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diff --git a/old/13575.txt b/old/13575.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b3bcadb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13575.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4330 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, How to Observe in Archaeology, by Various + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: How to Observe in Archaeology + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 1, 2004 [eBook #13575] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY*** + + +E-text prepared by Philip H. Hitchcock + + + +Note: The spelling of some place names in the index differs + from that given in the main text. + + + + + +HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY + +Suggestions for Travellers in the Near and Middle East + +THE BRITISH MUSEUM + +1920 + + + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. By Sir F. G. Keynon + + +PART I + +Chapter I. INTRODUCTORY. By G. F. Hill +Chapter II. METHOD. By W. M. Flinders Petrie + +LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES CONCERNED WITH +THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST + +LIST OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE + + +PART II + +INTRODUCTORY NOTE +Chapter I. FLINT IMPLEMENTS. +Chapter II. GREECE PROPER. By T. P. Droop +Chapter III. ASIA MINOR. By J. G. C. Anderson and J. L. Myres +Chapter IV. CYPRUS. By J. L. Myres +Chapter V. CENTRAL AND NORTH SYRIA. By D. G. Hogarth +Chapter VI. PALESTINE. By R. A. S. Macalister +Chapter VII. EGYPT. By W. M. Flinders Petrie +Chapter VIII. MESOPOTAMIA. By H. R. Hall + + +APPENDIX + +SUMMARIES OF LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES + +INDEX + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES + +Some Hieroglyphic Signs liable to be confused with each other +Flint Implements +Types of Greek Pottery, &c. +Greek Alphabets +Asia Minor Pottery types +Hittite Inscriptions, &c. +Bilingual (Greek and Cypriote) Dedication to Demeter and + Persephone from Curium +Syrian Pottery. +Syrian Weapons, &c. +West Semitic Alphabets +West Semitic Numerals +Palestinian Pottery types +Egyptian Pottery types +Mesopotamian Pottery, Seals, &c. +Cuneiform and other Scripts + + + + +PREFACE + + +This Handbook is intended primarily for the use of travellers in the +Near and Middle East who are interested in antiquities without being +already trained archaeologists. It is the outcome of a recommendation +made by the Archaeological Joint Committee, a body recently +established, on the initiative of the British Academy and at the +request of the Foreign Office, to focus the knowledge and experience +of British scholars and archaeologists and to place it at the +disposal of the Government when advice or information is needed upon +matters connected with archaeological science. The Committee is +composed of representatives of the principal English societies +connected with Archaeology, and it is hoped that it may be recognized +as the natural body of reference, both for Government Departments and +for the public, on matters connected with archaeological research in +foreign lands. It represents no one institution and no one interest. +Its purpose is to protect the interests of archaeological science, to +secure a sane and enlightened administration of antiquities in the +lands which are now being more fully opened to research, and to +promote the advance of knowledge in the spheres to which its +competence extends. + +One means of serving this cause is to provide information for the +guidance of travellers in the lands of antiquity. Much knowledge is +lost because it comes in the way of those who do not know how to +profit by it or to record it. Accordingly, just as the Natural +History Museum has issued a series of pamphlets of advice to the +collectors of natural history specimens, so it has been thought that +a handbook of elementary information and advice may be found of +service by travellers with archaeological tastes; and the Trustees of +the British Museum have undertaken the publication of it. The +handbook has been prepared by a number of persons, whose competence +is beyond dispute; and the thanks of all who find it useful are due +to Mr. G. F. Hill (who has acted as general editor as well as part +author), Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Prof. J. L. +Myres, Mr. J. G. C. Anderson, Mr. J. P. Droop, Prof. R. A. S. +Macalister, Mr. H. R. Hall, Mr. A. J. B. Wace, Mr. 0. M. Dalton, Mr. +R. L. Hobson, Mr. E. J. Forsdyke, Mr. A. H. Smith, Mr. R. A. Smith, +Mr. A. B. Cook, and Prof. G. A. Cooke. Each contributor has been left +considerable latitude as to the method of treatment of the subject +allotted to him, and no attempt has been made to bring the various +sections into uniformity of pattern. Owing to Prof. Petrie's absence +in Egypt, it has not been possible to submit final proofs of his +contributions to him. + +Suggestions for improvement in future editions will be welcomed, and +will no doubt be forthcoming as the result of experience. Meanwhile +it is hoped that this little book will accompany many travellers in +foreign lands, and that the labour expended on it will bear fruit in +the improved observation and record of archaeological data, in +establishing sound principles for the administration of antiquities, +and in enforcing proper methods of excavation and conservation. It +may also be found of service by those who study the results of +research as they appear in museums. + +F. G. KENYON. + + + + +PART I + +CHAPTER I + + +INTRODUCTORY + + +The hints which it is the object of this volume to convey are not +meant for experienced archaeologists. They are rather addressed to +those who, while anxious to observe and record the antiquities which +they may see on their travels, are likely, owing to lack of training, +to miss things that may be of importance, or, having observed them, +to bring home an imperfect record. It is hoped also that they may +catch the attention of some of those who are not interested in the +subject, but, coming into possession of antiquities, may unwittingly +do incalculable harm by allowing them to be destroyed or dispersed +before any record has been made. + +Most, if not all, of the countries with which we are concerned, have +their Laws of Antiquities. It cannot be too strongly insisted that +those laws, even if they might be better than they are, should be +obeyed by the traveller. He should familiarize himself with their +main provisions, which are summarized in an Appendix. The traveller +who makes it his object to loot a country of its antiquities, +smuggling objects out of it and disguising the sources from which +they are obtained, does a distinct dis-service to archaeological +science. Although he may enrich collections, public or private, half +or more than half of the scientific value of his acquisitions is +destroyed by the fact that their provenance is kept secret or falsely +stated. Such action is equivalent to tearing out whole pages from a +history and destroying them for ever, for each antiquity, whatever it +may be, is in its way a part of history, whether of politics, arts, +or civilization. For the same reason anything like unauthorized +excavation, especially by unskilled hands, is gravely to be +deprecated. To dig an ancient site unskilfully or without keeping a +proper record is to obliterate part of a manuscript which no one else +will ever be able to read. The tendency of recent legislation is to +allow more generous terms in the matter of licences for export to +excavators and collectors, and the harsher provisions of some of the +existing laws are likely soon to be amended. + +Before leaving home, the traveller will be well advised to make +inquiries at the museums or at the head-quarters of the +archaeological societies which concern themselves specially with +the places which he intends to visit. A list of these museums and +societies is appended to this section (p. 26). It is hardly necessary +to warn him that archaeological training cannot be acquired in a few +days, and that he will have to buy his experience in various ways; +but the more time he can devote to working through the collections in +this country, the more useful will be his observations abroad. He +will be able to learn what kind of antiquities it is especially +desirable to look for, not merely with the object of filling gaps in +the public collections, but for the advancement of archaeological +knowledge in general. + +The object of archaeological travel and excavation is not to collect +antiquities so that they may be arranged according to the existing +catalogues of museums, but to collect fresh information to amplify +and correct what we now know, to make our knowledge of the past more +complete and useful. + +On arrival in the country of his choice, he is recommended to +continue at the National Museum the study, which we suppose he has +already begun in the museums at home, of the kind of antiquities +which he is likely to come across. But he should also take an early +opportunity of getting into touch with the local British +Archaeological School or other similar institution, where he will +receive advice what to look for and where and how to look, and +assistance in procuring suitable equipment. Thus the traveller who +starts from Athens or Jerusalem should apply at the British School of +Archaeology. He may there, it he desires, receive instruction in any +of the methods described in Chapter II, in which a little practical +demonstration is worth pages of print, and will be given all possible +assistance in obtaining such articles of equipment as are available +on the spot. (Photographic supplies and all scientific instruments +should be brought out from England.) The best maps of the district +will also be accessible for examination (but the traveller is +recommended to make inquiries in this respect before leaving +England); the libraries will provide the literature dealing with the +routes he proposes to take; and such a collection as the type-series +of pottery and the Finlay collection of prehistoric antiquities at +the British School at Athens may be useful to supplement his previous +studies at museums, and enable him to observe with intelligence the +potsherds, &c., that he may find on an ancient site. In return, he +will be expected to report his results either to the School or to +some other scientific society or museum at home. It should be +unnecessary to remind him that the conditions of the law of the land +relating to the reporting of discoveries to the competent authorities +should be strictly observed. Such authorities should also be informed +of any destruction or removal of monuments which may be noticed. + +Another matter which should not be neglected is the obtaining +of such licences as may be required by law for the acquisition in the +country or export therefrom of objects of antiquity. Advice on this +matter can be obtained at the local School or National Museum. + +It is possible that the traveller will begin his journey at a point +other than the capital. Inquiries should be made at the London head- +quarters of the Schools concerning residents at such places who may +be able to give advice to intending travellers. + +The traveller will doubtless bring back with him such antiquities as +he is permitted to export. A word of general advice on this matter +may not be out of place here. The essential value of antiquities, +apart from their purely artistic interest, lies in the circumstances +in which they are found. The inexperienced traveller is apt to pick +up a number of objects haphazard, without accurately noting their +find-spots, and even, getting tired of them, as a child of flowers +that he has picked, to discard them a mile or two away. If the first +act is a blunder, the second is a crime; it is better to leave them +lying in place. For the same reason, it is highly desirable that +objects found together (e.g. the contents of a tomb) should as far as +possible be kept together, or at least that accurate record of the +whole group should be made, since the archaeological value of a find +may depend on a single object, apparently of small importance. +Nothing, for instance, is more common, or more distressing to the +numismatist, than the division of a hoard of coins among various +persons before they have been examined by an expert. If they must be +divided, good impressions should at least be made by one of the +methods described in Chapter II, and, if the coins are of gold or +silver, the weights should be noted. This should be done even if the +coins, to the inexperienced eye, appear to be all alike. The +knowledge that any coin from a hoard may be of greater value than a +similar coin found singly may induce finders to report such finds +before dispersing them. What applies to coins is equally applicable, +in various ways, to all classes of antiquities. + +It is assumed that the primary object of the traveller is not +speculation in the pecuniary value of the antiquities that he may +acquire, although he may be not unreasonably inclined to recover some +of his expenses by disposing of objects which do not appeal to him. +Should that be so, although the authorities of public museums +obviously cannot be agents or valuers in such transactions between +the owner and private collectors, they are as obviously willing to +consider offers which are made to their museums in the first instance +and, if the objects are not required by them, to advise the owner in +what quarter he may be likely to meet with a purchaser. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + +METHOD + + +1. Outfit. + +Each traveller will require to provide for his special interests; but +for any archaeological work the following things are desirable. Note- +books of squared paper. Drawing-blocks of blue-squared paper. Paper +for wet squeezes, and for dry squeezes. Brush for wet squeezes (spoke +brush). One or two so-metre tapes. A few bamboo gardening canes for +markers in planning. Divide one in inches or centimetres for +measuring buildings. A steel rod, 3 ft. x 1 inch for probing. Field- +glass, or low-power telescope. Prismatic compass with card partly +black, to see at night. Large and small celluloid protractors for +plotting angles on plans. Plotting-scale, tenths of inches and +millimetres. Maps of the district, the best available. Aneroid +barometer, if collecting flints; small size; can be tested by +observing in a tall lift, or by putting in a tumbler and pressing the +hand air-tight over the mouth. The zero error, or absolute values, +are not wanted for levelling, only delicacy in small variations. +Magnifiers, a few pocket size; will also serve for presents. +Indelible pencils, pens, and ink in strong corked pocket bottle. +Reservoir pens dry up too much in some climates. China ink for +permanent marking. Strips of adhesive paper, about a inch and a +inches wide, to put round objects for labelling. Strong steel pliers, +wire-cutting. A few pocket-knives will serve for presents. It is best +to carry money in a little bag or screw of paper, loose in the jacket +pocket, it in a risky district. It can then be dropped on any alarm +and picked up afterwards. + +Photographic.[1] +In the selection of a camera much will depend upon the nature of the +work to be undertaken, the conditions of travel, and the climate to +which the camera will be exposed. For accurate work a stand camera is +always to be preferred to one of the hand variety, and care should be +taken to choose an instrument that is strongly made and of simple +construction. The essentials of a good stand camera are that it shall +be rigid, possess a rising and falling front, a swing back, and +bellows which will be capable of extension to fully double the focal +length of the lens to be used with it. + +[1]Prof. Petrie is not responsible for this section, which is due to +the kind assistance of some professional photographers.-ED. + +The rising and falling front gives a power of modifying the field of +view in a vertical direction. The swing back preserves the +verticality of architectural subjects. In some cases, when used with +the pivots vertical, it is a help in focussing the subject. The +possible extension of the distance between the lens stop and the +ground glass to twice the focal length (which is as a rule the +distance between the same points, when a distant object is in focus) +enables a small subject to be reproduced in natural size. + +For work abroad where extremes of temperature or excessive variations +have to be contended with, a special tropical camera is supplied by +most of the leading makers. Its well-seasoned hard wood and metal- +bound joints render it suitable for hard wear, and reduce the risk of +leakage through warping or shrinkage. The tripod stand should be of +the so-called threefold variety, with sliding legs which can be +adapted to broken ground. If a loose screw is used for attaching the +camera to the stand, a spare screw should be kept in reserve. It is +important that this stand should be strongly made, and light patterns +subject to undue vibrations in the wind should be discarded. For +photographing small objects in the studio, a small table is more +convenient than a tripod support. If the camera will not sit flat on +the table, a bed can easily be designed for it. Better work will be +done if this is prepared in advance than if an improvised support is +used. As regards the size of the outfit, quarter-plate (3 1/4 x 4 1/4 +inches) will usually be found to be large enough for the traveller. +For anything in the nature of studio work in a museum or in connexion +with an excavation a half-plate camera (6 1/2 x 4 3/4 inches) is more +satisfactory. Where a hand camera is preferred it should be one +capable of adjustment of focus, and here again, strength and +simplicity should be looked for. It should be provided with effective +tripod legs, for studied exposures. Plates or flat films are +preferable to roll fills [2] which are difficult to manipulate away +from home. Flat films are less bulky and less breakable than glass, +and can be sent by post. They are supplied by the makers in packs of +12 for daylight loading into a film-pack adapter, which must be +provided to take the place of the ordinary dark slides for glass +plates. The lens should be a modern anastigmatic by a good maker. A +focal length of about six inches will be best for a quarter-plate +camera. A bad lens makes success impossible even by accident. + +[2] Transcriber's note: 'fills' in the original text is possibly a +misprint for 'films'. + +The stops will probably be of the Iris pattern, incorporated in the +lens and so not likely to be lost, as often happens with loose stops. + +A few words on the theory and use of the stops and on the F-notation +may be of service. The speed of a photographic lens depends on the +ratio of the effective aperture to the focal length. Thus any two +lenses used at apertures of F/8, that is at apertures having +diameters one-eighth of their respective focal lengths, should be of +the same speed, though both lenses and apertures may be very +different. In a given lens, the speed varies directly with the area +of the aperture admitting the light, that is with the square of the +diameter of the aperture. The series of stops usually employed is +calculated so that each aperture is half the area of the preceding. +Stated in terms of the focal length they are known as F/5.6, F/8, +F/11.3, F/16, F/22.6, F/32, &c. Since the squares of those numbers, +31.4, 64, 127.7, 256, 510.7, 1024 are approximately each twice the +preceding number of the series, the apertures, F(ocal length), +divided by the successive numbers as denominators, are each half the +area of the preceding and require twice the exposure, F/16 requires +twice the 'exposure of F/11.3, and four times that of F/8, and so +throughout the scale. + +Stops are used to regulate either 'depth of focus' or length of +exposure. The 'depth of focus' means the distance before and behind +the point in theoretically accurate focus, at which objects are +sufficiently focussed, for the purpose the photographer has in view. +This length is greatest when only the central portion of the lens is +in use. It is greatest with a pinhole, and least with a full +aperture. Hence a small stop is required if the picture is to include +near and far objects, while a large aperture may be used if all the +subject is far enough away to be in clear focus--say more than 25 +feet--or if it is a flat surface. The small stop is also required when +the rising front or the swing back is in use. The power of regulating +the time of exposure is convenient for shortening long exposures in +dark interiors, or for lengthening inconveniently short exposures in +a bright light. + +In practice it will be best to become familiar with the use of about +three stops, say the full aperture (perhaps F/5.6 or F/8), F/16, and +F/32. + +For judging long exposures, the use of an actinometer (issued in many +inexpensive forms) is helpful. + +A telephoto attachment increases the photographer's power of +rendering distant details on a large scale. The results are greatly +superior to enlargements of a small plate. It is, however, useless in +a wind, unless the camera is specially supported, and is otherwise +rather tricky to use. The traveller is strongly advised to master its +management at home. It should be adjusted by the maker to the camera +for which it is intended. + +Unless a photographer's dark room can be had the developing of the +bulk is best left until the return home, but tests should be made to +see that the exposures are correct. A piece of ruby fabric or ruby +paper tied over an electric light will give a safe light after dark, +and 'Scalol' or some such one-solution developer which requires +merely the addition of water, will give all that is needed for +developing. For fixing use 4 oz. hypo to a pint of water. + +In warm climates, use cold water. If it is not cool enough, the +gelatine of the negatives may give trouble. In that case, get colder +water, and use an alum bath. If water is precious, plates can be +sufficiently washed by moving them forward in succession, through +half-dozen soup plates filled with water. + +If habitual use is not made of tabloid developers, &c., it is +advisable to have some in reserve, for use in the case of broken +bottles and spilt solutions. + + Useful notes and maxims. + +An over-exposed plate gives no dark shadows in the print. + +An under-exposed plate gives no high lights. When in doubt, choose +the risk of over-exposure. + +To test the safety of your camera--Half draw the shutter, and expose +part of the plate in the camera, in the sunshine, without uncapping +the lens, and develop. + +To test the safety of your red light--Expose a plate, divide it into +two, develop half in the dark, and half for the same time, with the +same solution by the light you are testing, and compare the results. +This test is worth making, as photographers are apt to give +themselves much discomfort from exaggerated caution. + + 2. Itinerary. + +Where there are efficient maps the only need is to mark in the +position of any antiquities, by cross-bearings to clear points, with +the compass, drawn in with a sharp pencil. Where the maps are too +small, or deficient, a continuous register of time should be made, +noting the minute of starting and of stopping; this over known +distances will serve to give the value over the unknown. Note whether +mounted or walking, and the compass bearing of the track; also the +bearings of known points around, whenever stopping. Without any known +bearings pacing and compass used carefully may go over the roughest +ground without five per cent. error in the day. + +It is better when on unknown ground to plot a map as you go, so that +no misunderstanding of notes can arise after. If a squared block +cannot be used, at least draw the bearings and distances roughly, +writing in the amounts. This should be plotted up accurately in the +evening. A photograph may be unintelligible later in its detail. It +is best where known features, a temple, tombs, &c., are in a view, to +sketch the outline when photographing, and write in the details, so +as to give a key to the photograph. Inquire about antiquities +whenever stopping. When camping, villagers usually come up to see who +it is; then tell them the directions of the places around. They will +ask how you know; show them the map, and they are puzzled; talk over +all the names a few miles round, and then anything notable in the +district may be remarked, and inquiries made. Several men together +help each other to remember, and bring out more remarks. Sometimes an +intelligent man will describe all the antiquities he knows in the +district: this should be followed closely on the map, and +difficulties resolved at once, so as to get a clear record noted. + +Of course, enormous exaggerations are met with, and not one report in +ten will prove to be anything. Tracking up the source of bought +antiquities is one of the best methods, and the one by which +Naukratis was found. + +If travelling by camel, it is practicable to diverge widely on foot, +if objects are looked for well ahead. A foot track diverging 4.5 +degrees, and then converging likewise, will easily keep in touch with +a baggage camel. Fix on the camping-place in the morning, and let +every one know of it, so that if accidentally parted all can rejoin +by night. + + 3. Recording. + +Buildings or ruins. +Fix position by bearings to mapped points; also note bearings of any +prominent feature near by, which may serve for finding the position +again. Sketch a plan, always north up in the book, note bearing of +main wall, and then measure with bamboo rod all original dimensions, +with some diagonals to fix angles; do not forget the thickness of the +walls. It is best for a long length to stretch a tape, pegged down by +the ring, and pulled tight by hand: read off all positions of doors, +windows, cross-walls, &c., on one long length, and not as separate +short lengths. If possible plot the measures on squared paper as you +go, and then any errors or omissions will be checked at once. 'E. and +O.E.' has no place in a plan. + +Town mounds. +Estimate height over bare land outside; eye height is a trifle over +five feet. At the foot of the mound see where the horizon cuts the +shoulder of it to find eye height; walk up to that point, and sight +another five feet; so on, till you see over the top. If there is any +section, by a stream side, or digging, or land-slip, look for strata, +stone or brick walls and floor levels, and for any distinctive +potsherds; observing levels as before. Look all over the top for +potsherds, to find the latest period of the town. Look around the +mound for any early potsherds. Sherds on the slopes are worth less; +as they have probably slipped down. Red burnt brick in Egypt is all +Roman or Arab; in Greece and Asia Minor, red brick and mortar is +Roman, Byzantine, or later. + +Walk to the middle of the site or mound, and see its extent. Then +walk round the wall line, or circuit of it, pacing and compass +noting, to sketch the shape and size of the site: especially look for +any straight lines of wall showing. Sometimes a mud-brick wall may be +entirely denuded away, yet the position is shown by the sharp edge of +the strew of potsherds on the surface. + +Look for any slag-heaps; these are the remains of lime burning, and +show where stone buildings existed; sometimes foundations still +remain. Look for any recent pits or trenches; these show where stone +or burnt brick has been dug out in modern times, and may give the +position and plan of a temple or church. + +See if any rubbish mounds can be traced outside of the town site; +usually marked by a gentle walk-up slope, and a steep thrown-down +slope, and mainly consisting of pottery, e.g. Monte Testaccio at +Rome, and mounds east of Cairo. + +Town sites rise in Egypt about forty inches a century, by the dust, +rubbish, and decay of mud-brick buildings. In Palestine the rise is +five feet a century, owing to the rains. + +Cemeteries. +These have generally been more or less plundered; if recently, the +pits show; if anciently, there are scraps of pottery lying about. If +there are pebbles or marl thrown up from deep levels, there is +evidence of tombs, and they may be unplundered. Blown sand or grass +may hide all trace of tombs. Sometimes the whole masonry of a tomb +may have been removed, and the gravel filling-in have spread so +uniformly that there is no sign of building, although a course or two +of stone may yet remain under the surface. The surface of ground +should be closely looked over at sunrise or sunset to show up the +slight hollows or ridges by the shadows. After rain differences will +often appear in the drying of the ground. Ask any one near a site if +he knows of any one getting stones, or bronze, or plunder from tombs. +Anything found will probably be greatly exaggerated, and no clear +idea of the time of finding can be reached; yet any such detail may +be useful. + +Any large town site must have a cemetery, which is near it in most +cases. In Egypt the towns being in the inundated land, the cemeteries +are at some miles distant on the desert. The prehistoric cemeteries +may be anywhere; the historic cemeteries are usually round the ends +of the dyke roads, which were thrown up in the early dynasties as +irrigation dams, and still serve as the roads of the country. In +Greek lands cemeteries are always outside a town, usually by the side +of the roads. + +Caves should always be carefully explored; the roof and sides +searched for inscriptions or carvings; rock pockets in the sides +examined; and the floor dug over for potsherds and any small objects. +If there are different strata these should be each removed +separately, and the depth and positions of objects noted. + + 4. Methods of Planning. + +Though we cannot here give full technical details of all the methods +for plans and surveys, it will be useful to state the scope of each +method, so that they may be kept in mind, and whichever is best +suited to the individual and his work may be provided for. + + 1. Plain pacing. +After pacing lengths of a few hundred feet, up and down hill and +flat, tape the distances, and learn true value of pace. Careful +pacing can be done to one or two per cent. of the whole; and properly +used, in triangles, may give a useful plan. + + 2. Pacing and compass. +This covers large spaces quickly, but the compass is less accurate +than the pace. + + 3. Tape. +Lines of taping must be well planned, with triangle ties to secure +the angles. Pulling up straight is difficult in a wind, especially on +broken ground, and one per cent. error is quite possible then. When +working alone peg the tape down by the ring, or round a stone. + + 4. Tapes and cross lines. +Stretch two strings crossing squarely on the ground: fix the square +by laying a squared drawing block below and looking at strings over +it. Two helpers each hold a tape, zero on a string, and the two tapes +are held together by the observer and read off, giving the distance +to each string; this is to be plotted at once on squared paper, and +the plan is completed in detail as it progresses, without any note- +book or later plotting. The helpers must be capable of holding the +tape square to the string. Good for sites up to two hundred or three +hundred feet. + + 5. Plane table. +Excellent for some ground, where objects are visible from a distance: +otherwise it requires a marker put up at every point to be fixed. +Cumbrous to carry, much slower than 4. + + 6. Box sextant, used as giving angular accuracy to any of the +foregoing; most useful with taping, and in following. + + 7. Sextant and three points. +The most rapid accurate method is to adopt three points visible all +over the ground (as trees or chimneys) or set up three markers. Find +shape and size of this triangle. Then at any point take two angles +visible between the points, and this fixes position of observer. A +large site may have forty points fixed in two hours thus to about 1 +in 1000. For detail and plotting see Petrie, _Methods and Aims in +Archaeology_. + + 8. Theodolite. +For the most accurate work a theodolite is used, giving points to +about 1 in 5000. It is almost essential for any astronomical meridian +or latitude. + +None of these methods necessitate any helper, except 4 which needs +two helpers. The observation is from the point to be fixed in 1, 2, +3, 4, and 7; but it is _to_ the point, needing signals or visible +features on the points, in 5, 6, and 8, and for those methods a large +stock of rods must be taken, and the whole ground gone over, before +the work of observation; such methods take far more time than the +others. The able surveyor will know by instinct how to use all the +inferior methods as supplements to the higher, whenever time demands +and accuracy allows. + +When first searching a site, note the direction of any wall to the +horizon point, and so see if other walls are parallel. + +In all cases a plumb line is wanted for alining foundations and +scattered blocks. Always carry six feet of thin string, and pick up +the nearest suitable stone for a weight, up to three or four pounds +in a wind. + + 5. Drawing and Copying. + + + + +Inscriptions. +If there is any chance of being interrupted by any claimant, or by +crowds, always make a hand copy at once, as quickly as possible. +After a squeeze or photograph is taken, yet the hand copy is often of +value to explain positions of squeeze slips or detail of photographs. + +If there is no chance of interruption, then a carefully drawn copy +full size should be made. For this a dry squeeze is the ground work. +Lay a sheet of thin paper, such as thin wrapping or plain paper, on +the stone, and press all the letters over with the fingers, so as to +make a sharp bend; a break in the deep hollows does not matter. Then, +putting the paper on a drawing-board or sheet of millboard, cock it +up so that the shadow of the squeeze is seen, and draw over the lines +(starting at right base), referring to the stone whenever uncertain. +This is the only right way to copy hieroglyphics by hand. Note that +the edges are usually rather worn, and the drawn lines should be +inside the squeeze lines. If the stone is large, several lesser +sheets are best. + +Where there is writing, or the relief is too faint to squeeze, put +the paper immediately below the first line, and draw it sign for +sign, so that the spacing is preserved and no omission is possible. +Fold back the paper as each line is copied, and so always keep the +copying close below the line of inscription. + +If the signs are in an alphabet that is not familiar, refer to the +table of alphabets. + +Sculpture +Sculpture in low relief can be copied best by dry squeeze. As the +connexion of the sheets used should be exact, put up the first sheet +truly vertical, and mark little pencil crosses at the corners on the +stone. Then the corners of successive sheets should be fitted into +the angles of the crosses. When inking in the pencil drawings, do not +carry the lines within two inches of the edges of the sheets. Then +place sheets edge to edge, adjust them to fit as best they may, +weight them heavily with books, turn back one edge and weight it, and +then slip a strip of wetted adhesive paper half-way under the edge +that is down; at once liberate the edge that is up, and dab (not rub) +both heavily down on the adhesive. This makes a joint free of +cockling, and when dry the inking can be completed across the joint. +Where there is any colour remaining on sculpture or inscription, only +dry squeezing is permissible. + +Where signs are worn or decayed it is needful to try various +lighting. This can be done in the open air, by shading the part by +the hands placed around it as a sort of tube, the head blocking out +the light over the tube. Then quickly raise a hand alternately, so as +to reverse the oblique lighting, and watch the effect on the sign. + +If the stone has not too tender a face, careful washing often brings +out an inscription; and in such cases it is usually far easier to +copy from a wet than from a dry stone. + +If reliefs have been much weathered they can be made plain for +photographing by laying horizontal and covering with sand; on wiping +away the sand from the relief the ground will be left flat sand, so +hiding the confused hollows of weathering. + +The safest way for drawings to travel is to post them at the nearest +post direct to where they will be worked up. The Postal Union takes +rolls of 21 cm. thick, 60 cm. long, up to 5 kilos as parcels, or +rolls of 10 cm. thick, 75 cm. long, up to 2 kilos by book post open +at ends. This is far better than carrying rolls by hand. + +Wet squeezing. Where there is no colour, and the stone is strong and +not crumbling, a wet squeeze is the best copy. There are three +purposes for it, and the method differs for each; (1) thin single +sheet kept fresh on the outer face for photographing later; or (2) +single sheet well beaten in and patched, depending on pricking the +outlines and hand-copy from it, or blacking over the relief on the +inner side and photographing; or (3) double sheet hard beaten, and +patched in the hollows, for plaster casting afterwards. + +For (1) there is no need to get an impression of the hollows to the +bottom, and the face of the paper should be smooth. A soft paper, +with little or no size, and a soft clothes-brush will do well for +this. The sheet should cover the whole inscription, or have as few +joints as may be. The stone should be dabbed with a wet brush so as +to saturate the face, the sheet of paper well soaked in water laid +upon it, taking care not to leave bubbles, and then dabbing firmly +with the brush will drive the paper into the hollows. If the stone is +polished or very smooth, it is needful to peel off the paper while +wet by holding two corners, and lay it reversed on a flat surface to +dry; if left on the stone the contraction will destroy the impress. +Out of doors the paper can be held down by pebbles around it, or by +sand on the edges, to prevent the wind catching it. + +(2) The stronger squeeze should be of a tough paper with moderate +sizing. Cut the paper to the form of the stone. Thrust it into a pail +of water, knead it about vigorously, roll it into a ball and pummel +it, so as to break the grain and let the water well into it. Then wet +the stone, shake out the paper like a wet handkerchief, full of +creases, lay it on the stone and begin to beat it in with a hard, +long spoke-brush. A few strokes round the edge will catch it down so +that the wind does not disturb it. Then begin to beat it heavily +along the top edge; beat it to a pulp, and patch with strips left +soaking in the water wherever breaks occur. If the stone is porous +the paper may part from it, especially if expanded by beating; the +only course then is to slush more water on the face so that it will +go through the breaks and hold the paper down again. It may be +needful to slit the paper to let the water go below it. Beat down +again, enough to fix it. + +(3) For casting purposes a final backing sheet, moderately beaten on, +is needed to hold the squeeze together and stiffen it. Either (2) or +(3) can be left on the face of the stone till quite dry, and then +carefully detached by lifting up from one corner, and slipping a +dinner-knife or a slip of wood under the paper to lift any part that +sticks. + +Stiff squeezes as (3) must be packed flat; thin, as (1) and sometimes +(2), may be rolled in a large curve, but this always deteriorates a +squeeze. + +For plaster casting, a squeeze should be heated on a stove and +brushed over with melted paraffin, or better wax, sufficient to cover +the face without choking the finer detail. Before each cast the face +should be lightly oiled with a tuft of wool. + +Small objects. +These can be copied by a thin paper squeeze, and the squeeze may be +mounted by pasting a card and lightly pressing the squeeze back down +on it. This will take out all cockling and make it lie flat for +photographing. + +Tin-foil is very handy for squeezes, and may be saved from chocolate +for this. Press it firmly on a coin or seal with a tuft of wool, or +beat it with a soft tooth-brush, being careful to avoid creases. The +foil should then be floated on water, hollow back up, and blazing +sealing-wax dropped into it to back it. The resulting positive can be +then stuck on card. + +For plaster casts of coins the face should be dusted with French +chalk, as also a smooth bed of plasticine; the coin can then be +pressed in safely without any possible risk, and afterward plaster +cast in the mould. Sealing-wax is said to be sharper, but there is a +risk of its sticking to the coin. If it is used, breathe hard on the +coin, or wet it, before impressing; and when first set lift it +slightly to detach it, and then replace till cold. Or tin-foil may be +used, as in making positives; but, instead of floating on water, +press plasticine on the foil while it is still on the object. + +For curved surfaces, as cylinders, any of these methods can be used; +the plasticine is the more successful. + +In all casting of plaster on a small scale, use a soft camel-hair +brush. Mix the plaster in the palm of the hand with a knife, take up +some of the wettest to brush over the face of the moulds (a dozen +scarabs or small coins done at once); then put he brush in water, and +take up thicker plaster with a pocket-knife to drop on as a backing. +This avoids air bubbles without using too weak a plaster. + + + +Copying hieroglyphic inscriptions. +Where possible a wet or a dry squeeze should be taken of any +inscription. When hand copying is necessary, the main matter is to +get the cartouches of king's names accurately, and the date at the +beginning, examining specially whether single strokes, I I I I, have +been connected above, n n, forming the ten sign. The main difficulty +for any one not knowing the 800 signs is to distinguish between those +that are alike, especially when damaged. For this purpose the +commonest signs that may be confused are here placed together, so +that the essential points of difference may be noticed. A small cross +is placed here by small points of distinction which might escape +notice. + +[Illustration I: SOME HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS LIABLE TO BE CONFUSED WITH +EACH OTHER] + + 6. Photography. + +The camera and material have been described under outfit. + +Lighting and preparation of objects is a main element of success. +When first looking over any ruins, make a list of every view wanted, +with the time of day when the sun will be right for it. Then follow +the time-table, and so get the best lighting all in one day. + +For movable stones or figures place them in half-shade, as a doorway, +and then tilt every way until the best lighting is found, fix them in +that position, and then set up the camera square with them. + +The camera should usually be fixed to look downward vertically, and +then variation up to 40 degrees can be got by the legs. Hold the +camera in the right position, keeping the legs off the ground, and +then drop the legs to find their own place; thus very skew positions +can be fixed quickly. + +Small objects are best laid on black velvet, and taken vertically. +Scraps of charcoal are useful to prop them in exact positions. A +sheet of white paper stuck on a leg of the stand may be useful to +prevent shadows being too heavy. Where outline, and not flat detail, +is wanted, then a light ground is best; the most perfect is a sheet +of ground glass with white paper a foot or two below it. If the +ground glass cannot be had, a good substitute-also useful for a +camera glass-is plain glass with a sheet of tissue paper (or the +packing paper of films) stuck on with paraffin wax. + +The dressing of objects to show up clearly is often needful. Incised +objects can be filled in with charcoal powder if light, or chalk if +dark; in any case a coarse powder, so as not to stain the object. For +faint cutting on glass or crystal go over the lines with 'China ink +in a pen, so as to cover them. Harden the ink in the sun, and then +gently wipe with a damp finger until all the excess is removed and +only the roughness of the lines remains black. On large objects light +dust or sand is often useful, to make relief clearer. + +For objects in a bad light, or in the interior of tombs, reflected +light must be used. Lids of biscuit tins serve well; a lid in the sun +sixty feet off, and another lid reflecting the light on to a wall, +will suffice for a two minutes' exposure of a slow plate. Three or +four successive reflections into a totally dark chamber will suffice +in five or six minutes. + +When an important subject cannot be revisited it is well to take +duplicates; the camera should be shifted laterally a few inches for a +near object, or a few feet for a distant view, and then the two films +will form a stereograph, if both succeed. + +In arranging groups of small objects, put together what will go in a +three-inch circle, and minor pieces around, and then the best in the +middle can be printed direct on lantern slides. + + 7. Preservation and Packing. + +While travelling little can be done for preserving objects. Papyrus +rolls should be wrapped at once in a damp handkerchief, to be +carried, and then wrapped in paper, packed in a tin box, and filled +round with cotton wool. Small papyri can be safely damped in a wet +cloth, and flattened out between the leaves of a book; secure one +edge straight in the hinge, and gradually press flat and secure by +advancing leaves over it. Glass, if perfect, should be packed in tins +with wool; old food or tobacco tins do well for tender things. + +Flint implements and coins, though hardy, should be saved from +grinding by wrapping in waste paper. + +Ivory, if it has been buried, is very liable to flake. The cure is to +soak it in paraffin wax; but temporarily it is secured by winding +cotton thread round it in many directions. Some anoint it with +vaseline, but if vaseline penetrates the ivory, it will not take up +paraffin or gelatine later. Tender wood may be likewise saved. + +A much-cracked glazed jar was packed by winding string round it in +all directions, with tufts of wool under the string. + +A whole mummy in most fragile condition, so that it could not be +lifted, was made up solid with 40 lb. of paraffin wax which was +melted out of it afterwards in England, making hardly any change. If +contracted burials should be preserved, dust carefully, splash on +about 5 lb. of paraffin wax heated to smoking-point. When cold, +detach from soil, turn over, paraffin the lower side, and build up +weak parts with a sludge of melted paraffin and sand, nearly chilled. +About 8 to 10 lb. of wax will do the whole. The skull should be +packed separately. Pad all hollows of the body with soft rag to +spread pressure in packing. Paraffin wax is the best preservative as +it is tough, and may be used as a coat over an object for safety. +When not needed it can be cut away, or melted away, and cleaned off +completely with benzol. It should be melted in an iron saucepan, as +solder will give way if it is superheated. As it melts at about 120 +degrees F., and boils at about 600 degrees F., it can be greatly +superheated, and used when smoking, so as to penetrate deeply into +wood or porous material. It is perfect for strengthening skulls; most +rotten examples slopped with paraffin, and finally soused for a few +seconds so as entirely to cover the bone in and out, will travel +safely, if not crushed. + +Boxes must always have corner posts, inside or out; see that the +sides are nailed up to the edges to the posts, or the lid or bottom +may part by the side splitting. See that all nails--except for the +lid--are driven slanting alternately one way and reversed, this +prevents sides or bottom drawing off. Nail the lid with many short +nails, so that it can be raised without splitting. + +To secure heavy objects in a mixed box, an inverted rough stool is +the best, the cross piece on the object below, and the sides coming +up to the lid. If cross bars are nailed in a box, damage may be done +to an object in forcing the bars loose. It is often best to put heavy +and light things in the same box, to equalize weights in journeying; +if well secured, a mixed boxful travels well. Be very careful that a +wedge-shaped stone cannot force itself loose by repeated jolts, or it +may split a box. + +Slabs of stone ire best packed in open shallow boxes face down on +straw or wool, secured by a few diagonal cross bars on the top, as +then they do not need to be opened for customs. All stones of regular +form should be supported at a fifth of the length from each end. No +bedding on a box is worth anything, as the box will bend more than +the stone, and the strain will all come on the middle. Very heavy +blocks are best with sacking on the face, and roped round in various +parts. + +Pottery is most difficult to pack safely. For large jars, mark the +points of contact on the box, and nail on cushions of old cloth +stuffed hard with straw, so as to pad the jar on all sides; make sure +that it cannot twist about into a diagonal position off the pads. +Long boxes, five or six feet, with three or four cross divisions, are +best. Begin packing, say four pots with straw, at one end of the box, +press up a cross board tight on them, and nail through the sides: +then another batch likewise; about one inch thick of hard-pressed +straw is needful at each contact. Twist straw into rough bands, and +wind it round each pot. Fill up corners to prevent the bands shifting +loose. Empty small tins make good stuffing for blank spaces. Old +newspapers torn to bits and rolled into balls make good packing for +pots and hold them firmly, but this method is dangerous if the +packing becomes wetted. Pots should always be packed tight. Old +sacking or cotton stuff may be tied on over the mouth of large pots, +to prevent straw slipping in, and loosening the packing. + +Bronzes and coins should not be cleaned in any way, till in a settled +work place. + + 8. Forgeries and. Buying. + +Most travellers wish to buy some things of interest, and in remote +districts they may do good service in rescuing important objects +which may be wanted in museums. Forgeries are ubiquitous, even in +most obscure places in the hands of peasants, either supplied by +dealers, or casually obtained, often in good faith. It is best to +inquire of local collectors and museums as to the kinds of forgeries +met with. The following notes are to show the novice how far he may +go safely. + +Bronze figures with a thick red patina, which scales off readily +sometimes, or with thick green patina cracked, or hard green or brown +patina, are safe. Thin green patina, or bare brown or black metal is +dubious. + +Papyri in roll, flexible though fragile, in known Greek or Egyptian +writing, are fairly safe. Lumps stuck together, brown and scrappy, +are made up. + +Coins cannot be safely bought unless patinated, copper or silver. +Only an expert can judge of gold or 'clean silver. + +Jewellery of small size, as earrings and bracelets, is generally +safe, if the age of the design is known. Modern wire is always drawn, +ancient is irregular. Look for concretions of lime in the hollows, +and for the dull face of old gold. If once cleaned there is little to +distinguish old from modern gold. + +Stone vases if turned are Roman or modern. The ancient irregularities +should be studied from specimens. + +Scarabs with nacreous or decomposed glaze in the hollows (as in the +deep cuts at the side) are safe; also, if there are natural cracks by +age, which would prevent modern cutting. There is a large variety of +skilful forgeries. + +Stone statuettes: a skilled forger may be paid up to 100 pounds for a +figure to order. Only an expert can judge. + +Never buy in the dusk or in dark rooms. When buying never have any +one at hand who calls attention to things, nor let any attendant +interfere. Seem entirely unconcerned. + +Get the reputation of never advancing on offers, or bargaining; let +taking or leaving things at once be the rule. Time and delays are +money to the traveller, and it is worth much to save time in +haggling. Your donkey-boy will soon spread your character. + +When offering for single things to a peasant, put the money by the +side of the antiquity, and say that he must take one or the other: +fingering the cash is irresistible, and no time is lost. + +If it is likely that the source of an object will not be truly +stated, the way is to make the best guess you can, and say it +dogmatically: the pleasure of setting you right will often bring out +the truth, or if you guessed right it will gain you credit and break +down reserve. + +As a principle it is well to be looked on as a liberal buyer, so as +to encourage the offer of antiquities. A little more thus spent will +be a trifling extra on the whole journey, and may largely increase +the results in objects and information for future work. + +Though prices can only be learned by practice, and they vary in time +and place, yet the following scale may be taken as fairly safe. + +Bronze figures if good work, inches high squared = shillings: except +in bad state, or Osiris, or bad clumsy work, or votive animals. + +Papyri or parchment, continuous text, 1 pound a square foot, +accounts, half or a third. + +Jewellery, between weight in coin and double that, according to work. + +Scarabs, common but fair 2s., names 2s.-5s.; up to 5 pounds or 10 +pounds if beautiful. Engraved gems, small common Roman, 2s.-4s. in +London, more in East; for a fair Greek 1 pound-10 pounds. + +Coins often higher in the East than in London. In Greek lands copper +coins may be bought by weight, and picked over at leisure, and the +worthless coins rejected. For single coins fix a price, say half a +franc, and offers of large numbers may come in, from which the best +can be chosen and the rest refused. + +Glass vases, blown, inches high squared at 4d. or 6d. each. Coloured +glass double or triple. + +Ushabtis, poor 1s.-4s., fair 5s.-10s., fine blue or engraved 1 pound- +10 pounds. + + + + +LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES CONCERNED WITH +THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST. + +LONDON. + +BRITISH MUSEUM, Bloomsbury, W.C.1. +Director, Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B., P.B.A. +Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, Sir Ernest Wallis Budge, +Litt.D. +Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities (including Prehistoric +Antiquities, Ethnology, and Oriental Antiquities) Sir Hercules Read, +F.B.A., P.S.A. +Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, A. H. Smith M.A. +Keeper of Coins, G. F. Hill, F.B.A. +Keeper of MSS., J. P. Gilson, M.A. +Keeper of Oriental MSS. and Printed Books. L. D. Barnett, Litt.D. + +VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, S. Kensington, S.W.7. +Director, Sir Cecil Harcourt Smith, C.V.O. +Assistant Keeper of Architecture and Sculpture, E. R. D. Maclagan. +Assistant Keeper of Ceramics, C. H. Wylde. +Keeper of Metalwork, W. W. Watts. +Keeper of Textiles, A. F. Kendrick. +Keeper of Woodwork, E. F. Strange, C.B.E. + +BRITISH ACADEMY, Burlington House, Piccadilly, W.1. +Secretary, Sir I. Gollancz, Litt.D. + +BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS, 19 Bloomsbury Square, W.C.1, +Secretary, John Penoyre, C.B.E. + +BRITISH SCHOOL IN JERUSALEM, c/o. Palestine Exploration Fund, +2 Hinde St., Manchester Square, W. 1. Secretary, Miss R. Woodley. + +BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME, 19 Bloomsbury Square, W.C.1. +Secretary of the Faculty of Archaeology, History and Letters, +E. J. Forsdyke. + +PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND, 2 Hinde St., Manchester Square, W.1 +Secretary, E. W. G. Masterman, M.D. + +EGYPT EXPLORATION SOCIETY, 13 Tavistock Square, W.C.1. +Secretary, Miss Jonas. + +EGYPTIAN RESEARCH ACCOUNT AND BRITISH SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN EGYPT. +Hon. Director, Prof. W. M. F. Petrie, F.R.S., F.B.A., University +College, Gower St., W.C.1. + +SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON, Burlington House, W.1. +Secretary, C. R. Peers, F.S.A. + +ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, 74 Grosvenor St., W. 1. +Secretary, Miss Eleanor Hull. + +SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF HELLENIC STUDIES, 19 Bloomsbury Square, +W.C.1. Secretary and Librarian, John Penoyre, C.B.E. + +ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, 9 Conduit St., W.1. +Secretary, Ian MacAlister. + +SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF ROMAN STUDIES, 19 Bloomsbury Square, +W.C.1. Secretary, Miss Margaret Ramsay. + +ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, 50 Gt. Russell St., W.C.1. +Secretaries, H. S. Harrison, T. A. Joyce, O.B.E. + +ROYAL NUMISMATIC SOCIETY, 22 Russell Square, W.C.1. +Secretaries, J. Allan, Lt. Col. W. Morrieson. + +ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Lowther Lodge, Kensington Gore, S. W. 7. +Secretary, A. R. Hinks, F.R.S. + +ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE. Hon. Secretary, G. F. Hill, British +Museum, W.C.1. + + +CAMBRIDGE. + +MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. Curator, Baron A. von Hugel. + +FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM. Director, S. C. Cockerell, M.A. + + +OXFORD. + +ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM. Keeper, D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G., F.B.A. + + +ATHENS. + +BRITISH SCHOOL. Director, A. J. B. Wace. + + +JERUSALEM. + +BRITISH SCHOOL. Director, Prof. J. Garstang. + + +ROME. + +BRITISH SCHOOL, Valle Giulia. Director, Thomas Ashby, D.Litt. + + + +THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE + +Society or other Body. Representatives. + + +British Academy Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B. + (Chairman of Committee). + Prof. Percy Gardner. + Sir W. M. Ramsay. + +Royal Anthropological Institute Sir Everard Im Thurn. + Prof. Arthur Keith. + +Society of Antiquaries Sir Arthur Evans. + Sir Hercules Read. + +Royal Institute of British Architects Prof. W. R. Lethaby. + Prof. A. G. Dickie. + +Royal Asiatic Society F. Legge. + R. Sewell. + +British School at Athens J. P. Droop. + + +Byzantine Research Fund Sir Hercules Read. + +Egypt Exploration Society Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B. + Dr. Alan Gardiner. + +Egyptian Research Account Prof. Flinders Petrie. + Prof. Ernest Gardner. + +Society for the Promotion A. H. Smith. +of Hellenic Studies G. F. Hill (Hon. Sec. of + Committee). + +British School at Jerusalem Prof. Flinders Petrie. + D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G. + +Royal Numismatic Society Prof. C. Oman, M.P. + G. F. Hill. + +Palestine Exploration Fund Dr. G. Buchanan Gray. + Prof. A. G. Dickie + +Society for the Promotion of Miss Gertrude Bell. +Roman Studies O. M. Dalton. + + -------------------------------------------- + +British Museum Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B. + +Victoria and Albert Museum Sir Cecil Harcourt Smith, + C.V.O. + + + +PART II + +INTRODUCTORY NOTE + +The aim of the special sections contained in Chapters III-VIII is to +describe, not the objects usually to be seen in Museums, but only +such things as will be found lying out on mounds and sites, and as +are more or less distinctive of a period. Thus certain comparatively +trivial objects are named, because they are peculiar to a period, and +likely to be found in a casual passage over a site, whereas other +objects, common to several periods, are ignored. Only the +distinctive, key objects are mentioned. The great features of Greek +Art, for instance, are not dealt with in Chapter II; nor are coins, +the probabilities of finding them being too slender, and the +possibilities too wide. Nevertheless, coins when found should be +carefully quoted. Pottery naturally takes the largest place, as it +was abundant, and its fragments are a good guide to period, and being +practically indestructible and of no intrinsic value are most likely +to be met with. The difference between pottery made with the use of +the wheel and that made without is important to be noted. The use of +the wheel can usually be detected through the slight inequalities of +the clay that make a series of parallel lines on the inner surface. +The diagrammatic representations of the pot-forms characteristic of +various periods or of other objects ranging through a civilization +the main features of which can be shown in outline will, it is hoped, +be found useful. Simplified tables of alphabets, intended to make it +possible roughly to identify the script, if not the date, of an +inscription, are also given. + + + + +CHAPTER I + + +FLINT IMPLEMENTS + +See Diagrams, [Illustrations II: Flint Implements] + +As the development of Flint Implements follows more or less the same +course in all the districts with which this volume deals, a general +description is given here, to avoid repetition in the special +sections. + +The earlier periods of man are so remote that geological changes, +wet, and decay, have removed nearly all his works except the flint +tools. It is to these chiefly that we must look for our knowledge of +his abilities. Flints are nearly all that we have for the early +stages, to supply what arts, history, and literature give in later +stages. To preserve and educe all we possibly can obtain from their +situation, and purpose, is a main duty to history. To destroy or +confuse the evidence, by removing specimens without a record, or by +shifting them to a different place, is a crime in science. As there +is no temptation to ignorant peasants to move flints until they are +induced by collectors, so the whole fault of the wreckage that has +taken place in many sites lies on the plundering collector. No money +or reward should be given for any flints; a few fine specimens may be +lost, but vastly more harm would be done by encouraging mere raiding. + +The periods and styles that are now recognized are shown on the +diagram--and their conditions were: + + Style Climate Sea level + +Eolithic (Pliocene) ? +Rostrocarinate (Crag) ? +Strepyan warmer lower +Chellean warm low +Acheulian cooler rising +Mousterian cold high +Aurignacian less cold lower +Solutrean warmer low +Magdalenian colder rising +Neolithic as present + + +Differences of heat may be 20 degrees or 30 degrees + or - +Differences of level may be 600-800 ft. + or - + +The information required of all observers is the level and conditions +of all flint tools that they may see or collect. + +Gravels +containing tools may be surface gravels on a plateau; note then the +level, and the relation of them to any cliffs; do they end abruptly +at a cliff edge, showing that the valley was filled up; or do they +fade away to the edge, showing that they are older than the valley +erosion? Gravels may be the filling up of a valley which was +previously eroded; note the highest level at which they can be +traced; often little pockets of deposit, or traces of sandy strata, +can be found clinging high up on cliffs; also note the depths in the +gravel at which any tools are found. Any shells or bones in the +gravels are of the greatest value; the depth at which they are found +should be written on them at once, with the locality. + +Surface flints +should have levels noted on them. If sharp they show that probably +submergence has not reached that level since; if worn, then water has +been up to a higher level, from which they have been washed down. + +Levelling +may be read from a contour map, if there is such available. In most +countries it must be done by reading feet on an aneroid barometer, +set with zero of level scale to 30 ins. or 760 mm. Then visit as soon +as possible some point where a level is marked on the map, as a hill +top, and read the barometer. This will give the correction to be made +to all the previous notes. If there is no level recorded, get down to +a stream bed (the larger the better) and read it there, recording the +exact place on the map. The level may then be worked out +approximately by points above and below on the stream, for accurate +reading, hold the aneroid face up, gently tap it, and read; then face +down similarly, and take the mean. Guard that the wind does not blow +against any keyhole in the case. + +Pencil all levels and localities on flints as soon as found. Ink in +the notes on the least prominent parts of the flint, in small capital +letters, when in camp, with waterproof China ink. + +Styles of flint work. +The Eoliths are worn pebbles, chipped as if for scraping. The Rostro- +carinate flints found at the base of the Crag are long bars with a +beak-end, suited for breaking up earth. The human origin of both of +these classes is contested. Flints of Strepy type are nodular and +partly trimmed into cutting edges, the smooth surface being left as a +handle. The Chelles types are remarkable for regularity and fine bold +flaking; the worn butt (though best for handling) was eventually +flaked away to obtain an artistic uniform finish. The St. Acheul +series has finer flaking, the crust being completely removed: there +is a tendency to ovate or almond shapes, and the edges are often +curved, the reverse S-curve being preferred, They diminish in size +towards the end of the period. The Chelles and St. Acheul series are +core implements, made by detaching flakes; and the succeeding (Le +Moustier) method is to use the flakes, generally for scraping. The +LA, EM the diagram is transitional from St. Acheul to Le Moustier. +The form marked M is the predecessor of the Solutrean form next below +it. The Aurignacian is a smaller flake industry, with many lumps more +or less conical, and often with careful parallel flaking or fluting. +The Solutre culture brought in a new style, particularly thin blades +with delicate surface flaking which seems to have reappeared in the +late Neolithic. The pointed borers, certain arrow-heads and minutely +chipped rods of flint are characteristic of the period, and flints of +this age are found on the Egyptian and Syrian deserts. Longer blades, +sometimes very coarse, with ends worn by scraping, mark the period of +La Madeleine. They are found in prehistoric Egyptian graves, along +with Neolithic knives and lances. As a technical advance on flaking +by blows or pressure, grinding and incidental polishing of flint +implements are regarded as characteristic of the Neolithic period; +and the practice may have started in areas devoid of flint, where it +was necessary to utilize local material that could not be flaked like +flint. In Europe generally, polished celts belong to the Megalithic +or latest division of the Neolithic, but this implement appeared much +earlier, and in a sense succeeded the Palaeolithic hand-axe. The +latter is not known to have been hafted, and its working edges were +at the pointed end; whereas in Neolithic times the implement had +become an axe in the modern sense, with the pointed end inserted in a +haft, and the cutting edge removed to the broader end. There are many +other Neolithic types, used with or without a haft, and only a small +proportion were finished by grinding on sandstone. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + +GREECE + +[See the diagrams of flint implements, [Illustration II] of pottery, +[Illustration III]; and of alphabets, [Illustration IV]] + +The Periods into which the subject must be divided are roughly as +follows: + I. Prehistoric down to about 1000 B.C. + II. Prehistoric Greek down to about 700 B.C. + III. Archaic Greek 700-500 B.C. + IV. Classical Greek 500-300 B.C. + V. Hellenistic after 300. + VI. Roman. + VII. Byzantine. + + +I. PREHISTORIC + + +A. NORTH GREECE. + +NEOLITHIC.--Neolithic settlements on low mounds (_maghoules_) rising +from the plains. + +Stone implements. +Axes, hammers, chisels, querns, &c. Flint chips, bone needles, +obsidian. + +Pottery. +Hand-made burnished, yellow, brown, black or red. Handles rare. Holes +in rim, or lugs pierced for suspension, Earliest remains show painted +sherds. Long period of unpainted ware followed. Patterns irregular, +rectangular and curved. No naturalism. (Figs. 1 and 2.) + +Ware differs slightly with locality. In Thessaly fine red ware +undecorated contemporary with red decoration on white. Chocolate +paint on deep buff follows. Incised ware, geometric patterns white +rubbed in. + +Figurines. +Rude clay. Steatopygous. + +This civilization extended from northern edge of Thessaly as far +south as Chaeronea. Use of bronze before end uncertain. Civilization +undisturbed by Aegean culture that spread over southern Greece until +just before both were swept away by iron-using people. + + +B. CRETE, AEGEAN, SOUTH GREECE. + +CRETE. + +NEOLITHIC. +Black or red burnished pottery. +BRONZE AGE. + +Early Minoan. +Painted pottery, dark paint on light ground, geometric designs. +Unpainted, surface mottled red and black. + +Middle Minoan. +circa. 3000 B.C.--White designs geometric on dark ground. Orange +and crimson added. Pottery very thin and fine (Kamares ware). +Patterns very various but not naturalistic except in rare instances. +(Figs. 3 and 4; hatched lines=red.) + +Late Minoan. +circa. 1500 B.C.--Return to use of light ground. Brown lustrous +paint, fine surface to clay. Decoration naturalistic, flowers, +cuttle-fish, shells, spirals, ripple patterns, white and orange dots +and bands occasionally super-imposed on dark glaze (Figs. 7, 10, and +12). + +White and orange disappear. Decoration stiffer and more conventional. + + +AEGEAN. + +NEOLITHIC. Nothing known. + +BRONZE AGE. + +Contemporary with Early Minoan. + +Pottery with geometric patterns normally dark on light buff or +reddish coarse clay. Sometimes red or white on black burnished clay. + +Marble figurines 'fiddle-shaped' from Naxos and Paros (III, Fig. 6). + +Contemporary with Middle Minoan. + +Pottery with very pale sometimes greenish clay, and grey black +totally unlustrous paint. Patterns mainly geometric. Rather sparse +decoration. Later, with addition of red, decoration becomes fully +naturalistic. Lilies and birds in red and black (Melos) (III, Figs. 5 and +9; hatched lines=red). Beaked jugs (III, Fig. 5) most characteristic shape +of this period. + +Cretan influence strong in Middle Minoan completely drowned local +efforts in first Late Minoan days. Thenceforward local ware +imitative. + +SOUTH GREECE. + +NEOLITHIC. Nothing known. + +BRONZE AGE. +Geometric Ware with matt paint and pale clay corresponding to that of +islands found in Argolid and Boeotia. + +'Urfirnis' Ware. Hand-made. Whole vase covered with thin semi- +lustrous wash varying from red-brown to black. Sometimes mere smears. +Mainly found in Boeotia, but extends north to valley of Spercheius +and south to Argolid. Date uncertain, but in Boeotia evidence that it +ended before rise of 'Minyan' ware. + +'Minyan Ware.' Grey unpainted pottery, polished. No decoration except +(rarely) incised lines. Usually wheel-made. Characteristic shapes: +Goblet with tall ringed stem (III, Fig. 15); wide open cup with high +handles. + +Appears to range Between Middle Minoan II and Late Minoan III. + +Most frequent in Boeotia to which it owes its name. Found as far +north as Thessaly and as far south as Crete. Local imitations, +obvious but distinct, found with imported specimens (Melos). +Provenance unknown; connexion with Troy suspected. + +'Mycenaean.' The Cretan civilization swept over South Greece in the +first Late Minoan period. Characterized by exuberance both in shape +and ornament (III, Figs. 11, 12, 13, 16, 17). Bulk of what is likely to be +found is of latest period when style has become conventionalized. +Compare Fig. 11 (Mycenaean) with III, Fig. 7 Late Minoan I. Characteristic +shapes high goblet and 'stirrup' vase (III, Figs. 17 and 16). + +Female clay figurines common (III, Fig. 14), also animals, oxen. + +Objects Characteristic of Aegean Civilization. + +Seal Stones. +Round or bean-shaped, pierced for suspension, usually soft stone, +e.g. slate or steatite. Sometimes hard, as hematite or rock crystal. +Carved with naturalistic designs: lions, (III, Fig. 8), stags, bulls, cows +or hinds suckling their young, cuttle-fish, dolphins, &c. Two animals +ranged like heraldic supporters characteristic. + +Obsidian. +Natural glass, volcanic, black. Source Melos. Used for knives +throughout Bronze Age. + +Chips of Knife or razor blades, and sometimes the cores from which +these were flaked, may be picked up on any Bronze Age site, and even +on Thessalian neolithic settlements. Glistening black unmistakable. + +Terra-cotta lamps. +The characteristic lamp of the Aegean civilization is open, as +opposed to the Greek and Roman lamp where the body is partly covered +in. + +Walls. +Cyclopean walls of huge irregular stones. Also good square-cut +masonry. + +'Corbelling' system for arches, each layer of stones projecting +inwards over the one below. Also used for the vaults of 'Beehive' +Tombs towards end of period. + +[Illustration III: TYPES OF GREEK POTTERY, ETC.] + + +II. PREHISTORIC GREEK + + +Geometric or Dipylon Period. + +Pottery. +Iron Age. circ. 1000 B.C.--Absolute break in continuity from what +preceded. No naturalism. Prevalence of geometric patterns (III, Figs. 18 +and 19). Not much variety. Meanders, lozenges, and zigzags. Circles +joined by tangents replace Mycenaean spirals. Ornament crowded. Rows +or single specimens of long-legged water birds. Human figures rare, +rude angular silhouettes. + +Local characteristics discernible (e.g. between ware of Thessaly, +Attica, Boeotia, Delphi, Argolid, Laconia, Thera, and Crete), but +strong family resemblance. (Lower specimen III, Fig. 19 characteristic of +Boeotia.) Dark paint on natural clay (sometimes lightened by a white +slip, e. g. Laconia) differs distinctly from Mycenaean. Shapes fewer +and curves less flowing. Amphorae, plates, bowls, and jugs. Trefoil +lip to jug first appears. + +Terra-cotta loom weights from now onwards often pyramidal in form and +glazed. + +Bronzes. +Figurines. Three types:-- + Human, rare (as on vases). + Quadrupeds, mainly horses. Cylindrical muzzle and narrow + cylindrical belly (III, Fig. 23). + Birds. Long neck and legs, flat bill and body. Stands to above, + flat, square or round, with open-work snake or spiral. + +Pins (to fasten dress at shoulder). Long head with small bosses +like strung beads sometimes separated by discs (III, Fig 21). Sometimes +larger flat disc at end of head (often missing) Pin itself usually +iron, rarely extant. + +Brooches. + 1. Spiral type. Of wire coiled into spirals. Made of one, two, or +three wires crossing with two, four, or six spirals respectively. +Boss at centre. Spectacle type (two spirals) common. In 'spectacle' +type (sometimes very large) spiral purely utilitarian, giving spring +to the pin. With four or more spirals the additions are ornament, +noteworthy in view of absence of spirals on pottery. + 2. Bow type. + (a) High arched bow solid. + (b) Arched bow hollowed like boat inverted. This type often has +flat plate attached to one end, lower edge of which is bent to form +catch. Plate incised, crossed leaves, ships, horses, or men. + (c) Arched bow consisting of crescent-shaped plate, similar +incised decoration. + +Paste Beads. +A type pyramidal, dark with yellow spirals round corners, much +resembling 'bull's eye' sweets, was common in Laconia (III, Fig.27). + +Terra-cotta Figurines. +Series of rude horses sometimes with riders characteristic of end of +period. Chiefly from Boeotia. Painted like pottery, but chiefly in +lines. + + +III. ARCHAIC GREEK + +A. Orientalising. + +Pottery. +700 B.C.--Influence from Asia Minor. Recrudescence there of spirit of +Mycenaean art? Lions, stags, sphinxes, sirens, either in procession +or arranged in pairs like heraldic supporters. + +Stylized plant motifs in decoration. Rays (or flower petals) rising +from foot most characteristic (III, Figs. 24, 26, and 28). + +Use of purple paint to supplement black both for details of figures +and for band decoration. + +Geometric ornament (though perhaps with a difference) survives to +fill blank spaces on backgrounds of scenes. + +Varieties of style. Beasts drawn in silhouette, heads outlined, eyes, +&c., drawn in, early, and mainly in the islands (III, Fig. 29). Later +whole figures in silhouette with details incised, particularly +identified with Corinthian and Boeotian and Laconian styles (III, Fig. +26). Styles most likely to be found on the mainland are 'Proto- +Corinthian' and 'Corinthian'. + +'Proto-Corinthian' (also called Argive Linear). Small vases, very +fine pale clay. Decoration chiefly horizontal lines very fine. Rays +from feet. Sometimes silhouette animals round shoulder. + +Characteristic shapes: pear-shaped aryballoi, and lekythi with +conical body, long neck, and trefoil lip (III, Figs. 24 and 25). + +'Corinthian'. Clay pale buff to warm biscuit colour. Rays round foot. +Purple bands. Rows of usual animals. Incisions. Details in purple. +Ground ornaments, incised rosettes more or less carefully drawn. +These in great profusion leaving very little bare space. (III, Fig. 26; +hatched lines=purple.) Throughout this period desire for a light +ground was felt, and where the natural colour of the clay did not +give sufficient contrast it was covered with a strip of cream-or +white clay (e.g. Rhodian, Naucratite, Laconian; see III, Fig. 28, Early +Laconian Vase). + +Terra-cotta Figurines. +Series that culminates with Tanagra figures of fourth century begins. +May be said always to be a step in advance of contemporary sculpture +if any. + +Statuettes rare at this date, but relief heads on flat plaques or on +vase handles common. Treatment of hair usually resembles Restoration +wig (III, Fig. 20). Rosette frequent on shoulders represents head of +bronze (rarely silver or gold) shoulder pin. + +Bronzes. +Pins (to fasten dress at shoulder). Three large bosses increasing +in size as they near head replace many small equal bosses of +preceding period. Disc heavier (III, Fig. 22). + +Brooches. Spiral type has disappeared. Couchant lion type with +snake tail has been found at Olympia and Sparta. In general brooches +cease to be common. + +Plaques (doubtless affixed to wood). Relief patterns of guilloches +or rows of bosses. Figure scenes similar to those on pottery. +Characteristic of seventh century. Chance of picking up slight. + +Inscriptions. Earliest extant examples of use of Greek script on +stone may date from this period. For developments, see tables of +alphabets, Illustration IV. + + +[Illustration IV: GREEK ALPHABETS] + + +B. Black Figured Period. + +600 B.C.--Predominance of Attic pottery. Decay of local styles. +Introduction of red colouring into clay and of superlative Attic +black glaze. + +Figure scenes (battle scenes and scenes from mythology) largely +predominate. Black silhouettes, details marked with fine incisions, +additions of purple and white (latter for linen and flesh of women). +Elaborate palmettos characteristic (III, Fig. 31). + + +IV. CLASSICAL GREEK + +Red Figured Period. +525 B.C. Same clay and glaze, but whole vase covered with glaze and +figures reserved showing in colour of clay, details being added with +fine-drawn lines of glaze. + +White Attic Vases. The older style of figures drawn in outline on a +light ground (e. g. Naucratite and Rhodian ware), the space within +outlines being filled more or less with wash of colour, survived in +Athens side by side with the more usual black glazed ware, and in the +fifth century was particularly affected for the class of funerary +lekythi, vases made for offering at a tomb (III, Fig. 30). Outlines at +first drawn in black, then golden brown, lastly a dull red. + +Miscellaneous. +Walls. Sixth century. Characteristic type of polygonal wall, each +irregular stone very carefully fitted to its neighbours. + +Fortifications usually built with square towers and bastions +projecting from the curtain. + +Round watch towers here and there to be met with. + +Bricks. Baked bricks rarely used till Roman days. Bricks stamped by +King Nabis (early second century) have been found at Sparta. + +Terra-cotta roof tiles (sometimes with stamped inscriptions) +largely used. + +Laconian Pottery Characteristics. Fragments of black glazed Attic +ware are the class of remains easiest to pick up on any Greek +inhabited site, except perhaps in Laconia, where perhaps for +political reasons the local style was never ousted and pursued its +natural process of decay until Hellenistic times. Use of white slip +over pink clay complete at end of seventh century, then partial; +abandoned by beginning of fifth century. Characteristic patterns, +squares, and dots (III, Fig. 28) seventh century; lotus and pomegranates +sixth century and fifth century. + +500 B.C.--After the end of the fifth century, manufacture of vases at +Athens decayed. Supply chiefly from South Italy. Growing use of +additional white (rare in Attic red figure vases), sometimes addition +of detail in yellowish brown, and a general coarseness of execution, +mark the change. + +Terra-cotta figurines (figures of everyday life, mostly female; head- +quarters Tanagra in Boeotia) prevalent. + + +V. HELLENISTIC + +300 B.C. Side by side with decay of red-figure style appear two +classes of vase that became very prevalent. +(1) White designs, often floral, on totally black ground of inferior +dull glaze. +(2) Black ware decorated not by paint but by moulded figures and +patterns. +Also the handles of unpainted jars with stamped impressions (buff +clay) not uncommon. Provenance mainly Rhodes. + + +VI. ROMAN + +Hellenistic ware (2) is forerunner of Samian or Aretine red pottery +with moulded designs. Very widespread in Greece in Imperial days. + + +VII. BYZANTINE AGE + +Remains as far as the scope of this section is concerned are few. +Fragments of pottery may be found at Sparta. These bear strong +resemblance to the contemporary wares found in Egypt belonging to the +early Mohammedan period. + +Transparent lustrous glaze. Ground usually pale yellow or cream, +sometimes pale green. Designs childish in character. Lions, birds, +human figures painted in brown under the glaze or incised through. + + + + +CHAPTER III + + +ASIA MINOR + +[See the diagrams of pottery, Illustration V: ASIA MINOR POTTERY] + +1. Introductory. + +Travellers are more likely to make new discoveries elsewhere than on +the actual sites of ancient towns and villages. In many cases the +site is found to be entirely bare of all remains except sometimes +small fragments of pottery. In general, inscribed and other stones +have been carried away to serve as building material for mosques, +houses, fountains, bridges, &c., or as headstones for graves in +cemeteries or for other utilitarian purposes. It is, therefore, in +and near modern villages and towns that inscriptions are chiefly to +be found, as well as smaller antiquities, such as clay tablets, pots +or fragments of them, terra-cotta figures, coins, and so forth. The +smaller articles may sometimes be found in the bazaars, but they are +usually in the hands of individuals. + +It should not be assumed that inscriptions which are exposed to +public view have all been copied; moreover, new stones are constantly +being turned up, especially where building is going on and where +there are old sites or cemeteries close at hand. Great numbers of +inscribed stones are hidden away in private dwellings, where they are +difficult of discovery and of access. Travellers should take +advantage of opportunities that may offer of examining antiquities in +private houses, and of visiting sites or monuments about which +information may be received, particularly if they are a little off +the beaten track. Reward will often come in the shape of valuable +discoveries, of which many remain to be made. Cilicia in particular +has been imperfectly explored, and interesting monuments and +inscriptions, particularly Hittite, may be found there. + + +2. Pottery Fabrics. + +It is not yet possible to describe fully or accurately the succession +of styles, or even to assign all known fabrics to their proper +periods. For this reason, even the most fragmentary specimens are of +interest, provided only that: + (1) the outer surface is fairly well preserved, + (2) the place of discovery is known. + +All fragments showing a rim or spout, handles or part of a base, +should be preserved until they can be compared with a more perfect +specimen. + +The following fabrics, however, are widely distributed, and usually +seem to have flourished in the order in which they are here +described: + +A. +Hand-made wares, rough within, but smooth or burnished surface, self- +coloured (drab or brown), or intentionally coloured black (by charred +matter in the clay, or by a smoky fire), or red (by a clear fire, +sometimes aided by a wash or 'slip' of more ferruginous clay). +Sometimes a black ware is 'overfired' to an ashy grey. + +In such wares ornament is rare, and consists mainly of (a) incised +dots, dashes, or lines, in simple rectilinear patterns (chevrons, +zigzags, lozenges), often enhanced by a white chalky filling (V, Figs 5- +8); (b) ridges or bosses modelled in the clay surface, or adhering to +it. The forms are plump and globular, often round-bottomed or +standing on short feet. Rims are absent or ill-developed; necks +actually prolonged into trough-spouts or long beaks; handles are very +simple and short. Vases are sometimes modelled like animals, or have +human faces or breasts (V, Figs. 1-4). + +These wares begin in the Stone Age, and seem to predominate in the +early and middle Bronze Age. Locally they may have lasted even later, +but the use of the potter's wheel spread rapidly in the early Bronze +Age. + +B. +Hand-made wares of light-coloured clay, with painted decoration, +usually in black or reddish-brown. The paint is generally without +glaze, but sometimes is decayed and easily washes off. + +The forms and ornaments resemble those of class A, but are less rude +and more varied. Distinct rims and standing-bases appear, and spouts +give place to a pinched lip. + +C. +Hand-made wares of black or other dark clay, with painted decoration +in white or ochre. These fabrics are rather rare, and the paint is +easily washed off. The forms follow those of class B. + +Classes B and C seem to begin early in the Bronze Age, and are +gradually replaced by the corresponding wheel-made fabrics of class +D. + +D. +Wheel-made pottery begins in the Bronze Age, and is distinguished by +its symmetrical forms, and by the texture of the inner surface, +especially about the rim and base, where the potter's fingers have +grazed the whirling clay. Self-coloured wares still occur, and are +sometimes elegant ('bucchero' ware); but the improved furnaces now +permit general use of light-coloured clays, suited to painted +decoration. Glazed paint is still rare, and may be taken as probable +token of date not earlier than the end of the Bronze Age. The glaze- +painted wares of the Greek island-world occasionally wandered to the +mainland a little earlier than this, but not far from the coast. On +wheel-made pottery the ornament is either (a) applied while the pot +is on the wheel, and consequently limited to lines and bands +following the plane of rotation, or (b) added afterwards, free-hand, +usually between such bands, and especially on the neck and shoulder. + +Simple rectilinear schemes are commonest (panels, lozenges, and +triangles, enriched with lattice and chequers) (V, Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12); +with these in the Early Iron Age appear little targets of concentric +circles drawn mechanically with compasses (V, Figs. 13-15); also, by +degrees, birds (V, Fig. 16), animals, and simple plant designs +(rosettes, lotus, palmette), and occasionally human figures. But as a +rule, the mainland pottery is very simply decorated, and insular +imports are rare, except within the area within Greek colonization. + +In the Later Iron Age or Historic Period, from the seventh century +onward, the pot-fabrics of Asia Minor rapidly assimilate two main +classes of foreign fashions, Greek and Oriental. + +E. +The Oriental types (mainly from Syria) are all plump and heavy +looking, usually in coarse buff or cream-coloured ware, almost +without paint. The Greek forms are more graceful, varied, and +specialized; light-coloured clays predominate, with simple bands of +black ill-glazed paint, absorbed by the inferior clays. + +After Alexander's time the Greek and the Oriental forms became +confused; the general level of style and execution falls, painted +decoration almost disappears, and the outer surface is often ribbed +by uneven pressure of the fingers on the whirling clay. This fashion +is a sign of late Hellenistic or Graeco-Roman date. + +F. +Meanwhile, the black-glazed Greek (mainly Athenian) wares spread +widely for table use, and were imitated locally from the fourth +century onwards. The clay is pale or reddish (genuine Greek fabrics +are usually quite red within) and the glaze thick, black, and of a +brilliant glassy smoothness. Imitations are of all degrees of +inferiority. + +G. +Other late fabrics have smooth ill-glazed surfaces, of various red, +brown, or chocolate tints, over hard-baked dull-fractured paste not +unlike modern earthenware, but usually dark-coloured. These wares +begin in the Hellenistic period, and go on into the Roman and early +Byzantine Ages. They have sometimes a little ornament in a hard white +or cream 'slip' which stands up above the surface of the vase. These +fabrics are all for table use, or for tomb-furniture, and are usually +of small size. + +H. +Pottery with vitreous glaze like modern earthenware only appears on +Byzantine and Turkish sites. There a few late Greek and Roman fabrics +of glazed ware, mostly of dark brown and olive-green tints; but they +are rare, and usually found in tombs. The earlier glazes are applied +directly to the clay; later a white or coloured slip is applied +first, and a clear siliceous glaze over this. + +3. Inscriptions and Monuments. + +A. Hittite Civilization. (See figures, Illustration VI: Hittite +Inscriptions, etc.) + +(1) From 2000 B.C. onwards baked clay tablets with cuneiform (or +wedge-shaped) writing (Illustration VI, Fig. 1) to be found anywhere +in Eastern Asia Minor, within the Halys bend and south of it, in +Southern Cappadocia, in Cilicia, and in North Syria up to the +Euphrates. + +(2) 1000-700 B.C. probably: inscriptions generally cut on stone, dark +and hard (black basalt), or on the living rock, in hieroglyphic +writing. The hieroglyphs are either cut in relief (VI, Fig. 4) or +incised (VI, Fig. 2). Found in the same region and sporadically west +of the Halys. + +(3) From 1400 B.C. and 900 B.C. onwards monuments and sculpture. +Human figures are short and thick, generally wearing boots with toes +turned up (VI, Fig. 3.) Found in the same regions as the inscriptions +and also west of the Halys to the sea. + +B. Lydian inscriptions. + +From about 500 B.C. Letters mostly like Greek capitals (sometimes +reversed); (Illustration IV, at bottom). + +C. Lycian inscriptions and monuments. + +From about 500 B.C. inscriptions, sometimes with a Greek translation. +(IV, at bottom.) + +Monuments, mostly with inscriptions, are generally tombs in stone, +built to imitate wood, with the ends of beams projecting or showing. + +D. Greek antiquities. + +(1) Early period to 323 B.C. the great Greek colonies on the seaboard +and in the coast valleys really formed an outlying part of Greece, +and for them the section on Greece should be consulted. + +(2) Periods of Seleucid and Pergamene rule, 323-130 B.C. +Inscriptions of these periods to be found mostly in the coastal +region, rarely on the plateau. Chiefly royal ordinances, thank +offerings, municipal honorary inscriptions, decrees, covenants, and +the like. + +(3) Graeco-Roman period, 130 B.C.-A.D. 400. +Language of inscriptions remains normally Greek, though the lettering +gradually assumes a different character from century to century, +steadily deteriorating. The Phrygian language, written in Greek +letters, survives for several centuries in epitaphs, part of the +inscription often being in Greek. + +Latin inscriptions are not common except in Roman colonies during the +earlier centuries of their existence. Elsewhere they are chiefly +official documents of various kinds (e.g. imperial ordinances, +milestones usually of columnar shape with the Emperor's titles, +boundary stones, &c.), or expressions of homage to Emperors, honorary +inscriptions to governors and other officials, dedications, epitaphs, +&c. Sometimes a Greek version is added. + +Latin inscriptions of the Republican period (recording decrees of the +Senate) are extremely rare. + + +[ILLUSTRATION VI: HITTITE INSCRIPTIONS, ETC.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +CYPRUS + +[The traveller will find the _Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum_, by J. +L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch-Richter (Oxford, 1899) indispensable for +the study of Cypriote Antiquities. Reference may also be made to +Myres, _Catalogue of the Cesnola Collection of Antiquities from +Cyprus_ (New York, 1914). They contain numerous illustrations of +types, and make diagrams for the present section unnecessary.] + +The principal classes of ancient remains are as follows: + +Settlements. +These are usually much devastated by the removal of building +materials to more recent habitations; or are obscured by modern towns +and villages on the same site. All foundations in squared masonry, or +composed of unusually large stones, should be noted and protected as +far as possible. The frequent presence of large building stones, and +especially of architectural fragments, in recent house-walls probably +indicates the neighbourhood of an ancient building: and all +reconstructions and fresh foundation-trenches should be kept under +observation. The present Antiquity Law provides for the inspection +and custody of ancient remains so exposed: the Curator of Ancient +Monuments is charged with the supervision of all buildings and +monuments above ground; the Keeper of Antiquities for the custody of +movable objects, and for the registration of those already in private +possession. Taking into consideration the utility of good building +material to the present owners of such sites, active co-operation to +preserve ancient masonry is not to be expected, unless local +patriotism and expectation of traffic from tourists can be enlisted +in support of Government regulations. Architectural fragments found +in reconstruction are often best preserved by arranging that they +shall be built conspicuously into one of the new walls, well above +ground-level, or transferred to the nearest church or school-house. + +Sanctuaries +usually consist of a walled enclosure containing numerous pedestals +and bases of votive statues and other monuments. Usually only the +foundation-walls are of stone, as the same sun-dried brick was +commonly used in ancient as in modern times for the superstructure. +Such sites are often vary shallow, and when they occur in the open +country are liable to be disturbed by ploughing, when the smaller +statuettes and terra-cotta figures may be turned up in considerable +numbers. As most of our knowledge of the sculpture, as well as of the +religious observances, of ancient Cyprus is derived from such sites, +all such indications should be reported at once to the Keeper of +Antiquities, and arrangements made for the site to be examined with a +view to excavation before it is cultivated further. The sculpture on +these sites begins usually in the seventh century B.C.; before that +period terra-cotta figures were in use as far back as the ninth or +tenth century. Figures of 'Mixed Oriental' style, resembling Assyrian +or Egyptian work, give place about 500 B.C. to a provincial Greek +style, which passes gradually into Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman. The +material is almost invariably the soft local limestone, and the +workmanship is often clumsy; but even the coarser examples should be +treated carefully, as they were sometimes completed in colours which +are easily destroyed by too vigorous washing. The first cleaning +should be with gently running water only. + +Tombs +are of all periods, and are found not only around historical sites +and actual ruins, but also in localities where the settlement to +which they belonged has wholly disappeared. Though simple graves were +always in use among the poorest folk, the commonest form of tomb at +all periods is a rock-cut chamber entered by a door in one side, to +which access is given by a shaft or sloping passage (_dromos_) cut +likewise in the rock. The earliest are but a few feet from the +surface, just deep enough to ensure a firm roof to the chamber; later +the depth is as much as 12 or 15 feet. Occasionally the chamber, and +even the passage, is built of masonry and roofed with stone slabs or +a corbel vault, and the simple door-slab gives place to a stone door, +hinged, or sliding in a grooved frame. Cremation was occasionally +practised in the Hellenistic Age, but the regular custom was to bury +the body; during the Bronze Age in a sitting or a contracted posture, +in all later periods lying at full length. Stone coffins +(_sarcophagi_), with a lid, were used occasionally by the rich from +the sixth century onwards, and wooden coffins in the Graeco-Roman +period. There is always as rich a tomb-equipment as the mourners +could afford, of personal ornaments, wreaths, provisions, weapons, +and other gear, especially pottery; and terra-cotta figures of men, +animals, furniture, and other objects for the use of the deceased. In +Graeco-Roman tombs pottery is supplemented or replaced by glass +vessels, and coins are frequent, and are important evidence of date. +Most of our knowledge of Cypriote arts and industries comes from this +tomb-equipment, which should therefore if possible be preserved +entire and kept together, tomb by tomb; not neglecting the skeletons +themselves, which are of value to indicate changes in the island +population. The position of tombs was often marked by gravestones +above ground; these remain scattered in the surface soil, or +collected to block the entrances to later tombs. They are frequently +inscribed. A very common form in Greco-Roman times is the _cippus_, a +short column, like an altar. + +Pottery and other objects +from tombs, and also from settlements, is classified as follows: + +Stone Age: not clearly represented in Cyprus; but some of the +earliest tombs (with rude varieties of red hand-made ware) contain no +metallic objects, and may belong to the latest neolithic period. +Stone implements are very rare, and should be carefully recorded, +with a note of the spot where they were found. + +Bronze Age, early period (before 2000 B.C.): polished red ware, +hand-made, sometimes with incised ornament filled with white powder. + +Bronze Age, middle period (2000-1500 B.C.): polished red ware, and +also white hand-made ware with painted linear ornament in dull black +or brown. + +Bronze Age, late period (1500-1200 B.C.): degenerate polished red +and painted white ware; wheel-made white ware with painted ornament +in glazed black or brown, of the 'Late Minoan' or 'Mycenaean' style +introduced from the Aegean; various hand-made wares of foreign +styles, probably from Syria or Asia Minor. + +In these periods, weapons, implements, and ornaments are of copper +(with bronze in the 'late' period); gold occurs rarely; terra-cotta +figures are few and rude; engraved seals are cylindrical like those +of Babylonia. + +Early Iron Age: wheel-made pottery, either white or bright red, +with painted geometrical ornament in black (supplemented on the white +ware with purple-red); there is also a black fabric imitating +metallic forms. + +The early period (1200-1000 B.C.) marks the transition from bronze +to iron implements, with survival of Mycenaean decoration on the +pottery, and replacement of cylindrical by conical seals. + +The middle period (1000-750 B.C.) has purely geometrical +decoration: terra-cotta figures are modelled rudely by hand, and +painted like the pottery. + +The late period (750-500 B.C.) shows foreign influences from Greece +and from Phoenicia or Egypt, competing with and enriching the native +geometrical style. Scarab seals, blue-glaze beads, and other personal +ornaments, and silver objects, appear. Terra-cotta figures stamped in +a mould occur side by side with modelled. + +Hellenic Age, with increasing influence of Greek arts and +industries. + +Early or Hellenic period (500-300 B.C.): the native pottery +degenerates, and Greek vases and terra-cottas are imported and +imitated; jewellery of gold and silver is fairly common and of good +quality; with engraved seals set in signet rings: the bronze mirrors +are circular, with a handle-spike. + +Middle or Hellenistic period (300-50 B.C.): the native pottery is +almost wholly replaced by imitations of forms from other parts of the +Greek world, especially from Syria and Asia Minor: large handled +wine-jars (_amphorae_) are common: terra-cottas and jewellery also +follow Greek styles: coloured stones are set in rings and ear-rings. + +Late or Graeco-Roman period (50 B.C.-A.D. 400): pottery is partly +replaced by vessels of blown glass: clay lamps, red-glazed jugs, so +called 'tear-bottles' of spindle-shapes, ear-rings of beads strung on +wire, bronze rings and bracelets, circular mirrors without handles, +and bronze coins are characteristics. + +Byzantine Age (after A.D. 400): Christian burial in surface graves +supersedes the use of rock-hewn tombs: funerary equipment goes out of +use, except a few personal ornaments, which are of mean appearance, +and may bear Christian symbols. Domestic pottery is coarse, +ungraceful, and frequently ribbed on the outside. Clay lamps have +long nozzles, and Christian symbols. Glass becomes clumsy and less +common; and glazed bowls and cups come into use. Occasional rich +finds of silver plate (salvers, cups, spoons, &c.) and personal +ornaments, have been made among Byzantine ruins. + +On mediaeval and later sites, various glazed fabrics of pottery are +found, and occasionally examples of the glazed and painted jugs, +plates, and tiles known to collectors as 'Rhodian' or 'Damascus' +ware. + +Inscriptions +occur on settlement-sites, in sanctuaries and associated with tombs: +usually cut on slabs or blocks of soft limestone, though marble and +other harder stones were used in Hellenistic and Roman times. Besides +the ordinary Greek (see Illustration IV), and Roman alphabets the +Phoenician alphabet (see Illustrations X and XI) was in use at Kition +(Larnaca), in the great sanctuaries at Idalion (Dali), and +occasionally elsewhere; and from early times until the fourth century +a syllabary peculiar to Cyprus, often very rudely hewn, in irregular +lines, on ill-shaped blocks. Such 'Cypriote inscriptions' (see +accompanying Illustration VII) are of great value and interest, and +have been often overlooked among building material drawn from old +sites. In all doubtful cases, a 'squeeze' should be made by one of +the methods described in the first part of this volume and submitted +to the Keeper of Antiquities. The stamped inscriptions on the handles +of wine-jars are worth preserving, as evidence for the course of +trade. + +Coins +were issued in Cyprus from the sixth century onward; first in silver; +later (in the fourth century B.C.) occasionally in gold, and from the +fourth century commonly in copper. A Ptolemaic coinage succeeded in +the third century that of the local rulers; the Roman coinage, with +inscriptions sometimes in Greek, sometimes in Latin, lasts from +Augustus to the beginning of the third century. Coins of the +Byzantine Emperors and of the Lusignan Kings are common. + +[ILLUSTRATION VII: BILINGUAL (GREEK AND CYPRIOTE) DEDICATION TO +DEMETER AND PERSEPHONE FROM CURIUM.] + + + + + CHAPTER V + + + CENTRAL AND NORTH SYRIA + +[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; of pottery +and weapons, &c., VIII & IX; of alphabets, X & XI.] + +The following notes are to be accepted as only a rough and imperfect +guide, since no part of Syria, north of Palestine, has been widely or +minutely explored, and the archaeology of the earliest period, in +Central Syria, for example, is almost unknown. + +The periods into which the archaeological history of Syria should be +divided are roughly, as follows: + + I. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Age, to about 2000 B.C. + II. Bronze Age or Early Hittite, to about 1100 B.C. + III. Iron Age or Late Hittite, to about 550 B.C. + IV. Persian Period, to about 330 B.C. + V. Hellenistic Period, to about 100 B.C. + VI. Roman Period. + VII. Byzantine Period. + + +I. Neolithic. + +No purely Neolithic sites yet known, but lowest strata of remains at +Sakjegozu and Sinjerli, on the Carchemish citadel, and in certain +kilns at Yunus near by, and also pot-burials among house remains are +of this Age. (But see Chapter VIII, Mesopotamia, whose Neolithic +period is similar.) + +Stone implements: +as in Greece, including obsidian of very clear texture, probably of +inner Asiatic, not Aegean production. Bone needles and other +implements. + +Pottery. +Four varieties have been observed: (1) buff ground with simple linear +decoration applied direct on the gritty body-clay in lustreless +pigments, black, chocolate-brown, or red, according to the firing; +(2) greenish-buff face, hand-polished, with polychrome varnish +decoration of vandykes and other geometric motives; (3) monochrome, +black to grey, not burnished, but sometimes decorated with incised +linear patterns; (4) plain red or buff (e.g. large urns in which +Neolithic burials were found on the Carchemish citadel). All pottery +hand-made. + +Figurines: +rude clay and stone figurines are likely to occur, but have as yet +been found very rarely in Neolithic strata. + +Copper implements: +traces observed at Carchemish: to be looked for. + + +II. Bronze Age (Early Hittite). + +(a) Early period to about 1500 B.C. +Cist-graves made of rough stone slabs, near crude brick houses. +Conjunction of such slabs with bricks would be an indication of an +early Bronze Age site. Rare pot-burials survive. + +Implements. +Spear-heads of long tapering form rounded sharply at the base which +has long tang (IX, Fig. 5): poker-like butts (IX, Fig. 2): knives +with curved tangs: 'toggle' pins: all bronze (but a silver toggle-pin +has been found) (IX, Figs. 1,8). + +Pottery. +All wheel-made but rough: light red or buff faced of reddish clay: +decoration rare and only in simple zigzags or waves in reddish-brown +pigment: long-stemmed vases of 'champagne-glass' form are common (VIII, +Fig. 4): rarely a creamy slip is applied to the red clay. + +(b) Later period. +Cist-graves apart from houses, in cemeteries. + +Implements. +Long narrow celts often riveted: spear-heads, leaf-shaped or +triangular (IX, Figs. 3, 6, 10): axe-heads with socket, swelling +blade and curved cutting edge: pins both 'toggle' and unpierced, +straight and bent over. + +Pottery. +Wheel-made, well potted, and commonly _ring-burnished_, the process +beginning at the base of a vase and climbing spirally: little painted +decoration: face usually dusky brown over pinkish body clay, but red +and yellow-white faced wares also found: shapes, mostly bowls, open +and half closed: ring feet, but no handles to vases: only +occasionally lug-ears (IX, Figs. 1,2,3,5,6). Rims well turned over +belong to the latest period, in which elaborate ring-burnishing is +common. + +Beads, &c. +Diamond-shaped, with incised decoration, in clay or stone, common. +Pendants, &c., of shell, lapis lazuli, cornelian, crystal. Cylinders, +of rude design like Babylonian First Dynasty, in stone and bone. +Spindle-whorls in steatite and clay. + +[ILLUSTRATION VIII: SYRIAN POTTERY] + + +III. Iron Age (Late Hittite). + +To this belong the mass of 'Hittite' remains in Syria. Graves are +unlined pits, with urn burials, the corpse having been cremated. +Cylinders, &c., showing traces of fire, will belong to this Age. + +Implements and weapons. +Arrow-heads of bronze: spear-heads of bronze and iron: axes, knives, +and picks of iron (miniature models occur in graves): daggers of +iron. _Fibulae_, of bronze, semicircular and triangular (as in Asia +Minor) (IX, Figs. 4, 9, 11): plain armlets of bronze: pins, spatulae, +&c., of bronze: thin applique ornaments. Bronze bowls (gilt) with +gadroon or lotus ornament (moulded) in later period. Steatite +censers, in form of a cup held by a human hand, are not uncommon (IX, +Fig. 7). + +Pottery. +Tall narrow-mouthed urns, bath-shaped vessels, and bell-kraters +common (VIII, Fig. 10): trefoil-mouth _oenochoae_ and _hydriae_; also +_amphorae_ (VIII, Fig. 7). + +In earlier period, white or drab slipped surface with geometric +patterns (rarely rude birds) in black. In later period, pinkish glaze +with geometric patterns in black-brown, concentric circles being a +common motive. Tripod bowls in unslipped 'kitchen' ware (VIII, Fig. +8). Blue or greenish glazed albarelli, with white, brown, or yellow +bands, occur (as in Rhodes). + +Figurines. +Drab clay, painted with red or black bands and details. Two types: +(a) Horsemen; (b) Goddesses of columnar shape, often with flower +headdresses, and sometimes carrying a child. + +Seals, &c. +Scarabs with designs of Egyptian appearance: cylinders, steatite or +(more commonly) glazed paste, lightly and often scratchily engraved: +hard stone seals finely engraved: flattened spheroids in steatite +with Hittite symbols on both faces, inscriptions being often garbled. + +Inscriptions. +Most of those in Hittite script, both relieved and incised, found in +Syria, are of this Age, but chiefly of the earlier part of it (cf. +Illustration VI). Those in Semitic characters begin in this Age; and +to its later part (8th-7th cents.) belong important Aramaic +inscriptions, e.g. the Bar-Rekub monuments of Sinjerli (Shamal). See +tables of letter-forms appended to Palestine section, Illustrations X +& XI. + + +IV. Persian Period. + + Imported Egyptian and Egypto-Phoenician objects (bronze bowls as in +Age III: scarabs: figure-amulets), Rhodian (pottery), Attic (coins, +small black-figure vases, &c.). + +Weapons and implements. +Iron. Long swords: spearheads, socketed, often with square or diamond +mid-rib: short double-edged daggers with round pommels: chapes +(bronze) with moulded or beaten relief-work: knives, small and +slightly curved: arrow-heads (usually bronze and triangular): horse- +bits (usually bronze) with heavy knobbed side-bars: ear-rings, wire +armlets and pins (generally plain) of bronze: _fibulae_ as in Age +III: circular mirrors, plain, of bronze: anklets of heavy bronze: +kohl-pots, bronze, of hollow cylindrical form, with plain sticks. + +Pottery. +As in Age II, plain, polished, rarely ring-burnished, but of less +careful workmanship (VIII, Fig. 9.) Glazed albarelli, 'pilgrim- +bottles', aryballi, &c., (as in Age III) common. White-yellow slipped +ware with bands of black survives rarely from Age III. + +Stone vessels. +Bowls on inverted cup-shaped feet not uncommon (VIII, Fig. 11). + +Beads and seals. +Eye-beads in mosaic glass, and other glass beads (hard stone and +bronze more rarely): conoid seals in hard crystalline stones, usually +engraved with figure praying to the Moon-god: also soft stone, glass +and paste conoids. Scarabs and scaraboids in paste. Cylinders become +scarce. + + +V. Hellenistic. VI. Roman. VII. Byzantine. + +Most of the characteristic Syrian products of all these Periods do +not differ materially from those found in other East Mediterranean +lands, e.g. Greece and Asia Minor. The change to Persian (Sassanian) +types comes in the late seventh century A.D. + +Two classes of objects, examples of the first of which are mostly of +Age III, but may be Persian, Hellenistic, or even Roman, are very +commonly met with in Syria: + +1. Figurines, +single or in pairs or threes, of bronze or terra-cotta, representing +cult-types. Most common is a standing god with peaked cap, short +tunic, and arm raised in act of smiting: a seated goddess also +common: figures of animals, especially a bull; and phallic objects +(these mainly Roman). + +2. Glass +plain (iridescent from decay), ribbed, or moulded, in great variety +of forms-bowls, jugs, cups, &c. Mostly late Hellenistic, Roman, and +Byzantine, and especially common and of fine quality in the Orontes +valley. + +Parti-coloured glass (with white or yellow bands and threads) is +earlier (Persian Period). Painted and enamelled glass with gilt or +polychrome designs is later (ninth to fifteenth century, Arab). + +[ILLUSTRATION IX: SYRIAN WEAPONS, ETC.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + +PALESTINE + +[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustrations II; pottery, +XII; alphabets, XIV & XV.] + + +I. General Principles. + +1. Study of the pottery of the country, not merely from books but +from actual specimens, is an absolutely essential preliminary. +Without an acquaintance with this branch of Palestinian archaeology, +so thorough that any sherd presenting the least character can be +immediately assigned to its proper period, no field research of any +value can be carried out. (See further V below.) + +2. A knowledge of the various Semitic alphabets is necessary for +copying inscriptions. Unless the traveller be also acquainted with +the languages he had better be cautious about copying Semitic +inscriptions; without such knowledge he runs the risk of confusing +different Semitic letters, which often closely resemble one another. +He should, however, be able to make squeezes and photographs. + +The following are the languages and scripts which may be found in +Palestinian Epigraphy. + +Egyptian, in Hieroglyphics. Greek. +Babylonian Cuneiform. Latin. +Assyrian Cuneiform. Arabic, in Cufic script. +Hebrew, in ancient script. Arabic, in modern script. +Hebrew, in square character. Armenian (in mosaic +Phoenician. pavements, also graffiti +Moabite. in Church of Holy +Aramaic. Sepulchre). + +Tables of the chief alphabetic and numeral forms of the West Semitic +scripts are given in Illustrations X & XI; for the Greek, see +Illustration IV. + +3. The traveller should have had practice in making measured drawings +of buildings. + +4. For some branches of work a good knowledge of Arabic is +indispensable--not the miserable pidgin jargon usually spoken by +Europeans, nor yet the highly complex literary language, which is +unintelligible to the ordinary native, but the colloquial of the +country, spoken grammatically and properly pronounced. Work done +through dragomans is never entirely satisfactory, because it requires +the unattainable condition that the dragoman should be as much a +scientific student of anthropology and of archaeology as the +traveller himself. + +5. The student for whom these pages are written should not attempt +any excavation, unless he has been trained under a practical +excavator, and has learnt how work, which is essentially and +inevitably destructive of evidence, can be made to yield profitable +fruit. There is plenty of work that can be done on the surface of the +ground without excavation. + +[Illustrations X & XI: Table of West Semitic Alphabets & Numerals.] + +II. Sites of Towns and Villages. + +1. Nomenclature. +The sites of ancient towns and villages are usually conspicuous in +Palestine, and are recognized in the local nomenclature. They are +denoted by the words _tall_, plural _tulul_, meaning 'mound', and +_khirbah_, plural _khirab_ meaning 'ruin'. These words are commonly +spelt in English _tell_ and _khirbet_ (less correctly _khurbet_) and +we use these more familiar forms here. As a rule, though not +invariably, the sense of these terms is distinguished. A tell is a +site represented by a mound of stratified accumulation, the result of +occupation extending over many centuries, and easily recognizable +among natural hillocks by its regular shape, smooth sides, and flat +top. A khirbet is a field of ruins in which there is little or no +stratification. Nearly all the sites of the latter type are the +remains of villages not older than the Byzantine or Roman period. + +2. Identification of ancient sites. +This is a task less easy than it appears to be, and many of the +current identifications of Biblical sites call for revision. +Similarity of name, on which most of these identifications depend, is +apt to be misleading; in many cases sites identified thus with Old +Testament places are not older than the Byzantine Period. [1] This +similarity of name may sometimes be a mere accident; it may also +sometimes be accounted for by a transference of site, the inhabitants +having for some special reason moved their town to a new situation. +In such cases the tell representing the older site may perhaps await +identification in the neighbourhood. In attempting to establish +identifications, the date of the site, as determined from the +potsherds, and its suitability to the recorded history of the ancient +site in question, are elements of equal importance with its name. + +[1] An example is Khirbet Teku'a, long identified with the Biblical +Tekoa. + +Note: The traveller should be cautioned against embarking on the +study of place-names, identification of scriptural sites, &c., before +mastering the principles of Arabic phonetics. Many of the attempts +made at rendering the names of Palestinian place-names in European +books are simply grotesque. The following are the chief pitfalls: + + (1) Confusion of the vowels, the pronunciation of which is obscure. + (2) The consonant _'ain_, to which the untrained European ear is +deaf, and which in consequence is often omitted. Less frequently it +may be over-conscientiously inserted in a place where it does not +exist. Sometimes the _'ain_ and its associated vowel are transposed +(as _M'alula_ for _Ma'lula_) making unpronounceable combinations of +consonants. + (3) The letter _kaf_, often dropped in pronunciation, and therefore +often omitted. + (4) The letter _ghain_, which an unaccustomed ear confuses with +either _g_ or _r_. + (5) The reduplicated letters, which a European is apt to hear and to +write as single. + (6) The nuances between the different _d_, _h_, _k_, _t_, and _s_ +sounds. + +3. Surface-exploration of a tell. +The stratification can rarely be studied on the surface only: +superficial indications of this are obscured by the plough, weather, +vegetation, and the activities of modern natives who grub for +building-stone and for the chance of buried treasure. Only by +trenching can the strata be exposed. An exception to this rule is +afforded by _Tell el-Hesy_ (Lachish) explored by Dr. Petrie in 1890- +1: here the erosion of a stream had exposed enough of the strata for +a reconnaissance. In the majority of cases the most that a visitor +can hope to do is to pick up stray antiquities on the surface of the +ground, and ascertain therefrom the limits of date. + +The chief clue is afforded by the pottery (see below, V), sherds of +which, large and small, are strewn in considerable numbers on every +ancient site. Scarabs, seals, bronze implements, iron fragments, +beads, bone ornaments, and the like may also be noticed. A trained +eye is essential even for such surface finds: one man may walk over a +mound and find nothing, another may walk in his steps and gather +quite an interesting harvest of small objects. + +Surface indications of buried buildings (or rather foundations) may +be noted both on the top and on the sides of a tell. Lines of wall +may not infrequently be traced. Often the vegetation growing on the +surface indicates the presence of structures underneath (either by +burnt-up patches amid luxuriant growths, or vice versa). + +4. Surface exploration of a khirbet. +The task here is, generally sneaking, simpler. In a khirbet there is +usually no great depth of accumulation; indeed, the bare rock +frequently crops up in the middle of such a site. There is, +therefore, as a rule only one historical period represented. +Potsherds, coins (Roman, Jewish, Byzantine, early Islamic, sometimes +Crusader), tesserae of mosaic pavements, fragments of iron nails, +beads, minute metal ornaments (as bronze wire finger-rings) are to be +picked up on khirbet sites. + +The remains of walls are usually more easily traceable in khirbet +than in tell sites, though much damage has been done by quarrying for +modern buildings. These walls should be carefully examined: buildings +other than mere houses (churches, synagogues, baths) may sometimes be +detected. Cisterns should be noted. Some of these are not very +obvious and the traveller should be on his guard against falling into +them. + +All stones should be examined, as there is a chance of finding +inscriptions. + +5. In all work on ancient sites the investigator must make a point of +noting everything, irrespective of its apparent importance, and of +carefully training a critical judgement in interpreting his +observations. It is impossible to lay down general principles that +govern every case completely: every site presents its own individual +problems. + + +III. Rock-cut Tombs. + +1. All Palestine is honeycombed with rock-cut tombs, which form a +fascinating and inexhaustible field of study. Unfortunately all that +are in the least degree visible have long ago been rifled, and in +recent years those pests, the curio-hunting tourists, have done +incalculable harm by stimulating the native tomb-robber and dealer. + +2. The explorer of rock-cut tombs must be indifferent to mud, damp, +evil smells, noxious insects, and other discomforts, and he must be +prepared to squeeze through very narrow passages, much clogged with +earth. He is recommended to be on his guard against scorpions and +snakes. + +3. A plan and vertical section of the tomb should be drawn. The +measurements should be taken carefully, not only for the sake of the +accuracy of the plan, but also for metrological purposes. + +4. The rock outside the entrance of the tomb-chamber should be +examined. It often shows rebating or other cutting, designed to +receive the foundations of a masonry mausoleum (resembling in general +style the rock-hewn monuments in the Kedron Valley at Jerusalem). As +a rule such structures have been entirely destroyed for the sake of +their stones. + +5. The tool-marks of the tomb-quarriers should be examined, as they +sometimes reveal interesting technical points. + +6. Every inch of the surface of the excavation, inside and out, must +be examined for ornaments, symbols, or inscriptions. These may be +either cut or painted, and often are very inconspicuous. Ornaments +are usually floral in type, though in late tombs figure-subjects are +occasionally to be found. Symbols are either Jewish (the seven- +branched candlestick) or Christian (the cross, A-omega, or the like). +Inscriptions are not necessarily formally cut: they are sometimes +mere scratched graffiti, which would be sure to escape notice unless +carefully looked for (as in the so-called 'Tombs of the Prophets' on +the Mount of Olives). + +7. Dating of tombs. +The savage rifling to which Palestinian tombs have been subjected has +much reduced the material available for dating them. The following +general principles apply to Southern Palestine: those in Northern +Palestine and Syria still await a more exact study: + +The earliest tombs known in the country were mere natural caves, into +which the dead were cast, often very unceremoniously. + +In the Second Semitic Period (circa 1800-1400 B.C.) hewn chambers +began to be used. These are in the form of cylindrical shafts with a +doorway at the bottom leading sideways into the burial-chamber. +Natural caves are still frequently used. + +In the Third Semitic Period (circa 1400-1000 B.C.) the shaft: form +disappears and an artificial cave, rudely hewn out, takes its place. +The entrance is in the side of the chamber, though not necessarily at +the level of the floor. Rude shelves for the reception of the bodies +are sometimes, but not always, cut in the sides of the chamber. + +In the Fourth Semitic Period (circa 1000-550 B.C.) the tomb- +chambers are of the same kind, but are as a rule smaller. + +In Southern Palestine the well-made tomb-chambers, such as are to be +seen in great numbers around Jerusalem, are all post-exilic. There is +an immense variety in plan, some tombs being single chambers, others +complications of several chambers. The late excavation absurdly +called the 'Tombs of the Kings' at Jerusalem is quite a labyrinth of +rockcut chambers. In exploring such a structure a careful search +should be made for devices for deluding thieves: special precautions +are sometimes taken to conceal the entrance to inner groups of +chambers. There are some interesting examples of this in the cemetery +in the _Wadi er-Rababi_, south of Jerusalem. However, all tombs of +this period fall into two groups, _kok_ tombs and _arcosolium_ tombs. +In the former the receptacles for bodies are of the kind known by the +Hebrew name _kokim_--shafts, of a size to accommodate one body +(sometimes large enough for two or three) driven horizontally into +the wall of the chamber. In the normal _kok_ tomb-chamber there are +nine _kokim_, three in each wall except the wall containing the +entrance doorway. But there are many other arrangements. In the +'Tombs of the Judges' there is a double row of _kokim_ in the +entrance chamber. The explorer should not forget that a _kok_ +sometimes contains a secret entrance to further chambers at its inner +end. In _arcosolium_ tombs the receptacles are benches cut in the +wall, like the berths in a steamer's cabin. These are sometimes sunk, +so as to resemble rock-cut sarcophagi. + +The late tombs round Jerusalem are in the form of caves driven +horizontally into the hill-sides. Further south, e.g. in the region +round Beit Jibrin, they are more frequently sunk vertically, the +entrance being in the roof of the burial chamber, or approached by a +square shaft (a reversion to the Second Semitic form, except that +these latter have _round_ shafts). + + +IV. Caves. +The history of the artificial caves hewn in the soft limestone of +Palestine, is quite unknown. The caves of the neighbourhood of Beit +Jibrin provide ample material for several months' exploration. + +Though the caves are labyrinthine there is little fear of an explorer +losing his way: he should, however, be well provided with lights, as +it would be extremely awkward to be left in the innermost recess of a +cave consisting of ten or a dozen chambers united by narrow creep- +passages, without adequate illumination. There are occasionally +unexpected and dangerous pitfalls: and hyenas and serpents often +shelter in the caves. The present writer has explored many of them +entirely alone, but this is, on the whole, not to be recommended. + +Besides planning the cave, its walls should be searched for +inscriptions, &c. It should be remembered, however, that these may +have been added at any time and do not necessarily belong to the +original excavation. Symbols, apparently of a phallic nature, are +sometimes cut on the walls, as well as crosses and other Christian +devices, and Cufic inscriptions. Frequently the walls are pitted with +the loculi of a columbarium, which, however, appear to be too small +to receive cinerary urns and must be intended for some other purpose. + + +V. Pottery. + + Owing to the importance of the subject a special section on Pottery +is given here, and the two accompanying plates (XII) show some of the +commonest types of vessels. But the student cannot learn all he will +need to know of Palestinian pottery from a few pages of print. A +representative series of specimens will be found in the Jerusalem +Museum: he may supplement his study of these by the perusal of +reports on excavations, such as Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_ (pp. 40-50); +Bliss, _A Mound of Many Cities_ (passim); _Excavations in Palestine_ +(pp. 71-141); Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_ (vol. ii, pp. +128-239; and plates); Sellin, _Jericho_; Schumacher, _Tell +et-Mutasellim_. + +Pre-Semitic Period (down to circa 2000 B.C.). +Ware hand-modelled, without wheel, coarse, gritty, and generally +soft-baked and very porous. The section of a clean fracture is +usually of a dirty yellowish colour, resembling in appearance coarse +oatmeal porridge. Bases usually flat, loop-handles or wavy handles on +the bodies of the vessels: mouths wide and lips curved outward. The +body of the vessel often decorated with drip lines or with a criss- +cross, in red paint. + +First Semitic Period (circa 2000-1800 B.C.). +Similar to the last: but the potter's wheel is used, and horizontal +painted and moulded rope-like ornament also found. Combed ornament +and burnished lines frequent. + +Second Semitic Period (circa 1800-1400 B.C.). +During this period imports from Egypt, Crete, the Aegean Sea, and +especially Cyprus were common, and potsherds originating in those +countries are frequently to be picked up: also local imitations of +these foreign wares. The ware of this period is on the whole well- +refined and well-modelled: the most graceful shapes, in jugs and +bowls, belong to it. Elaborate polychrome decoration, including +figures of birds. But little moulded ornament. + +Third Semitic Period (circa 1400-1000 B.C.). +The same foreign influences are traceable, but rather as reminiscent +local imitations than as direct imports. Late Minoan [Mycenaean] +sherds are, however, frequent. The shapes of vessels are less +artistic than in the preceding period: the painted ornament is also +degenerated, being traced in wiry lines rather than in the bold wash +of the preceding period. + +Fourth Semitic Period (circa 1000-550 B.C.). +Late Cypriote imports. The local ware very poor, coarse, gritty, +inartistic. No painted ornament except mere lines: clumsy moulded +ornament frequent. + +Post-Exilic and Hellenistic Period (circa 550-100 B.C.). +Imports from Greece (sometimes fragments of black or red figured +vases, or lekythoi) and from the Aegean Islands (especially wine-jars +from Rhodes: stamped handles of such are frequent). The native ware +is easily recognizable by its smoothness and hardness; when struck +with a stick a sherd emits a musical clink. The vessels are very fair +imitations of classical models, occasionally with painted ornament, +but more frequently moulded. + +Roman and Byzantine Period (circa 100 B.C.-A.D. 600). +The unmistakable character of the ware of this period is the ribbed +surface, with which nearly all vessels are decorated. Fragments of +ribbed pottery are strewn almost over all Palestine. Ornament +consisting of repeated impressions of stamps now begins to appear. +Lamps with decoration, inscriptions, Christian or Jewish symbols +common. Glass vessels also frequent. + +Arab Period (circa A.D. 600 onwards). +The early Arab ware often bears painted decoration singularly like +that on Second and Third Semitic pottery, but a fatty soapy texture +characterizes the Arab ware, which is absent from the earlier sherds. +There is likewise a complete absence of representation of natural +forms (birds and the like). In or about the Crusader period the use +of ornamental glaze makes its appearance. + + +[Illustration XII: PALESTINIAN POTTERY TYPES] + + +VI. Sanctuaries. + +The hill-top shrines, now consecrated to saints of Islam, are +doubtless in origin ancient Canaanite high places. There is here a +rich but a very difficult field for investigation. The difficulty +lies in (a) gaining the confidence of those to whom the sanctuaries +are holy, and (b) guarding against wilful or unconscious deception. +Only long residence and frequent intercourse, with the Muslim +population will make it possible for any one to obtain really +trustworthy information as to the traditions or the sites of these +ancient sanctuaries. A knowledge of Arabic is essential for a study +of the sites themselves, as there are frequently inscriptions cut or +painted on the walls which should be studied. The casual traveller +cannot hope to carry out researches of any value on these ancient +sites. + +Sometimes the buildings are Crusaders' churches transformed. The one +really certain fact as to masonry dressing in Palestine may here +conveniently be noticed--that Crusader structures are built of well- +squared stones with a plane surface finished off with a dressing +consisting of very fine diagonal lines. Once seen, this masonry +dressing is absolutely unmistakable. + +Buildings thus identified as Crusader should be examined for masons' +marks. + + +VII. Miscellaneous. + + The following are some other types of ancient remains with which the +traveller may meet almost anywhere in Palestine: + +(1) Prehistoric (Stone Age) sites. Marked by being strewn with flint +implements and chips: see a fine collection in the Museum of the +Assumptionists (Notre-Dame de France) at Jerusalem. Specimens should +be collected and the site mapped. + +(2) Dolmens. Frequent east of Jordan; rare, though not unknown, in +Western Palestine. Should be measured, photographed, described, and +mapped. + +(3) Rock-cuttings of various kinds, which should be measured, +planned, and mapped. Among these the commonest are: + (a) Cisterns (usually bottle-shaped, a narrow neck expanding below). + (b) Cup-markings, common everywhere. Often associated with cisterns. + (c) Wine and olive presses: there is a great variety in form, but +they generally consist of two essential parts--a shallow _pressing- +vat_ on which the fruit was crushed, and a deeper _receiving-vat_ in +which the expressed juice was collected. The vats are often lined +with cement containing datable potsherds, and are sometimes paved +with mosaic tesserae. + (d) Quarries. + +(4) Sacred trees and bushes, recognized by the rags with which they +are festooned. Should be photographed and mapped, and their legends +ascertained, subject to the cautions given above under the head of +Sanctuaries. + +(5) Castles and churches, usually of the Crusader period: early +Saracenic buildings. Should be recorded by means of plans, +photographs, measured drawings, and written descriptions. + +(6) Mosaic pavements, usually belonging to Byzantine buildings; +should be recorded by means of coloured drawings. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +EGYPT + + +[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; pottery, +Illustration XIII; and the table of hieroglyphic signs liable to be +confused with each other, Illustration I] + +First Prehistoric Age, 8000?-7000? B.C. +Cemeteries of round or oval pits on the desert; no towns known. Red +faced pottery, often with lustrous black top, earliest with patterns +of white slip lines: all hand-made. Block figures of ivory or paste. +Combs with long teeth and animal tops. + +Second Prehistoric Age, 7000?-5500 B.C. +Graves, square pits. Red faced, and much coarse brown pottery. Buff +with red painting of cordage, spirals, and ships. Pot forms copied +from stone. Some pots globular with wavy ledge handles, changing to +cylinders with wavy band. Slate palettes in all prehistoric periods. + +Early Dynasties, 5500-4700 B.C. +Towns and cemeteries. Great mastabas of brick. Wooden coffins begin. +Great jars; hard, wheel-made pottery. Glazed tiles, &c. Stone bowls +common. Cylinder sealings on clay. + +Pyramid Period, IV-Vl Dynasties, 4700-4000 B.C. +Sculptured stone tomb-chapels. Diorite bowls. Thick brown pot +offering bowls. Limestone statues, painted. Cornelian amulets in +strings. + +Vl-XI Dynasties, 4200-3600 B.C. +Copper mirrors begin. Buttons, wide face, un-Egyptian work. Pottery +models of houses placed on grave edge. + +Middle Kingdom, Xll-XIII Dynasties, 3600-2900 B.C. +Brick pyramids. Large rock tomb-chapels, painted. Hard drab pottery. +Alabaster kohl-pots, good forms. Globular beads, large; cornelian, +amethyst, and green glaze. Scroll pattern scarabs. + +XIV-XVII Dynasties. 2900-1600 B.C. +Small flasks with handles, black with pricked patterns. Coarsely cut +scarabs. Shell beads. + +New Kingdom XVIII-XXI Dynasties, 1587-952 B.C. +Small painted tombs. Pottery, red face black edge to 1500; buff, red +and black lines to 1400; blue bands 1400-1200. Hard polished drab, +about 1400-1350. Glass beads, &c., abundant 1400-1300. Glaze deep +blue 1500, brilliant blue 1400, poor blue 1300, green 1200: deep blue +ushabtis 1100, pale and rough 1000. Ushabtis, stone or wood engraved +1550-1450, pottery 1450 to very coarse 1250, wood very coarse by +1250; glazed fine 1300, decline to small rough lumps 800. Beads, +minute coloured glaze and stone to 1450, thin discs 1450-1350, +coloured pastes red and blue 1450 to 1300, yellow glass mainly 1300- +1200, poor glaze after 1200. Alabaster kohl-pots, clumsy forms to +1450; tubes of stone, glaze, wood, or reed 1450-1200. + +Bubastites, XXII-XXV Dynasties, 950-664 B.C. +Clumsy large jars, widening to bottom, small handles. Green glazed +figures of cat-head goddess, cats, pigs, and sacred eyes; coarse +glass beads, yellow and black: copper wire bracelets. Glass beads +with blue spots in circles of brown and white. Scarabs coarse and +worst at 750. Fine work revived at 700 by Ethiopians. Glazes dull, +dirty, green. Glass unknown. Coffins very roughly painted. + +Saites, XXVI-XXX Dynasties, 664-342 B.C. +Pottery clumsy, mostly rough: some thin, smooth red. Greek influence; +silver coins from 500 onward. Iron tools beginning. Glaze pale +greyish and olive: some fine blue at 350. No glass. Bronze figures +common. Ushabtis with back pier and beard; fine 650 to poor at 350. + +Ptolemies, 332-30 B.C. +Pottery clumsy and small. Many Rhodian jars with Greek stamped +handles. Glazes, dark violet and yellow-green. Glass revived for +inlay figures in shrines: minute mosaic begins. Glazed beads scarce, +no scarabs. Large copper coins, silver tetradrachms, base in later +time, and concave on reverse. + +Romans, 30 B.C.-A.D. 641. The earlier half, to A.D. 300. +Large brown amphorae, peg bottoms; ribbed after 180, wide ribbing at +first, then narrower. Glass blown; fine white and cut facets in 1st +cent.; hollow brims 2nd-4th; stems and pressed feet, 3rd-4th. Glass +mosaic 1st cent.; coarser wall mosaic 2nd cent. Glaze coarse blue, on +thick clumsy bowls and jugs. Red brick buildings as well as mud +brick, coins: billon tetradrachms in 1st cent., almost copper in 2nd, +small copper dumps in 3rd, leaden tokens from A.D. 180 to 260. Some +large copper in 1st and 2nd, thinner than the Ptolemaic. Potsherds +used for writing receipts and letters. Abundance of moulded terra- +cottas, and small lamps. + +Roman, Second Period, A.D. 300-641. +The Constantinian Age brings in new styles. Much salmon-coloured hard +pottery, mainly platters and flat dishes. Brown amphorae soft and +smaller, with narrow ribbing. No glaze. Much very thin glass. Coins: +little thin flat copper, as in rest of Empire, ending about 450. No +Egyptian coinage, except a very few rough lumps from Justinian to +Heraclius, I+B on back. Letters written on potsherds and flakes of +limestone. + +Red brick the material for all large buildings. Limestone capitals of +debased leafage. Rudely cut relief patterns in wood. Coarsely carved +and turned bone or ivory. Pottery in Byzantine Age with white facing +and rudely painted figures. Textiles, with embroidery in colours, and +especially purple discs with thread designs of the earlier Arab +period. A characteristic of late Roman and Arab mounds is the organic +smell. + +Muhammadan Period. Seventh to fifteenth centuries. +Characterized by great amounts of glazed pottery. Smaller antiquities +found in cemeteries or on ruined sites, the earliest transitional, +and related to Coptic examples of the same kinds. Pottery: lamps at +first continue Christian forms and are unglazed; afterwards long +spouted lamps of dark green glaze. Fragments of vessels, &c., from +the rubbish heaps of old Cairo are glazed; a typical faience has a +soft sandy body of light colour with painted designs in blue or blue +and brown with transparent glaze. Those of the Mamluk period, and +probably some of earlier date, show a general resemblance to Western +Asiatic contemporary wares, due to importation of potters from Syria, +Asia Minor, and Persia (between twelfth and fifteenth centuries). +Other varieties have decoration in metallic lustre on an opaque white +tin glaze; others again have monochrome glazes imitating imported +Chinese wares. Inscriptions very rare. Glass: if found, is in +fragments; rich coloured enamel designs are seldom earlier than the +thirteenth century. Textiles: chiefly found in small pieces; the +colours rich; ornament consisting of geometrical designs and Cufic +inscriptions. Any silk, or printed patterns, should be secured. + +No information about papyri is given here, for the reason that any +site containing them should not be touched except by a trained +excavator. + +[ILLUSTRATION XIII: EGYPTIAN POTTERY TYPES] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + +MESOPOTAMIA + + +[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; pottery and +brick-forms, Illustration XIV; cuneiform signs, and other scripts +Illustration XV]. + + Mesopotamian antiquities are nearly always found in Tells, or +artificial mounds, which are the sites of ancient towns or temples. +The surrounding plain for a distance of several hundred yards out, +whether steppe-desert or untilled land, will usually be found to be +productive of antiquities, either a few inches or few feet deep or, +in the case of the dessert, actually lying upon the surface. These +are usually the result of rainstorms washing out antiquities from the +tell itself. Each tell or ganglion of connected tells usually has a +number of small subsidiary tells round about it, the sites of small +isolated buildings or villages connected with the central settlement. +Originally the settlements were built upon natural rises of the +ground which stood up as islands in the fen-country. + +Visitors should give the local names of tells in Arabic characters, +when possible, so that mistakes in transliteration into English may +be avoided. Antiquities bought in the neighbourhood of a tell should +be noted as coming from that neighbourhood. Depredations by Arabs (or +by others!) should be noted, and reported to the nearest Political +Officer or Inspector of Antiquities. The barbarous practice of +forcibly dislodging inscribed bricks from walls, as trophies and +'souvenirs', which has unhappily been common during the war, should +never be imitated and always discountenanced as much as possible. + +Other good spots for antiquities than tells are rare. In the +mountainous and stony country of the North we may meet with rock- +sculptures, as at Bavian, and these should always be recorded by a +traveller, even if he is not certain that they have not been remarked +before: something new may turn up at any time. Antiquities acquired +in the neighbourhood of such monuments should be noted, and their +precise place of origin ascertained, if possible, as in this way the +site of some ancient settlement adjoining the monument may be +identified. The open ruin-fields, or _Khurbas_, characteristic of +Palestine are not usual, except in the case of Parthian or Sassanian +palace ruins such as Ctesiphon, Hatra, or Ukheidhir, which were often +abandoned almost as soon as they were built, so that no later +population could pile up rubbish-heaps or graves above them. + +In order to aid the visitor to get some idea of the age of a tell or +other site from the antiquities found on its surface and its +neighbourhood, and so to be able to give some idea of what is likely +to be found in it, the following hints have been drawn up. + +In the first place, most of the surface remains, are, as elsewhere, +pottery sherds. These should tell us their date by their appearance. +It must be said, however, that our experience on the subject of the +development of Mesopotamian pottery is limited. Owing to the +attention of Assyriologists having been so long focussed on the study +of the cuneiform records, to the neglect of general archaeology, we +have nothing like the knowledge of these things that we have in Egypt +or in Greece. Such minutiae of information as our common knowledge of +ceramic development in Egypt or in Greece gives us with regard to +these countries, enabling us to date sites with great accuracy, are +not vet available for Mesopotamia. And if for this reason all +possible information as to the objects found on archaeological sites +is desirable, it is also impossible yet to give the visitor any +absolute guide to the distinctive appearance of pottery at every +period. The main periods are known. The 'prehistoric', the Sumerian, +the late Babylonian, and the Parthian styles are easily +distinguishable. If a visitor is able to tell us that such-and-such a +mound is prehistoric or is Parthian, or that settlements of both +periods existed on it, this is what we want. One of the most general +of criteria with regard to pottery is whether it is glazed or not. If +glazed, it is, generally speaking, late. Other things besides pottery +are of course found, and the presence or the absence of metal, and +the occurrence of stone implements, are important. But it must be +remembered that stone was used long into the 'Bronze' Age, and +contemporaneously with copper. There is no sudden break between the +two periods. Fragments of shell and mother-of-pearl, often with +incised designs, are very characteristic of the earliest period. +Coins are of late date; a tell with coins on it is certain to contain +buildings as late as the fourth or third century B.C. (though it may +also contain far older buildings as well). One of the most useful +criteria of age is: Bricks. The form of the brick is a very good +guide to date. The Babylonians used both kiln-baked and crude bricks. +The oldest type, whether baked or crude, is plano-convex in form, and +uninscribed. The mortar is bitumen. Later on rectangular bricks, +often square, made in moulds, were introduced. These usually bore the +name of the royal builder. Later on bricks became generally oblong +and much like our own. In the sixth century the square shape was +revived. Both shapes were in use at the Nebuchadnezzar period. Glazed +bricks were then common. Under the Persians mortar took the place of +bitumen. Under the Parthians and Sassanians, bricks were yellow, +oblong, small, and very hard. Details will be found below, The names +of various excavated sites are given in brackets as the 'classical' +sources of information on certain points, and as the places from +which type-antiquities have come to our Museums. Ancient names are in +capitals; museums in italics. + + +I. PREHISTORIC (?) AGE: Chalcolithic (aeneolithic) period, before +3500 B.C. + +Until quite recently no traces of the Stone Age had been discovered +in Babylonia other than a few possible palaeoliths lying on the +surface of the desert: all traces of a Neolithic Age were supposed to +have been buried beneath the alluvium of the valley. In Assyria, +however, neolithic traces in the shape of obsidian flakes had been +discovered by the late Prof. L. W. King in the course of his +excavation of the mound of Kuyunjik (NINEVEH), besides fragments of +painted pottery resembling those from the earliest deposits in Asia +Minor and those found by the American geologist Pumpelly in his +diggings in the _kurgans_ of Turkestan, (to which he assigned an +extremely remote date B.C.). In Persia, and about the head of the +Persian Gulf, somewhat similar pottery was discovered by de Morgan +and the other French excavators at Susa, Tepe Musyan, Bandar Bushir, +and other places: here again the dates were put at a very remote +period. With the exception of a few flint saw-blades from Warka [1], +Fara, Zurghul, and Babylon [2], no similar remains had been found in +Babylonia until, in 1918, Capt. R. Campbell Thompson, exploring on +behalf of the British Museum, discovered flint and obsidian flakes +and painted pottery lying on the surface of the desert at Tell Abu +Shahrein (ERIDU), and also at Tell Muqayyar (UR). The continued +excavations carried out by Mr. H. R. Hall for the Museum in 1919 have +produced more of the same evidence from both places, besides a new +'prehistoric' site at Tell el-Ma'abed or Tell el-'Obeid near Ur. It +seems that these antiquities date from the very end of the neolithic, +or rather to the succeeding 'chalcolithic', age; whether they are +really prehistoric, as regards Babylonian history, must until more +evidence from stratified deposits is found remain undecided. They +prove the occupation of the head of the Persian Gulf at the beginning +of history by a people whose primitive art was closely akin to that +of early Elam, and distinct from that of the Sumerians. + +[1] Found by Loftus in 1854: their early date was not recognized at +the time. +[2] Koldewey, _Excavations at Babylon, E.T._, p. 261, fig. 182. +Koldewey curiously speaks of the saw-blades as 'palaeolithic.' They +are, of course, nothing of the sort. + +Characteristics: flint, chert, obsidian, green and red jasper, and +quartz-crystal flakes, arrowheads, cores, and saw-blades. Chert and +limestone rough hoe-blades (easily mistaken for palaeolithic +implements; they are, however, much flatter); polished serpentine or +jasper celts; lentoid (lentil-shaped), amygdaloid (almond-shaped), +and discoid beads of cornelian, crystal, obsidian, &c., unpolished; +nails of translucent quartz and obsidian (obviously imitations of +metal types); hard grey pottery sickles, pottery cones of various +sizes, and pottery objects like gigantic nails bent up at the ends; +pottery painted with designs in black, usually geometrical (see +illustration XIV, Fig. 1), but sometimes showing plant-forms or even +animals. This ware is often very fine, so much so as to look as if +wheelmade. The shapes are chiefly bowls (often closely resembling +early Egyptian stone bowl types), pots with suspension-handles or +lugs, and spouted 'kettles'. All these objects are at Shahrein and +el-'Obeid found lying on the desert surface at the distance of 50 or +100 yards from the tell; they are supposed to have been washed out of +the lower strata of the latter by rains. Objects of this kind should +be recorded from any site, and the neighbourhood of a desert tell +should always be searched for them. + + +[ILLUSTRATION XIV MESOPOTAMIAN POTTERY, SEALS, ETC]. + +[ILLUSTRATION XV: CUNEIFORM AND OTHER SCRIPTS]. + + +II. EARLY BRONZE (Copper) AGE: First Sumerian (pre-Sargonic) Period; +c. 3500-3000 B.C. Earliest Sumerian civilization. + +Typical sites. Older strata at Telloh (LAGASH); Fara (SHURUPPAK); +Tell 'Obeid (ancient name as yet unknown); Shahrein (ERIDU). + + Characteristics. Writing. First appearance of script, already +conventionalized from pictographs. Cut on stone and incised on clay +tablets and bricks of characteristic early style. Brick buildings, +with crenellated walls (until the discovery of Tell 'Obeid supposed +to date only from the later Sumerian period) of typical plano-convex +bricks, baked or crude, usually with thumb-mark down length of +convex side (Shahrein), or with two thumb-holes (for carrying the +brick when wet?), or vent-holes ('Obeid); at first uninscribed, later +with long inscriptions; measuring 10 x 6 x 2-2 1/4 ins. (Shahrein), +and 8 x 6 x 2-2 1/4 ins. ('Obeid); poorly shaped and baked (see XIV, +Fig. 3). Bitumen used for mortar; laid very thick. Hard white stucco +on internal faces of crude brick house walls, often decorated with +red, white, and black painted horizontal stripes (Shahrein.) +Pottery. Wheel and hand-made; drab, fine or coarse paste, unpainted +and usually undecorated. Typical shapes: (see XIV, Figs. 2 abc) +mostly handleless vases, and cups, and spouted 'kettles' (again often +resembling early Egyptian types). + +Metals: Copper. Extensive use: large copper figures of animals, +heads cast, bodies of copper plates fastened by nails over a core of +clay with a mixture of bitumen and straw; the figures have eyes, +tongues, and teeth of red and white stone and nacre (Tell 'Obeid); +goat's head with inlaid eyes of nacre (Fara). Otherwise ordinary +treatment of eye shows a number of wrinkle lines round it, and it is +always disproportionately large (bull's heads, Tell 'Obeid and +Telloh). Small fragments of copper or bronze on the surface of a tell +should never be neglected, as there may be enough in any fragment to +give an idea of possible archaic remains within the tell. + +Silver. Rare. Fine engraved vase of Entemena (Telloh, _Louvre_). + +Gold. Not uncommon. Copper nails with gold-plated heads (Shahrein). + +Stone. Portrait figures in round (Bismaya, Telloh, &c.), usually +representing men, with face and head shaven; very prominent large +curved nose; usually squatting with arms crossed, sometimes standing; +only garment a kilt apparently made of locks of natural wool. Usually +inscribed in archaic characters on back of shoulders. Material: a +grey or a white limestone most usual; tufa and dolerite also used. +Reliefs: large stelae (Stele of the Vultures; Telloh, _Louvre_, +fragment in _B. M._), completely inscribed; small relief plaques, +inscribed (Telloh, _Louvre_). Flint carved and engraved cylinder- +seals, of limestone, black basalt, jasper, diorite, &c. Vases, bowls, +and cups (usually fragmentary), of white and pink limestone and +breccia. Maceheads of breccia, granite, &c., of same type as the +early Egyptian (Shahrein). + +Shell. Very largely used for decoration; small plaques of nacre +often engraved with scenes of men worshipping, &c. (Telloh); +tessellated pillars with nacre plaques ('Obeid). Seal-cylinders of +shell. + +Wood. Rarely survives; small beams plated with copper ('Obeid). + +Burials. Pottery coffins with lids, mat burials; bodies contracted; +funerary furniture, copper, stone or pottery drinking cups held near +mouth: copper weapons, fish-hooks, net weights; beads of agate, +lapis, shell (unpolished); colour-dishes, (Fara). (The idea that the +Babylonians ever burnt their dead is now discredited; the supposed +'fire-necropoles' at Zurghul, &c., are not substantiated.) + +The burials are hard to distinguish from similar contracted +interments of later date, except that the furniture is more abundant +in early times and mat graves are unusual in later days Mounds of +this age may be known by the occurrence on the surface of scraps of +oxydized copper, nails, &c.; shell-fragments; undecorated light drab +sherds; and the typical small plano-convex bricks. + + +III. MIDDLE BRONZE AGE. +1. Early Semitic or Akkadian (Sargonid) period; c. 3000-2500 B.C. + +Characteristics. Less crude style of art: development of writing (see +XIV, Fig. 1); first inscribed clay tablets of usual style; beginnings +of cuneiform, developed from the archaic semi-pictographic character. +Bricks still plano-convex; stamped inscriptions begin. Stone +maceheads of same type as earlier. Large and well-cut cylinder-seals +of fine limestone, lapis, diorite, granite, and shell are +characteristic of the period: they are generally of an easily +recognizable form (reel-shaped) with sides showing a marked concavity +(see XIV, Fig. 5). The great development of art is shown by the stele +of Naram-Sin (_Louvre_) found at Susa. Not many mounds of this period +have been dug. + +2. Later Sumerian (Gudea) and early Semitic Babylonian (Hammurabi) +periods; c. 2500-1800 B.C. + +Characteristics. Typical 'Gudea' style of sculpture, in round and +relief (Telloh, _Louvre_); materials hard diorite, dolerite and +basalt as well as limestone: characteristic treatment of eye with +heavily marked brows: elaborate tiaras and head-dresses of female +figures, &c. Very high development. Regular use of cuneiform on clay +tablets and cones (see XV, Figs. 13-15); non-cuneiform character (in +a developed form) still used in brick stamps (XV, Fig. 10) and on +stone monuments. Bricks (XIV, Fig. 4) now rectangular and well made, +either square (14 ins., usually, by 2 1/2 ins. thick) or oblong (11 +1/2 x 8 x 2 1/2 ins., or 10 x 5 x 2 1/2 ins.) with stamps or incised +inscriptions of Ur-Engur, Dungi, Bur-Sin, Gudea and other kings (XV, +Fig. 10), from Ur, Shahrein, Telloh, Niffer, &c. Bricks of Bur-Sin +from Shahrein often have inscription-stamps also on the smaller sides +(thickness). Great buildings of crude and baked brick (Telloh, Ur); +temple-towers (ziggurats) of crude brick faced with burnt brick (Ur, +Shahrein, Niffer). Town ruins of Hammurabi's age (Babylon): crude +brick: plans always confused and haphazard. Bitumen still used for +mortar. Burials, contracted, often in double pots (mouth to mouth), +sealed with bitumen. With the bodies are found large numbers of agate +and cornelian beads, unpolished. + +Mounds of this period may be recognized by the typical square or +oblong bricks (often with thumb-holes), with stamps of kings' names, +&c., in non-cuneiform characters, or with hand-incised inscriptions +in early cuneiform, made while the clay was wet; clay tablets or +cones inscribed in early cuneiform; copper nails (those with gold- +plated heads found at Shahrein may also date from this time); drab or +black pottery sherds with impressed or incised designs, generally +rough and evidently made with a piece of stick or the thumb-nail; +rough stone quern-slabs with rubbers, grinding and hammer-stones, +&c.; and the burials described above (these, however, also occur in +later times). + + +IV. LATER BRONZE AGE: +Kassite, Middle Babylonian, and Early Assyrian periods; c. 1800- +1000 B.C. + +Characteristics. Stabilization of Babylonian art; typical 'Kassite' +cylinder-seals with straight sides (XIV, Fig. 6); disappearance of +old non-cuneiform character with gradual disuse of Sumerian; early +stone-cut inscriptions in cuneiform (see XV, Fig. 16; an Elamite +inscription). Occasional and rare appearance of glazed pottery +(imitation of Egyptian), and multi-coloured glass; early Assyrian +sculpture (those unversed in minutiae of Mesopotamian art will only +be able to tell this earlier work from the later by the earlier style +of the accompanying inscriptions). Not many mounds of this period +have been dug. + + +V. EARLY IRON AGE: +1. Late Babylonian and Assyrian periods; c. 1000-540 B.C. + +Characteristics. Flourishing period of Assyrian art and writing (for +details see the archaeological books, which are very full on this +period). Mounds may be known by the occurrence of fragments of +granite or basalt bowl-querns, often with feet; pieces or whole vases +of the multi-coloured opaque glass usually called 'Phoenician' (which +are already found in the preceding period); alabaster pots; straight- +sided cylinder seals (see XIV, Fig. 6); Syrian conical seals of +steatite (XIV, Fig. 7); small and rude clay figures of deities, such +as Ishtar or Papsukal (the guardian of buildings), and animals, such +as horses, sheep, doves, ducks, &c.; bronze pins, often with birds on +the heads; baked clay tablets of the fine Kuyunjik type (see XV, Fig. +12; script, Fig. 17); pottery lamps with long protruding curved +nozzles; pottery vases simple and undecorated save by incised lines, +as for many centuries past (for types see XIV, Figs. 9 a b c d); +light-blue glazed ware introduced from Egypt towards end of period; +polychrome glazed ware with designs of rosettes, chevrons) &c., +somewhat earlier; large pots without feet common for storage of grain +and oil, sometimes for tablets: mouth often closed with a brick. +Stone pithoi are also found. Vertical drains or sinks, made of a +number of pottery cylindrical drums, fitting on top of or into one +another, are found everywhere on town-mounds of this period; visitors +should avoid tumbling into them, as they are often open or only +covered by a very thin crust of earth. Usually they are perforated to +allow of soaking into the surrounding earth, and are, when excavated +whole, generally found capped by, a beehive-shaped perforated cover. +Sometimes these drains were made of old pots with their lower parts +broken off, and fitted into one another. Secular buildings were of +burnt brick; sacred buildings usually of crude brick, from religious +conservatism. Crude bricks nearly always oblong; burnt bricks square +(14 ins.) or oblong (9x6x3 ins.). The burnt brick of Nebuchadnezzar's +time is extraordinarily fine and hard, and the bitumen-mortar so +finely spread as to be almost invisible (Babylon). Walls of this +reign have a rock-like solidity and tenacity that should make them +easily recognizable. Those of immediately preceding reigns show the +bitumen far more clearly, and the bricks are usually not as finely +made as Nebuchadnezzar's; at Babylon the latter's work is thus at +once distinguishable from that of Nabopolassar. A typical brick- +inscription of Nebuchadnezzar is illustrated above, XV, Fig. 11. It +is in the revived archaic script, always used for this purpose by the +late Babylonian kings. Use of coloured glazed brick is characteristic +of period; often relief figures of animals are made up of glazed +bricks each specially moulded for its proper position and numbered +(Ishtar Gate, Babylon). Royal palaces were often decorated with +reliefs depicting conquests, &c., carved on slabs of alabastrine +marble placed along the brick walls, with great statues of human- +headed bulls (_Cherubim_), &c. (Nimrud [CALAH], Kuyunjik [NINEVEH], +Khorsabad. _Brit. Mus._ and _Louvre_.) Burials usually in drab clay +pot-coffins (larnakes) with covers; bodies still contracted; funerary +furniture scanty, consisting chiefly of pins, beads, an occasional +cylinder-seal, and a few pots (XIV, Figs. 9 a b c d). Ribbed pots +with blue (weathered green) glaze, often pitched both within and +without, were also employed towards the end of the period, inverted +over the bodies. Also anthropoid pottery sarcophagi, an idea imported +from Egypt. Child burials in bowls. Iron objects sometimes buried +with the dead; often found in palace-ruins (weapons, horse-furniture, +&c.). Bronze commonly used for gates, door, bolts, &c. (Gates of +Shalmaneser's palace; _Brit. Mus._). + +2. Persian (Achaemenian) period: c. 540-330 B.C. + +This period is distinguished from the former by the less frequent use +of bronze, the introduction of coinage, and the development of the +simplified Persian cuneiform writing (never on tablets, only on stone +monuments; see XV, Fig. 18). Bitumen ceased to be used as mortar in +buildings. Persian walls (e. g. the Apadana at Babylon) are easily +distinguished by the use of clay mortar, and the unusual thickness of +the mortar-courses between the bricks. Burials in shallow trough-like +pottery coffins, with the bodies at full length, but with the knees +slightly flexed (these continued during the next period). + + +VI. MIDDLE IRON AGE: +1. Greek and Parthian periods; c. 330 B.C.-220 A.D. + +Characteristics. Sudden degeneration and disappearance of the ancient +native civilization and art; imitation of Greek culture, Greek +buildings (theatre at Babylon), and inscriptions; Greek legends on +Parthian coins; Parthian kings call themselves 'Philhellenes'; +Graeco-Roman architecture imitated (Hatra). Graeco-Roman terra- +cottas, pottery lamps, pilgrim-flasks and bone-carvings; classical +seal gems; Roman glass; fragments of imitation of classical sculpture +in marble (the material being adopted as well as the style); and, of +course, coins--these are characteristic remains found on mounds of +this period. About l00 B.C. the use of cuneiform was given up; clay +tablets were no longer used. Aramaic became the usual form of +writing; ink used on sherds; wax tablets. Small bowls often found +with ink-written incantations in Judaeo-Aramaic (see XV, Fig. 19). +Mounds of this period are perhaps most easily recognized by the +quantities of deep-blue glazed sherds found lying about on them. The +glaze is rather thin, laid on a coarse drab ware, and is often +cracked. The blue is very fine, rivalling the old Egyptian. Burials +of this period are often found in (besides the shallow pottery +coffins mentioned above) rectangular oblong boxes of thin coarse ware +with light friable blue glaze (Babylon), or (later) in slipper-shaped +coffins (possibly Sassanian) of the same ware, rudely decorated with +human figures (warriors) in relief, on panels (Warka). The blue glaze +has often changed to a dark green, especially in the case of the +Warka slipper-coffins. The lids are cemented to the coffins. +Internments are now full length, the old custom of contraction having +been entirely abandoned [1]. Gold ornaments and pieces of gold leaf, +gold fillets, &c., are not unfrequently found with the bodies, +besides armlets, toe and finger rings, &c., of silver and bronze, the +finger-rings usually of ordinary Roman types; pottery, lamps, and +glass vessels. These coffins are often in brick vaults, usually +placed haphazard in the ground, as in earlier times. Bricks small, +hard, and yellow. + +[1] The western custom of cremation was never adopted, in spite of +the Hellenization of culture. It offended both Babylonian and Iranian +sentiment, although the Parthians were never very orthodox followers +of Ahuramazda, and venerated (at least platonically) the most popular +deities of the Greek pantheon. + + +2. Sassanian Period; c. 220-650 A.D. + +Characteristics. Reaction towards Oriental motives in art: a typical +_antika_ of the period is the Sassanian seal of cornelian, +chalcedony, or haematite, in shape sometimes a ring, more often a +flat sphere with one-third cut off to form a seal-base, perforated +for stringing (see XIV, Fig. 8), and inscribed in Pehlevi (see XV, +Fig. 20) a script that to the unitiated looks very like Cufie Arabic: +the language is Old-Persian, which was spoken by the court officials +at Ctesiphon, the language of the people being Aramaic. Sculpture +barbarized, but with a picturesque character of its own (Nakhsh-i- +Rustam, Tak-i-Bostan), sometimes reminiscent of Indian work. +Architecture: Parthian-Roman traditions (Ctesiphon). Pottery usually +glazed blue (thicker glaze). Unglazed bowls with Hebrew and Mandaitic +magical inscriptions. Bronze no longer used except for coins. Objects +from mounds very like those of preceding age, but less of Roman +origin. Not much known of burials; the Warka slipper-coffins usually +regarded as Parthian may possibly be of early Sassanian age. + + +VII. LATER IRON AGE: +Muhammadan Period; c. 650-1500 A.D.[1] + +Characteristics. Development of art under Persian influence till +Tartar conquest in thirteenth century: the destruction and +depopulation of the country at that time brought all real artistic +development to an end. Flourishing period: the 'Abbasid Khalifate: +ninth century: Harun al-Rashid. Ruins of the ancient city and palaces +of Samarra: halls with modelled and painted plaster-decorations, not +only geometrical but also (Persian heterodox influence) representing +trees, birds, &c. No more sculpture in round or relief of human +figures or animals. The only survival of classical tradition would +appear to be to some extent in architecture: Greek architects. + +Coins: thin gold, and silver, with Cufic inscriptions only (see XV, +Fig. 21). Mounds of this period may be known by fragments of marble- +carving with Cufic inscriptions, plasterwork, Arab and Persian vase +and tile fragments in thick blue, green, yellow, or brown glaze, +metallic lustre-glaze, &c., variegated glass bangles, and rings; bits +of cloudy white glass (from lamps); fragments of wood, carved and +inlaid with bone, nacre, &c., in geometrical patterns; textile +fragments, (which are naturally not commonly found in older mounds), +&c. + +Nothing is said with regard to burials as these may not be touched. + +[1] The limit of age which constitutes an 'antiquity' for legal +purposes is fixed in most antiquity-laws at 1500 A.D. + + + + +APPENDIX + +LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES + + The following brief notes on the Laws of Antiquities in force in the +various territories with which this book is concerned must not be +taken as absolving the traveller from the necessity of consulting the +full text of the laws. At the time of going to press, the Turkish Law +presumably prevails in such parts of the Turkish Empire as are not +occupied by the troops of the Entente; in the remainder, temporary +regulations are in force which will doubtless be modified when the +new governments are established; and it is possible that the Turkish +Law itself may be brought into greater harmony with modern ideas. + +The Greek Law of Antiquities. + +[Greek], 24 July 1899, Athens, [Greek] 1889. + +All antiquities found are the property of the Government and are +controlled by an Archaeological Commission, consisting of the Ephor +General of Antiquities and the ephors of the archaeological +collections in Athens. Fixed antiquities must be reported by the +discoverer to the Ephor General or one of the ephors of antiquities +or other official. Damaging of ruins or remains of monuments is +forbidden. Owners of the land on which portable antiquities desirable +for the National Museums are found are compensated to the extent of +half their value. Any person who finds antiquities on his land must +report them within five days, on pain of confiscation. The same +applies to any one who finds antiquities on another person's land, or +in any other way comes into possession of antiquities. Informers +against breaches of the law are rewarded by the amount of the +compensation due to those who keep the law. Objects not considered +worth keeping by the Museums are returned to the owner of the land. +Excavations, even on private property, must be authorized by the +Ministry of Education. The Government has the right of expropriating +land for purposes of excavation. In Government excavations, the owner +of the land receives one-third of the value of the objects considered +worth keeping by the Museums. Secret excavation is punished by +confiscation of the finds, imprisonment and temporary loss of civil +rights. In authorized excavations by a landowner or his +representative the excavator receives half the value of the finds +taken by the Museums. Any one attempting to excavate on another man's +land is punished by imprisonment. Antiquities found in the country +may not be exported (on pain of imprisonment or fine and temporary +loss of civil rights) without permission, which is only granted for +objects not considered by the Archaeological Commission to be of use +to the Museums. Such objects on export are subject to a tax of 10 +percent. _ad valorem_ unless declared entirely valueless by the +Commission. Antiquities imported into the country must be declared in +the Customs House and reported to the Ephor General of Antiquities, a +descriptive catalogue in duplicate being sent, and cannot be re- +exported without permission, which is obtained by producing the +articles with the original catalogue to the Ephor General; if not +reported they are regarded as having been found in the country. + +The Turkish Law of Antiquities. + +Loi sur les Antiquites promulguee le 29 Sefer 1324 (10 Avril 1322). +Extrait du _Levant Herald_ du 8, 9, 11 et 13 Juin 1906. Constantinople, +Imprimerie du _Levant Herald,_ Pera, 1906. + +Antiquities are controlled by the Director-General of the Imperial +Museums and a Commission, the Directors of Public Instruction in the +provinces acting as agents. All ancient monuments and objects +(including those of Islamic date) are the property of the Government. +Any fixed antiquities discovered must be reported under pain of fine +within 15 days to the official in charge of antiquities, or in his +absence to the nearest civil or military official. Punishment by fine +and imprisonment is inflicted for destroying or injuring monuments, +measuring or making impressions without authorization. + +Transportable antiquities found on a man's land must be reported by +him within a week. The landowner receives half the value of objects +thus reported and bought by the State; objects not reported are +confiscated, and the landowner fined. This clause applies to those +who find antiquities on land belonging to other private persons or to +the State. Excavation is the exclusive privilege of the Museums, but +firmans may be obtained by scientific societies and specialists. +Unauthorized excavation is punished by imprisonment and confiscation. +The State has the right of making preliminary soundings and of +expropriation. Applications for leave to excavate must be made to the +Minister of Public Instruction. All finds belong to the State. +Unauthorized dealing in antiquities is punishable by fine, +imprisonment, and confiscation. Exportation of antiquities found in +the Empire is forbidden. Antiquities imported must be reported to the +directorate of antiquities, and may not be sent from one part of the +Empire to another, or re-exported, without permission from the +Director-General. + +The Cypriote Law of Antiquities. + +To Consolidate and Amend the Law relating to Ancient Monuments and +Antiquities, and to provide Museums. Law no. IV of 1905. See Sir J. +T. Hutchinson and S. Fisher, _The Statute Laws of Cyprus,_ 1878-1906 +(London, 1906), pp. 595-608. + +Objects later than the Turkish conquest, and coins of Byzantine or +later times, are not deemed to be antiquities. All undiscovered +antiquities of movable character are the property of the Government; +all immovable antiquities are also the property of the Government, +unless some person shall be the owner of them. All antiquities must +be reported by the person in possession of them to the Museum +Committee, on pain of confiscation; antiquities found except in the +course of authorized excavations must be reported within five days to +the District Commissioner, One-third of such movable antiquities is +taken by the Government, one-third by the finder, and one-third by +the owner of the land. Damage to ancient monuments is punished by +fine or imprisonment or both. Unauthorized excavation, even on land +belonging to the excavator, and the purchasing of objects illegally +excavated, are punished by fine or imprisonment or both. Application +for leave to excavate must be made to the Chief Secretary for +Government. All antiquities found in excavation belong to the +Government; only duplicates, and objects not required by the Museum, +are given to the excavator. The Government has the right to +expropriate land for the purpose of excavations. The Museum Committee +may acquire the interests of any private person in an antiquity on +payment of compensation. If the sum agreed on is not paid within six +months, the Museum Committee loses all right to its acquisition. +Export of antiquities is forbidden except with the permission of the +High Commissioner, which is granted only for objects not required by +the Museum or for antiquities the interests in which the Museum +Committee has failed to acquire in the manner described. + + +The Egyptian Law of Antiquities. + +La Nouvelle Loi sur les Antiquites de l'Egypte et ses annexes. +Service des Antiquites. Le Caire, Imprimerie de l'Institut francais +d'archeologie orientala. 1913. + +All antiquities belong to the State. The State has the right of +expropriating ground containing antiquities. Transportable +antiquities when found must be reported to nearest administrative +authority or agents of the Service of Antiquities: the finder +receives half the objects thus reported or their value. Excavation, +dealing in antiquities, and exportation are forbidden unless under +authorization. Destruction of and damage to antiquities is punishable +by fine and imprisonment. Applications for leave to export or to +excavate should be made to the Director-General of Service of +Antiquities. A tax of 1 1/2 per cent. is levied on the declared value +of objects passed for export. Leave to excavate is granted only to +savants recommended by Governments or learned societies, or to +private persons presenting proper guarantees. The excavator pays the +cost of guarding the site. The Government takes half the portable +objects found. + + +General Principles of a Model Law of Antiquities for the Near and +Middle East. + +The following statement of Principles which should form the +foundation of the Laws of Antiquities to be enacted for the various +Provinces formerly under Turkish rule was drawn up by an +International Committee in Paris and recommended to the Commission +for regulating the Mandates under the League of Nations. It follows +closely the Recommendations of the Archaeological Joint Committee on +the same subject. It was proposed at the same time that the Treaty +with Turkey should enjoin the adoption by that Power of a Law of +Antiquities on the same lines: + +Principes du reglement devant etre adopte par chacune des Puissances +mandataires. + +1. 'ANTIQUITY' signifie toute construction, tout produit de +l'activite humaine, anterieur a l'annee 1700. + +2, Toute personne qui, ayant decouvert une antiquite, la signalera a +un employe du Departement des Antiquites du pays, sera recompensee +suivant la valeur de l'objet, le principe a adopter devant etre +d'agir par encouragement plutot que par menace. + +3. Aucun objet antique ne pourra etre vendu sauf au Departement des +Antiquites du pays, mais si ce Departement renonce a l'acquerir la +vente en deviendra libre. Aucune antiquite ne pourra sortir du pays +sans un permis d'exportation dudit Departement. + +4. Toute personne qui, expres ou par negligence, detruira ou +deteriorera un objet ou une construction antique, devra etre passible +d'une peine a fixer par l'autorite du pays. + +5. Aucun deblaiement ni aucune fouille ayant pour objet la recherche +d'antiquites ne seront permis sous peine d'amendc, sauf aux personnes +autorisees par le Departement des Antiquites du pays. + +6. Des conditions equitables devront etre fixees par chaque Puissance +mandataire pour l'expropriation temporaire ou permanente des terrains +qui pourraient offrir un interet historique ou archeologique. + +7. Les autorisations pour les fouilles ne devront etre accordees +qu'aux personnes qui offrent des garanties suffisantes d'experience +archeologique. Aucune des Puissances mandataires ne devra, en +accordant ces autorisations, agir de facon a ecarter, sans motif +valable, les savants des autres nations. + + 8. Les produits des fouilles pourront etre divises entre le +fouilleur et le Departement des Antiquites de chaque pays dans une +proportion fixee par ce Departement. Si, pour des raisons +scientifiques, la division ne semble pas possible, le fouilleur devra +recevoir, au lieu d'une partie de la trouvaille, une juste indemnite. + + + + +INDEX + +Abu Shahrein, 85, 88, 90. +Achaemenian period in Mesopotamia, 93. +Aegean, prehistoric age in the 36 f: pottery in Palestine, 73. +Aeneolithic; see Chalcolithic. +Akkadian period, 90. +Alphabets: see Inscriptions. +Aramaic inscriptions, 62, 66; in Mesopotamia, 93. +Archaeological Joint Committee, 38. +Arches, corbelled, 40. +Arcosolium tombs, 71 f. +Asia Minor, 47 ff. +Assyrian period, 91. +Attic pottery, 44 f. + +Babylon. 85, 90, 92 f. +Babylonian period, 91. +Bandar Bushir, 85. +Barometer, 10, 33. +Bavian, 83. +Beads: Cypriote, 56: Egyptian, 78 f.; Greek, 41; Hittite, 60; +Mesopotamian, 88 ff.; Syrian, 64. +Belt Jibrin, 73. +Bitumen in Mesopotamia, 84, 88. +Black-figured Greek pottery, 44. +Bricks, 14 f.; in Egypt, 82; in Mesopotamia, 84-93. +Bronze Age: in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 36 f.; in +Mesopotamia, 88; in Syria, 60. +Bronze, forgeries in, 24. +Brooches (fibulae): Greek, 40, 44; in Syria, 61 f. +Bubastites, 79. +Buildings, recording of, 14. +Burials: see Tombs. +Buying, advice about. 24 f. + +Calah, 92. +Camera, 10 f. +Casting in plaster, 19. +Caves, 15, 72. +Cemeteries, 15, 55, 70, 78: see also Tombs. +Chalcolithic period: in Mesopotamia, 85: in Syria, 59 f. +Cisterns in Palestine, 77. +Coins; in Cyprus, 58; in Egypt, 79; in Mesopotamia, 84, 92 ff.; +forgeries of, 24; making impressions of, 19 f; recording finds of, 9. +Combs, Egyptian, 78. +Committee, Archaeological Joint, 28. +Compass, prismatic, 10. +Copper: in Mesopotamia, 88 f.; in Syria, 60. +Copying, 17 ff. +Corbelled arches, 40. +'Corinthian' pottery, 41. +Crete, 36; pottery from, in Palestine, 73. +Crusaders' churches in Palestine, 76. +Ctesiphon, 84, 94. +Cuneiform inscriptions: in Asia Minor, 51; in Mesopotamia, 90 ff. + +Cup-markings in Palestine, 77. +Cyclopean walls, 40 +Cylinders and cylinder-sealings: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; +Hittite, 60, 62, 64; in Mesopotamia, 89 ff. +Cyprus, 54 ff.; Law of Antiquities, 97; pottery from, in Palestine, +73. + +Dipylon period, 40. +Dolmens in Palestine, 77. +Drawing and copying, 17 f. + +Egypt, 78-82; Law of Antiquities, 98. +Egyptian hieroglyphics, 20; pottery in Palestine, 73; scarabs +imitated in Syria, 62; stone bowls, Mesopotamian pottery types +resembling, 88. +Eridu, 85, 88. +Excavations: laws controlling, 95 ff.; unauthorized, 7. + +Fara, 85, 88 f. +Fibulae: see Brooches. +Figurines: Cypriote, 55; Greek, 35, 40 f., 44 f.; Syrian, 60, 62, 64. +Finds, importance of not breaking up, 9. +Flint implements, 29 ff.: see also Stone Age. +Forgeries, 24 f. + +Geometric bronze age ware in Greece, 36; period, 40. +Glass; in Cyprus, 57; in Egypt, 78 ff.; in Mesopotamia, 91; in +Syria, 64. +Glaze, Egyptian, 78 f.; imitated in Babylonia, 91. +Greece, 35 ff., Law of Antiquities, 95. + +Hatra, 84. +Hebrew alphabets, 66. +Hieroglyphics, copying of, 17, 20; Hittite, 51, 62. +Hill sanctuaries in Palestine, 76. +Hittite antiquities: in Asia Minor, 51; in Syria, 59 ff. + +Inscriptions: copying of, 17, 20 f.; Aramaic, 63, 66, 93; cuneiform, +51, 87, in Cyprus, 57, Greek, 44, 51 f; Hittite, 51, 62; Latin, 53; +Lycian,51; Lydian, 51; in Palestinian tombs, 71; Semitic, 62, 66 f., +87. +Institutions, archaeological, 26 f. +Iron Age: in Asia Minor, 50; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 40; in +Mesopotamia, 91-93; in Syria, 60, 62. +Itinerary, recording of, 13 f. + +Jewellery, forged, 24. + +Kassite period, 91. +Khirbet (khirbah), 68 ff. +Khorsabad, 92. +Kohl-pots, 62,78 f. +Kok tombs, 71 f. +Kuyunjik, 85, 92. + +Laconian pottery, 45. +Lagash, 88. +Lamps, Aegean, 37. +Latin inscriptions in Asia Minor, 53. +Laws of Antiquities, 7, 95 ff. +Levelling, 33. +Licences for acquiring antiquities, 9. +Lycian inscriptions and monuments, 51. +Lydian inscriptions, 51. + +Ma'abed, Tell el-, 85. +Mastabas, 78. +Mapping, 13. +Mesopotamia, 83 ff. +Minoan Age. 36; pottery in Palestine, 73. +'Minyan' ware, 37. +Mortar, bitumen, 84, 90, 92. +Mosaic, 77, 79. +Mounds, 14: see also Tell. +Muqayyar, Tell, 85. +Museums, use of, 7 f. +'Mycenaean' Age, 37; pottery in Palestine, 73. + +Naksh-i-Rustam, 94. +Neolithic Age: see Stone Age. +Niffer, 90. +Nimrud, 92. +Nineveh, 85, 92. +Numerals, West Semitic, 67. + +'Obeid, Tell el-, 85, 88 f. +Obsidian: Aegean, 37; Mesopotamian, 85, 88. +Olive-presses in Palestine, 77. +Orientalizing Greek antiquities, 41, 44. +Outfit, 10 f. + +Packing of antiquities, 22 f. +Palestine, 65 ff. +Papyri, forged, 24. +Paraffin-wax, 22 f. +Parthian period in Mesopotamia, 93. +Pehlevi script, 93 f. +Persian period: in Mesopotamia, 92; in Syria, 62. +Photography, 10 f., 21 f. +Phrygian inscriptions, 55. +Pins: Greek, 40, 44; Hittite, 60, 62; Mesopotamian, 91. +Place-names, Eastern, 68 f., 83. +Planning, 14, 16 f. +Plaster casting, 19 f. +Pottery, _passim_; hand-made and wheel-made, 29, 49 f; importance of, +29. 84; packing of, 23. +Preservation of antiquities, 22 f. +'Proto-Corinthian' pottery, 41. +Ptolemaic period, 79. + +Red-figured Greek pottery, 44. +Rhodian jar-handles: in Egypt, 79; in Palestine, 73. +Rock-cut tombs, 70 f. +Rock-sculptures in Mesopotamia, 83. + +Saites, 79. +Samarra, 94. +Sanctuaries: in Cyprus, 54 f.; in Palestine, 76. +Sargonid period, 90. +Sassanian period, 93 f. +Scarabs: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; in Syria, 62, 64; forged, 24. +Schools of archaeology, 8, 26 f. +Sculpture, squeezing of, 18. +Seals: Aegean, 37; Hittite, 62; Mesopotamian, 86, 89, 91; Sassanian, +93; Syrian, of Persian period, 64: see also Cylinders, Scarabs. +Semitic inscriptions, 62, 65-7, 87. +Shahrein, Tell Abu, 85, 88, 90. +Shuruppak, 88. +Sinjerli, 59, 62. +Sites, identification of, 68. +Societies, archaeological, 8, 26 f. +Squeezing, 17 ff. +Stone Age, 29 ff.; in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 35 +f.; in Mesopotamia, 84 f., 88; in Palestine, 76; in Syria, 59 f. +Sumerian period, 88 ff. +Susa, 85. +Syria, Central and North, 59ff. + +Tak-i-Bostan, 94. +Tall: see Tell. +Telephotography, 12. +Tell (mound), 68 f., 83. +Telloh, 88 ff. +Tepe Musyan, 85. +Terra-cottas; see Figurines. +Trees, sacred, 77. +Tombs and burials: in Cyprus, 55; in Mesopotamia. 89-94; 'of the +Kings', at Jerusalem, 71; rockcut, in Palestine, 70 f.; in Syria, 59 +f: see also Cemeteries. +Turkish Law of Antiquities, 96. + +Ukheidir, 84. +Ur, 85, 90. +'Urfirnis' ware, 37. +Ushabtis, 78 f. + +Warka, 85, 93 f. +Wine-presses in Palestine, 77. + +Zurghul, 85, 89. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY*** + + +******* This file should be named 13575.txt or 13575.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/5/7/13575 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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