether or no the sentry had been slain +by a stray shot, or whether he too slept, can never be known; but +the cavalier was unguarded; all within it slept the sleep of men +utterly exhausted. The sappers crept back to their trenches, fetched +scaling-ladders, swept like a flood over the rim of the cavalier, and +put to death every man whom they found. Profiting by their advantage, +the Turks dashed over the bridge connecting the cavalier with the fort; +here, however, they were met by Sergeant-Major Guerare and a handful +of soldiers aroused by him. These men were instantly succoured by the +Chevaliers de Vercoyran and de Medran, who were immediately followed +by the Bailli of Negropont and several other Knights. An obstinate +hand-to-hand combat now ensued; fresh Turks came up to the attack, but +were mown down in swathes by an enfilading fire from two cannons which +the defenders of the fort managed to bring to bear upon them. More +pioneers arrived from the trenches, carrying planks and sacks filled +with wool. These men tried to effect a permanent lodgment, but the fire +was too hot on the Christian side, and men fell in hundreds. Nothing +daunted, the Turks reared their scaling-ladders against the sides of +the fortress itself, and attempted to scale the walls; but for this +the ladders were too short, and the assailants were hurled back into +the ditch. This attack, in which the Turkish arms were rewarded by the +capture of the ravelin behind the cavalier, is said to have cost them +the lives of three thousand men. It lasted from daybreak until midday. + +On the side of the Christians twenty Knights and one hundred soldiers +were slain; but worst of all, from their point of view, the ravelin +remained in the hands of their enemies. The chevalier Abel de +Bridiers de la Gardampe having received a ball through his body, some +of his comrades ran to place him under cover. “Count me no longer among +the living,” said the Knight. “You will be better employed in defending +the rest of our brethren.” He then, unassisted, dragged himself to the +foot of the altar in the chapel, where his dead body was discovered +when all was over. + +So far communication remained established between St. Elmo and +their comrades in Il Borgo on the opposite side of the harbour; +in consequence the wounded were removed and their places taken by +one hundred fresh men under the Chevalier Vagnon. To the Bailli of +Negropont and the Commandeur Broglio, La Valette sent a message to +return to Il Borgo. These gallant and aged veterans, both of whom +were wounded, whose faces were scorched by the sun and blackened with +powder, whose bodies were well-nigh worn out with perpetual vigil and +hand-to-hand fighting, refused stoutly to quit their post, which now +was naught but a dreadful shambles filled with corpses mangled out of +recognition and heads and limbs which had been torn and hacked from +their bodies. + +Dragut now proposed to erect batteries on the same side of the Great +Port as that on which Il Borgo was situated; on the point now known as +Ricasoli, but which was then and for centuries afterwards known as the +Punta Delle Forche (or Point of the Gallows, because it was here that +all pirates was executed; and their bodies, swinging in chains, were +the first objects that met the eye on entering the Great Port). In this +he was overruled by Piali, who declared that he had not sufficient +men to spare, and the Knights of II Borgo would soon render the battery +untenable even if they should succeed in erecting it, which the Turkish +admiral now considered extremely doubtful. The siege of St. Elmo, which +Mustafa had said would last at the outside for five or six days, had +now been in progress for four weeks; and, although the fort was in a +ruinous condition, nothing seemed capable of daunting those invincible +warriors by which it was held. + +The position in St. Elmo now was that the Turks still held on to the +ravelin which they had captured; this they had built up to such a +height that they could look over the parapet of the fortress and shoot +down with arquebus fire any one whom they could see. Meanwhile the +Turkish sappers delved night and day in their endeavour to undermine +the parapet, which, if blown up, would give them free access to the +interior of the fort; while another party, by use of the yards of +galleys and huge planks of wood, busied themselves in constructing a +bridge to connect the ravelin with the parapet. Lamirande, one of the +most active of the defenders of the fort, viewed these preparations +without undue alarm, as he was aware that, by the nature of the +ground, it would be almost impossible to excavate sufficiently under +the parapet to place an effective mine. As, however, the sapping was +causing the parapet to incline outwards, and it was possible that +it might almost at any moment fall over into the ditch, he caused a +second parapet to be erected inside the first and artillery to be +mounted thereon. Having done this he caused a false sortie to be +made on the following night, and when the Turks rushed to the attack +he, accompanied by a party of sappers, sallied out into the ditch and +burned the bridge which had been made. The Turks, returning after their +fruitless assault, found their bridge destroyed, but with untiring +activity set to work and constructed it afresh. Dragging cannon to the +very edge of the ravelin, they, on the very next evening, revenged +themselves by also making a false attack: they swarmed into the ditch, +and, placing their scaling-ladders against the walls, pretended that an +escalade was to be attempted. The garrison, deceived, appeared on the +parapet in large numbers, when a murderous fire at point-blank range +was opened upon them from the ravelin. So great was the execution done +on this occasion that the garrison lost more men than had hitherto been +the case in the most determined attacks which they had sustained. + +It now seemed as if indeed the end had come, that the garrison had done +all that was in the power of mortal man and nothing was left for them +but to retire while there was yet time. Accordingly choice was made of +the chevalier Median to represent the desperate extremities to which +they were reduced to La Valette. It was well known that for none among +the Knights had the Grand Master more respect than he had for Medran, +one of the bravest and most chivalrous of them all. He, at least, could +never be suspected of cowardice, feebleness, at a desire to desert his +post. This gallant Knight crossed the harbour on his dolorous errand +and was received by his chief: to him he represented the state of +affairs as it has here been set down, assuring him that at best the +fort could but hold out for a few days longer. + +A chapter of the Knights Grand Cross was immediately held and the +most part of them were of opinion that the time had come to abandon a +hopeless position. But this decision did not meet with the approval +of the Grand Master. No one was more sensible than he of the peril to +which their brethren were exposed; at the same time, he contended, that +there were occasions on which it was necessary to sacrifice a certain +number for the good of the whole Order. He had certain information +that, if St. Elmo were abandoned, the Viceroy of Sicily would hazard +nothing for the relief of the island; that upon the arrival of succours +depended the existence of their ancient and honourable confederacy: +therefore, at no matter what cost, they were bound to hold out as long +as possible. So dominant was the personality of the Grand Master that, +in a short time, he had won over the votes of the chapter and Medran +was ordered to return to St. Elmo and deliver to the garrison a message +that the siege must take its course. + +Medran accordingly returned and reported to his comrades the result +of his embassy. Several of the older Knights received the command +with due submission, but among those who were younger there were +murmurings. These men deemed the answer to their appeal hard and cruel; +they could see no object in the loss of their lives, which they well +knew would all be sacrificed in the next assault. They accordingly, +to the number of fifty-three, wrote a letter to the Grand Master, +demanding permission to abandon St. Elmo and retire to Il Borgo. If +their request were denied they announced their design to sally forth, +sword in hand, and perish in the ranks of the enemy. The Commandeur de +Cornet was the bearer of this letter, which was received by the Grand +Master with sorrow and indignation. To reassure them, he sent three +commissioners to inspect the place. This was done, and one of them, a +Knight of Greek descent named Constantine Castriot, reported that the +fort could still hold out a while longer. When he announced this at St. +Elmo the recalcitrant Knights were so furious with him that the Baili +of Negropont had to sound “the alarm” to prevent a disgraceful fracas. +The commissioners returned to Il Borgo. After hearing their report La +Valette wrote a letter to those by whom he had been memorialised to the +following effect: + +“Return to the convent, my brothers; you will there be in greater +security; and on our part we shall feel a greater sense of security in +the conservation of so important a place, on which depends the safety +of the island and the honour of our Order.” + +Never were men so taken aback as were the Knights in St. Elmo when +they received this response; here it was intimated to them that that +which they refused to do on account of the danger thereof was to be +undertaken by others. This was no more than a fact, as La Valette +was besieged with applications from, not only the Knights, but also +the simple soldiers of the garrison, to be allowed to pass over to +St. Elmo and die if necessary to the last man. It was, therefore, +with prayers and tears that the Knights besought the Grand Master to +allow them to remain. At first La Valette was adamant. He preferred, +he said, the rawest militia which was prepared to obey his orders, to +Knights who knew not their duty. In the end, however, he yielded, and +in the fortress of St. Elmo, that crushed and ruined charnel-house, +its defences gaping wide, its every corner exposed night and day to a +sweeping murderous fire, there remained a host of men sadly torn and +battered, but animated by such a spirit that nothing the Turks could +devise made upon it the least impression. These great and gallant +gentlemen had had their moment of weakness; they had been heartened to +the right conception of their duty by the noble veteran who was their +chief. To him had they turned at last, as his obedient children who had +had their moment of rebellion in a trial as hard as was ever undergone +by man. And now, as the inevitable end drew near, it was as if they +would imitate the Roman gladiator with that terrible chorus of his: +“Ave Cæsar morituri te salutant.” + +All day and every day did the garrison fight, snatching such repose +as was possible when their pertinacious enemies, worn out by fatigue +and the terrible heat, could no longer be led to the attack against +those whom they now firmly believed to be in league with Shaitan +himself; “For how else,” demanded Janissary and Spahi alike, “could +infidels like these make head against those chosen of the Prophet like +ourselves.” + +At this time the garrison took into use a device attributed to the +Grand Master himself. This consisted in hoops of wood which were first +thoroughly soaked in alcohol and then boiled in oil; they were then +tightly bound with cotton or wool, also soaked in inflammable liquids +mixed with saltpetre and gunpowder. Once these fiendish contrivances +were set alight nothing availed to put them out, and they were feared +as was naught else by the Turks during the remainder of the time they +were in Malta. They were particularly deadly against the Turks, and at +times two or more soldiers mounting the breach would be caught in one +of these fiery circles, and the unfortunate wretches would be burnt +alive. Even the Janissaries refused to advance at times when these +fireworks were being flung down upon their flowing garments. + +On June 16th another attack was made on the fortress, and, incredible +as it may seem, it was repulsed with such awful slaughter that at last +the Turks would not face the swords of the garrison. Alter this the +enemy succeeded in drawing so close a cordon round the place that no +more succours could reach it, and the end was but a matter of time. +The day before it came Dragut, who, with his usual intrepidity, was +standing in the midst of a hot fire, was struck on the side of the +head by a stone dislodged from a wall by a cannon-ball. At the moment +when this happened he was holding a council of war in the trenches +with Piali, a Sanjak, and the principal Turkish engineer. The same +shot which wounded Dragut killed the Sanjak on the spot. Piali caused +a cloak to be thrown over the body of the corsair in order that +his state should not be observed by the soldiers, and as soon as +possible had him removed to his tent, where he lay unconscious till the +following day. + +The council on which the corsair had been engaged when he received his +mortal wound had for its object the complete isolation of St. Elmo from +Il Borgo; his dispositions were completed and his orders given to the +engineer just before he was struck. + +The agony of St. Elmo was drawing to an end; completely hemmed in by +the latest dispositions of Dragut, the fortress was at its last gasp; +a brave Maltese swimmer managed to slip through the cordon, swim the +harbour, and deliver to the Grand Master a letter from the Bailli of +Negropont. The Grand Master made one last effort to throw succours and +reinforcements into the place, but these were beaten off with terrible +slaughter: nothing now remained but to await the inevitable tragedy. + +[Illustration: DEATH OF DRAGUT AT THE SIEGE OF MALTA.] + +On the night of June 22nd the defenders of St. Elmo, having now lost +all hope of being supported, made ready for death. Into them La Valette +had breathed his own heroic spirit, and none among them counselled +or dreamed of surrender. The Order to which they had given their +allegiance now demanded of them the last sacrifice which it was in +their power to make, and this was offered in the manner most fitting to +its tenets. These exhausted, war-worn, battle-scarred warriors repaired +to the chapel, where they confessed, and made ready by partaking +together of the sacrament, “and, having thus surrendered their souls +to God, each retired to his post to die on the bed of honour with +arms in his hand.” Those among the Knights who were too severely +wounded or too ill to stand caused chairs to be carried to the breach +in which they seated themselves and awaited the assault. For four hours +did these indomitable men withstand the might of a host innumerable: +at the conclusion of this period there remained alive but sixty of the +garrison. Mustafa ceased the assault for a few moments only to replace +the storming party by fresh troops, and then the end came. Almost +the last to fall were the Chevalier Lamirande and the veteran Bailli +of Negropont, and when the crescent banner was planted on the walls +there remained alive not one of those defenders who had held the fort. +Several of Dragut’s officers ran to his tent and announced the taking +of St. Elmo. The great captain was in his last extremity and unable to +speak, “He, however, manifested his joy by several signs, and, raising +his eyes to heaven as if in thankfulness for its mercies, immediately +expired: a captain of rare valour and even abundantly more humane than +are ordinarily these corsairs.” + +The Basha Piali, on entering the fort and observing with what miserable +resources it had so long been held exclaimed, as he looked across the +harbour to Il Borgo: + +“What will not the parent do to us, when so small a son has cost us the +lives of our bravest soldiers?” + +There is no record of what that cruel savage, Mustafa, said on this +occasion; his deeds, however, spoke eloquently. He caused the bodies of +the Knights to be decapitated and nailed to wooden crosses, while +across their corpses were slashed a cross in derision of the religion +of his foes. The bodies were then cast into the harbour, and were +washed up at the foot of Il Borgo. Instantly the Grand Master ordered +the decapitation of all the Turkish prisoners, and their heads were +fired from cannon into the camp of Mustafa. + +With the remainder of the siege, which was yet to last till September +18th, we have no concern in this book. It is only necessary to say that +the men of Il Borgo were worthy to stand in the same category with the +defenders of St. Elmo, which is equivalent to stating that in them also +was discovered the last limit of heroism. The Grand Master survived +the siege, his monument is the noble city of “Valetta” built on Mount +Sceberras. The Turks abandoned the siege and returned to Constantinople +on the arrival of some insignificant reinforcements from Sicily. So +terrible had been the resistance of the Knights that no heart was left +in their armada. Of Dragut there remains but little to be said: he +was perhaps the best educated of the corsairs and less cruel than was +usually their habit. Although not so renowned as his more celebrated +master, Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, this is, perhaps, because his career +was cut short at the siege of Malta at a comparatively early age. +Although he never attained the rank of Admiralissimo to the Grand Turk, +that potentate, as we have seen, placed in him the greatest confidence, +and relied largely on his judgment, especially when sea-affairs were in +question. Like the Barbarossas before him, he rose from nothing to the +height to which he eventually attained by sheer force of intellect +and character. In the stormy times in which his lot was cast he never +faltered in his onward way, never repined, never looked back, sustained +as he was by a consciousness of his own capability to rule the wild +spirits by whom he lived surrounded. So it is that, whatever other +opinion we may hold of Dragut, we cannot deny that in this captain of +the Sea-wolves were blended rare qualities, which caused him to shine +as a capable administrator, a fine seaman, but above all as a supreme +leader of men. Dragut died with arms in his hands fighting those whom +he considered to be his bitterest enemies. He did not live to see the +repulse of Piali and Mustapha, and it is to be presumed that he died +assured in his own mind that victory would rest with the Moslem host. +For such a man as this no death could have been more welcome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +ALI BASHA + + + Ali, the Basha of Algiers, succeeds to Dragut—He conquers + the Kingdom of Tunis, captures four galleys from the + Knights of Malta, joins Piali Basha in his raidings + preliminary to the battle of Lepanto—The gathering of the + Christian hosts and the arrival of Don John of Austria in + the Mediterranean to take command. + +“Now I have heard several mariners and captains of the sea, nay, even +Knights of Malta, debate among themselves this question, as to which +was the greater and better seaman, Dragut or Occhiali? And some held +for one and some for the other; those who held for Occhiali declaring +that he had held greater and more honourable charges than Dragut, +because he commanded as General and Admiral for the Grand Turk and that +_il fit belle action_ at the battle of Lepanto.” Pierre de Bourdeille, +the Seigneur de Brantôme, from whom we make the above quotation, was +himself present at the siege of Malta and, besides this, as is well +known, gossiped in his own inimitable way concerning men and women +of his time, from corsairs to courtesans. When such contemporary +authorities as those mentioned could not agree it is quite certain +that we of the twentieth century cannot decide on the rival claims to +distinction between the Bashaw of Tripoli and his follower Occhiali, +as he was known to the Christians, or Ali Basha, as he was called +by the Turks. Ali Basha has a title to fame in the fact that he is +mentioned by Cervantes in his _Don Quijote de la Mancha_ under the name +of “Uchali” in chapter xxxix., “Donde el cautivo cuenta su vida y +sucesos.” The captive is supposed to have been no less a person than +the famous Cervantes himself, and he briefly describes how Uchali +became “Rey de Argel,” or King of Algiers. + +Ali was a Christian, having been born at a miserable little village in +Calabria called Licastelli. Nothing whatever is known of his birth and +parentage, and he does not appear even to have possessed a Christian +name, although born in a Christian land. He followed from his earliest +youth the calling of a mariner; “he was from infancy inured to salt +water,” says Joseph Morgan, in his _Compleat History of Algiers_, and he +was, as a mere boy, captured by Ali Ahamed, Admiral of Algiers, and was +chained to the starboard-bow oar in the galley of that officer. He was +thus very early in life “inured” to suffering, and must have possessed +a constitution of iron to withstand thus, in boyhood, the hardships of +the life of a galley-slave, which as a rule broke down the endurance of +strong men in a very few years. Morgan presents us with a description +of him at this period which in these more squeamish days can certainly +not be set down in its entirety: suffice it to say that he suffered +all his days from what is known as “scald-head,” and that personal +filthiness was one of his principal characteristics. + +For some years Ali remained at the heart-breaking toil of the +rower’s bench: cut off from home, which to him meant nothing, devoid +of kinsfolk, alone—miserably alone in a world which, so far, had given +him naught but the chain and the whip—it is not a matter for surprise +that he became a Mussulman, thus freeing himself from slavery. From the +time that he took this step his fortunes mended rapidly in that strange +medley of savagery and bloodshed in which his lot was cast. + +Alert, strong, capable, and vigorous, he became in early manhood chief +boatswain in the galley in which his apprenticeship had been passed—a +position which enabled him to accumulate a small store of ducats, +with which he bought a share in a brigantine. Here he soon acquired +sufficient wealth to become captain and owner of a galley, in which +he soon gained the reputation of being one of the boldest corsairs on +the Barbary coast. Having in some sort made a name for himself, his +next step was to seek for a patron who could make use of his valour, +address, and capability for command. His choice was soon made, as +who in all the Mediterranean, in his early days, held such a name as +Dragut? He accordingly entered the service of the Basha of Tripoli, +and, under his command, became well known to the officers of the Grand +Turk, particularly to the Admiral, Piali Basha, to whom he was able to +render some important services. + +There is no object to be gained in lingering over the earlier years of +this notable corsair, as we should thus only be repeating what has been +said about Dragut, whose lieutenant and trusted follower he became. +He accompanied his master to the siege of Malta, and when Dragut was +slain the Capitan-Basha, Piali, named him as successor to his chief +as Viceroy of Tripoli. Ali sailed from Malta to Tripoli, taking with +him the remains of Dragut, to be buried as that chieftain had directed. +When he arrived on the Barbary coast he made himself master of the +slaves and treasure which had been left behind by Dragut; shortly +after this he was confirmed in his Vice-royalty of Tripoli by the +Grand Turk; thenceforward increasing, both his wealth and the terror +in which his name was held, by continual raids upon the Christians, +more particularly on the coasts of Sicily, Calabria, and Naples. It is +curious to observe the sort of spite which all the renegadoes seem to +have harboured against the countries in which they were born. + +In March 1568, owing to the fall of Mohammed Basha, the Vice-royalty of +Algiers became vacant, and, through the good offices of his old friend +Piali, Ali became Governor. He thus returned to occupy a position of +literally sovereign power to the city which he had first entered as a +galley-slave. + +That he was no negligent Governor and that he took an entirely +intelligent view of his functions, is proved by an occurrence which +took place in this same year in Spain. The Moriscoes in the Kingdom +of Granada revolted against their Spanish Governor, by whom they +were sorely oppressed. They sent messages to Ali at Algiers, begging +for succour against their persecutor. But the Basha would send no +expedition; he permitted all and sundry to go as volunteers, but gave +out publicly that “it more concerned him to defend well his own State +than to interfere in the affairs of others.” He even went farther +than this, and when a number of Moriscoes, who were settled at +Algiers, embarked a quantity of arms for transportation to the coast +of Andalusia, he put an embargo on the vessels and would not allow +them to sail, saying “he would never suffer the exportation of what +was so necessary for the defence of his own dominions.” At last, after +much importunity, he consented “that all such as had two of a sort—as +muskets, swords, or other weapons—might, if they thought fit, send over +one of them, provided they did it gratis and purely for the cause’ +sake; but he would never allow any of them to strip themselves of their +arms for lucre.” + +Ali, being now firmly established at Algiers, took up arms against the +neighbouring State of Tunis. For long years now the King of Tunis had +been protected by the Spaniards—a nation whom the Sea-wolves always +held in singular abhorrence as the most bigoted of the Christian +Powers, and who held in thrall many of their co-religionists. Hamid, +son of Hassan, who now ruled in Tunis, had reduced that unfortunate +State to anarchy bordering on rebellion, and the whole country, torn +by internal feud, was ready to rise against him. The Goletta was in +the hands of the Spaniards; Carouan, an inland town, had set up a king +of its own, while the maritime towns passed from the domination of the +Sea-wolves to that of the Christians, and from the Christians back to +the Sea-wolves, according to which party happened to be the stronger +for the time being. + +El Maestro Fray Diego de Haedo, “Abad de Fromesta de la Orden del +Patriarca San Benito” and “natural del Valle de Carranca,” whose +_Topografia e Historia de Argel_ (or Algiers) was printed in Valladolid +in the year 1612, gives an account of Hamid at this time in which he +describes that monarch as an “unpopular tyrant who sadly persecuted his +vassals and the friends of his father; who could by no means suffer his +tyrannies and those of his ministers, the scum of the earth (“hombres +baxos”), to whom he had given the principal offices of the kingdom. +Accordingly, since the time that Ali had become Basha of Algiers, +letters had been written to him importuning him to come to Tunis that +he might possess himself of that city and kingdom.” + +There were three principal conspirators—the Alcaid Bengabara, General +of the Cavalry, the Alcaid Botaybo, and the Alcaid Alcadaar. Ali, +however, was too shrewd a man to move until he had satisfied himself by +reports from his own adherents; he, therefore, awaited the result of +investigations made by spies from Algiers. At last, in the beginning of +the year 1569, when the offers from the Alcaids had been three times +renewed and the Basha was assured that the people in Tunis were sincere +in their offer to him of the sovereignty of the kingdom—which they +begged him to conquer and hold in the name of the Ottoman Empire—the +ex-galley-slave no longer hesitated. He left Algiers in the month +of October, leaving that city in charge of one Mami Corso, a fellow +renegado. Unlike Dragut, who would have gone by sea, he set out by +land with some five thousand corsairs and renegadoes. On the way he +was reinforced by some six thousand cavalry of the wild tribes of the +hinterland, then as ever ready to join in a fray with promise of +booty: doubly ready in this case, as it was to harass so unpopular a +tyrant as Hamid. Passing through Constantine and Bona, he continued +to march towards Tunis, his following augmenting as he proceeded, and +adding to his forces ten light field-guns. Arriving at Beja, a town +which Haedo describes as being but two short days’ march from Tunis, +he came upon a fortress, recently erected by Hamid, mounting fourteen +brass cannon. Here he halted, whereupon Hamid sallied out to give him +battle at the head of some three thousand troops, horse and foot. The +engagement had scarcely begun when the three Alcaids, who had been in +communication with Ali, deserted with all their following. Hamid fled +to Tunis, expecting to find shelter there, but he was hotly pursued by +the corsairs, who followed him up to Al-Burdon, where his summer palace +was situated. Hamid, finding that his people were everywhere in revolt, +fled to the Goletta, carrying with him a quantity of money, jewels, +and portable valuables, and placed himself under the protection of the +Spanish garrison—not, however, without the loss of the major portion of +his baggage, plundered from him by certain Moors in the course of his +flight. + +Like Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa, Ali was now lord of Algiers and Tunis, +and as he was, for a corsair, a man of wide views, he treated his new +subjects with consideration. He made, however, one curious mistake not +to have been expected from one so politic: he demanded tribute from +the tribes of the hinterland. In those days, particularly in Northern +Africa, men paid tribute to an overlord because he was stronger than +they; because retribution followed swiftly and suddenly upon refusal. +To order tribute to be paid without being ready to strike was merely +to expose the man making the demand to derision. Particularly was this +the case with the fierce land-pirates of the desert, whose habit it was +to exact and not to pay tribute. To Ali the Sheiks replied that “if he +wanted tribute from them he must demand it lance in hand in the field, +for there and nowhere else were they accustomed to pay: that their coin +was steel lance-heads and not golden aspers.” After this, says Morgan, +“the Basha thought it well to dissemble.” + +Ali, being in no position to wage war in the desert against these +people, had to swallow the insult and to turn his attention to +regulating the internal affairs of his newly acquired kingdom. This he +succeeded in doing sufficiently by the month of June in the following +year to enable him to leave Tunis in the hands of one Rabadan, a +Sardinian renegado, and to start himself for Constantinople. His reason +for doing this was the old one of attempting to consolidate his power +in Northern Africa by appealing to the Sultan for help. As long as the +Goletta remained in the hands of the Spaniards no corsair could feel +himself secure in either Tunis or Algiers. The object of Ali was to beg +from the Grand Turk men and ships to assist him to chase the Spaniards +out of Africa. + +The month of June 1570, in consequence, saw Ali once more at sea in his +“Admiral galley,” steering northwards to the Golden Horn. Carrying with +them a favourable breeze from the south-east, the galleys spread +their huge lateen sails, and the straining rowers had rest awhile. The +squadron consisted of twenty-four galleys. Off Cape Passaro, in Sicily, +a small vessel was captured which gave information that five galleys of +the Knights of Malta were at anchor at Licata, a small harbour in the +neighbourhood, and that they were on the point of sailing for Malta. +The decision of Ali was taken on the instant: were he to go in and +attack them with the overwhelming force at his command the crews might +escape to the shore; even the Knights of Malta could hardly be expected +to fight twenty-four galleys with five. He was anxious to capture the +ships, but above all to capture those by whom they were manned: to have +the satisfactory revenge of seeing the proud Knights stripped naked and +chained to the benches of his own fleet. + +The hot Mediterranean sun poured down out of a cloudless sky as the +Sea-wolves made their offing; out of sight of land they lay, but right +in the course which the galleys of the Christians were bound to take. +The great yards, with their lateen sails, were got down on deck, and, +oar in hand, the Moslems awaited their prey. Presently the Maltese +galleys were discovered coming leisurely along, under oars and sails, +and then—when it was too late—the Knights discovered the snare into +which they had fallen. There was but scant time for preparation or +deliberation, and who shall blame four out of the five if they decided +to try to escape? for it was escape or annihilation. + +But there was one which did not fly, “Una galera hizo cara a los +Turcos” (One single galley turned her bows towards the Turks), says +that faithful chronicler Haedo. She was named the _Santa Ana_, but the +name of her heroic commander has not come down to us. Even as Grenfell +“at Flores in the Azores,” stood upon the deck of the little _Revenge_ on +that memorable August day in 1591, when “he chose to die rather than to +dishonour himself, his country, and her Majesty’s ship,” so also did +this Knight of Malta bear down on the twenty-four that were his foes. + +When Don John of Austria, being at the time young and inexperienced in +warfare on the sea, wrote to the Marquis of Villafranca, General of the +Galleys of Sicily, requesting advice on the subject of galley attacking +galley, that officer replied to him, “Never fire your arquebus at the +foe until you are so close at hand that his blood will leap into your +face at the discharge.” If we bear in mind such an instruction as this +it will help us to picture that close-packed sanguinary conflict upon +which the Mediterranean sun looked down on this day. Eight to one, all +that could find room to get alongside of the _Santa Ana_, fought with the +Knight and his followers. The issue was, of course, never in doubt for +a moment. “Muertos y cansados” (Dead and deadbeat), says Haedo, the +caballeros and soldados of the Christian ship could at length hold out +no longer. The Sea-wolves were victorious, the proud banner of Saint +John was lowered; but never in all its history had it been more nobly +upheld, and the galley _Santa Ana_, commanded by that unknown member +of the great Christian military hierarchy of the sixteenth century, +may well stand in the roll of fame alongside of the _Revenge_, the +_Vengeur_, and the _Victory_. + +The _Capitana_, or “Admiral’s galley,” of the Knights, being hotly +pursued, ran ashore with one of her consorts at Licata: the crews +landed, but were pursued and overtaken. One galley escaped altogether, +but four out of the five were taken. So notable a victory as this over +the Knights caused so much rejoicing in the fleet of the Sea-wolves +that Ali determined to celebrate it by a triumphal return to Algiers +instead of proceeding directly to Constantinople. Accordingly, the +ships’ heads were turned south once more, and upon July 20th, 1570, +the fleet arrived in the African port, “on sus galeras todas llenas de +muchas banderas”—with galleys gaily beflagged. + +[Illustration: A GALLEY OF THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA.] + +The procession entered the harbour in three divisions of eight galleys: +and towing behind each division was one of the captured galleys of +the Knights. In memory of his prowess Ali ordered that the shields +and bucklers taken from the Maltese galleys, which bore upon them +emblazoned the white cross of “the Religion,” should be hung up in the +great arched gate of the Marina. Also there was placed here the image +of Saint John the Baptist, taken from the _Capitana_ galley, “all of +which remain,” says Haedo, “until this day” (_i.e._ 1612), except the +image of Saint John, which in the reign of Hassan Basha, a Venetian +renegado, was taken down and burned at the instance of the Morabutos, +“los letrados de los Moros” (the learned among the Moors). It is an +instructive commentary on the fear and respect in which the Knights of +Malta were held that such a man as Ali should have considered it a +triumph worth the celebrating when he defeated five of their vessels +with twenty-four of his own. + +The next occurrence in the life of Ali was one of those to which the +Sea-wolves were subjected from time to time, and which do not seem to +have caused them much trouble or anxiety. This was a mutiny of the +Janissaries in Algiers, who very reasonably objected to being left +without their pay. A mutiny of the Janissaries, however, was somewhat +a serious matter, as they were accustomed to the enjoyment of many +privileges, and were, as we have said elsewhere, a picked corps who had +it in their power even to coerce the Sultan himself upon occasions. + +Those of them who were in Algiers demanded “Who was this corsair who +dared to keep the picked men of the army of the Grand Turk waiting for +their pay, as if they were no better than his slaves?” Such a thing as +a mutiny was, in the days of which we speak, a matter for which any +prudent corsair had to be prepared. Ali was in no means discomposed, +and, as the crisis had become acute on shore, he went to sea, where +he was under no obligation to pay his men, who paid themselves at the +expense of their enemies. He put to sea with twenty galleys, and, +shortly after leaving Algiers, he met with a galley from the Levant, +from which he received information that a powerful armada was preparing +in Constantinople for an expedition against the Christians. He steered +for Coron in the Morea, where he was almost immediately joined by the +Ottoman fleet, the commander of which force was overjoyed to find so +formidable a reinforcement under so renowned a captain as Ali. + +Soliman the Magnificent had died in 1566, and had been succeeded by his +son, Selim; this prince, bred in the Seraglio, was weak and licentious, +given to that strong drink forbidden by the Prophet to an extent which +caused him to be nicknamed by the Spaniards as “el ebrio,” or “el +bebedor.” + +This was a state of affairs which boded ill for the Turkish Empire, +and Selim II. had been educated in a very different manner from that +which had hitherto been the custom. Speaking of this, Gibbon says, +“Instead of the slothful luxury of the Seraglio, the heirs of royalty +were educated in the council and the field. From early youth they were +entrusted by their fathers with the command of provinces and of armies; +and this manly institution, which was often productive of civil war, +must have essentially contributed to the discipline and vigour of the +monarchy.” + +Drunkard and weakling as he was, Selim had his ambitions. He wished to +signalise his reign by some great conquest, such as had added lustre to +the rule of his father; and in consequence he laid claim to the island +of Cyprus, then belonging to Venice, The Venetians, having strengthened +the fortifications of the island and fitted out their navy, sought +alliances in Europe to curb the pretensions of the Porte. In this +they found support, instant and generous, from the Pope Pius V. Of +this great ecclesiastic Prescott says: “He was one of those Pontiffs +who seemed to have been called forth by the exigencies of the time to +uphold the pillars of Catholicism as they were yet trembling under +the assaults of Luther.” + +The Pope, Philip II. of Spain, and Venice formed what was known as the +“Holy League,” and, having formed it, immediately began to quarrel +among themselves as to what its functions were to be. The Venetians +wished all its efforts to be directed to safeguarding Cyprus, while +Philip and his viceroys were anxious to attack the Sea-wolves on +the coast of Africa in their strongholds. After much squabbling, +an agreement was come to. The principal items of this were, that +the Pope should pay one-sixth of the expenses, Venice two-sixths, +and Spain three-sixths; that each party should appoint its own +Commander-in-Chief, and that Don John of Austria should be in supreme +command of the whole forces assembled. The contracting parties were to +furnish 200 galleys, 100 transports, 50,000 foot, 4,500 horse, and the +requisite artillery and stores. + +While the Christians were negotiating and talking, the Turks were +acting. It was in May that the Pope caused the treaty to be publicly +read in full consistory; in April the Turkish fleet had got to sea and +committed terrible ravages in the Adriatic, laying waste to Venetian +territory. + +While ships and men were gathering, and while the fleet which it was to +be his fortune to defeat was pursuing its career in the Mediterranean, +Don John of Austria left Madrid for the south on June 6th, 1571. When +he arrived at Barcelona he made a pilgrimage to the Hermitage of Our +Lady of Montserrat, where his father Charles V. had confessed and +received the sacrament before he sailed on his voyage to the Barbary +coast in his expedition against Barbarossa. From Barcelona he sailed +with thirty galleys to Genoa, where he arrived on the 25th, and was +lodged in the palace of Andrea Doria. In August he arrived by water at +Naples. + +By this time all Europe was aflame with excitement: warriors of noble +birth were flocking to serve under the standard of the brother of the +King of Spain, who was regarded as the very mirror of chivalry. The +following description of Don John, at Naples, is from the pen of that +great historian Prescott: + +“Arrangements had been made in that city for his reception on a more +magnificent scale than any he had witnessed on his journey. Granvelle, +who had lately been raised to the post of Viceroy, came forth at the +head of a long and brilliant procession to welcome his royal guest. The +houses which lined the streets were hung with richly tinted tapestries +and gaily festooned with flowers. The windows and verandahs were graced +with the beauty and fashion of the pleasure-loving capital, and many +a dark eye sparkled as it gazed upon the fine form and features of +the youthful hero, who at the age of twenty-four had come to Italy to +assume the baton of command and lead the crusade against the Moslems. +His splendid dress of white velvet and cloth of gold set off his +graceful person to advantage. A crimson scarf floated loosely over his +breast, and his snow-white plumes drooping from his cap mingled with +the yellow curls that fell in profusion over his shoulders. It was +a picture which the Italian maiden might love to look on. It was +certainly not the picture of the warrior sheathed in the iron panoply +of war. But the young Prince, in his general aspect, might be relieved +from the charge of effeminacy by his truly chivalrous bearing and the +dauntless spirit which beamed from his clear blue eyes. In his own +lineaments he seemed to combine all that was comely in the lineaments +of his race.” + +At Naples Don John found a fleet at anchor under the command of Don +Alvaro de Bazan, first marquis of Santa Cruz, of whom much was to be +heard in the future in his capacity as Admiral of Castile. Here also he +received from the hands of Cardinal Granvelle a consecrated banner sent +to him by the Pope at a solemn ceremony in the church of the Franciscan +Convent of Santa Chiara. On August 25th he left Naples and proceeded to +Messina, where he landed under a triumphal arch of colossal dimensions, +embossed with rich plates of silver and curiously sculptured with +emblematical bas-reliefs. The royal galley in which the hero embarked +was built at Barcelona: she was fitted with the greatest luxury, and +was remarkable for her strength and speed; her stern was profusely +decorated with emblems and devices drawn from history; no such warship +had ever been seen in the world before. + +Cayetano Rosell, in his _Historia del combate naval de Lepanto_, says +that the number of vessels, great and small, in the Christian armada +was over 300, of which 200 were galleys, the ordinary warships of the +time. He goes on to say: + +“In this spacious harbour [Messina] there were collected the +squadrons of the League; the people who managed the oars and sails +and the innumerable combatants making an immense number when added +together. Since the days of Imperial Rome, never had been seen in these +seas so imposing a spectacle, never had there been collected so many +ships moving towards a single end dominated by a single will. Never +was there a spectacle more gratifying in the eyes of justice, nor of +greater incentive to men to fight for the cause of religion.” + +The Spanish fleet comprised 90 royal galleys, 24 nefs, and 50 fregatas +and brigantines “los mejores que en tiempo alguno se habrian visto” +(the finest that ever were seen at any time), as they were described by +Don John. The Pope sent 12 galleys and 6 fregatas, under the command of +Mark Antony Colonna. The Pope had also made a grant of the “Crusada” +and “Excusada,” and other ecclesiastical revenues which he drew from +Spain, to the King of that country, to meet expenses. + +Venice appointed Sebastian Veniero to the command of her fleet, which +consisted of 106 galleys, 6 galeasses of enormous bulk and clumsy +construction carrying each 40 guns, 2 nefs, and 20 fregatas. These +vessels were, however, so miserably manned and equipped that Don +John had to send on board Spaniards and Genoese to complete their +complements. In a manuscript of the Bibliothèque du Roi (Number 10088) +is an account of the battle of Lepanto by Commandeur de Romegas. He +gives the number of the Turkish fleet at 333 ships, of which 230 were +galleys, the rest galeasses and smaller craft. The total which he gives +for the Christian fleet is 271. Ali Basha was in supreme command of +the Turkish forces, “a man of an intrepid spirit, who had given many +proofs of a humane and generous mature—qualities more rare among the +Turks, perhaps among all nations, than mere physical courage.” With +Ali was the Basha of Algiers, that other Ali, the corsair, who since +his arrival at Coron had done more than his share of the fighting, +marauding, and devastating which were the preliminaries to the battle +of Lepanto. In this historic conflict he was to show once again how, +on the face of the waters, the Sea-wolves were supreme; as it was he +and his corsairs, out of the whole of the Moslem host, who acquitted +themselves with the greatest credit on that day so fatal to the arms of +the Ottoman Turk. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +LEPANTO + + + How Ali Basha fought at the battle of Lepanto: his + subsequent career—Conclusion. + +Lepanto, the last battle of first-class importance in which the +Sea-wolves bore a leading part, is memorable in many ways. It is one +of the most sanguinary which was ever fought, the element of personal +hatred between the combatants, to which we have alluded more than +once, being singularly in evidence on this occasion. As we have said, +this campaign was brought about at the initiative of the Venetians, +and an incident which occurred not long before the battle exacerbated +the feelings with which the Turks were regarded by the Christians +to the point of madness. The city of Famagusta, in Cyprus, had been +captured by that Mustafa of whom we heard so much at the siege of +Malta. The Venetian defenders made an honourable capitulation, but +when the four principal Venetian captains were brought before Mustafa, +that general caused three of them to be beheaded on the spot; the +fourth, a noble and gallant gentleman who had been responsible for the +magnificent defence of the city entrusted to his charge, he caused to +be flayed alive in the market-square. He then had the skin stuffed +with straw, and, with this ghastly trophy nailed to the prow of his +galley, returned in triumph to Constantinople. Bragadino, the defender +of Famagusta, did not die in vain; his terrible fate excited such a +passion of anger in the whole of the armada of Don John that each +individual of which it was composed felt that the sacrifice of his +own life would be but a small thing if it only led to the destruction +of such fiends as those against whom they were arrayed. + +[Illustration: DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA.] + +Lepanto was a magnificent triumph for the arms of Christendom, and +taught a much-needed lesson to Europe that the Ottoman Turk was not +invincible upon the sea; it was not, however, an interesting battle +from the point of view of the student of war and its combinations. Of +all the high officers in command on that memorable day there was only +one who displayed real generalship and a proper appreciation of the +tactical necessities of the situation; that officer was Ali Basha, +the leader of the Sea-wolves. The account of the battle is somewhat +obscured by the fact that on the side of the Moslems the name of the +Ottoman Commander-in-Chief was also “Ali”; in order to avoid confusion +in this narration, we shall allude to the Basha of Algiers by the name +given to him by the Christians, “Occhiali.” + +It was on Sunday, October 7th, 1571, that the Christian fleet weighed +anchor from Cephalonia and stood southwards along the Albanian coast, +which is here fringed with rocky islets. The right wing was commanded +by John Andrea Doria, the left wing by the Provéditeur Barbarigo, the +centre, or “battle,” as it was called, by Don John in person, who +had on the one side of him Mark Antony Colonna, the General of the +Galleys of the Pope, and on the other that fiery veteran Sebastian +Veniero, the commander of the Venetians. Here also were stationed the +Prince of Parma, nephew to Don John, Admiral of Savoy; Duke Urbino, +Admiral of Genoa; the Admiral of Naples, and the Commandeur of Castile. +The reserve, under the command of the Marquis of Santa Cruz, consisted +of thirty-five galleys. Immediately in rear of the _Real_, or royal +galley of Don John, was that of the Grand Commander Requesens. The +number of seamen, soldiers, officers, and galley-slaves in the fleet +amounted to over eighty thousand persons; twenty-nine thousand infantry +had been embarked, of which number nineteen thousand were Spaniards. +Opposed to the Christians on this day was a Turkish fleet which had +on board no less than one hundred and twenty thousand men embarked in +two hundred and fifty galleys, without counting an innumerable host of +smaller vessels. + +[Illustration: SEBASTIAN VENIERO. + +Inset, portraits of Don John and Pope Pius V. Heroic statue of Don John +dominating Christian and Turkish Fleets. The breath of the Almighty +destroying the Turkish fleet at Lepanto.] + +The authorities on whose accounts of the battle this description is +based are Prescott, the famous historian; P. Daru, a member of the +Académie Française, who wrote an exhaustive _Histoire de Venise_ and Don +Cayetano Rosell, member of the Spanish Academy, who is responsible for +an exposition of the subject, known as _Historia del combate naval de +Lepanto_. From a comparison of the works of these eminent men one fact +emerges with great clearness, which is that the battle of Lepanto was +an indiscriminate mêlée which was decided by some of the most desperate +fighting ever recorded, but which depended hardly at all upon the +tactical abilities of the men in chief command. It is true that we are +told Don John issued written instructions to the commander of each +ship, but we are left in the dark as to what these instructions were, +while at the same time we discover that in his line of battle, which in +the first instance appears to have been that of “single line ahead,” +the galleys of all nationalities were inextricably mixed up; making it +thereby impossible for the Papal, Spanish, and Venetian commanders to +deal, as they should have done, exclusively with their own men. On the +other hand, Occhiali kept together the squadron of the Sea-wolves; he +outgeneralled and had all but defeated John Andrea Doria, when the end +came and he was obliged to retreat. + +We are, however, anticipating. Don John passed down his own line in a +light “fregata” giving a few words of exhortation and advice to each +ship under his command. If the bastard brother of the King of Spain did +not exhibit any large measure of ability as a leader on this occasion, +he was perhaps none the less the right man in the right place, as +he had about him so winning a way, he was so striking and gallant a +figure, that the hearts of all under his command went out to him. The +seamen and soldiers of the great armada greeted him with enthusiastic +shouts of delight as he bade them remember in whose cause it was that +they fought. The last of the Knights-errant must have made a brave show +as he passed down that line four miles in length, the sun shining on +his damascened armour, and his yellow curls streaming out from beneath +his helmet. + +Soon after sunrise the Turkish fleet was descried sailing towards the +Christians, in such apparently overwhelming force that several of the +Spanish commanders represented to Don John that it would be imprudent +to risk a battle. To his honour be it recorded that he replied he had +come out to fight the Turks and that the time for talk was now over. He +then hoisted all his banners, and the executive signal for the combat +to begin was given by displaying at his mainmast head the sacred banner +blessed by the Pope. As this standard floated out upon the breeze there +went up a great shout in unison from all that were under the command of +Don John. The scene of the combat was that area of the Ionian Sea which +is enclosed on the east by the coasts of Albania and Morea and on the +west by the islands of Ithaca and Cephalonia, Just to the northward, at +the entrance to the Gulf of Arta, sixteen hundred years before had been +fought the battle of Actium between Antony and Octavius; the same spot +had witnessed, in 1538, the memorable battle of Prevesa between Andrea +Doria and Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa. + +From the point of view of the seaman, who is naturally anxious +to discover the dispositions of their fleets made by the rival +Commanders-in-Chief, Lepanto is an almost hopeless puzzle. As far as +can be gathered, however, it was that the two armadas approached one +another in what is known as “line ahead,” each ship being immediately +astern of its next ahead in one long continuous line; and that, +when they got within striking distance, these lines turned so that +they formed “line abreast,” when each ship, having turned at right +angles, simultaneously the line advances abreast, the ships forming +it being broadside to broadside. + +When the Turks discovered the allies they were issuing from between the +islets and the shore. Seeing John Andrea Doria moving to the right, +they judged that he was executing a turning movement with the object +of escaping to the northwards, from whence he had come; they were, at +the time, unable to see the rest of the fleet, which was hidden by the +land. With sound tactical judgment they accordingly advanced to attack +the allies before they should have time to issue from the strait. They +were, however, too far off to accomplish this, and, by the time they +arrived within striking distance, the Christian fleet had cleared the +strait and was ready for them, “drawn up for battle,” says Monsieur +Daru, which is somewhat vague in describing the disposition of a fleet. +What is certain, however, is that in advance of the galleys of Don +John were six great galeasses, which were armed with guns of immensely +superior power to anything which could be mounted in galleys. As the +Turks advanced to the attack these vessels opened fire, and did so much +execution that Ali, the Turkish Commander-in-Chief, ordered his line to +open out and thus avoid their fire. Whatever formation the fleet was +in at the time—which was, as far as we can gather, “line abreast”—this +opening-out process, to avoid the galeasses, threw it into hopeless +confusion. The Turkish right wing, which was hugging the coast, and +was the first to come into action, passed on in an endeavour to turn +the left wing of the allies. While this manoeuvre was in progress +Ali, the Capitan-Basha of the Turks, arrived in his vessel opposite +to the royal galley of Don John. At the masthead of the galley of the +Capitan-Bashaw floated the sacred standard of the Ottomans. This, the +ancient banner of the Caliphs, was covered with texts from the Koran, +and had upon it the name of Allah emblazoned no less than twenty-eight +thousand nine hundred times in letters of gold. “It was,” says +Prescott, “the banner of the Sultan, having passed from father to son +since the foundation of the dynasty, and was never seen in the field +unless the Grand Seigneur or his lieutenant was there in person.” Ali, +the Commander-in-Chief, a favourite of the Sultan, had been entrusted +with this most precious of all the possessions of the Padishah, as an +incentive to him and all under his command to fight their hardest to +do honour to the Prophet, and to prevent this symbol of their religion +from falling into the hands of the Christian. Ali, like Don John, was +young, and burning to distinguish himself; accordingly, as soon as the +ships of the two leaders came opposite to each other neither regarded +any enemy save his rival Commander-in-Chief. Ali drove his great galley +straight on board of the vessel of Don John, and a most obstinate +conflict ensued. Veniero and Colonna hastened to the assistance of +their chief, who was sore beset. + +The combat now became general, and, as has been said, was for the most +part nothing but a melee, in which each ship sought out the nearest +of her foes and closed with her. For some time the fight went hard +with Don John; time and again the galley of the Moslem leader was +boarded, but on each occasion the Spaniards were hurled back upon +their own decks. Loredano and Malipier, two Venetian captains, fell +upon seven Turkish galleys which were hastening to reinforce the attack +on Don John, and sank one of them. They then fought with such fury and +resolution with the six that remained that, although both captains were +killed, it was conceded that they had saved their general, entirely +altered the complexion of the battle in their neighbourhood, and +facilitated the capture of the Turkish admiral. The determined conduct +of the two Venetians allowed the Spanish division to close in on the +Turkish flagship, which, after an heroic resistance, was captured, +principally because there were practically none left alive to fight. +The head of Ali was struck off by a Spanish soldier, the banner of +the Moslems was replaced by the flag of the Cross, the head of Ali +on a pike being exhibited in derision above it. The conquerors seem +to have seen no incongruity in this performance. The lowering of the +sacred standard of the Capitan-Basha had a disheartening effect upon +the Turks; they knew by this that their Commander-in-Chief was dead +and his ship captured, the result being that the resistance of the +Ottomans began to weaken. Then thirty galleys took to flight from the +neighbourhood of the Christian flagship; so hotly were they pursued +that they ran on shore, the crews swimming or wading to the beach and +making off inland. + +On the right of the Christian line things had not been going so +propitiously for them. Here Occhiali had managed, by his apparently +persistent attempts to outflank John Andrea Doria, to decoy that +commander away from his supports and from the main body of the +Christians. This tactical manoeuvre of the corsair was successful; +having drawn off some fifteen of the Christian galleys, he suddenly +flung the whole of his greatly superior force into the gap and +surrounded them. These galleys were Spanish, Venetian, and Maltese, +and, although they offered a most vigorous resistance, they were mostly +destroyed or captured. Doria, in spite of all his efforts, was on this +day both outgeneralled and outfought: the Sea-wolves, under their +grim leader, manoeuvring for position, obtaining it, and then falling +like a thunderbolt on the foe. They were all brave men at Lepanto on +this memorable October day; but few there were like the corsair king, +in whom a heart of fire was kept in check by a brain of ice, who, +during the whole combat, never gave away a chance, or failed to swoop +like an eagle from his eyry when the blunders of his enemy gave him +the opportunity for which he watched. It was the old story of “the +veritable man of the sea” pitted against gallant soldiers fighting on +an unfamiliar element. And yet it was against the best seaman on the +Christian side that Occhiali pitted himself on this stricken field; +and none can deny that with him rested such honour as was gained by +the Turks on this day, the day which broke up for ever the idea of the +invincibility of the Ottomans on the water. It needs not to say, to +those who have read the story of the siege of Malta, how the Knights +comported themselves in the battle; and yet Occhiali captured the +_Capitana_, or principal galley of the Order, He was towing her out of +action, a prize, when the Marquis of Santa Cruz bore down upon him with +the reserve. By this time the battle was lost; the Moslems were in full +retreat. + +The corsair recognised that he could do no more: sullenly he cast +off the tow, and, forming up some thirty of his galleys, still in a +condition to navigate, stood boldly through the centre of where the +battle had once raged, and escaped. The _Capitana_ of Malta had been +taken; and to the Sultan did Occhiali present the great standard of +Saint John, as an earnest of his achievement. + +Bernardino de Escalente, in his work _Diálogos del arte militar_, printed +in Seville in 1583, says that the Captain Ojeda, of the galley _Guzmana_, +recaptured the _Capitana_ of Malta; and that, in recognition thereof, +“the Religion” pensioned him for life. Ojeda, it is to be presumed, was +under the orders of the Marquis of Santa Cruz during the battle. + +There remains one incident connected with the battle of Lepanto which +must be told. In the _Marquesa_ galley, in the division of Doria, was +lying in his bed sick of a fever a young man twenty-four years of age; +a Spaniard of Alcala de Henares, “de padres hidalgos y honrados,” we +are told, although these parents were poor. When this young man heard +that a battle was imminent he rose from his bed and demanded of his +captain, Francisco San Pedro, that he should be placed in the post of +the greatest danger. The captain, and others, his friends, counselled +him to remain in his bed. “Señores,” replied the young man, “what would +be said of Miguel de Cervantes should he take this advice? On every +occasion up to this day on which his enemies have offered battle to his +Majesty I have served like a good soldier; and today I intend to do so +in spite of this sickness and fever.” He was given command of twelve +soldiers in a shallop, and all day was to be seen where the combat +raged most fiercely. He received two wounds in the chest and another +which cost him the loss of his left hand. To those to whom he proudly +displayed them in after-years he was accustomed to say, “wounds in the +face or the chest are like stars which guide one through honour to the +skies.” Of him the chronicler says: “He continued the rest of his life +with honourable memory of this wonderful occurrence, and, although he +lost the use of his left hand, it added to the glory of his right.” How +glorious was that right hand is known to all readers of _El Ingenioso +Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha_. + +The losses at the battle of Lepanto are something so prodigious that +imagination boggles at them. It is said that the Christians lost five +thousand men and the Turks no less than thirty thousand. Enormous as +these numbers are, they represent probably a very conservative estimate +of the loss. The Turks lost two hundred vessels, and when we recollect +the number of men embarked on board of the sixteenth-century galleys we +can see that the numbers are by no means exaggerated, especially as no +quarter was given on either side. When the Captain Ojeda recaptured the +battered wreck which had been the _Capitana_ of Malta, we are told that +on board of her were three hundred dead Turks; if this were the cost of +the capture of one galley we need not be surprised at the total. + +With the results to Europe of this amazing battle we have nothing to +do in this book. That which it demonstrated, as far as the Sea-wolves +were concerned, was that they still remained the most competent +seamen and sea-fighters in the Mediterranean, and that the legend +of the invincibility of the Ottomans at sea rested on what had been +accomplished during a long period of years by these insatiable pirates +and magnificent warriors. + +That which the fighting Pontiff, Pius V., said when he heard of the +victory is in character with everything which history has told us of +this remarkable occupant of the chair of Saint Peter. It was short but +very much to the point, consisting of the one sentence, “Fuit homo +misus a Deo cui nomen erat Joannes.” + +In a collection of epitaphs printed in Colonia in 1623 (and edited by +one Franciscus Swertius) is one in Spanish by an anonymous author on +Don John of Austria. In this, which takes the form of question and +answer, it is asked of him “who with so much real glory lies so humbly +’neath this stone,” what it is that Spain can do for him, what temple +or what statue can she raise to his honour. To this the hero is made +to reply that “My temple is found in my works, my statue has been my +fame.” This is not only a pretty conceit, but it is very substantially +true when we think of the place in history which this man attained. + +It remains to speak of the future career of Ali Basha after his +experiences at Lepanto. He now returned to Constantinople, where he +found that the bitter complaints of the Janissaries concerning their +lack of pay had preceded him; this must have been annoying, as by this +time so insignificant a circumstance had probably escaped his memory. +His old friend and patron Piali Basha was still in power; the Basha +used his influence, and the corsair laid at the feet of the Sultan the +great Standard of Saint John captured by him from the Knights—which +was the only trophy which came to Constantinople from that disastrous +battle; and in consequence we are told that “instead of reprimands he +was loaded with caresses and applauses.” + +There was in Ali the same dauntless quality of never knowing when +he was beaten which had distinguished Kheyr-ed-Din Barbarossa. His +exploits at Lepanto had secured him the high favour of the Sultan, +which he used in a manner most grateful to that sovereign by +approaching him with a request that he might be allowed to fit out +another fleet to revenge himself on the Christians. The Sultan acceded +to his request, and such diligence did he use that in June 1572, only +eight months after the crushing defeat of the Turks, Ali took the sea +with two hundred and fifty galleys besides smaller vessels. So powerful +had he now become that Selim nominated him as his Admiralissimo, +allowing him also to retain the Bashalic of Algiers. With his new fleet +he sought out the allies once more, finding them at anchor in a port in +the Morea. He lay outside the harbour defying them to come out, which +they refused to do—“but they parted without bloody noses”—is Morgan’s +comment. Haedo attributes this inertia on the part of the allies to +dissension among their leaders; but, however that may have been, Ali +gained almost as much favour with the Sultan as if he had defeated them +in a pitched battle. “But these are the judgments of God and things +ordered by His divine providence and infinite wisdom,” says Haedo. The +connection is somewhat hard to establish. + +In 1573 the Bashalic of Algiers passed into the hands of Arab Ahmed, +and in this same year Don John of Austria recaptured Tunis from the +Turks. Ali, with a fleet of two hundred and fifty galleys and forty +smaller vessels, recaptured it again in a siege lasting forty days, +and once more returned to Constantinople in triumph with thousands +of Spanish captives. He was yet to live some years to harass the +Christians, against whom he ever displayed a most inveterate rancour. +In 1576 he set out from Constantinople with sixty galleys and ravaged +the Calabrian coast, where he had been born. In 1578, the Janissaries +of Algiers having assassinated Arab Ahmed the Basha, he was sent to +chastise them, which he did with a heavy hand. + +Ali was never married, and left no descendants; in the later years +of his life he built himself a sumptuous palace some five miles from +Constantinople, and no man in all the realm save the Sultan himself +was so great a man as the Calabrian renegado, the unknown waif from +Southern Italy who possessed neither name nor kindred. He was tall and +robust in stature, but all his life suffered from “scald-head”; for a +definition of which ailment we may refer the curious to the dictionary. +He possessed, for a chieftain and a fighting man, the disadvantage +of a voice so hoarse as to be inaudible at a few paces distant. +In default of offspring he maintained at his charges five hundred +corsairs, whom he called his children. He died in the year 1580, and +with him what has been called the “Grand Period of the Moslem Corsairs” +in this book may be said to have come to an end. + +By the men whose deeds have been here chronicled the pirate States of +Northern Africa were established; and, as we have seen, they maintained +an unceasing warfare against all that was mightiest in Christendom, +aided and abetted by the Sultans of Constantinople. In the sixteenth +century the Sea-wolves had this at least to recommend them, that they +feared neither King nor Kaiser, albeit these great ones of the earth +were bent on their destruction. Villains as they were, they were none +the less men to be feared, men in whom dwelt wonderful capabilities +of leadership. Such, however, was not the case with those by whom +they were succeeded; and the great and civilised nations of the world +tolerated for centuries in their midst a race of savage barbarians +whose abominable insolence and fiendish cruelty were only equalled +by their material weakness and military impotence. Algiers, Tunis, +and Tripoli became recognised States, and the Great Powers degraded +themselves by actually accrediting diplomatic agents to the “Courts” of +these people. + +“The Algerines are robbers, and I am their chief,” was the remark made +by the Dey of Algiers to the English Consul in 1641, and the man spoke +the plain unvarnished truth. Yet at this time the Algerines had no more +than sixty-five ships, and no organisation which could have held out +for twenty-four hours against such attacks as had been successfully +resisted on many occasions in the previous century. + +On April 10th, 1682 (O.S.), “Articles of peace and commerce between the +most serene and mighty Prince Charles II., by the Grace of God King of +Great Britain, etc., and the most illustrious (_sic_) Lord, the Bashaw, +Dey, and Aga, Governor of the famous city of Algiers in Barbary,” +were concluded by “Arthur Herbert, Esquire, Admiral of His Majesty’s +Fleet.” It need hardly be said that such a treaty as this was not worth +the paper on which it was written; that the barbarians by whom it was +signed were as ignorant as they were unprincipled, and that the only +argument which they understood at that, or any other time, was that of +the right of the strongest. + +When we of the present day read of the deeds of the corsairs we are +filled with horror, we fail to understand how such things could have +been tolerated, we seek for some explanation. When we hear of a +“League of Christian Princes,” and find that all its members could +accomplish was to turn their arms the one against the other, we are +even still more puzzled. What was it, then, that lay at the root of +this problem? The answer would appear to be in the ethical standpoint +of the sixteenth century. We are so accustomed in the present day to +hear of the rights of man that we are apt to forget that, in the time +of Barbarossa, of Dragut, of Charles V., and the Medicean Popes such a +thing did not exist, and the only rights possessed by the common man +were those vouchsafed to him by his sovereign lord. We have also +to take another factor into consideration, which is that what we call +“humanity” simply did not exist, the result being that the raids of +the Sea-wolves were not judged by the great ones of the earth from the +standpoint of the amount of suffering which they inflicted, but in what +manner these proceedings affected the wealth and power of the lord of +the territory which had been despoiled. So differently was society +constituted in those days that the very victims acquiesced more or less +meekly in their fate, each one unconsciously voicing that most pathetic +saying of the Russian peasant that “God is high and the Czar is far +away.” + +The fact of the intolerable lot of the common man in these times helps +us to understand one thing which otherwise would be an insoluble +problem: which was, why did Christian soldiers so often become +renegadoes and fight for the corsairs under the banner of those who +were the fiercest and most irreconcilable foes of themselves and their +kindred? The life of the common soldier or sailor did not offer many +advantages; it was generally a short and anything but a merry one, and +the thing by which it was most profoundly affected was capture by the +corsairs. + +When this happened he became either a “gallerian,” rowing out his +heart on the benches of the Moslem galleys, or he festered in some +noisome dungeon in Algiers, Oran, or Tlemcen. For him, however, there +was always one avenue of escape open: he had but to acknowledge that +Mahomet was the Prophet of God and the prison doors would fly open, +or the shackles be knocked off the chain which bound him to the hell of +the rower’s bench. Many of the Christian captives had really nothing +to bind them to the faith of their fathers—neither home nor lands, +wealth nor kindred, and they were doubtless dazzled by the amazing +success which accompanied the arms of the leaders of the pirates. Is +it wonderful, then, that such men in such an age should grasp at the +chance of freedom and throw in their lot with their captors? + +It was treachery, it was apostasy, and no amount of sophistry can +prove it to have been otherwise; but the man who would sit in judgment +in the present day must try to figure to himself what the life of +a galley-slave meant—a life so horrible and so terrible that it is +impossible, in the interest of decency, to set down a tithe of what it +really was. + +We who in the present day sit in judgment upon the virtues and vices of +a bygone age can, in the ordered security of our modern civilisation, +see many things which were hidden from our forefathers, even as in +another three hundred years our descendants will be able to point the +finger of scorn at the mistakes which we are now committing. We have +seen how it was that the pirate States arose; we have seen also how, in +future generations, they were allowed to abide. We cannot, in common +honesty, echo the words already quoted of the historian that “these +are the judgments of God, and things ordered by His divine providence +and infinite wisdom,” neither can we acquit the heirs of the ages for +that slackness which prevented them from doing their duty; we have, +however, to ask ourselves this question, that, had it fallen to our +own lot to deal with the problem of the extermination of the pirates, +should we have done better? + +One word in conclusion. That which they did has been set down here; the +record, however, is not complete, as many of their acts of cruelty, +lust, and oppression are not fitted for publication in the present day. +It has been said, with truth, that no man is much better or much worse +than in the age in which he lives; and to hold the scales evenly—if one +were tempted to shock contemporary opinion by too literal a transcript +of all that was done by the corsairs—it would also be necessary to cite +the reprisals of their Christian antagonists. It has seemed better to +leave such things unchronicled: to present, with as much fidelity as +possible, the public lives and acts of these troublers of the peace of +the sixteenth century. Looking back, as we do, over three hundred and +fifty years, and judging as fairly as is possible, it would seem that +there is little which can be said in their favour. + +But we may at least concede that, no matter how infamous were the +Barbarossas, Dragut, and Ali, they proved that in them dwelt one rare +and supreme quality, which, in all the ages, has covered a multitude of +sins. At a time when every one was a warrior and the whole world was +an armed camp, men sought great captains in whose following to serve. +Among the Moslems of Northern Africa, in ordered succession, there rose +to the surface “veritable men of the sea,” in the wake of whose galleys +ravened the Sea-wolves. When we consider how undisciplined and how +stupidly violent these pirates were by nature, and how they were welded +into a homogeneous whole by those of whom we speak, we are forced to +the conclusion that seldom, in all the ages, have abler captains arisen +to take fortune at the flood, to dominate the minds and the bodies of +a vast host, to prove that they were, in deed and in truth, supreme as +leaders of men. + + + + +AUTHORITIES CONSULTED + +Sailing Ships and their Story. E. Keble Chatterton. + +Barbary Corsairs: Story of the Nations. Stanley Lane Poole. + +Compleat History of the Present Seat of War in Africa between Spaniards +and Algerines. 1632. Joseph Morgan. + +History of Philip II. William Hickling Prescott. + +History of Charles V. Robertson. + +Histoire de Barberousse. Richer. + +Vie des plus célèbres marins. Richer. + +Histoire de Barberousse. Sander Rang et Ferdinand Denis. + +Doria et Barberousse. Les derniers jours de la Marine aux Rames. +Admiral Jurien de la Gravière. + +Histoire de Barbarie et ses corsaires. Pierre d’An. Paris, 1637. + +Histoire d’Alger. Laugier de Tassy. + +Messire Pierre de Bourdeille Seigneur de Brantôme. Vie des hommes +illustres et grands capitaines etrangers de son temps. 1594. + +Histoires de les Chevaliers de Malte. Mons l’Abbé de Vertot. Paris, +1726. + +Histoire de Venise. P. Daru. + +Topografia e Historia general de Argel El Señor Don Diego de Haedo. + +Reverendissimo Arcobispo de Palermo. Presidente y Capitan-General del +Reyno de Sicilia por el Rey Felipe Segundo. Nuestro señor. Valladolid, +1612. + +Descripcion general de Africa. Don Luys de Marmol Caravajal. Granada, +1573. + +Historia de Carlos Quinto. El Maestro Don Fray Prudencio de Sandoval, +Obispo de Pampluna. 1612. + +El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha. Cervantes. + +Arte de Navegar. Martin Cortes. + +Diálogos del arte militar. Bernardino de Escalante. Seville, 1583. + +Historia del combate naval de Lepanto. Cayetano Rosell. + +Epitaphia joco-seria. Francisco Swertius. 1623. + +La Guerra dei pirati e la marina Pontifica dal 1500 al 1560. Padre +Alberto Guglielmotti. + +Storia della sacra religione et illustrissima milizia de San Giovanii +Gerosolimitano. Jacopo Bosio. + +Lo Assedio di Malta, 18 Maggio-8, Settembre, 1565. Conte Carlo, +Sanminiatelli, Zabarella, Colonello. + + + + +LIST OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, SPAIN, SULTANS OF TURKEY, POPES +OF ROME, AND GRAND MASTERS OF MALTA, BETWEEN THE DATES 1492–1580, THE +PERIOD COVERED IN THIS BOOK. + + ENGLAND FRANCE + + Henry VII., 1485–1509. Charles VIII.,1483–98. + Henry VIII., 1509–47. Louis XII., 1498–1515. + Edward VI., 1547–53. Francis I., 1515–47. + Mary, 1553–58. Henry II., 1547–59. + Elizabeth, 1558–1603. Francis II., 1559–60. + Charles IX., 1560–74. + Henry III., 1574–89. + + +SPAIN + +Granada, taken by Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Aragon +and Castile (“Los Reyes Catolicos”) in 1492. Their daughter, Joanna, +married Philip, son of the Emperor Maximilian of Germany. Ferdinand +died 1516, and was succeeded by Charles V., son of Philip and Joanna, +as King of Spain, in 1517. On the death of his grandfather Maximilian, +in 1519, Charles was elected Emperor of Germany. He resigned all his +dignities and retired to the monastery of Yuste in 1555, and was +succeeded by his son, Philip II. Charles died 1558. Philip II., who +married as his first wife Mary Tudor, of England, reigned from 1555 +till 1598. + + +SULTANS OF TURKEY + +Bajazet II., 1481–1512; Selim the Cruel, 1512–20; Soliman the +Magnificent, 1520–66; Selim II., known to the Spaniards as “el bebedor” +(the drunkard), 1566–74; Murad III., 1574–95. + + +POPES OF ROME + +Pius III., 1503; Julius II., 1503; Leo X., 1513; Hadrian VI., 1522; +Clement VII., 1523; Paul III., 1534; Julius III., 1550; Marcellus II., +1555; Paul IV., 1555; Pius IV., 1559; Pius V., 1566; Gregory XIII., +1572; Sixtus V., 1585. + + +GRAND MASTERS OF THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA + +Pierre d’Aubusson, 1476–1503; Emeri d’Amboise, 1503–13; Fabrice +Carette, 1513–21; Villiers de L’Isle Adam, 1521–36; Juan d’Omedes, +1536–53; Claude de la Sangle, 1553–57; Jean Parisot de la Valette, +1557–68; Pierre Dumont, 1568–72; Jean Levesque de la Cassière, 1572–82. + + + + +DISTANCES IN SEA MILES ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN AFRICA + + Gibraltar to Oran 225’ + Oran to Tenes 110’ + Tenes to Shershell 41’ + Shershell to Algiers 40’ + Algiers to Bona 104’ + Bona to Jigelli 30’ + Jigelli to Bizerta 205’ + Bizerta to Tunis 55’ + Tunis to Susa 120’ + Susa to Sfax 86’ + Sfax to Jerbah, otherwise known as Los Gelues 54’ + Jerbah to Tripoli 130’ + Gibraltar to Algiers 410’ + Algiers to Tunis 391’ + Algiers to Tenes 91’ + Tunis to Malta 232’ + Malta to Tripoli in Barbary 200’ + Tripoli to Cape Serrano 350’ + Jerbah to Malta 210’ + + + + +INDEX + + Abdahar, 141. + Abu-Abd-Allah-Mahomed, 40. + Actium, battle of, 189, 199, 366. + Adam, Prince Philippe Villiers L’Isle, Grand Master of the Knights + of St. John, 42, 124, 299. + Adorno, Antony, 103. + Adriatic, coasts of the, 182. + Adrumentum, 251. + “Africa,” town of, position and fortifications, 251, + attacked and taken by Dragut, 257–259; + besieged by Andrea Doria, 265; + captured, 267; + mutiny, 268; + blown up, 268. + Ahmed, Arab, Basha of Algiers, 375, + assassinated, 375. + Albania, coast of, 363, 366. + Al-Burdon, 350. + Alcadaar, Alcaid, 349. + Alcala, Duke of, 311. + Alcala de Henares, 371. + Alcaudite, Count of, his defence of Marzaquivir, 10. + Aldemar, St., Geoffrey de, 291. + Aleppo, 120, 125. + Alexander IV., Pope, 290. + Alexander VI., Pope, 99. + Alexander VII., Pope, initiates the “Alliance of Christian Princes,” 38. + Alexandria, 49. + “Alexandria, The Young Moor of,” defeated, 177, + released, 178. + Alfonso, King of Navarre and Aragon, 291. + Alghieri, Bay of, 235. + Algiers, 2, + attacks on, 30, 88; + captured, 62, 64; + Moorish refugees at, 63; + appeal for help, 66; + surrenders, 89; + mutiny of Janissaries, 355; + treaty with King Charles II., 377. + Ali Ahamed, Admiral of Algiers, 345. + Ali, at the siege of Malta, 328. + Ali Basha, or Occhiali or Uluchali, 6, 14, 22, + present at the conference held by Soliman, 316; + his birthplace, 345; + endures the life of a galley-slave, 345; + becomes a Mussulman, 346; + enters the service of Dragut, 346; + at the siege of Malta, 346; + appointed Viceroy of Tripoli, 347; + Governor of Algiers, 347; + view of his duties,347; + offered the sovereignty of Tunis, 349; + expedition against Hamid, 349; + captures Tunis, 350, 375; + captures galleys of the Knights, 352–355; + at the battle of Lepanto, 363,368–371; + his banner, 368; + captures the _Capitana_, 370; + withdraws and escapes, 371; + returns to Constantinople, 373, 375; + nominated Admiralissimo, 374; + his palace, 375; + ailment of “scald-head,” 375; + death, 376. + Ali Basha, in command of the Turkish forces, 361, + at the battle of Lepanto, 367; + beheaded, 369. + Ali-Chabelli defeated, 180. + Al-Mehedi, his fortifications of “Africa” blown up, 268. + Amalfi, 287. + Ambracian Gulf, 189. + Amburac, Ibrahim, his plot with Dragut, 253, 256. + Ampasta, Rio de, 83. + An, Rev. Frere Pierre d’, on the dangers from the corsairs of + Barbary, 20–22, 27. + Andalusia, 4, 15. + Andior, 246. + Andrade, Captain Diego de, 73. + Andros, island of, 187. + Angelo, Michel, 139. + Aponte, Antonio de, “Electo Mayor” of “Africa,” 268. + Aragon, Alfonso d’, 235. + Aragon, Ferdinand of, acquires Granada, 29, + attempts to recover Naples, 99. + Arba, Francisco d’, 210, 217. + Archipelago, islands of the, 182, + raid on, 187. + Arta, Gulf of, 189, 191, 195, 366. + Aubusson Pierre D’, Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, 37, 38, + 39, 298. + Augustus Caesar, at the battle of Actium, 189, 199. + Austria, Don John of, 23, 230, + in command of the forces of the “Holy League,” 357; + at Barcelona, 357; + reception at Naples, 358; + dress, 358; + appearance, 359, 365; + at Messina, 359; + his fleet, 364; + instructions, 365; + at the battle of Lepanto, 366–371; + recaptures Tunis, 375. + + Baetio, 141. + Bairan-Ogli, the Reis, in command of the “puissant galleon,” 313. + Balearic Islands, 32, 66. + Barbarigo, Provéditeur, at the battle of Lepanto, 363. + Barbarossa, Hassan, left in charge of Algiers, 312. + Barbarossa, Khoyr-ed-Din, 6, 14, 17, 22, 108, + King of the Sea, 24; + his birth, 43; + title, 45, 51; + joins his brother at the island of Jerba, 50; + attacks _The Galley of Naples_, 51–54; + his wealth, 56; + captures Jigelli, 56–58; + his embassy to Soliman, 60, 76; + character, 67, 75, 114–116, 127, 219; + treatment of Hassan, 85–87; + defeated by Venalcadi, 87; + his allies, 88; + fight against Venalcadi, 88; + assisted by Spanish captives, 89; + captures Algiers, 89; + lays siege to the fortress of Navarro, 92–95; + his plunder of the Christians, 108; + requested to take the command of the Ottoman fleet, 111; + voyage to Constantinople, 112–117; + his captures, 113, 133; + cruelty, 115, 133, 220; + entry into Constantinople, 117; + gifts to Soliman, 118; + reception, 120; + at Aleppo, 125; + appointed head of the fleet, 127; + his age, 127, 190; + appearance, 127; + speech to the Sultan, 128–130; + raids on the coast of Italy, 133–137; + sacks Reggio, 133; + captures 11,000 Christian slaves, 133; + his attempt to capture Julia Gonzaga, 134–136; + enters Tunis 138; + massacre of the inhabitants, 141; + his fame, 142; + appeal for help against the Christian hosts, 146; + preparations for defence, 152; + joined by the tribesmen, 153; + defeated, 158; + flight, 159; + sufferings of his army, 163; + at Bona, 164; + embarks, 165; + retires to Algiers, 168; + return of his men, 169; + captures the castle of Minorca, 172; + recalled to Constantinople, 173, 178, 182; + ravages, 182; + number of slaves, 182; + sets sail, 185; + his innovation in the manning of galleys, 185–187; + raid on the islands of the Archipelago, 187; + his age, 190; + hesitates to fight, 193; + anchored in the Gulf of Arta, 194–207; + at the battle of Prevesa, 208–216; + withdraws from the battle, 213, 215, 217; + his death, 220, 250; + ransoms Dragut, 248. + Barbarossa, Uruj, 7, 74, + his birth, 43; + character, 44; + first attempt at piracy, 45; + taken prisoner, 46; + escapes, 47, 48; + presented with a ship, 48; + winters at Alexandria, 49; + at the island of Jerba, 50; + joined by his brother, 50; + treaty with the Sultan of Tunis, 51; + attackes _The Galley of Naples_, 51–54; + wounded, 54; + attacks on Bougie, 55, 58; + loses an arm, 55; + appeal from the Algerines, 66; + treatment of Kara-Hassan, 66; + besieges Navarre’s Tower, 67; + slaughters the Berbers, 68–70; + defeats Don Diego, 71; + marches on Tlemcen, 72; + blockaded, 73; + killed, 73. + Barbary, coast of, 236. + Barbary, corsairs of, their character, 21. + Barbezieux, his attempt to seize Andrea Doria, 104. + Barcelona, 148, 357. + Bazan, Don Alvaro de, General of the Galleys of Spain, + at Barcelona, 149, + Admiral of Castile, 359. + Beachy Head, battle of, 283. + Beja, 350. + Bengabara, Alcaid, 349. + Berber tribes, their character, 57, + number, 57; + conspiracy against Uruj Barbarossa, 68; + slaughtered, 69. + Bergerac, Jean Marteille de, on the treatment of slaves on board the + galleys, 224. + Bianco, Cape, 189. + Biba, island of, 113. + Bizerta, 2, 40, + captured, 41; + massacre of, 141. + Boabdil el Chico, yields up Granada, 29. + Bona, 153, 164, 350, + Cape, 264. + Bonifacio, Straits of, 113, 136. + Borgo, Il, fortress, siege of, 32, 324, 342. + Bosworth, battle of, 215. + Botaybo, Alcaid, 349. + Bougaroni, Cape, 56. + Bougie, 2, 153, + attacks on, 55, 58. + Bouillon, Godfrey de, defeats the Saracens, 287. + Bourdeille, Pierre de, 242, 344. + Bragadino, his defence of Famagusta, 362, + killed, 362. + Brigantines, 18, 151, 240. + Broglio, Commandeur, at the siege of Malta, 333. + Byzacena, 40. + Byzantine, Empire, fall of the, 33. + + Cabri, 246. + Cachidiablo, 88, 90. + Cadiz, 4. + Cadolin, defeated, 100. + Cagliari, Bay of, 152, 236. + Calabria, 345. + Calibia, castle of, surrender, 264. + Canale, Girolame, his victory over the Moslems, 177. + Candia, 187. + Cañete, Marquis de, Viceroy and Captain General of Navarre, 147. + Cantara, La Bocca de, 272, 274. + Capello, Vicenzo, his age, 190, + in command of the Venetian fleet, 191, 215; + at Corfu, 191. + _Capitana_, the, captured, 354, 370, + retaken, 371. + Capua, Prior of, his designs for the building of St. Elmo fortress, 325. + Caracosa, Marie, 98. + Caramania, coast of, 35, 37, 45, 48. + Caravajal, Don Luys de Marmol, his “Descripcion general de Affrica,” 272. + Caravels, 231. + Carouan, 348. + Castel Rosso, Isle of, 47. + Castile, Isabella of, 29. + Castriot, Constantine, his report on the condition of St. Elmo, 337. + Centurion, Adan, fails to attack Barbarossa, 165. + Cephalonia, 313, 363, 366. + Cervantes, Miguel de, his mention of Ali Basha, 345, + at the battle of Lepanto, 371; + his wounds, 372. + Charabulac, 242. + Charlemagne, Emperor, his renown, 286. + Charles II., King of England, his treaty with Algiers, 377. + Charles V., Emperor, 14, 79, + history of, 43; + determines to crush the corsairs, 80; + total fleet and army, 81,191; + caught in a storm, 82; + his wrath on the fall of Navarro, 97; + acquisitions, 98; + suzerain of Genoa, 101; + joined by Andrea Doria, 105; + his trust in him, 107; + preparations for his attack on Barbarossa, 143; + at Barcelona, 148; + joined by his allies, 148–150; + reviews the armada, 150; + embarks in the _Galera Capitana_, 150; + attack on the fortress of La Goletta, 156; + defeats Barbarossa, 159; + letter to the potentates, 163; + evacuates Tunis, 166; + his mistaken policy, 167; + at Corfu, 191; + orders the destruction of Dragut, 245, 261; + orders the capture of “Africa,” 265; + denunciation of Dragut, 271; + concentrates his fleet at Messina, 278. + “Christian Princes, Alliance of,” formed, 38, + artillery, 39; + seize Naples, 40. + Christian slaves, number of, captured, 133. + Città Notabile, 308. + Civita Lavinia, 140. + Coeva, Andrea, 98. + Colonna, Camille, taken prisoner, 101. + Colonna, Mark Antony, in command of the Papal fleet, 360, 364. + Colonna, Vespasian, 134. + Columbus, his caravels, 231. + Comares, Marquis de, 80. + Condalmiero, Alessandro, Captain of the _Galleon of Venice_, 192, 194, + attacked by the Moslems, 209–213; + his victory, 213. + Constantine, 350. + Constantinople, fall of, 33, + entry of Barbarossa into, 117. + Còrdoba, Don Martin de, his defence of Oran, 10. + Còrdoba, Gonsalvo de, the “Great Captain,” 39, + war against Roverejo, 99; + besieges the fortress of Rocca Guillelma, 99. + Còrdoba, Mosque at, 64. + Corfu, siege of, 179. + Cornet, Commandeur de, 337. + Cornillan, Pierre de, appointed Grand Master of the Knights + of St. John, 298. + Coron, 355. + Coronado, Capt. Juan Vasquez, 273. + Corsairs, Moslem, their iron and rigid discipline, 7. + _See_ Moslem + Corsica, coast of, 246. + Corso, Mami, left in charge of Algiers, 349. + Cos, or Lango, island of, fortifications of, 292. + Curtogali, at Bizerta, 40, + his depredations, 41; + attempt to carry off the Pope, 41, 140; + Governor of Rhodes, 42. + Cyprus, island of, 34, 356. + + Daoud Pasha, Admiral, defeats Grimani, 38. + Dardanelles, 116, + fortification of the, 34. + Daru, P., _Histoire de Venise_, 364, 367. + Delizuff, joins forces with Barbarossa, 112, + killed, 113. + Diou-Donnè, Gozon de, his mode of killing a serpent, 294–296, + praises of his services, 297; + appointed Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, 298; + his death, 298. + Doria Andrea, 6, 22, 108, + his birth, 98; + parents, 98; + sent to Rome, 98; + at the court of Urbino, 99; + in the service of the King of Aragon, 99; + joins Roverejo, 99; + takes service with Lodovico Sforza, 100; + appointed General of the Galleys, 100; + captures the Fort of the Lantern, 100; + defeats Cadolin, 100; + appointed Captain-General of the Galleys of France, 101; + the treatment of Francis I., 102, 104; + letter to him, 103; + joins Charles V., 105; + honours received from Genoa, 105; + Admiralissimo of the Navy, 107, 151; + defeats the Turks at Patras, 109; + at Barcelona, 148; + captures Bona, 166; + pursuit of Barbarossa, 166; + defeats Ali-Chabelli, 180; + wounded, 180; + appearance, 180; + age, 190; + his fleet, 192; + anchors outside the Gulf of Arta, 194–207; + at Sessola, 207; + tactics at the battle of Prevesa, 214; + sails away, 216; + ordered to capture Dragut, 261, 271; + his pursuit of him, 262–264; + expedition against “Africa,” 265; + blockades Dragut at Jerbah, 271–275; + allows him to escape, 275. + Doria, David, 99. + Doria, Dominique, 98. + Doria, Franco, 192. + Doria, Jannetin, captures Dragut, 245–247. + Doria, John, 165. + Doria, John Andrea, at the battle of Lepanto, 363, 367, 370. + Doria, Philippin, defeats Moncada, 101. + Dragut-Reis, 10, 14, 22, + his birth and parents, 242; + career, 242; + offers his services to Barbarossa, 243; + in command of twelve galleys, 243; + his destruction ordered, 245, 261; + captured by Jannetin Doria, 245–247; + employed as a galley slave, 248; + ransomed, 248; + increase of power, 250; + his desire to capture “Africa,” 251; + plot with Ibrahim Amburac, 253; + preparations for the attack, 254–256; + wounded, 257; + attack on the city, 257–259; + pursued by Andrea Doria, 262–264, 271; + his “Horrid Devastations,” 264; + in the siege of “Africa,” 265; + escapes, 267; + at Constantinople, 269, 276; + denounced by Charles V., 270; + appointed Sandjak, or governor, of the island of Santa Maura, 271; + blockaded at Jerban, 271–275; + mode of escape, 275; + hatred of the Knights of Malta, 276, 286; + autocrat of Tripoli, 309; + characteristics, 315; + at the siege of Malta, 329–339; + mortally wounded, 339; + death, 341. + Dupuy, Raimond, joins the Hospice of St. John, 288, + appointed Grand Master, 289; + forms a military corps, 289. + + Eginard, 286. + Egypt, Soldan of, his treatment of the Knights of Saint John, 34, + besieges Rhodes, 36. + Elmo, St., siege of, 6, 301–305, 323–341, + appeal of the garrison to abandon the fortress, 335–337; + their use of fireworks, 339; + fall, 341. + Escalente, Bernardino de, his “Diálogos del arte militar,” 371. + Esquemelin, John, his literary labours, 1. + Etienne, St., Mount, 294. + Eutemi, Selim, besieges Algiers, 65, + assassinated, 68. + Exmouth, Lord, bombards Algiers,30. + + Famagusta, captured, 362. + Ferdinand V., King of Spain, joins the “Alliance of Christian + Princes,” 38, + his death, 65. + _Florence_, the, 236. + Floreta, M. de., 144. + Forfait, on the speed of the galley, 234. + Francis I., 14, + appoints Andrea Doria Captain of his fleet, 101; + attempts to levy a fine, 102; + treatment of him, 102; + fortifies Savona, 103; + letter from Andrea Doria, 103; + attempts to take him prisoner, 104; + refuses to join in the war against Barbarossa, 144; + treachery, 144. + Fundi, 134, + sacked by the corsairs, 136. + + Galeasse, the, 18, + description of a, 233. + _Galera Capitana_, 150, + number of flags and banners on board, 151. + _Galleon of Venice_, 192, 194, 208, + attacked by the Moslems, 209–213; + victory, 213. + Galley, 2, 18, + sufferings of the rower, 19, 221; + innovation in the manning, 185; + mobility, 222; + length, 222; + number of men on board, 223; + treatment of the slaves, 223–229, 379; + size, 229; + mode of opening fire, 230; + speed, 234; + obsolete, 236. + _Galley of Naples, The_, attacked by the brothers Barbarossa, 51–54. + Gardampe, Chevalier Abel de Bridiers de la, killed at the siege + of Malta, 333. + Gelves, 271. + Genoa, 32, + arrangement with the Grand Turk, 34; + confers honours on Andrea Doria, 105. + Gerard, the founder of the Order of St. John, 287, + death, 288. + Gibraltar, Straits of, 15. + Giou, Chevalier de, 313. + Goialatta, 246. + Goletta, La, 348, + attack on the fortress, 156; + fall, 157; + captured, 313. + Gomez, Alvar, left in charge of Bona, 166. + Gonzaga, Hernando de, his advice at the battle of Prevesa, 198. + Gonzaga, Julia, attempt to capture her, 134–136, + escape, 136. + Gozo, island of, Knights of St. John at, 277, 299, + sacked, 309. + Granada, fall of, 4, 8, 22, + expulsion of the Moors from, 8, 29; + revolt in, 347. + Grandenico, Count, 178. + Granvelle, Cardinal, 7, 359. + Gravière, Admiral Jurien de la, 17, 54, 127, 214, + his description of a Galeasse, 233. + _Great Harry_, 232. + Grimani, Antonio, the Venetian Admiral, defeated at Zonchio, 38. + Grimani, Marco, in command of the Papal contingent, 191, 214, + at Corfu, 191; + raid on Arta, 191. + Guasto, Marquis de, taken prisoner, 101, + his suggestion to Andrea Doria, 104; + in command of the army, 156. + Guerare, Sergeant-Major, at the siege of Malta, 332. + Guglielmotti, Alberto, his work “La Guerra dei Pirati,” 39, 41, 180. + Guimeran, Commandeur de, success of his ambush, 307. + _Guzmana_, the galley, 371. + + Hadj-Hossein, his embassy to Selim I., 76–78. + Haedo, Don Fray Diego de, his History of Algiers, 96, 348, 353, 374. + Hamid, King of Tunis, character of his rule, 348, + conspiracy against, 349; + flight, 350. + Hassan Ali, 53, + ravages towns and villages, 83; + repulsed by Spaniards, 84; + flogged and imprisoned, 86; + released, 87; + attacks Barbarossa, 87. + Hassem, his attack on Oran, 10, + retreat, 10. + Henry II., 34. + Henry VII., 215. + Henry VIII., 14. + Herbert, Arthur, concludes a treaty with Algiers, 377. + Himeral, Basha, 114, 125. + Hogue, La, battle of, 283. + Honoré II., Pope, 291. + Horusco, Pero Lopez de, 166. + Hunyadi, John, 14. + Hyères, island of, 234. + + Ibrahim, Grand Vizier to Soliman, 9, + his mission to Aleppo, 120; + advice, 123; + impressions of Barbarossa, 126; + return from Aleppo, 132; + his relations with Soliman, 173; + murdered, 176. + Innocent VIII., Pope, 98. + Ionian Islands, 179. + Ionian Sea, 49. + Ithaca, island of, 366. + Iviza, 82. + + Janissaries, their character as soldiers, 8, + institution, 279; + system of training, 280; + mutiny in Algiers, 355. + Jerbale, 2, 50, 153, 251. + Jerusalem, Hospice of St. John at, 287. + Jigelli, 2, 56, + siege of, 57. + John of Jerusalem, St., Knights of, 18. _See_ Knights + Judeo, El, 88. + + Kara-Hassan, takes possession of Shershell, 66, + beheaded, 67. + Khorkud, Governor of Caramania, 48. + Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, or Knights of Malta, + their bigotry, 18, + take refuge at Limasol, 34; + characteristics, 35, 36; + fortifications of Rhodes, 35; + faith, 36; + repulse the Turks, 37; + expelled from Rhodes, 42, 277; + forced to retreat to Malta, 42, 277, 292; + their use of galleys, 229; + fight for their “Religion,” 277; + warfare against the corsairs, 277; + history of the Order, 286–291; + founded at Jerusalem, 287; + Grand Masters, 289–298, 301; + crusade against the Infidel, 289; + composition of the Order, 289; + languages, 290; + dress, 290; + form of government, 291; + in the siege of Malta, 300, 324–342; + number of deaths, 300; + capture fortresses, 312; + capture the “puissant galleon,” 313; + at Licata, 352; + their galleys captured by Ali Basha, 352–355. + Knights Templars, foundation of the Order, 291, + code of regulations, 291. + Kustir-Aga, chief Eunuch of the Seraglio, 313. + + Lamirande, Chevalier, at the siege of Malta, 334, + killed, 341. + _Lancaster_, the cruiser, 231. + Lanciani, extract from “The Golden Age of the Renaissance,” 139. + Lantern, Fort of the, captured, 100. + Lautrec, Marshal de, 104. + Leo X., Pope, 41, + attempt on his life, 140; + flight to Rome, 141. + Lepanto, battle of, 6, 23, 362–372; + number of killed and wounded, 372. + Lerici, 104. + Leyva, Antonio de, 143. + Leyva, Don Sancho de, Governor of “Africa,” 267. + Liazzo, 246. + Licastelli, 345. + Licata, 352. + Limasol, 34. + Loredano, Jacques, 34. + Loredano, Captain, at the battle of Lepanto, 369. + Los Gelues, 112, 271. + Louis XII., 100, + joins the “Alliance of Christian Princes,” 38. + + Magliana, Castle of, 140. + Mahan, Rear-Admiral, his books on “Sea Power,” 14. + Mahomedi, banished from Constantinople, 43, + his sons, 43. + Mahomet, result of his death, 286. + Mahomet II., Caliph, captures Constantinople, 33, + fortifies the Dardanelles, 34; + defeated Rhodes, 38; + death, 38. + Majorca, 172. + Malipier, Captain, at the battle of Lepanto, 369. + Malta, siege of, 6, 22, 299–305, 324–342, + number of deaths, 300; + position, 315; + expedition against, 316; + preparations for the siege, 318–321. + Malta, Knights of, _see_ Knights + _Marquesa_, the galley, 371. + Marsa Muzetto harbour, 325, 331. + Marsaquivir, attack on, 10. + Maura, Santa, island of, 207, 271. + Mecca, 4. + Medina-Celi, Juan la Cerda, Duke of, expedition against Tripoli, 311. + Medran, Chevalier Gonzales de, at the siege of St. Elmo, 327, 332, 335. + Mehedia, 251. + Melac, Commandeur Gozon de, 312. + Mendoza, Bernard de, in command of La Goletta, 166. + Mendoza, Don Luis Hurtado de, 143. + Messina, 180, 278, 359. + Minorca, 172. + Mitylene, island of, 43. + Monastir, 2, 250. + Moncada, Don Hugo de, Viceroy of Sicily, 80, + escapes to Iviza, 82; + defeated and slain, 101. + Mondejar, Marquis de, 143. + Monferrato, Monastery of Nuestra Señora de, pilgrimages to, 150, 357. + Monte Cristo island, 113. + Montmorency, Anne de, 281. + Monuc, the eunuch, 206. + Moors, their characteristics, 4, + expulsion from Granada, 8, 29; + their condition in Algiers, 63. + Morea, the, 355, 366. + Morgan, Sir Henry, his capture of Panama, 24. + Morgan, J., his _Compleat History of Algiers_, 243, 250, 345. + Moriscoes, their persecutions, 5, + revolt in Granada, 347. + Mosca, Lodovico del, 39. + Moslem corsairs, their cupidity, 3, + driven out of Spain, 4, 29; + characteristics, 4, 67, 241; + fanaticism, 5, 17; + supremacy on the sea, 8; + frequent defeats, 10; + tyranny, 11; + ships, 18; + booty, 24; + cruel methods, 24, 32; + retrogression, 239; + mode of commencing their careers, 240; + conquer Palestine, 286; + at the siege of Malta, 300; + number of deaths, 300. + Motte, Chevalier de la, at the siege of St. Elmo, 327. + Mourad-Reis, 201. + Moustafa-Billah, Caliph, 287. + Muley Hamid, negotiations with, 330. + Muley Hassan, King of Tunis, 130, 137, + restored to his kingdom, 161; + terms of his vassalage, 162. + Mustafa, in command of the land forces against Malta, 316, 322, + captures Famagusta, 362. + + Naples, seized, 40, + invasion of, 90; + reception of Don John of Austria at, 358. + Navarro, Count Pedro de, seizes the town of Bougie, 55, + captures Algiers, 62, 64; + his Tower, 64. + Navarro’s Tower, siege of, 65, 67, 91–95, + captured, 95; + pulled down, 97. + Nef, the, 18, 232. + Negropont, Bailli of, at the siege of Malta, 326, 332, 333, + killed, 341. + Nunez, Martin, his embassy to the Pope, 163. + + Occhiali. _See_ Ali Basha. + Ojeda, Captain, rescues the _Capitana_ at the battle of Lepanto, 371. + Omedes, Juan d’, Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, 278, + warned of the approach of the corsairs, 281; + refuses to take alarm, 281, 306. + Oneglia, 98. + Oran, 2, 73, + attack on, 10. + Oristano, Gulf of, 236. + Osmanli, their warlike achievements on land, 15. + Ottoman, 292, + his siege of Rhodes, 293. + _Our Lady of the Conception_, 45. + + Palamos, Bay of, 236. + Palermo, 265. + Palestine, conquered by Moslems, 286. + Palma, 172. + Panama, capture of, 24. + Pantellaria, island of, 236. + Pantera, Captain Pantero, “L’ Armata Navale,” 225. + Parma, Prince of, at the battle of Lepanto, 364. + Paschal II., Pope, 301. + Passaro, Cape, 352. + Patras, Turks defeated at, 109. + _Patrona_ galley, capture of, 275. + Paul III., his scheme of defence for Rome, 139. + Paxo, island of, 180. + Payens, Hugues de, founds the Order of the Knights Templars, 291. + Pedro, Francisco San, 371. + Penne, Barras de la, on the treatment of men on board the galleys, 223. + Peter the Hermit, 287. + Philip II., King of Spain, 274, 311, + forms the “Holy League,” 357; + his fleet, 360. + Piali, Admiral, 10, + in command of the fleet against Malta, 316, 322. + Pierre, St., Isle of, 235. + Pius V., Pope, 356, 373, + forms the “Holy League,” 357. + Portugal, Don Juan, King of, his armada at Barcelona, 148. + Portugal, Prince Luis of, at Barcelona, 148, 150. + Prescott, William Hickling, 4, + his description of the Janissaries, 279; + of Don John of Austria, 358; + of the battle of Lepanto, 364, 368. + Press-gang, methods of the, 226. + Prevesa, battle of, 6, 22, 108, 189, 190, 194–218, 366. + Punta delle Forche, 277, 333. + + Rabadan, Celebi, 92, 112. + Rabadan, left in charge of Tunis, 351. + Raschid, 130, 137. + Raschid, Caliph Haroun, 287. + Ravenstein, Count Philip of, 39. + _Real_, the, 364. + Reggio, 32, + sack of, 133. + Reis, Aisa-, left in charge of “Africa,” 261, 264, + his defence, 266; + captured, 267. + Reis, Dragut-, _See_ Dragut + Requesens, Don Luiz de, disaster to his fleet, 234. + _Revenge_, the, 354. + Rhodes, island of, 242, + seized by the Knights of St. John, 35, 292; + besieged, 36, 293; + serpent at, 294–296; + derivation of the name, 297. + Ribera, Don Perisan de, 80. + Ricasoli, 333. + Richard II, 215. + Rio, Juan del, taken captive, 71. + Rivière, Chevalier La, 322. + Robeira, Captain, repulses the corsairs, 84. + Rocca Guillelma, fortress of, besieged, 99. + Rodas, Capitan de, 111. + Roderick the Goth, conquered by the Osmanli, 15, 29. + Rome, fortifications of, 139. + Romegas, Commandeur de, 312, 313, + his account of the battle of Lepanto, 360. + Rosell, Don Cayetano, his _Historia del combate naval de Lepanto_, + 359, 364. + Roverejo, Juan, war with Cordoba, 99. + Roxalana, Sultana, her influence over Soliman, 174, + characteristics, 174; + jealousy, 174; + murders Ibrahim, 176. + + Salaerrez, 88. + Saleh-Reis, 187. + Salerno, Gulf of, 101. + Sallee, the rovers, 237. + Sandoval, El Maestro Don Fray Prudencio de, his history of Charles V., + 43, 70, 71, 108, 142, 144, 150, 155. + Sangle, Claude de la, his death, 309. + Sangullo, Antonio de, 139. + _Santa Ana_, bravery of the, 353. + Santa Cruz, Marquis of, at the battle of Lepanto, 364, + rescues the _Capitana_, 371. + _Santa Maria_, the flagship of Columbus, 231. + Sardinia, 136. + Satalie, Gulf of, 47. + Savona, fortification of, 103. + Sceberass, Mount, 301, 307, 325, 342. + Scutari, 38. + Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean, + take refuge in Northern Africa, 1; + their deeds of terror, 2; + cupidity, 3; + fanaticism, 5, 17; + autocratic rule, 7, 25; + equality, 7; + aptitude for the sea, 8; + defeats, 10; + nefarious doings, 15; + characteristics of their leaders, 16, 25, 284, 376; + ships, 18; + character of the men, 26; + leagues against, 29; + relations with the Turks, 33. + Seignelay, his criticism of Admiral de Tourville, 283. + Selim I., Sultan of Turkey. _See_ Soliman + Selim II., Sultan of Turkey, 356, + his character, 356; + lays claim to the island of Cyprus, 356. + Serpent, method of killing, 294–296. + Sesse, Duke of, 311. + Sessola, islet of, 207. + Sfax, 2, 250. + Sforza, Lodovico, Duke of Milan, 100. + Shershell, 2, 66. + Shott-el-Jerid, 153. + Sinan-Reis, in command of La Goletta fortress, 156, + at the battle of Prevesa, 197; + in command of the Janissaries, 279, 281; + character as a leader, 285, 307; + his expedition against Malta, 306; + sacks the island of Gozo, 309; + captures Tripoli, 309. + Skiathos, 187. + Skios island, 187. + Slaves, on board galleys, their treatment, 223–229, + mutiny at Lepanto, 228. + Smyrna, Basha of, 48. + Soliman the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey, 9, 14, 109, + expels the Knights of St. John from Rhodes, 42, 277, 299; + embassy from Barbarossa, 60, 76; + sends reinforcements, 61; + recalls his ships, 61; + his conquest of the Mamelukes, 77; + invites the cooperation of Barbarossa, 110; + appoints him commander of his fleet, 111, 117, 127; + receives gifts from him, 118; + his reception of him, 120; + relations with Ibrahim, 173; + under the influence of Roxalana, 174; + declares war against Venice, 179; + defeated, 179; + preparations for campaigns, 183, 277, 316; + his demands from Charles V., 270; + loss of his “puissant galleon,” 313; + lamentations of his people, 314; + holds a conference, 316; + expedition against Malta, 316; + his death, 356. + Spaniards, under Moorish rule, 30, + expedition against the Barbarossas, 62; + repulse Hassan, 84; + captives, assist in the capture of Algiers, 89; + restored to liberty, 89. + Spartivento, Cape, 136. + Spezzia, Gulf of, 104. + Susa, 2, 250. + Swertius, Franciscus, his collection of epitaphs, 373. + + Tabas, 88. + Taranto, 32. + Tarik, 15, 29. + Tenes, 2, + fall of, 72. + Thevenot, his Travels, 297. + Tiber, the, 139. + Tineo, Garzia de, kills Uruj Barbarossa, 73. + Tlemcen, 2. + Tlemcen, Sultan of, his flight to Fez, 72. + Toledo, Don Garcia de, 230; + in the expedition against Dragut, 265; + his character as a ruler, 317. + Toledo, Don Pedro de, 273. + Tours, Viscomte de, sent to Genoa, 102. + Tourville, Admiral de, criticism on, 283. + Traparni, 265. + Tripoli, 2, 153, + defence of, 10; + capture, 309; + fortifications, 311; + expedition against, 311. + Trivulce, Theodore, 104. + Tunis, 2, + captured by the corsairs, 137, 375; + massacre in, 141, 159; + fortifications repaired, 146; + rebellion in, 348; + appeal to Ali Basha, 349; + flight of Hamid, 350. + Tunis, Sultan of, his treaties with the Barbarossas, 51, 61, + repudiates treaty, 59. + Turks, their character as soldiers, 8, 124, + relations with the Sea-wolves, 33; + attack on Rhodes, 37; + defeated at Patras, 109. + Tuscany, Duke of, 235. + + Urbain II., Pope, 287. + Urbino, Duke of, 99, + at the battle of Lepanto, 364. + + Vagnor, Chevalier, 333. + Valentia, ravaged by corsairs, 83. + Valetta, position of, 307, 342. + Valette, Jean Parisot de la, Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, + 6, 248; + his characteristics, 301, 309; + creed, 302; + personal example in the siege of Malta, 302–305; + his high conception of duty, 310; + expedition against Tripoli, 311; + repulsed, 312; + summons help, 318; + preparations for the siege, 318–321; + address to his brethren, 319; + at the siege of Malta, 324–328; + reinforcements, 328. + Vargas, Martin de, in command of the fortress of Navarro, 91, + besieged, 91–95; + wounded and taken prisoner, 95; + beheaded, 96. + Vasto, Marquis de, 143. + Vega, Don Alvaro, in command of “Africa,” 267. + Vega, Don Juan de, Viceroy of Sicily, 273, + in the expedition against Dragut, 265. + Velez, Peñon de, captured, 312. + Venalcadi, 73, + escapes, 86; + attacks Barbarossa, 87; + fight, 88; + beheaded, 88. + _Vengeur_, the, 354. + Venice, 32, + treaty of commerce concluded, 34; + relations with Soliman, 179; + war declared, 179; + “Holy League” formed, 357. + Veniero, Sebastian in command of the Venetian fleet, 360, 364. + Vera, Don Diego de, sent to capture Algiers, 70, + defeated, 71. + Vercoyran, Chevalier de, at the siege of Malta, 332. + Vertot, M. L’Abbé de, 273, 297, 311. + _Victory_, the, 354. + Villaret, Fulke de, Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, 35, + seizes Rhodes, 35, 292. + Villegagnon, Commandeur de, his interview with the Grand Master, 281. + Villeneuve, Helion de, Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, 293, + character of his rule, 293; + death, 297. + Vittoriosa, 299. + Volo, Gulf of, 187. + + Ximenes, Fray Francisco, Cardinal Bishop of Toledo, 70. + Yamboli, 216. + Yonis Bey, sent to Venice, 178. + + Zante, island of, 114, 313. + Zara, port of, 227. + Zay, Basha, 114, 125. + Zonchio, battle of, 38. + +PRINTED BY +HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LTD., +LONDON AND AYLESBURY. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-wolves of the Mediterranean, by +Currey E. Hamilton + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13689 *** |