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diff --git a/13575-h/13575-h.htm b/13575-h/13575-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..108a021 --- /dev/null +++ b/13575-h/13575-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5110 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of How to Observe in Archaeology, by Various</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {background: #ffffdc; margin:10%; text-align:justify} +h1,h2,h3,h5,h6 {color:green; text-align:center} +h4 {color:black; text-align:center} +.centclass {text-align:center;} + hr.full { width: 100%; + height: 5px; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + pre {font-size: 8pt;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, How to Observe in Archaeology, by Various</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: How to Observe in Archaeology</p> +<p>Author: Various</p> +<p>Release Date: October 1, 2004 [eBook #13575]<br> +HTML version released October 18, 2004</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY***</p> +<br><br><center><h4>E-text prepared by Philip H. Hitchcock</h4></center><br><br> +<table border=0 bgcolor="ccccff" cellpadding=10> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + The spelling of some place names in the index differs + from that given in the main text. + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h1>HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY</h1> +<br> +<br> +<h2>SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS<br> + IN THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST</h2> +<br> +<h5>1920</h5> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> +<br> +<br> +<p><a href="#preface">Preface.</a> By Sir F. G. Keynon</p> +<h3>PART I</h3> +<br> +<a href="#1-1">Chapter I. INTRODUCTORY.</a> + By G. F. Hill<br> +<a href="#2-1">Chapter II. METHOD.</a> + By W. M. Flinders Petrie<br> +<br> +<p><a href="#l-1">LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND +SOCIETIES<br> +CONCERNED WITH THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST</a></p> +<p><a href="#l-2">LIST OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT +COMMITTEE</a></p> +<h3>PART II</h3> +<br> +<a href="#intro-2 ">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</a><br> +<a href="#1-2">Chapter I. FLINT +IMPLEMENTS.</a><br> +<a href="#2-2">Chapter II. GREECE PROPER.</a> + By T. P. Droop<br> +<a href="#3-2">Chapter III. ASIA MINOR.</a> + By J. G. C. Anderson and J. L. Myres<br> +<a href="#4-2">Chapter IV. CYPRUS.</a> By +J. L. Myres<br> +<a href="#5-2">Chapter V. CENTRAL AND NORTH +SYRIA.</a> By D. G. Hogarth<br> +<a href="#6-2">Chapter VI. PALESTINE.</a> + By R. A. S. Macalister<br> +<a href="#7-2">Chapter VII. EGYPT.</a> By W. M. +Flinders Petrie<br> +<a href="#8-2">Chapter VIII. MESOPOTAMIA.</a> By H. R. +Hall<br> +<br> +<h3>APPENDIX</h3> +<br> +<a href="#sum">SUMMARIES OF LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES</a><br> +<a href="#index">INDEX</a><br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES</h3> +<br> +<br> +<a href="#ill1">Some Hieroglyphic Signs liable to be confused with +each other</a><br> +<a href="#ill2">Flint Implements</a><br> +<a href="#ill3">Types of Greek Pottery, &c.</a><br> +<a href="#ill4">Greek Alphabets</a><br> +<a href="#ill5">Asia Minor Pottery types</a><br> +<a href="#ill6">Hittite Inscriptions, &c.</a><br> +<a href="#ill7">Bilingual (Greek and Cypriote) Dedication to +Demeter and Persephone from Curium</a><br> +<a href="#ill8">Syrian Pottery.</a><br> +<a href="#ill9">Syrian Weapons, &c.</a><br> +<a href="#ill10">West Semitic Alphabets</a><br> +<a href="#ill11">West Semitic Numerals</a><br> +<a href="#ill12">Palestinian Pottery types</a><br> +<a href="#ill13">Egyptian Pottery types</a><br> +<a href="#ill14">Mesopotamian Pottery, Seals, &c.</a><br> +<a href="#ill15">Cuneiform and other Scripts</a><br> +<br> +<h3><a name="preface">PREFACE</a></h3> +<br> +<br> +<p>This Handbook is intended primarily for the use of travellers in +the Near and Middle East who are interested in antiquities without +being already trained archaeologists. It is the outcome of a +recommendation made by the Archaeological Joint Committee, a body +recently established, on the initiative of the British Academy and +at the request of the Foreign Office, to focus the knowledge and +experience of British scholars and archaeologists and to place it +at the disposal of the Government when advice or information is +needed upon matters connected with archaeological science. The +Committee is composed of representatives of the principal English +societies connected with Archaeology, and it is hoped that it may +be recognized as the natural body of reference, both for Government +Departments and for the public, on matters connected with +archaeological research in foreign lands. It represents no one +institution and no one interest. Its purpose is to protect the +interests of archaeological science, to secure a sane and +enlightened administration of antiquities in the lands which are +now being more fully opened to research, and to promote the advance +of knowledge in the spheres to which its competence extends.</p> + +<p>One means of serving this cause is to provide information for +the guidance of travellers in the lands of antiquity. Much +knowledge is lost because it comes in the way of those who do not +know how to profit by it or to record it. Accordingly, just as the +Natural History Museum has issued a series of pamphlets of advice +to the collectors of natural history specimens, so it has been +thought that a handbook of elementary information and advice may be +found of service by travellers with archaeological tastes; and the +Trustees of the British Museum have undertaken the publication of +it. The handbook has been prepared by a number of persons, whose +competence is beyond dispute; and the thanks of all who find it +useful are due to Mr. G. F. Hill (who has acted as general editor +as well as part author), Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, Mr. D. G. +Hogarth, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. J. G. C. Anderson, Mr. J. P. Droop, +Prof. R. A. S. Macalister, Mr. H. R. Hall, Mr. A. J. B. Wace, Mr. +0. M. Dalton, Mr. R. L. Hobson, Mr. E. J. Forsdyke, Mr. A. H. +Smith, Mr. R. A. Smith, Mr. A. B. Cook, and Prof. G. A. Cooke. Each +contributor has been left considerable latitude as to the method of +treatment of the subject allotted to him, and no attempt has been +made to bring the various sections into uniformity of pattern. +Owing to Prof. Petrie's absence in Egypt, it has not been possible +to submit final proofs of his contributions to him.</p> + +<p>Suggestions for improvement in future editions will be welcomed, +and will no doubt be forthcoming as the result of experience. +Meanwhile it is hoped that this little book will accompany many +travellers in foreign lands, and that the labour expended on it +will bear fruit in the improved observation and record of +archaeological data, in establishing sound principles for the +administration of antiquities, and in enforcing proper methods of +excavation and conservation. It may also be found of service by +those who study the results of research as they appear in +museums.</p> + +<p>F. G. KENYON.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h2>PART I</h2> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h2><a name="1-1">CHAPTER I</a></h2> +<br> +<h3><a name="intro">INTRODUCTORY</a></h3> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<p>The hints which it is the object of this volume to convey are +not meant for experienced archaeologists. They are rather addressed +to those who, while anxious to observe and record the antiquities +which they may see on their travels, are likely, owing to lack of +training, to miss things that may be of importance, or, having +observed them, to bring home an imperfect record. It is hoped also +that they may catch the attention of some of those who are not +interested in the subject, but, coming into possession of +antiquities, may unwittingly do incalculable harm by allowing them +to be destroyed or dispersed before any record has been made.</p> + +<p>Most, if not all, of the countries with which we are concerned, +have their Laws of Antiquities. It cannot be too strongly insisted +that those laws, even if they might be better than they are, should +be obeyed by the traveller. He should familiarize himself with +their main provisions, which are summarized in an Appendix. The +traveller who makes it his object to loot a country of its +antiquities, smuggling objects out of it and disguising the sources +from which they are obtained, does a distinct dis–service to +archaeological science. Although he may enrich collections, public +or private, half or more than half of the scientific value of his +acquisitions is destroyed by the fact that their provenance is kept +secret or falsely stated. Such action is equivalent to tearing out +whole pages from a history and destroying them for ever, for each +antiquity, whatever it may be, is in its way a part of history, +whether of politics, arts, or civilization. For the same reason +anything like unauthorized excavation, especially by unskilled +hands, is gravely to be deprecated. To dig an ancient site +unskilfully or without keeping a proper record is to obliterate +part of a manuscript which no one else will ever be able to read. +The tendency of recent legislation is to allow more generous terms +in the matter of licences for export to excavators and collectors, +and the harsher provisions of some of the existing laws are likely +soon to be amended.</p> + +<p>Before leaving home, the traveller will be well advised to make +inquiries at the museums or at the head–quarters of the +archaeological societies which concern themselves specially with +the places which he intends to visit. A list of these museums and +societies is appended to this section (<a href="#l-1">p. 26</a>). It +is hardly +necessary to warn him that archaeological training cannot be +acquired in a few days, and that he will have to buy his experience +in various ways; but the more time he can devote to working through +the collections in this country, the more useful will be his +observations abroad. He will be able to learn what kind of +antiquities it is especially desirable to look for, not merely with +the object of filling gaps in the public collections, but for the +advancement of archaeological knowledge in general.</p> + +<p>The object of archaeological travel and excavation is not to +collect antiquities so that they may be arranged according to the +existing catalogues of museums, but to collect fresh information to +amplify and correct what we now know, to make our knowledge of the +past more complete and useful.</p> + +<p>On arrival in the country of his choice, he is recommended to +continue at the National Museum the study, which we suppose he has +already begun in the museums at home, of the kind of antiquities +which he is likely to come across. But he should also take an early +opportunity of getting into touch with the local British +Archaeological School or other similar institution, where he will +receive advice what to look for and where and how to look, and +assistance in procuring suitable equipment. Thus the traveller who +starts from Athens or Jerusalem should apply at the British School +of Archaeology. He may there, it he desires, receive instruction in +any of the methods described in Chapter II, in which a little +practical demonstration is worth pages of print, and will be given +all possible assistance in obtaining such articles of equipment as +are available on the spot. (Photographic supplies and all +scientific instruments should be brought out from England.) The +best maps of the district will also be accessible for examination +(but the traveller is recommended to make inquiries in this respect +before leaving England); the libraries will provide the literature +dealing with the routes he proposes to take; and such a collection +as the type–series of pottery and the Finlay collection of +prehistoric antiquities at the British School at Athens may be +useful to supplement his previous studies at museums, and enable +him to observe with intelligence the potsherds, &c., that he +may find on an ancient site. In return, he will be expected to +report his results either to the School or to some other scientific +society or museum at home. It should be unnecessary to remind him +that the conditions of the law of the land relating to the +reporting of discoveries to the competent authorities should be +strictly observed. Such authorities should also be informed of any +destruction or removal of monuments which may be noticed.</p> + +<p>Another matter which should not be neglected is the obtaining of +such licences as may be required by law for the acquisition in the +country or export therefrom of objects of antiquity. Advice on this +matter can be obtained at the local School or National Museum.</p> + +<p>It is possible that the traveller will begin his journey at a +point other than the capital. Inquiries should be made at the +London head– quarters of the Schools concerning residents at +such places who may be able to give advice to intending +travellers.</p> + +<p>The traveller will doubtless bring back with him such +antiquities as he is permitted to export. A word of general advice +on this matter may not be out of place here. The essential value of +antiquities, apart from their purely artistic interest, lies in the +circumstances in which they are found. The inexperienced traveller +is apt to pick up a number of objects haphazard, without accurately +noting their find–spots, and even, getting tired of them, as +a child of flowers that he has picked, to discard them a mile or +two away. If the first act is a blunder, the second is a crime; it +is better to leave them lying in place. For the same reason, it is +highly desirable that objects found together (e.g. the contents of +a tomb) should as far as possible be kept together, or at least +that accurate record of the whole group should be made, since the +archaeological value of a find may depend on a single object, +apparently of small importance. Nothing, for instance, is more +common, or more distressing to the numismatist, than the division +of a hoard of coins among various persons before they have been +examined by an expert. If they must be divided, good impressions +should at least be made by one of the methods described in Chapter +II, and, if the coins are of gold or silver, the weights should be +noted. This should be done even if the coins, to the inexperienced +eye, appear to be all alike. The knowledge that any coin from a +hoard may be of greater value than a similar coin found singly may +induce finders to report such finds before dispersing them. What +applies to coins is equally applicable, in various ways, to all +classes of antiquities.</p> + +<p>It is assumed that the primary object of the traveller is not +speculation in the pecuniary value of the antiquities that he may +acquire, although he may be not unreasonably inclined to recover +some of his expenses by disposing of objects which do not appeal to +him. Should that be so, although the authorities of public museums +obviously cannot be agents or valuers in such transactions between +the owner and private collectors, they are as obviously willing to +consider offers which are made to their museums in the first +instance and, if the objects are not required by them, to advise +the owner in what quarter he may be likely to meet with a +purchaser.</p> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h2><a name="2-1">CHAPTER II</a></h2> +<br> +<h3>METHOD</h3> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h4>1. Outfit.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Each traveller will require to provide for his special +interests; but for any archaeological work the following things are +desirable. Note–books of squared paper. Drawing–blocks +of blue–squared paper. Paper for wet squeezes, and for dry +squeezes. Brush for wet squeezes (spoke brush). One or two +so–metre tapes. A few bamboo gardening canes for markers in +planning. Divide one in inches or centimetres for measuring +buildings. A steel rod, 3 ft. x 1 inch for probing. Field– +glass, or low–power telescope. Prismatic compass with card +partly black, to see at night. Large and small celluloid +protractors for plotting angles on plans. Plotting–scale, +tenths of inches and millimetres. Maps of the district, the best +available. Aneroid barometer, if collecting flints; small size; can +be tested by observing in a tall lift, or by putting in a tumbler +and pressing the hand air–tight over the mouth. The zero +error, or absolute values, are not wanted for levelling, only +delicacy in small variations. Magnifiers, a few pocket size; will +also serve for presents. Indelible pencils, pens, and ink in strong +corked pocket bottle. Reservoir pens dry up too much in some +climates. China ink for permanent marking. Strips of adhesive +paper, about a inch and a inches wide, to put round objects for +labelling. Strong steel pliers, wire–cutting. A few +pocket–knives will serve for presents. It is best to carry +money in a little bag or screw of paper, loose in the jacket +pocket, it in a risky district. It can then be dropped on any alarm +and picked up afterwards.</p> + +<p><b>Photographic.</b>[1] In the selection of a camera much will +depend upon the nature of the work to be undertaken, the conditions +of travel, and the climate to which the camera will be exposed. For +accurate work a stand camera is always to be preferred to one of +the hand variety, and care should be taken to choose an instrument +that is strongly made and of simple construction. The essentials of +a good stand camera are that it shall be rigid, possess a rising +and falling front, a swing back, and bellows which will be capable +of extension to fully double the focal length of the lens to be +used with it.</p> + +<p><small>[1]Prof. Petrie is not responsible for this section, +which is due to the kind assistance of some professional +photographers.–ED.</small></p> + +<p>The rising and falling front gives a power of modifying the +field of view in a vertical direction. The swing back preserves the +verticality of architectural subjects. In some cases, when used +with the pivots vertical, it is a help in focussing the subject. +The possible extension of the distance between the lens stop and +the ground glass to twice the focal length (which is as a rule the +distance between the same points, when a distant object is in +focus) enables a small subject to be reproduced in natural +size.</p> + +<p>For work abroad where extremes of temperature or excessive +variations have to be contended with, a special tropical camera is +supplied by most of the leading makers. Its well–seasoned +hard wood and metal– bound joints render it suitable for hard +wear, and reduce the risk of leakage through warping or shrinkage. +The tripod stand should be of the so–called threefold +variety, with sliding legs which can be adapted to broken ground. +If a loose screw is used for attaching the camera to the stand, a +spare screw should be kept in reserve. It is important that this +stand should be strongly made, and light patterns subject to undue +vibrations in the wind should be discarded. For photographing small +objects in the studio, a small table is more convenient than a +tripod support. If the camera will not sit flat on the table, a bed +can easily be designed for it. Better work will be done if this is +prepared in advance than if an improvised support is used. As +regards the size of the outfit, quarter–plate (3 ¼ x 4 +¼ inches) will usually be found to be large enough for the +traveller. For anything in the nature of studio work in a museum or +in connexion with an excavation a half–plate camera (6 +½ x 4 ¾ inches) is more satisfactory. Where a hand +camera is preferred it should be one capable of adjustment of +focus, and here again, strength and simplicity should be looked +for. It should be provided with effective tripod legs, for studied +exposures. Plates or flat films are preferable to roll fills [2] +which are difficult to manipulate away from home. Flat films are +less bulky and less breakable than glass, and can be sent by post. +They are supplied by the makers in packs of 12 for daylight loading +into a film–pack adapter, which must be provided to take the +place of the ordinary dark slides for glass plates. The lens should +be a modern anastigmatic by a good maker. A focal length of about +six inches will be best for a quarter–plate camera. A bad +lens makes success impossible even by accident.</p> + +<p><small>[2] Transcriber's note: 'fills' in the original text is +possibly a misprint for 'films'.</small></p> + +<p>The stops will probably be of the Iris pattern, incorporated in +the lens and so not likely to be lost, as often happens with loose +stops.</p> + +<p>A few words on the theory and use of the stops and on the +F–notation may be of service. The speed of a photographic +lens depends on the ratio of the effective aperture to the focal +length. Thus any two lenses used at apertures of F/8, that is at +apertures having diameters one–eighth of their respective +focal lengths, should be of the same speed, though both lenses and +apertures may be very different. In a given lens, the speed varies +directly with the area of the aperture admitting the light, that is +with the square of the diameter of the aperture. The series of +stops usually employed is calculated so that each aperture is half +the area of the preceding. Stated in terms of the focal length they +are known as F/5.6, F/8, F/11.3, F/16, F/22.6, F/32, &c. Since +the squares of those numbers, 31.4, 64, 127.7, 256, 510.7, 1024 are +approximately each twice the preceding number of the series, the +apertures, F(ocal length), divided by the successive numbers as +denominators, are each half the area of the preceding and require +twice the exposure, F/16 requires twice the 'exposure of F/11.3, +and four times that of F/8, and so throughout the scale.</p> + +<p>Stops are used to regulate either 'depth of focus' or length of +exposure. The 'depth of focus' means the distance before and behind +the point in theoretically accurate focus, at which objects are +sufficiently focussed, for the purpose the photographer has in +view. This length is greatest when only the central portion of the +lens is in use. It is greatest with a pinhole, and least with a +full aperture. Hence a small stop is required if the picture is to +include near and far objects, while a large aperture may be used if +all the subject is far enough away to be in clear focus—say +more than 25 feet—or if it is a flat surface. The small stop +is also required when the rising front or the swing back is in use. +The power of regulating the time of exposure is convenient for +shortening long exposures in dark interiors, or for lengthening +inconveniently short exposures in a bright light.</p> + +<p>In practice it will be best to become familiar with the use of +about three stops, say the full aperture (perhaps F/5.6 or F/8), +F/16, and F/32.</p> + +<p>For judging long exposures, the use of an actinometer (issued in +many inexpensive forms) is helpful.</p> + +<p>A telephoto attachment increases the photographer's power of +rendering distant details on a large scale. The results are greatly +superior to enlargements of a small plate. It is, however, useless +in a wind, unless the camera is specially supported, and is +otherwise rather tricky to use. The traveller is strongly advised +to master its management at home. It should be adjusted by the +maker to the camera for which it is intended.</p> + +<p>Unless a photographer's dark room can be had the developing of +the bulk is best left until the return home, but tests should be +made to see that the exposures are correct. A piece of ruby fabric +or ruby paper tied over an electric light will give a safe light +after dark, and 'Scalol' or some such one–solution developer +which requires merely the addition of water, will give all that is +needed for developing. For fixing use 4 oz. hypo to a pint of +water.</p> + +<p>In warm climates, use cold water. If it is not cool enough, the +gelatine of the negatives may give trouble. In that case, get +colder water, and use an alum bath. If water is precious, plates +can be sufficiently washed by moving them forward in succession, +through half–dozen soup plates filled with water.</p> + +<p>If habitual use is not made of tabloid developers, &c., it +is advisable to have some in reserve, for use in the case of broken +bottles and spilt solutions.</p> + +<p class= "centclass"><em>Useful notes and maxims.</em></p> + +<p>An over–exposed plate gives no dark shadows in the +print.</p> + +<p>An under–exposed plate gives no high lights. When in +doubt, choose the risk of over–exposure.</p> + +<p>To test the safety of your camera—Half draw the shutter, +and expose part of the plate in the camera, in the sunshine, +without uncapping the lens, and develop.</p> + +<p>To test the safety of your red light—Expose a plate, +divide it into two, develop half in the dark, and half for the same +time, with the same solution by the light you are testing, and +compare the results. This test is worth making, as photographers +are apt to give themselves much discomfort from exaggerated +caution.</p> + +<h4>2. Itinerary.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Where there are efficient maps the only need is to mark in the +position of any antiquities, by cross–bearings to clear +points, with the compass, drawn in with a sharp pencil. Where the +maps are too small, or deficient, a continuous register of time +should be made, noting the minute of starting and of stopping; this +over known distances will serve to give the value over the unknown. +Note whether mounted or walking, and the compass bearing of the +track; also the bearings of known points around, whenever stopping. +Without any known bearings pacing and compass used carefully may go +over the roughest ground without five per cent. error in the +day.</p> + +<p>It is better when on unknown ground to plot a map as you go, so +that no misunderstanding of notes can arise after. If a squared +block cannot be used, at least draw the bearings and distances +roughly, writing in the amounts. This should be plotted up +accurately in the evening. A photograph may be unintelligible later +in its detail. It is best where known features, a temple, tombs, +&c., are in a view, to sketch the outline when photographing, +and write in the details, so as to give a key to the photograph. +Inquire about antiquities whenever stopping. When camping, +villagers usually come up to see who it is; then tell them the +directions of the places around. They will ask how you know; show +them the map, and they are puzzled; talk over all the names a few +miles round, and then anything notable in the district may be +remarked, and inquiries made. Several men together help each other +to remember, and bring out more remarks. Sometimes an intelligent +man will describe all the antiquities he knows in the district: +this should be followed closely on the map, and difficulties +resolved at once, so as to get a clear record noted.</p> + +<p>Of course, enormous exaggerations are met with, and not one +report in ten will prove to be anything. Tracking up the source of +bought antiquities is one of the best methods, and the one by which +Naukratis was found.</p> + +<p>If travelling by camel, it is practicable to diverge widely on +foot, if objects are looked for well ahead. A foot track diverging +4.5 degrees, and then converging likewise, will easily keep in +touch with a baggage camel. Fix on the camping–place in the +morning, and let every one know of it, so that if accidentally +parted all can rejoin by night.</p> +<h4>3. Recording.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p><b>Buildings or ruins.</b> Fix position by bearings to mapped +points; also note bearings of any prominent feature near by, which +may serve for finding the position again. Sketch a plan, always +north up in the book, note bearing of main wall, and then measure +with bamboo rod all original dimensions, with some diagonals to fix +angles; do not forget the thickness of the walls. It is best for a +long length to stretch a tape, pegged down by the ring, and pulled +tight by hand: read off all positions of doors, windows, +cross–walls, &c., on one long length, and not as separate +short lengths. If possible plot the measures on squared paper as +you go, and then any errors or omissions will be checked at once. +'E. and O.E.' has no place in a plan.</p> + +<p><b>Town mounds.</b> Estimate height over bare land outside; eye +height is a trifle over five feet. At the foot of the mound see +where the horizon cuts the shoulder of it to find eye height; walk +up to that point, and sight another five feet; so on, till you see +over the top. If there is any section, by a stream side, or +digging, or land–slip, look for strata, stone or brick walls +and floor levels, and for any distinctive potsherds; observing +levels as before. Look all over the top for potsherds, to find the +latest period of the town. Look around the mound for any early +potsherds. Sherds on the slopes are worth less; as they have +probably slipped down. Red burnt brick in Egypt is all Roman or +Arab; in Greece and Asia Minor, red brick and mortar is Roman, +Byzantine, or later.</p> + +<p>Walk to the middle of the site or mound, and see its extent. +Then walk round the wall line, or circuit of it, pacing and compass +noting, to sketch the shape and size of the site: especially look +for any straight lines of wall showing. Sometimes a mud–brick +wall may be entirely denuded away, yet the position is shown by the +sharp edge of the strew of potsherds on the surface.</p> + +<p>Look for any slag–heaps; these are the remains of lime +burning, and show where stone buildings existed; sometimes +foundations still remain. Look for any recent pits or trenches; +these show where stone or burnt brick has been dug out in modern +times, and may give the position and plan of a temple or +church.</p> + +<p>See if any rubbish mounds can be traced outside of the town +site; usually marked by a gentle walk–up slope, and a steep +thrown–down slope, and mainly consisting of pottery, e.g. +Monte Testaccio at Rome, and mounds east of Cairo.</p> + +<p>Town sites rise in Egypt about forty inches a century, by the +dust, rubbish, and decay of mud–brick buildings. In Palestine +the rise is five feet a century, owing to the rains.</p> + +<p><b>Cemeteries.</b> These have generally been more or less +plundered; if recently, the pits show; if anciently, there are +scraps of pottery lying about. If there are pebbles or marl thrown +up from deep levels, there is evidence of tombs, and they may be +unplundered. Blown sand or grass may hide all trace of tombs. +Sometimes the whole masonry of a tomb may have been removed, and +the gravel filling–in have spread so uniformly that there is +no sign of building, although a course or two of stone may yet +remain under the surface. The surface of ground should be closely +looked over at sunrise or sunset to show up the slight hollows or +ridges by the shadows. After rain differences will often appear in +the drying of the ground. Ask any one near a site if he knows of +any one getting stones, or bronze, or plunder from tombs. Anything +found will probably be greatly exaggerated, and no clear idea of +the time of finding can be reached; yet any such detail may be +useful.</p> + +<p>Any large town site must have a cemetery, which is near it in +most cases. In Egypt the towns being in the inundated land, the +cemeteries are at some miles distant on the desert. The prehistoric +cemeteries may be anywhere; the historic cemeteries are usually +round the ends of the dyke roads, which were thrown up in the early +dynasties as irrigation dams, and still serve as the roads of the +country. In Greek lands cemeteries are always outside a town, +usually by the side of the roads.</p> + +<p>Caves should always be carefully explored; the roof and sides +searched for inscriptions or carvings; rock pockets in the sides +examined; and the floor dug over for potsherds and any small +objects. If there are different strata these should be each removed +separately, and the depth and positions of objects noted.</p> + +<h4>4. Methods of Planning.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Though we cannot here give full technical details of all the +methods for plans and surveys, it will be useful to state the scope +of each method, so that they may be kept in mind, and whichever is +best suited to the individual and his work may be provided for.</p> + +<p> 1. Plain pacing. After pacing lengths of a few hundred +feet, up and down hill and flat, tape the distances, and learn true +value of pace. Careful pacing can be done to one or two per cent. +of the whole; and properly used, in triangles, may give a useful +plan.</p> + +<p> 2. Pacing and compass. This covers large spaces quickly, +but the compass is less accurate than the pace.</p> + +<p> 3. Tape. Lines of taping must be well planned, with +triangle ties to secure the angles. Pulling up straight is +difficult in a wind, especially on broken ground, and one per cent. +error is quite possible then. When working alone peg the tape down +by the ring, or round a stone.</p> + +<p> 4. Tapes and cross lines. Stretch two strings crossing +squarely on the ground: fix the square by laying a squared drawing +block below and looking at strings over it. Two helpers each hold a +tape, zero on a string, and the two tapes are held together by the +observer and read off, giving the distance to each string; this is +to be plotted at once on squared paper, and the plan is completed +in detail as it progresses, without any note– book or later +plotting. The helpers must be capable of holding the tape square to +the string. Good for sites up to two hundred or three hundred +feet.</p> + +<p> 5. Plane table. Excellent for some ground, where objects +are visible from a distance: otherwise it requires a marker put up +at every point to be fixed. Cumbrous to carry, much slower than +4.</p> + +<p> 6. Box sextant, used as giving angular accuracy to any of +the foregoing; most useful with taping, and in following.</p> + +<p> 7. Sextant and three points. The most rapid accurate +method is to adopt three points visible all over the ground (as +trees or chimneys) or set up three markers. Find shape and size of +this triangle. Then at any point take two angles visible between +the points, and this fixes position of observer. A large site may +have forty points fixed in two hours thus to about 1 in 1000. For +detail and plotting see Petrie, <em>Methods and Aims in +Archaeology</em></p> + +<p> 8. Theodolite. For the most accurate work a theodolite is +used, giving points to about 1 in 5000. It is almost essential for +any astronomical meridian or latitude.</p> + +<p>None of these methods necessitate any helper, except 4 which +needs two helpers. The observation is from the point to be fixed in +1, 2, 3, 4, and 7; but it is <em>to</em> the point, needing signals +or visible features on the points, in 5, 6, and 8, and for those +methods a large stock of rods must be taken, and the whole ground +gone over, before the work of observation; such methods take far +more time than the others. The able surveyor will know by instinct +how to use all the inferior methods as supplements to the higher, +whenever time demands and accuracy allows.</p> + +<p>When first searching a site, note the direction of any wall to +the horizon point, and so see if other walls are parallel.</p> + +<p>In all cases a plumb line is wanted for alining foundations and +scattered blocks. Always carry six feet of thin string, and pick up +the nearest suitable stone for a weight, up to three or four pounds +in a wind.</p> + +<h4>5. Drawing and Copying.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p><b>Inscriptions.</b> If there is any chance of being interrupted +by any claimant, or by crowds, always make a hand copy at once, as +quickly as possible. After a squeeze or photograph is taken, yet +the hand copy is often of value to explain positions of squeeze +slips or detail of photographs.</p> + +<p>If there is no chance of interruption, then a carefully drawn +copy full size should be made. For this a dry squeeze is the ground +work. Lay a sheet of thin paper, such as thin wrapping or plain +paper, on the stone, and press all the letters over with the +fingers, so as to make a sharp bend; a break in the deep hollows +does not matter. Then, putting the paper on a drawing–board +or sheet of millboard, cock it up so that the shadow of the squeeze +is seen, and draw over the lines (starting at right base), +referring to the stone whenever uncertain. This is the only right +way to copy hieroglyphics by hand. Note that the edges are usually +rather worn, and the drawn lines should be inside the squeeze +lines. If the stone is large, several lesser sheets are best.</p> + +<p>Where there is writing, or the relief is too faint to squeeze, +put the paper immediately below the first line, and draw it sign +for sign, so that the spacing is preserved and no omission is +possible. Fold back the paper as each line is copied, and so always +keep the copying close below the line of inscription.</p> + +<p>If the signs are in an alphabet that is not familiar, refer to +the table of alphabets.</p> + +<p><b>Sculpture</b> Sculpture in low relief can be copied best by +dry squeeze. As the connexion of the sheets used should be exact, +put up the first sheet truly vertical, and mark little pencil +crosses at the corners on the stone. Then the corners of successive +sheets should be fitted into the angles of the crosses. When inking +in the pencil drawings, do not carry the lines within two inches of +the edges of the sheets. Then place sheets edge to edge, adjust +them to fit as best they may, weight them heavily with books, turn +back one edge and weight it, and then slip a strip of wetted +adhesive paper half–way under the edge that is down; at once +liberate the edge that is up, and dab (not rub) both heavily down +on the adhesive. This makes a joint free of cockling, and when dry +the inking can be completed across the joint. Where there is any +colour remaining on sculpture or inscription, only dry squeezing is +permissible.</p> + +<p>Where signs are worn or decayed it is needful to try various +lighting. This can be done in the open air, by shading the part by +the hands placed around it as a sort of tube, the head blocking out +the light over the tube. Then quickly raise a hand alternately, so +as to reverse the oblique lighting, and watch the effect on the +sign.</p> + +<p>If the stone has not too tender a face, careful washing often +brings out an inscription; and in such cases it is usually far +easier to copy from a wet than from a dry stone.</p> + +<p>If reliefs have been much weathered they can be made plain for +photographing by laying horizontal and covering with sand; on +wiping away the sand from the relief the ground will be left flat +sand, so hiding the confused hollows of weathering.</p> + +<p>The safest way for drawings to travel is to post them at the +nearest post direct to where they will be worked up. The Postal +Union takes rolls of 21 cm. thick, 60 cm. long, up to 5 kilos as +parcels, or rolls of 10 cm. thick, 75 cm. long, up to 2 kilos by +book post open at ends. This is far better than carrying rolls by +hand.</p> + +<p><b>Wet squeezing.</b> Where there is no colour, and the stone is +strong and not crumbling, a wet squeeze is the best copy. There are +three purposes for it, and the method differs for each; (1) thin +single sheet kept fresh on the outer face for photographing later; +or (2) single sheet well beaten in and patched, depending on +pricking the outlines and hand–copy from it, or blacking over +the relief on the inner side and photographing; or (3) double sheet +hard beaten, and patched in the hollows, for plaster casting +afterwards.</p> + +<p>For (1) there is no need to get an impression of the hollows to +the bottom, and the face of the paper should be smooth. A soft +paper, with little or no size, and a soft clothes–brush will +do well for this. The sheet should cover the whole inscription, or +have as few joints as may be. The stone should be dabbed with a wet +brush so as to saturate the face, the sheet of paper well soaked in +water laid upon it, taking care not to leave bubbles, and then +dabbing firmly with the brush will drive the paper into the +hollows. If the stone is polished or very smooth, it is needful to +peel off the paper while wet by holding two corners, and lay it +reversed on a flat surface to dry; if left on the stone the +contraction will destroy the impress. Out of doors the paper can be +held down by pebbles around it, or by sand on the edges, to prevent +the wind catching it.</p> + +<p>(2) The stronger squeeze should be of a tough paper with +moderate sizing. Cut the paper to the form of the stone. Thrust it +into a pail of water, knead it about vigorously, roll it into a +ball and pummel it, so as to break the grain and let the water well +into it. Then wet the stone, shake out the paper like a wet +handkerchief, full of creases, lay it on the stone and begin to +beat it in with a hard, long spoke–brush. A few strokes round +the edge will catch it down so that the wind does not disturb it. +Then begin to beat it heavily along the top edge; beat it to a +pulp, and patch with strips left soaking in the water wherever +breaks occur. If the stone is porous the paper may part from it, +especially if expanded by beating; the only course then is to slush +more water on the face so that it will go through the breaks and +hold the paper down again. It may be needful to slit the paper to +let the water go below it. Beat down again, enough to fix it.</p> + +<p>(3) For casting purposes a final backing sheet, moderately +beaten on, is needed to hold the squeeze together and stiffen it. +Either (2) or (3) can be left on the face of the stone till quite +dry, and then carefully detached by lifting up from one corner, and +slipping a dinner–knife or a slip of wood under the paper to +lift any part that sticks.</p> + +<p>Stiff squeezes as (3) must be packed flat; thin, as (1) and +sometimes (2), may be rolled in a large curve, but this always +deteriorates a squeeze.</p> + +<p>For plaster casting, a squeeze should be heated on a stove and +brushed over with melted paraffin, or better wax, sufficient to +cover the face without choking the finer detail. Before each cast +the face should be lightly oiled with a tuft of wool.</p> + +<p><b>Small objects.</b> These can be copied by a thin paper +squeeze, and the squeeze may be mounted by pasting a card and +lightly pressing the squeeze back down on it. This will take out +all cockling and make it lie flat for photographing.</p> + +<p>Tin–foil is very handy for squeezes, and may be saved from +chocolate for this. Press it firmly on a coin or seal with a tuft +of wool, or beat it with a soft tooth–brush, being careful to +avoid creases. The foil should then be floated on water, hollow +back up, and blazing sealing–wax dropped into it to back it. +The resulting positive can be then stuck on card.</p> + +<p>For plaster casts of coins the face should be dusted with French +chalk, as also a smooth bed of plasticine; the coin can then be +pressed in safely without any possible risk, and afterward plaster +cast in the mould. Sealing–wax is said to be sharper, but +there is a risk of its sticking to the coin. If it is used, breathe +hard on the coin, or wet it, before impressing; and when first set +lift it slightly to detach it, and then replace till cold. Or +tin–foil may be used, as in making positives; but, instead of +floating on water, press plasticine on the foil while it is still +on the object.</p> + +<p>For curved surfaces, as cylinders, any of these methods can be +used; the plasticine is the more successful.</p> + +<p>In all casting of plaster on a small scale, use a soft +camel–hair brush. Mix the plaster in the palm of the hand +with a knife, take up some of the wettest to brush over the face of +the moulds (a dozen scarabs or small coins done at once); then put +he brush in water, and take up thicker plaster with a +pocket–knife to drop on as a backing. This avoids air bubbles +without using too weak a plaster.</p> + +<p><b>Copying hieroglyphic inscriptions.</b> Where possible a wet +or a dry squeeze should be taken of any inscription. When hand +copying is necessary, the main matter is to get the cartouches of +king's names accurately, and the date at the beginning, examining +specially whether single strokes, <B>I I I I</B>, have been connected +above, <B>∩∩</B>, forming the ten sign. The main difficulty +for any one +not knowing the 800 signs is to distinguish between those that are +alike, especially when damaged. For this purpose the commonest +signs that may be confused are here placed together, so that the +essential points of difference may be noticed. A small cross is +placed here by small points of distinction which might escape +notice.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill1"></a><br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill1.bmp" width="700" +height="384" border="3" alt="Illustration I: Some Hierogliphic Signs +Liable to be Confused with Each Other"> +</p> + +<h4>Illustration I: Some Hieroglyphic Signs Liable To Be Confused +With Each Other</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<h4>6. Photography.</h4> + +<p>The camera and material have been described under outfit.</p> + +<p>Lighting and preparation of objects is a main element of +success. When first looking over any ruins, make a list of every +view wanted, with the time of day when the sun will be right for +it. Then follow the time–table, and so get the best lighting +all in one day.</p> + +<p>For movable stones or figures place them in half–shade, as +a doorway, and then tilt every way until the best lighting is +found, fix them in that position, and then set up the camera square +with them.</p> + +<p>The camera should usually be fixed to look downward vertically, +and then variation up to 40 degrees can be got by the legs. Hold +the camera in the right position, keeping the legs off the ground, +and then drop the legs to find their own place; thus very skew +positions can be fixed quickly.</p> + +<p>Small objects are best laid on black velvet, and taken +vertically. Scraps of charcoal are useful to prop them in exact +positions. A sheet of white paper stuck on a leg of the stand may +be useful to prevent shadows being too heavy. Where outline, and +not flat detail, is wanted, then a light ground is best; the most +perfect is a sheet of ground glass with white paper a foot or two +below it. If the ground glass cannot be had, a good +substitute–also useful for a camera glass–is plain +glass with a sheet of tissue paper (or the packing paper of films) +stuck on with paraffin wax.</p> + +<p>The dressing of objects to show up clearly is often needful. +Incised objects can be filled in with charcoal powder if light, or +chalk if dark; in any case a coarse powder, so as not to stain the +object. For faint cutting on glass or crystal go over the lines +with 'China ink in a pen, so as to cover them. Harden the ink in +the sun, and then gently wipe with a damp finger until all the +excess is removed and only the roughness of the lines remains +black. On large objects light dust or sand is often useful, to make +relief clearer.</p> + +<p>For objects in a bad light, or in the interior of tombs, +reflected light must be used. Lids of biscuit tins serve well; a +lid in the sun sixty feet off, and another lid reflecting the light +on to a wall, will suffice for a two minutes' exposure of a slow +plate. Three or four successive reflections into a totally dark +chamber will suffice in five or six minutes.</p> + +<p>When an important subject cannot be revisited it is well to take +duplicates; the camera should be shifted laterally a few inches for +a near object, or a few feet for a distant view, and then the two +films will form a stereograph, if both succeed.</p> + +<p>In arranging groups of small objects, put together what will go +in a three–inch circle, and minor pieces around, and then the +best in the middle can be printed direct on lantern slides.</p> + +<h4>7. Preservation and Packing.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>While travelling little can be done for preserving objects. +Papyrus rolls should be wrapped at once in a damp handkerchief, to +be carried, and then wrapped in paper, packed in a tin box, and +filled round with cotton wool. Small papyri can be safely damped in +a wet cloth, and flattened out between the leaves of a book; secure +one edge straight in the hinge, and gradually press flat and secure +by advancing leaves over it. Glass, if perfect, should be packed in +tins with wool; old food or tobacco tins do well for tender +things.</p> + +<p>Flint implements and coins, though hardy, should be saved from +grinding by wrapping in waste paper.</p> + +<p>Ivory, if it has been buried, is very liable to flake. The cure +is to soak it in paraffin wax; but temporarily it is secured by +winding cotton thread round it in many directions. Some anoint it +with vaseline, but if vaseline penetrates the ivory, it will not +take up paraffin or gelatine later. Tender wood may be likewise +saved.</p> + +<p>A much–cracked glazed jar was packed by winding string +round it in all directions, with tufts of wool under the +string.</p> + +<p>A whole mummy in most fragile condition, so that it could not be +lifted, was made up solid with 40 lb. of paraffin wax which was +melted out of it afterwards in England, making hardly any change. +If contracted burials should be preserved, dust carefully, splash +on about 5 lb. of paraffin wax heated to smoking–point. When +cold, detach from soil, turn over, paraffin the lower side, and +build up weak parts with a sludge of melted paraffin and sand, +nearly chilled. About 8 to 10 lb. of wax will do the whole. The +skull should be packed separately. Pad all hollows of the body with +soft rag to spread pressure in packing. Paraffin wax is the best +preservative as it is tough, and may be used as a coat over an +object for safety. When not needed it can be cut away, or melted +away, and cleaned off completely with benzol. It should be melted +in an iron saucepan, as solder will give way if it is superheated. +As it melts at about 120 degrees F., and boils at about 600 degrees +F., it can be greatly superheated, and used when smoking, so as to +penetrate deeply into wood or porous material. It is perfect for +strengthening skulls; most rotten examples slopped with paraffin, +and finally soused for a few seconds so as entirely to cover the +bone in and out, will travel safely, if not crushed.</p> + +<p><b>Boxes</b> must always have corner posts, inside or out; see +that the sides are nailed up to the edges to the posts, or the lid +or bottom may part by the side splitting. See that all +nails—except for the lid—are driven slanting +alternately one way and reversed, this prevents sides or bottom +drawing off. Nail the lid with many short nails, so that it can be +raised without splitting.</p> + +<p>To secure heavy objects in a mixed box, an inverted rough stool +is the best, the cross piece on the object below, and the sides +coming up to the lid. If cross bars are nailed in a box, damage may +be done to an object in forcing the bars loose. It is often best to +put heavy and light things in the same box, to equalize weights in +journeying; if well secured, a mixed boxful travels well. Be very +careful that a wedge–shaped stone cannot force itself loose +by repeated jolts, or it may split a box.</p> + +<p>Slabs of stone ire best packed in open shallow boxes face down +on straw or wool, secured by a few diagonal cross bars on the top, +as then they do not need to be opened for customs. All stones of +regular form should be supported at a fifth of the length from each +end. No bedding on a box is worth anything, as the box will bend +more than the stone, and the strain will all come on the middle. +Very heavy blocks are best with sacking on the face, and roped +round in various parts.</p> + +<p>Pottery is most difficult to pack safely. For large jars, mark +the points of contact on the box, and nail on cushions of old cloth +stuffed hard with straw, so as to pad the jar on all sides; make +sure that it cannot twist about into a diagonal position off the +pads. Long boxes, five or six feet, with three or four cross +divisions, are best. Begin packing, say four pots with straw, at +one end of the box, press up a cross board tight on them, and nail +through the sides: then another batch likewise; about one inch +thick of hard–pressed straw is needful at each contact. Twist +straw into rough bands, and wind it round each pot. Fill up corners +to prevent the bands shifting loose. Empty small tins make good +stuffing for blank spaces. Old newspapers torn to bits and rolled +into balls make good packing for pots and hold them firmly, but +this method is dangerous if the packing becomes wetted. Pots should +always be packed tight. Old sacking or cotton stuff may be tied on +over the mouth of large pots, to prevent straw slipping in, and +loosening the packing.</p> + +<p>Bronzes and coins should not be cleaned in any way, till in a +settled work place.</p> + +<h4>8. Forgeries and. Buying.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Most travellers wish to buy some things of interest, and in +remote districts they may do good service in rescuing important +objects which may be wanted in museums. Forgeries are ubiquitous, +even in most obscure places in the hands of peasants, either +supplied by dealers, or casually obtained, often in good faith. It +is best to inquire of local collectors and museums as to the kinds +of forgeries met with. The following notes are to show the novice +how far he may go safely.</p> + +<p><b>Bronze</b> figures with a thick red patina, which scales off +readily sometimes, or with thick green patina cracked, or hard +green or brown patina, are safe. Thin green patina, or bare brown +or black metal is dubious.</p> + +<p><b>Papyri</b> in roll, flexible though fragile, in known Greek +or Egyptian writing, are fairly safe. Lumps stuck together, brown +and scrappy, are made up.</p> + +<p><b>Coins</b> cannot be safely bought unless patinated, copper or +silver. Only an expert can judge of gold or 'clean silver.</p> + +<p><b>Jewellery</b> of small size, as earrings and bracelets, is +generally safe, if the age of the design is known. Modern wire is +always drawn, ancient is irregular. Look for concretions of lime in +the hollows, and for the dull face of old gold. If once cleaned +there is little to distinguish old from modern gold.</p> + +<p><b>Stone vases</b> if turned are Roman or modern. The ancient +irregularities should be studied from specimens.</p> + +<p><b>Scarabs</b> with nacreous or decomposed glaze in the hollows +(as in the deep cuts at the side) are safe; also, if there are +natural cracks by age, which would prevent modern cutting. There is +a large variety of skilful forgeries.</p> + +<p><b>Stone statuettes:</b> a skilled forger may be paid up to +£100 +for a figure to order. Only an expert can judge.</p> + +<p>Never buy in the dusk or in dark rooms. When buying never have +any one at hand who calls attention to things, nor let any +attendant interfere. Seem entirely unconcerned.</p> + +<p>Get the reputation of never advancing on offers, or bargaining; +let taking or leaving things at once be the rule. Time and delays +are money to the traveller, and it is worth much to save time in +haggling. Your donkey–boy will soon spread your +character.</p> + +<p>When offering for single things to a peasant, put the money by +the side of the antiquity, and say that he must take one or the +other: fingering the cash is irresistible, and no time is lost.</p> + +<p>If it is likely that the source of an object will not be truly +stated, the way is to make the best guess you can, and say it +dogmatically: the pleasure of setting you right will often bring +out the truth, or if you guessed right it will gain you credit and +break down reserve.</p> + +<p>As a principle it is well to be looked on as a liberal buyer, so +as to encourage the offer of antiquities. A little more thus spent +will be a trifling extra on the whole journey, and may largely +increase the results in objects and information for future +work.</p> + +<p>Though prices can only be learned by practice, and they vary in +time and place, yet the following scale may be taken as fairly +safe.</p> + +<p>Bronze figures if good work, inches high squared = shillings: +except in bad state, or Osiris, or bad clumsy work, or votive +animals.</p> + +<p>Papyri or parchment, continuous text, £1 a square foot, +accounts, half or a third.</p> + +<p>Jewellery, between weight in coin and double that, according to +work.</p> + +<p>Scarabs, common but fair 2s., names 2s.–5s.; up to £5 +or £10 if beautiful. Engraved gems, small common +Roman, 2s.–4s. in London, more in East; for a fair Greek +£1–£10.</p> + +<p>Coins often higher in the East than in London. In Greek lands +copper coins may be bought by weight, and picked over at leisure, +and the worthless coins rejected. For single coins fix a price, say +half a franc, and offers of large numbers may come in, from which +the best can be chosen and the rest refused.</p> + +<p>Glass vases, blown, inches high squared at 4d. or 6d. each. +Coloured glass double or triple.</p> + +<p>Ushabtis, poor 1s.–4s., fair 5s.–10s., fine blue or +engraved £1– £10.</p> +<br> +<br> +<br> + +<h3><a name="l-1">LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND +SOCIETIES CONCERNED WITH THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE +EAST.</a></h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>LONDON.</p> + +<p>BRITISH MUSEUM, Bloomsbury, W.C.1.<br> + <em>Director</em>, Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B., P.B.A.<br> +<em>Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities</em>, Sir Ernest +Wallis Budge, Litt.D.<br> +<em>Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities</em> (including +Prehistoric Antiquities, Ethnology, and Oriental Antiquities) Sir +Hercules Read, F.B.A., P.S.A.<br> +<em>Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities</em>, A. H. Smith +M.A.<br> +<em>Keeper of Coins</em>, G. F. Hill, F.B.A.<br> +<em>Keeper of MSS.</em>, J. P. Gilson, M.A.<br> +<em>Keeper of Oriental MSS. and Printed Books</em>. L. D. Barnett, +Litt.D.</p> + +<p>VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, S. Kensington, S.W.7.<br> +<em>Director</em>, Sir Cecil Harcourt Smith, C.V.O.<br> +<em>Assistant Keeper of Architecture and Sculpture</em>, E. R. D. +Maclagan.<br> +<em>Assistant Keeper of Ceramics</em>, C. H. Wylde.<br> +<em>Keeper of Metalwork</em>, W. W. Watts.<br> +<em>Keeper of Textiles</em>, A. F. Kendrick.<br> +<em>Keeper of Woodwork</em>, E. F. Strange, C.B.E.</p> + +<p>BRITISH ACADEMY, Burlington House, Piccadilly, W.1.<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, Sir I. Gollancz, Litt.D.</p> + +<p>BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS, 19 Bloomsbury Square, W.C.1,<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, John Penoyre, C.B.E.</p> + +<p>BRITISH SCHOOL IN JERUSALEM, c/o. Palestine Exploration +Fund,<br> +2 Hinde St., Manchester Square, W. 1. <em>Secretary</em>, Miss R. +Woodley.</p> + +<p>BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME, 19 Bloomsbury Square, W.C.1.<br> +<em>Secretary of the Faculty of Archaeology, History and +Letters,</em><br> +E. J. Forsdyke.</p> + +<p>PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND, 2 Hinde St., Manchester Square, +W.1<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, E. W. G. Masterman, M.D.</p> + +<p>EGYPT EXPLORATION SOCIETY, 13 Tavistock Square, W.C.1.<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, Miss Jonas.</p> + +<p>EGYPTIAN RESEARCH ACCOUNT AND BRITISH SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN +EGYPT.<br> + <em>Hon. Director</em>, Prof. W. M. F. Petrie, F.R.S., F.B.A., +University College, Gower St., W.C.1.</p> + +<p>SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON, Burlington House, W.1.<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, C. R. Peers, F.S.A.</p> + +<p>ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, 74 Grosvenor St., W. 1.<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, Miss Eleanor Hull.</p> + +<p>SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF HELLENIC STUDIES, 19 Bloomsbury +Square, W.C.1.<br> + <em>Secretary and Librarian</em>, John Penoyre, C.B.E.</p> + +<p>ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, 9 Conduit St., W.1.<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, Ian MacAlister.</p> + +<p>SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF ROMAN STUDIES, 19 Bloomsbury +Square, W.C.1.<br> + <em>Secretary</em>, Miss Margaret Ramsay.</p> + +<p>ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, 50 Gt. Russell St., W.C.1.<br> +<em>Secretaries</em>, H. S. Harrison, T. A. Joyce, O.B.E.</p> + +<p>ROYAL NUMISMATIC SOCIETY, 22 Russell Square, W.C.1.<br> +Secretaries, J. Allan, Lt. Col. W. Morrieson.</p> + +<p>ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Lowther Lodge, Kensington Gore, S. +W. 7.<br> +<em>Secretary</em>, A. R. Hinks, F.R.S.</p> + +<p>ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE. <em>Hon. Secretary</em>, G. F. +Hill, British Museum, W.C.1.</p> + +<p>CAMBRIDGE.</p> + +<p>MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. <em>Curator</em>, Baron A. +von Hugel.</p> + +<p>FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM. <em>Director</em>, S. C. Cockerell, M.A.</p> + +<p>OXFORD.</p> + +<p>ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM. <em>Keeper</em>, D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G., +F.B.A.</p> + +<p>ATHENS.</p> + +<p>BRITISH SCHOOL. <em>Director</em>, A. J. B. Wace.</p> + +<p>JERUSALEM.</p> + +<p>BRITISH SCHOOL. <em>Director</em>, Prof. J. Garstang.</p> + +<p>ROME.</p> + +<p>BRITISH SCHOOL, Valle Giulia. <em>Director</em>, Thomas Ashby, +D.Litt.</p> +<br><br> +<h3><a name="l-2">THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE</a></h3> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" +width="700" summary="Members of The archaeological Joint Committee"> +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="center" valign="top"><em>Society or +other Body.</em> </td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><em>Representatives.</em> </td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">British Academy</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.(Chairman of +Committee)<br> +Prof. Percy Gardner.<br> +Sir W. M. Ramsay.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Royal Anthropological Institute</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir Everard Im Thurn.<br> +Prof. Arthur Keith.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Society of Antiquaries</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir Arthur Evans.<br> +Sir Hercules Read.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Royal Institute of British +Architects</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Prof. W. R. Lethaby.<br> +Prof. A. G. Dickie.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Royal Asiatic Society</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">F. Legge.<br> +R. Sewell.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">British School at Athens</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">J. P. Droop.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Byzantine Research Fund</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir Hercules Read.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Egypt Exploration Society</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.<br> +Dr. Alan Gardiner.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Egyptian Research Account</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Prof. Flinders Petrie.<br> +Prof. Ernest Gardner.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Society for the Promotion of Hellenic +Studies</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">A. H. Smith.<br> +G. F. Hill (Hon. Sec. of Committee).</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">British School at Jerusalem</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Prof. Flinders Petrie.<br> +D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Royal Numismatic Society</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Prof. C. Oman, M.P.<br> +G. F. Hill</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Palestine Exploration Fund</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Dr. G. Buchanan Gray.<br> +Prof. A. G. Dickie.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Society for the Promotion of Roman +Studies</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Miss Gertrude Bell.<br> +O. M. Dalton.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td align="left" valign="top"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">British Museum</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.</td> +</tr> + +<tr align="left" valign="top"> +<td align="left" valign="top">Victoria and Albert Museum</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Sir Cecil Harcourt Smith, C.V.O.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><br> +<br> +<br> +</p> + +<h2>PART II</h2> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<h2><a name="intro-2">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</a></h2> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>The aim of the special sections contained in Chapters +III–VIII is to describe, not the objects usually to be seen +in Museums, but only such things as will be found lying out on +mounds and sites, and as are more or less distinctive of a period. +Thus certain comparatively trivial objects are named, because they +are peculiar to a period, and likely to be found in a casual +passage over a site, whereas other objects, common to several +periods, are ignored. Only the distinctive, key objects are +mentioned. The great features of Greek Art, for instance, are not +dealt with in Chapter II; nor are coins, the probabilities of +finding them being too slender, and the possibilities too wide. +Nevertheless, coins when found should be carefully quoted. Pottery +naturally takes the largest place, as it was abundant, and its +fragments are a good guide to period, and being practically +indestructible and of no intrinsic value are most likely to be met +with. The difference between pottery made with the use of the wheel +and that made without is important to be noted. The use of the +wheel can usually be detected through the slight inequalities of +the clay that make a series of parallel lines on the inner surface. +The diagrammatic representations of the pot–forms +characteristic of various periods or of other objects ranging +through a civilization the main features of which can be shown in +outline will, it is hoped, be found useful. Simplified tables of +alphabets, intended to make it possible roughly to identify the +script, if not the date, of an inscription, are also given.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="1-2">CHAPTER I</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>FLINT IMPLEMENTS</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> +<a name="ill2"></a> + +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill2.gif" width="850" +height="638" border="3" alt="Illustration II:Flint Imlpements"></p> + +<h4>Illustration II: Flint Implements</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>As the development of Flint Implements follows more or less the +same course in all the districts with which this volume deals, a +general description is given here, to avoid repetition in the +special sections.</p> + +<p>The earlier periods of man are so remote that geological +changes, wet, and decay, have removed nearly all his works except +the flint tools. It is to these chiefly that we must look for our +knowledge of his abilities. Flints are nearly all that we have for +the early stages, to supply what arts, history, and literature give +in later stages. To preserve and educe all we possibly can obtain +from their situation, and purpose, is a main duty to history. To +destroy or confuse the evidence, by removing specimens without a +record, or by shifting them to a different place, is a crime in +science. As there is no temptation to ignorant peasants to move +flints until they are induced by collectors, so the whole fault of +the wreckage that has taken place in many sites lies on the +plundering collector. No money or reward should be given for any +flints; a few fine specimens may be lost, but vastly more harm +would be done by encouraging mere raiding.</p> + +<p>The periods and styles that are now recognized are shown on the +diagram—and their conditions were:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" +width="450" summary="Periods with their relative Climate and Sea +Level"> +<tr> +<td><em>Style</em> </td> +<td><em>Climate</em> </td> +<td><em>Sea level</em> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Eolithic (Pliocene)</td> +<td>?</td> +<td>?</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Rostrocarinate (Crag)</td> +<td>?</td> +<td>?</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Strepyan</td> +<td>warmer</td> +<td>lower</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Chellean</td> +<td>warm</td> +<td>low</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Acheulian</td> +<td>cooler</td> +<td>rising</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Mousterian</td> +<td>cold</td> +<td>high</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Aurignacian</td> +<td>less cold</td> +<td>lower</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Solutrean</td> +<td>warmer</td> +<td>low</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Magdalenian</td> +<td>colder</td> +<td>rising</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Neolithic</td> +<td colspan="2" align="center">as +present </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> Differences of heat may be +20degrees or 30 degrees + or –</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> Differences of level may be +600—800 ft. + or –</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The information required of all observers is the level and +conditions of all flint tools that they may see or collect.</p> + +<p><b>Gravels</b> containing tools may be surface gravels on a +plateau; note then the level, and the relation of them to any +cliffs; do they end abruptly at a cliff edge, showing that the +valley was filled up; or do they fade away to the edge, showing +that they are older than the valley erosion? Gravels may be the +filling up of a valley which was previously eroded; note the +highest level at which they can be traced; often little pockets of +deposit, or traces of sandy strata, can be found clinging high up +on cliffs; also note the depths in the gravel at which any tools +are found. Any shells or bones in the gravels are of the greatest +value; the depth at which they are found should be written on them +at once, with the locality.</p> + +<p><b>Surface flints</b> should have levels noted on them. If sharp +they show that probably submergence has not reached that level +since; if worn, then water has been up to a higher level, from +which they have been washed down.</p> + +<p><b>Levelling</b> may be read from a contour map, if there is +such available. In most countries it must be done by reading feet +on an aneroid barometer, set with zero of level scale to 30 ins. or +760 mm. Then visit as soon as possible some point where a level is +marked on the map, as a hill top, and read the barometer. This will +give the correction to be made to all the previous notes. If there +is no level recorded, get down to a stream bed (the larger the +better) and read it there, recording the exact place on the map. +The level may then be worked out approximately by points above and +below on the stream, for accurate reading, hold the aneroid face +up, gently tap it, and read; then face down similarly, and take the +mean. Guard that the wind does not blow against any keyhole in the +case.</p> + +<p>Pencil all levels and localities on flints as soon as found. Ink +in the notes on the least prominent parts of the flint, in small +capital letters, when in camp, with waterproof China ink.</p> + +<p><b>Styles of flint work.</b> The Eoliths are worn pebbles, +chipped as if for scraping. The Rostro– carinate flints found +at the base of the Crag are long bars with a beak–end, suited +for breaking up earth. The human origin of both of these classes is +contested. Flints of Strepy type are nodular and partly trimmed +into cutting edges, the smooth surface being left as a handle. The +Chelles types are remarkable for regularity and fine bold flaking; +the worn butt (though best for handling) was eventually flaked away +to obtain an artistic uniform finish. The St. Acheul series has +finer flaking, the crust being completely removed: there is a +tendency to ovate or almond shapes, and the edges are often curved, +the reverse S–curve being preferred, They diminish in size +towards the end of the period. The Chelles and St. Acheul series +are core implements, made by detaching flakes; and the succeeding +(Le Moustier) method is to use the flakes, generally for scraping. +The LA, EM the diagram is transitional from St. Acheul to Le +Moustier. The form marked M is the predecessor of the Solutrean +form next below it. The Aurignacian is a smaller flake industry, +with many lumps more or less conical, and often with careful +parallel flaking or fluting. The Solutre culture brought in a new +style, particularly thin blades with delicate surface flaking which +seems to have reappeared in the late Neolithic. The pointed borers, +certain arrow–heads and minutely chipped rods of flint are +characteristic of the period, and flints of this age are found on +the Egyptian and Syrian deserts. Longer blades, sometimes very +coarse, with ends worn by scraping, mark the period of La +Madeleine. They are found in prehistoric Egyptian graves, along +with Neolithic knives and lances. As a technical advance on flaking +by blows or pressure, grinding and incidental polishing of flint +implements are regarded as characteristic of the Neolithic period; +and the practice may have started in areas devoid of flint, where +it was necessary to utilize local material that could not be flaked +like flint. In Europe generally, polished celts belong to the +Megalithic or latest division of the Neolithic, but this implement +appeared much earlier, and in a sense succeeded the Palaeolithic +hand–axe. The latter is not known to have been hafted, and +its working edges were at the pointed end; whereas in Neolithic +times the implement had become an axe in the modern sense, with the +pointed end inserted in a haft, and the cutting edge removed to the +broader end. There are many other Neolithic types, used with or +without a haft, and only a small proportion were finished by +grinding on sandstone.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="2-2">CHAPTER II</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>GREECE</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[See the diagrams of flint implements, [<a +href="#ill2">Illustration II</a>] of +pottery, [<a href="#ill3">Illustration III</a>]; and of alphabets, +[<a href="#ill4">Illustration +IV</a>]]</p> + +<p>The Periods into which the subject must be divided are roughly +as follows:<br> + I. Prehistoric down to about 1000 +B.C.<br> + II. Prehistoric Greek down to about 700 +B.C.<br> + III. Archaic Greek 700–500 B.C.<br> + IV. Classical Greek 500–300 B.C.<br> + V. Hellenistic after 300.<br> + VI. Roman.<br> + VII. Byzantine.<br> +</p> + +<h3>I. PREHISTORIC</h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<h3><em>A. NORTH GREECE.</em></h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>N<small>EOLITHIC</small>.—Neolithic settlements on low +mounds (<em>maghoules</em>) rising from the plains.</p> + +<p><b>Stone implements.</b> Axes, hammers, chisels, querns, &c. +Flint chips, bone needles, obsidian.</p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b> Hand–made burnished, yellow, brown, black +or red. Handles rare. Holes in rim, or lugs pierced for suspension, +Earliest remains show painted sherds. Long period of unpainted ware +followed. Patterns irregular, rectangular and curved. No +naturalism. (<a href="#ill3">III,</a> Figs. 1 and 2.)</p> + +<p>Ware differs slightly with locality. In Thessaly fine red ware +undecorated contemporary with red decoration on white. Chocolate +paint on deep buff follows. Incised ware, geometric patterns white +rubbed in.</p> + +<p><b>Figurines.</b> Rude clay. Steatopygous.</p> + +<p>This civilization extended from northern edge of Thessaly as far +south as Chaeronea. Use of bronze before end uncertain. +Civilization undisturbed by Aegean culture that spread over +southern Greece until just before both were swept away by +iron–using people.</p> + +<h3><em>B. CRETE, AEGEAN, SOUTH GREECE.</em></h3> + +<h3><em>CRETE.</em></h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>N<small>EOLITHIC</small>. Black or red burnished pottery.</p> + +<p>B<small>RONZE</small> A<small>GE</small>.</p> + +<em>Early Minoan.</em><br> + Painted pottery, dark paint on light ground, geometric designs. +Unpainted, surface mottled red and black.<br> +<br> + + +<p><em>Middle Minoan.</em><br> + <em>circa.</em> 3000 B.C.—White designs geometric on dark +ground. Orange and crimson added. Pottery very thin and fine +(Kamares ware). Patterns very various but not naturalistic except +in rare instances. (<a href="#ill3">III,</a> Figs. 3 and 4; hatched +lines=red.)</p> + +<p><em>Late Minoan.<br> +</em> <em>circa.</em> 1500 B.C.—Return to use of light ground. +Brown lustrous paint, fine surface to clay. Decoration +naturalistic, flowers, cuttle–fish, shells, spirals, ripple +patterns, white and orange dots and bands occasionally +super–imposed on dark glaze (<a href="#ill3">III,</a> Figs. 7, +10, and 12).<br> +White and orange disappear. Decoration stiffer and more +conventional.</p> + +<h3><em>AEGEAN.</em></h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>N<small>EOLITHIC</small>. Nothing known.</p> + +<p>B<small>RONZE</small> A<small>GE</small>.</p> + +<p><em>Contemporary with Early Minoan.</em></p> + +<p>Pottery with geometric patterns normally dark on light buff or +reddish coarse clay. Sometimes red or white on black burnished +clay.</p> + +<p>Marble figurines 'fiddle–shaped' from Naxos and Paros +(<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 6).</p> + +<p><em>Contemporary with Middle Minoan</em></p> + +<p>Pottery with very pale sometimes greenish clay, and grey black +totally unlustrous paint. Patterns mainly geometric. Rather sparse +decoration. Later, with addition of red, decoration becomes fully +naturalistic. Lilies and birds in red and black (Melos) (<a +href="#ill3">III</a>, Figs. +5 and 9; hatched lines=red). Beaked jugs (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, +Fig. 5) most +characteristic shape of this period.</p> + +<p>Cretan influence strong in Middle Minoan completely drowned +local efforts in first Late Minoan days. Thenceforward local ware +imitative.</p> + +<h3><em>SOUTH GREECE.</em></h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>N<small>EOLITHIC</small>. Nothing known.</p> + +<p>B<small>RONZE</small> A<small>GE</small>. <b>Geometric Ware</b> +with matt paint and pale clay corresponding to that of islands +found in Argolid and Boeotia.</p> + +<p><b>'Urfirnis' Ware.</b> Hand–made. Whole vase covered with +thin semi– lustrous wash varying from red–brown to +black. Sometimes mere smears. Mainly found in Boeotia, but extends +north to valley of Spercheius and south to Argolid. Date uncertain, +but in Boeotia evidence that it ended before rise of 'Minyan' +ware.</p> + +<p><b>'Minyan Ware.'</b> Grey unpainted pottery, polished. No +decoration except (rarely) incised lines. Usually wheel–made. +Characteristic shapes: Goblet with tall ringed stem (<a +href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 15); +wide open cup with high handles.</p> + +<p>Appears to range Between Middle Minoan II and Late Minoan +III.</p> + +<p>Most frequent in Boeotia to which it owes its name. Found as far +north as Thessaly and as far south as Crete. Local imitations, +obvious but distinct, found with imported specimens (Melos). +Provenance unknown; connexion with Troy suspected.</p> + +<p><b>'Mycenaean.'</b> The Cretan civilization swept over South +Greece in the first Late Minoan period. Characterized by exuberance +both in shape and ornament (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Figs. 11, 12, +13, 16, 17). Bulk of +what is likely to be found is of latest period when style has +become conventionalized. Compare <a href="#ill3">III,</a> Fig. 11 +(Mycenaean) with <a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. +7 Late Minoan I. Characteristic shapes high goblet and 'stirrup' +vase (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Figs. 17 and 16).</p> + +<p>Female clay figurines common (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 14), +also animals, +oxen.</p> + +<p class= "centclass"><em>Objects Characteristic of Aegean Civilization</em></p> + +<p><b>Seal Stones.</b> Round or bean–shaped, pierced for +suspension, usually soft stone, e.g. slate or steatite. Sometimes +hard, as hematite or rock crystal. Carved with naturalistic +designs: lions, (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 8), stags, bulls, cows +or hinds suckling +their young, cuttle–fish, dolphins, &c. Two animals +ranged like heraldic supporters characteristic.</p> + +<p><b>Obsidian.</b> Natural glass, volcanic, black. Source Melos. +Used for knives throughout Bronze Age.</p> + +<p>Chips of Knife or razor blades, and sometimes the cores from +which these were flaked, may be picked up on any Bronze Age site, +and even on Thessalian neolithic settlements. Glistening black +unmistakable.</p> + +<p><b>Terra–cotta lamps.</b> The characteristic lamp of the +Aegean civilization is open, as opposed to the Greek and Roman lamp +where the body is partly covered in.</p> + +<p><b>Walls.</b> Cyclopean walls of huge irregular stones. Also +good square–cut masonry.</p> + +<p>'Corbelling' system for arches, each layer of stones projecting +inwards over the one below. Also used for the vaults of 'Beehive' +Tombs towards end of period.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill3"></a> <br> + + +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill3.gif" width="700" +height="560" border="3" alt="Illustration III: Types of Greek Pottery +etc."></p> + +<h4>Illustration III: Types Of Greek Pottery, Etc.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<h3>II. PREHISTORIC GREEK</h3> + +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<p class= "centclass"><em>Geometric or Dipylon Period.</em></p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b><br> + Iron Age. <em>circ.</em> 1000 B.C.—Absolute break in +continuity from what preceded. No naturalism. Prevalence of +geometric patterns (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Figs. 18 and 19). Not +much variety. +Meanders, lozenges, and zigzags. Circles joined by tangents replace +Mycenaean spirals. Ornament crowded. Rows or single specimens of +long–legged water birds. Human figures rare, rude angular +silhouettes.</p> + +<p>Local characteristics discernible (e.g. between ware of +Thessaly, Attica, Boeotia, Delphi, Argolid, Laconia, Thera, and +Crete), but strong family resemblance. (Lower specimen <a +href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 19 +characteristic of Boeotia.) Dark paint on natural clay (sometimes +lightened by a white slip, e. g. Laconia) differs distinctly from +Mycenaean. Shapes fewer and curves less flowing. Amphorae, plates, +bowls, and jugs. Trefoil lip to jug first appears.</p> + +<p>Terra–cotta loom weights from now onwards often pyramidal +in form and glazed.</p> + +<p><b>Bronzes.</b><br> + <em>Figurines.</em> Three types:—<br> + Human, rare (as on vases).<br> + Quadrupeds, mainly horses. Cylindrical muzzle +and narrow cylindrical belly (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 23).<br> + Birds. Long neck and legs, flat bill and body. +Stands to above, flat, square or round, with open–work snake +or spiral.</p> + +<p><em>Pins</em> (to fasten dress at shoulder). Long head with +small bosses like strung beads sometimes separated by discs (<a +href="#ill3">III</a>, +Fig 21). Sometimes larger flat disc at end of head (often missing) +Pin itself usually iron, rarely extant.</p> + +<p><em>Brooches.</em><br> + 1. Spiral type. Of wire +coiled into spirals. Made of one, two, or three wires crossing with +two, four, or six spirals respectively. Boss at centre. Spectacle +type (two spirals) common. In 'spectacle' type (sometimes very +large) spiral purely utilitarian, giving spring to the pin. With +four or more spirals the additions are ornament, noteworthy in view +of absence of spirals on pottery.</p> +<p> 2. Bow type.<br> (a) High arched bow +solid.<br> + (b) Arched bow hollowed like boat inverted. This +type often has flat plate attached to one end, lower edge of which +is bent to form catch. Plate incised, crossed leaves, ships, +horses, or men.<br> + (c) Arched bow consisting of +crescent–shaped plate, similar incised decoration.</p> + +<p><b>Paste Beads.</b><br> +A type pyramidal, dark with yellow spirals round corners, much +resembling 'bull's eye' sweets, was common in Laconia (<a +href="#ill3">III</a>, +Fig.27).</p> + +<p><b>Terra–cotta Figurines.</b><br> +Series of rude horses sometimes with riders characteristic of end +of period. Chiefly from Boeotia. Painted like pottery, but chiefly +in lines.</p> + +<h3>III. ARCHAIC GREEK</h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>A. <em>Orientalising.</em></p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b><br> +700 B.C.—Influence from Asia Minor. Recrudescence there of +spirit of Mycenaean art? Lions, stags, sphinxes, sirens, either in +procession or arranged in pairs like heraldic supporters.</p> + +<p>Stylized plant motifs in decoration. Rays (or flower petals) +rising from foot most characteristic (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Figs. +24, 26, and +28).</p> + +<p>Use of purple paint to supplement black both for details of +figures and for band decoration.</p> + +<p>Geometric ornament (though perhaps with a difference) survives +to fill blank spaces on backgrounds of scenes.</p> + +<p>Varieties of style. Beasts drawn in silhouette, heads outlined, +eyes, &c., drawn in, early, and mainly in the islands (<a +href="#ill3">III</a>, +Fig. 29). Later whole figures in silhouette with details incised, +particularly identified with Corinthian and Boeotian and Laconian +styles (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 26). Styles most likely to be +found on the +mainland are 'Proto– Corinthian' and 'Corinthian'.</p> + +<p>'Proto–Corinthian' (also called Argive Linear). Small +vases, very fine pale clay. Decoration chiefly horizontal lines +very fine. Rays from feet. Sometimes silhouette animals round +shoulder.</p> + +<p>Characteristic shapes: pear–shaped aryballoi, and lekythi +with conical body, long neck, and trefoil lip (<a +href="#ill3">III</a>, Figs. 24 and +25).</p> + +<p>'Corinthian'. Clay pale buff to warm biscuit colour. Rays round +foot. Purple bands. Rows of usual animals. Incisions. Details in +purple. Ground ornaments, incised rosettes more or less carefully +drawn. These in great profusion leaving very little bare space. +(<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 26; hatched lines=purple.) Throughout +this period desire +for a light ground was felt, and where the natural colour of the +clay did not give sufficient contrast it was covered with a strip +of cream–or white clay (e.g. Rhodian, Naucratite, Laconian; +see <a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 28, Early Laconian Vase).</p> + +<p><b>Terra–cotta Figurines.</b><br> +Series that culminates with Tanagra figures of fourth century +begins. May be said always to be a step in advance of contemporary +sculpture if any.</p> + +<p>Statuettes rare at this date, but relief heads on flat plaques +or on vase handles common. Treatment of hair usually resembles +Restoration wig (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 20). Rosette frequent +on shoulders +represents head of bronze (rarely silver or gold) shoulder pin.</p> + +<p><b>Bronzes.</b><br> +<em>Pins</em> (to fasten dress at shoulder). Three large bosses +increasing in size as they near head replace many small equal +bosses of preceding period. Disc heavier (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, +Fig. 22).</p> + +<p><em>Brooches</em> Spiral type has disappeared. Couchant lion +type with snake tail has been found at Olympia and Sparta. In +general brooches cease to be common.</p> + +<p><em>Plaques</em> (doubtless affixed to wood). Relief patterns of +guilloches or rows of bosses. Figure scenes similar to those on +pottery. Characteristic of seventh century. Chance of picking up +slight.</p> + +<p><em>Inscriptions</em> Earliest extant examples of use of Greek +script on stone may date from this period. For developments, see +tables of alphabets, <a href="#ill4">Illustration IV</a>.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill4"></a> <br> + + +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill4.gif" width="700" +height="564" border="3" alt="Illustration IV: Greek Alphabets"></p> + +<h4>Illustration IV: Greek Alphabets</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>B. <em>Black Figured Period.</em></p> + +<p>600 B.C.—Predominance of Attic pottery. Decay of local +styles. Introduction of red colouring into clay and of superlative +Attic black glaze.</p> + +<p>Figure scenes (battle scenes and scenes from mythology) largely +predominate. Black silhouettes, details marked with fine incisions, +additions of purple and white (latter for linen and flesh of +women). Elaborate palmettos characteristic (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, +Fig. 31).</p> + +<h3>IV. CLASSICAL GREEK</h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p><em>Red Figured Period.</em><br> +525 B.C. Same clay and glaze, but whole vase covered with glaze and +figures reserved showing in colour of clay, details being added +with fine–drawn lines of glaze.</p> + +<p><em>White Attic Vases.</em> The older style of figures drawn in +outline on a light ground (e. g. Naucratite and Rhodian ware), the +space within outlines being filled more or less with wash of +colour, survived in Athens side by side with the more usual black +glazed ware, and in the fifth century was particularly affected for +the class of funerary lekythi, vases made for offering at a tomb +(<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 30). Outlines at first drawn in black, +then golden +brown, lastly a dull red.</p> + +<p><b>Miscellaneous.</b><br> +<em>Walls</em> Sixth century. Characteristic type of polygonal +wall, each irregular stone very carefully fitted to its +neighbours.</p> + +<p><b>Fortifications</b> usually built with square towers and +bastions projecting from the curtain.</p> + +<p>Round watch towers here and there to be met with.</p> + +<p><em>Bricks</em> . Baked bricks rarely used till Roman days. +Bricks stamped by King Nabis (early second century) have been found +at Sparta.</p> + +<p><em>Terra–cotta roof tiles</em> (sometimes with stamped +inscriptions) largely used.</p> + +<p><em>Laconian Pottery Characteristics</em> . Fragments of black +glazed Attic ware are the class of remains easiest to pick up on +any Greek inhabited site, except perhaps in Laconia, where perhaps +for political reasons the local style was never ousted and pursued +its natural process of decay until Hellenistic times. Use of white +slip over pink clay complete at end of seventh century, then +partial; abandoned by beginning of fifth century. Characteristic +patterns, squares, and dots (<a href="#ill3">III</a>, Fig. 28) +seventh century; lotus +and pomegranates sixth century and fifth century.</p> + +<p>500 B.C.—After the end of the fifth century, manufacture +of vases at Athens decayed. Supply chiefly from South Italy. +Growing use of additional white (rare in Attic red figure vases), +sometimes addition of detail in yellowish brown, and a general +coarseness of execution, mark the change.</p> + +<p>Terra–cotta figurines (figures of everyday life, mostly +female; head–quarters Tanagra in Boeotia) prevalent.</p> + +<h3>V. HELLENISTIC</h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>300 B.C. Side by side with decay of red–figure style +appear two classes of vase that became very prevalent.<br> +(1) White designs, often floral, on totally black ground of +inferior dull glaze.<br> +(2) Black ware decorated not by paint but by moulded figures and +patterns. Also the handles of unpainted jars with stamped +impressions (buff clay) not uncommon. Provenance mainly Rhodes.</p> + +<h3>VI. ROMAN</h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Hellenistic ware (2) is forerunner of Samian or Aretine red +pottery with moulded designs. Very widespread in Greece in Imperial +days.</p> + +<h3>VII. BYZANTINE AGE</h3> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Remains as far as the scope of this section is concerned are +few. Fragments of pottery may be found at Sparta. These bear strong +resemblance to the contemporary wares found in Egypt belonging to +the early Mohammedan period.</p> + +<p>Transparent lustrous glaze. Ground usually pale yellow or cream, +sometimes pale green. Designs childish in character. Lions, birds, +human figures painted in brown under the glaze or incised +through.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="3-2">CHAPTER III</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>ASIA MINOR</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[See the diagrams of pottery, <a href="#ill5">Illustration V</a>: +ASIA MINOR +POTTERY]</p> + +<h4>1. Introductory.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Travellers are more likely to make new discoveries elsewhere +than on the actual sites of ancient towns and villages. In many +cases the site is found to be entirely bare of all remains except +sometimes small fragments of pottery. In general, inscribed and +other stones have been carried away to serve as building material +for mosques, houses, fountains, bridges, &c., or as headstones +for graves in cemeteries or for other utilitarian purposes. It is, +therefore, in and near modern villages and towns that inscriptions +are chiefly to be found, as well as smaller antiquities, such as +clay tablets, pots or fragments of them, terra–cotta figures, +coins, and so forth. The smaller articles may sometimes be found in +the bazaars, but they are usually in the hands of individuals.</p> + +<p>It should not be assumed that inscriptions which are exposed to +public view have all been copied; moreover, new stones are +constantly being turned up, especially where building is going on +and where there are old sites or cemeteries close at hand. Great +numbers of inscribed stones are hidden away in private dwellings, +where they are difficult of discovery and of access. Travellers +should take advantage of opportunities that may offer of examining +antiquities in private houses, and of visiting sites or monuments +about which information may be received, particularly if they are a +little off the beaten track. Reward will often come in the shape of +valuable discoveries, of which many remain to be made. Cilicia in +particular has been imperfectly explored, and interesting monuments +and inscriptions, particularly Hittite, may be found there.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill5"></a> <br> + + +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill5.gif" width="500" +height="764" border="3" alt="Illustration V: Asia Minor Pottery"></p> + +<h4>Illustration V: Asia Minor Pottery</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<h4>2. Pottery Fabrics.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>It is not yet possible to describe fully or accurately the +succession of styles, or even to assign all known fabrics to their +proper periods. For this reason, even the most fragmentary +specimens are of interest, provided only that:<br> + (1) the outer surface is fairly well +preserved,<br> + (2) the place of discovery is known.</p> + +<p>All fragments showing a rim or spout, handles or part of a base, +should be preserved until they can be compared with a more perfect +specimen.</p> + +<p>The following fabrics, however, are widely distributed, and +usually seem to have flourished in the order in which they are here +described:</p> + +<p>A. Hand–made wares, rough within, but smooth or burnished +surface, self–coloured (drab or brown), or intentionally +coloured black (by charred matter in the clay, or by a smoky fire), +or red (by a clear fire, sometimes aided by a wash or 'slip' of +more ferruginous clay). Sometimes a black ware is 'overfired' to an +ashy grey.</p> + +<p>In such wares ornament is rare, and consists mainly of (a) +incised dots, dashes, or lines, in simple rectilinear patterns +(chevrons, zigzags, lozenges), often enhanced by a white chalky +filling (<a href="#ill5">V</a>, Figs 5–8); (b) ridges or bosses +modelled in the +clay surface, or adhering to it. The forms are plump and globular, +often round–bottomed or standing on short feet. Rims are +absent or ill–developed; necks actually prolonged into +trough–spouts or long beaks; handles are very simple and +short. Vases are sometimes modelled like animals, or have human +faces or breasts (<a href="#ill5">V</a>, Figs. 1–4).</p> + +<p>These wares begin in the Stone Age, and seem to predominate in +the early and middle Bronze Age. Locally they may have lasted even +later, but the use of the potter's wheel spread rapidly in the +early Bronze Age.</p> + +<p>B. Hand–made wares of light–coloured clay, with +painted decoration, usually in black or reddish–brown. The +paint is generally without glaze, but sometimes is decayed and +easily washes off.</p> + +<p>The forms and ornaments resemble those of class A, but are less +rude and more varied. Distinct rims and standing–bases +appear, and spouts give place to a pinched lip.</p> + +<p>C. Hand–made wares of black or other dark clay, with +painted decoration in white or ochre. These fabrics are rather +rare, and the paint is easily washed off. The forms follow those of +class B.</p> + +<p>Classes B and C seem to begin early in the Bronze Age, and are +gradually replaced by the corresponding wheel–made fabrics of +class D.</p> + +<p>D. Wheel–made pottery begins in the Bronze Age, and is +distinguished by its symmetrical forms, and by the texture of the +inner surface, especially about the rim and base, where the +potter's fingers have grazed the whirling clay. Self–coloured +wares still occur, and are sometimes elegant ('bucchero' ware); but +the improved furnaces now permit general use of +light–coloured clays, suited to painted decoration. Glazed +paint is still rare, and may be taken as probable token of date not +earlier than the end of the Bronze Age. The glaze– painted +wares of the Greek island–world occasionally wandered to the +mainland a little earlier than this, but not far from the coast. On +wheel–made pottery the ornament is either (a) applied while +the pot is on the wheel, and consequently limited to lines and +bands following the plane of rotation, or (b) added afterwards, +free–hand, usually between such bands, and especially on the +neck and shoulder.</p> + +<p>Simple rectilinear schemes are commonest (panels, lozenges, and +triangles, enriched with lattice and chequers) (<a +href="#ill5">V</a>, Figs. 9, 10, 11, +12); with these in the Early Iron Age appear little targets of +concentric circles drawn mechanically with compasses (<a +href="#ill5">V</a>, Figs. +13–15); also, by degrees, birds (<a href="#ill5">V</a>, Fig. +16), animals, and +simple plant designs (rosettes, lotus, palmette), and occasionally +human figures. But as a rule, the mainland pottery is very simply +decorated, and insular imports are rare, except within the area +within Greek colonization.</p> + +<p>In the Later Iron Age or Historic Period, from the seventh +century onward, the pot–fabrics of Asia Minor rapidly +assimilate two main classes of foreign fashions, Greek and +Oriental.</p> + +<p>E. The Oriental types (mainly from Syria) are all plump and +heavy looking, usually in coarse buff or cream–coloured ware, +almost without paint. The Greek forms are more graceful, varied, +and specialized; light–coloured clays predominate, with +simple bands of black ill–glazed paint, absorbed by the +inferior clays.</p> + +<p>After Alexander's time the Greek and the Oriental forms became +confused; the general level of style and execution falls, painted +decoration almost disappears, and the outer surface is often ribbed +by uneven pressure of the fingers on the whirling clay. This +fashion is a sign of late Hellenistic or Graeco–Roman +date.</p> + +<p>F. Meanwhile, the black–glazed Greek (mainly Athenian) +wares spread widely for table use, and were imitated locally from +the fourth century onwards. The clay is pale or reddish (genuine +Greek fabrics are usually quite red within) and the glaze thick, +black, and of a brilliant glassy smoothness. Imitations are of all +degrees of inferiority.</p> + +<p>G. Other late fabrics have smooth ill–glazed surfaces, of +various red, brown, or chocolate tints, over hard–baked +dull–fractured paste not unlike modern earthenware, but +usually dark–coloured. These wares begin in the Hellenistic +period, and go on into the Roman and early Byzantine Ages. They +have sometimes a little ornament in a hard white or cream 'slip' +which stands up above the surface of the vase. These fabrics are +all for table use, or for tomb–furniture, and are usually of +small size.</p> + +<p>H. Pottery with vitreous glaze like modern earthenware only +appears on Byzantine and Turkish sites. There a few late Greek and +Roman fabrics of glazed ware, mostly of dark brown and +olive–green tints; but they are rare, and usually found in +tombs. The earlier glazes are applied directly to the clay; later a +white or coloured slip is applied first, and a clear siliceous +glaze over this.</p> + +<h4>3. Inscriptions and Monuments.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>A. <em>Hittite Civilization.</em> (See figures, <a +href="#ill6">Illustration VI</a>: +Hittite Inscriptions, etc.)</p> + +<p>(1) From 2000 B.C. onwards baked clay tablets with cuneiform (or +wedge–shaped) writing (<a href="#ill6">Illustration VI</a>, +Fig. 1) to be found +anywhere in Eastern Asia Minor, within the Halys bend and south of +it, in Southern Cappadocia, in Cilicia, and in North Syria up to +the Euphrates.</p> + +<p>(2) 1000–700 B.C. probably: inscriptions generally cut on +stone, dark and hard (black basalt), or on the living rock, in +hieroglyphic writing. The hieroglyphs are either cut in relief (<a +href="#ill6">VI</a>, +Fig. 4) or incised (<a href="#ill6">VI</a>, Fig. 2). Found in the +same region and +sporadically west of the Halys.</p> + +<p>(3) From 1400 B.C. and 900 B.C. onwards monuments and sculpture. +Human figures are short and thick, generally wearing boots with +toes turned up (<a href="#ill6">VI</a>, Fig. 3.) Found in the same +regions as the +inscriptions and also west of the Halys to the sea.</p> + + +<p>B. <em>Lydian inscriptions.</em></p> + +<p>From about 500 B.C. Letters mostly like Greek capitals +(sometimes reversed); (<a href="#ill4">Illustration IV</a>, at +bottom).</p> + +<p>C. <em>Lycian inscriptions and monuments</em></p> + +<p>From about 500 B.C. inscriptions, sometimes with a Greek +translation. (<a href="#ill4">IV</a>, at bottom.)</p> + +<p>Monuments, mostly with inscriptions, are generally tombs in +stone, built to imitate wood, with the ends of beams projecting or +showing.</p> + +<p>D. <em>Greek antiquities.</em></p> + +<p>(1) Early period to 323 B.C. the great Greek colonies on the +seaboard and in the coast valleys really formed an outlying part of +Greece, and for them the section on Greece should be consulted.</p> + +<p>(2) <em>Periods of Seleucid and Pergamene</em> rule, +323–130 B.C. Inscriptions of these periods to be found mostly +in the coastal region, rarely on the plateau. Chiefly royal +ordinances, thank offerings, municipal honorary inscriptions, +decrees, covenants, and the like.</p> + +<p>(3) <em>Graeco–Roman period</em>, 130 B.C.–A.D. +400. Language of inscriptions remains normally Greek, though the +lettering gradually assumes a different character from century to +century, steadily deteriorating. The Phrygian language, written in +Greek letters, survives for several centuries in epitaphs, part of +the inscription often being in Greek.</p> + +<p>Latin inscriptions are not common except in Roman colonies +during the earlier centuries of their existence. Elsewhere they are +chiefly official documents of various kinds (e.g. imperial +ordinances, milestones usually of columnar shape with the Emperor's +titles, boundary stones, &c.), or expressions of homage to +Emperors, honorary inscriptions to governors and other officials, +dedications, epitaphs, &c. Sometimes a Greek version is +added.</p> + +<p>Latin inscriptions of the Republican period (recording decrees +of the Senate) are extremely rare.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill6"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill6.gif" width="600" +height="979" border="3" alt="Illustration VI: Hittite Inscriptions, +etc."></p> + +<h4>Illustration VI: Hittite Inscriptions, Etc.</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="4-2">CHAPTER IV</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>CYPRUS</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[The traveller will find the <em>Catalogue of the Cyprus +Museum</em> , by J. L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch–Richter +(Oxford, 1899) indispensable for the study of Cypriote Antiquities. +Reference may also be made to Myres, <em>Catalogue of the Cesnola +Collection of Antiquities from Cyprus</em> (New York, 1914). They +contain numerous illustrations of types, and make diagrams for the +present section unnecessary.]</p> + +<p>The principal classes of ancient remains are as follows:</p> + +<p><b>Settlements.</b> These are usually much devastated by the +removal of building materials to more recent habitations; or are +obscured by modern towns and villages on the same site. All +foundations in squared masonry, or composed of unusually large +stones, should be noted and protected as far as possible. The +frequent presence of large building stones, and especially of +architectural fragments, in recent house–walls probably +indicates the neighbourhood of an ancient building: and all +reconstructions and fresh foundation–trenches should be kept +under observation. The present Antiquity Law provides for the +inspection and custody of ancient remains so exposed: the Curator +of Ancient Monuments is charged with the supervision of all +buildings and monuments above ground; the Keeper of Antiquities for +the custody of movable objects, and for the registration of those +already in private possession. Taking into consideration the +utility of good building material to the present owners of such +sites, active co–operation to preserve ancient masonry is not +to be expected, unless local patriotism and expectation of traffic +from tourists can be enlisted in support of Government regulations. +Architectural fragments found in reconstruction are often best +preserved by arranging that they shall be built conspicuously into +one of the new walls, well above ground–level, or transferred +to the nearest church or school–house.</p> + +<p><b>Sanctuaries</b> usually consist of a walled enclosure +containing numerous pedestals and bases of votive statues and other +monuments. Usually only the foundation–walls are of stone, as +the same sun–dried brick was commonly used in ancient as in +modern times for the superstructure. Such sites are often vary +shallow, and when they occur in the open country are liable to be +disturbed by ploughing, when the smaller statuettes and +terra–cotta figures may be turned up in considerable numbers. +As most of our knowledge of the sculpture, as well as of the +religious observances, of ancient Cyprus is derived from such +sites, all such indications should be reported at once to the +Keeper of Antiquities, and arrangements made for the site to be +examined with a view to excavation before it is cultivated further. +The sculpture on these sites begins usually in the seventh century +B.C.; before that period terra–cotta figures were in use as +far back as the ninth or tenth century. Figures of 'Mixed Oriental' +style, resembling Assyrian or Egyptian work, give place about 500 +B.C. to a provincial Greek style, which passes gradually into +Hellenistic and Graeco–Roman. The material is almost +invariably the soft local limestone, and the workmanship is often +clumsy; but even the coarser examples should be treated carefully, +as they were sometimes completed in colours which are easily +destroyed by too vigorous washing. The first cleaning should be +with gently running water only.</p> + +<p><b>Tombs</b> are of all periods, and are found not only around +historical sites and actual ruins, but also in localities where the +settlement to which they belonged has wholly disappeared. Though +simple graves were always in use among the poorest folk, the +commonest form of tomb at all periods is a rock–cut chamber +entered by a door in one side, to which access is given by a shaft +or sloping passage (<em>dromos</em>) cut likewise in the rock. The +earliest are but a few feet from the surface, just deep enough to +ensure a firm roof to the chamber; later the depth is as much as 12 +or 15 feet. Occasionally the chamber, and even the passage, is +built of masonry and roofed with stone slabs or a corbel vault, and +the simple door–slab gives place to a stone door, hinged, or +sliding in a grooved frame. Cremation was occasionally practised in +the Hellenistic Age, but the regular custom was to bury the body; +during the Bronze Age in a sitting or a contracted posture, in all +later periods lying at full length. Stone coffins +(<em>sarcophagi</em>), with a lid, were used occasionally by the +rich from the sixth century onwards, and wooden coffins in the +Graeco–Roman period. There is always as rich a +tomb–equipment as the mourners could afford, of personal +ornaments, wreaths, provisions, weapons, and other gear, especially +pottery; and terra–cotta figures of men, animals, furniture, +and other objects for the use of the deceased. In +Graeco–Roman tombs pottery is supplemented or replaced by +glass vessels, and coins are frequent, and are important evidence +of date. Most of our knowledge of Cypriote arts and industries +comes from this tomb–equipment, which should therefore if +possible be preserved entire and kept together, tomb by tomb; not +neglecting the skeletons themselves, which are of value to indicate +changes in the island population. The position of tombs was often +marked by gravestones above ground; these remain scattered in the +surface soil, or collected to block the entrances to later tombs. +They are frequently inscribed. A very common form in +Greco–Roman times is the <em>cippus</em> , a short column, +like an altar.</p> + +<p><b>Pottery and other objects</b> from tombs, and also from +settlements, is classified as follows:</p> + +<p><em>Stone Age</em>: not clearly represented in Cyprus; but some +of the earliest tombs (with rude varieties of red hand–made +ware) contain no metallic objects, and may belong to the latest +neolithic period. Stone implements are very rare, and should be +carefully recorded, with a note of the spot where they were +found.</p> + +<p><em>Bronze Age, early period</em> (before 2000 B.C.): polished +red ware, hand–made, sometimes with incised ornament filled +with white powder.</p> + +<p><em>Bronze Age, middle period</em> (2000–1500 B.C.): +polished red ware, and also white hand–made ware with painted +linear ornament in dull black or brown.</p> + +<p><em>Bronze Age, late period</em> (1500–1200 B.C.): +degenerate polished red and painted white ware; wheel–made +white ware with painted ornament in glazed black or brown, of the +'Late Minoan' or 'Mycenaean' style introduced from the Aegean; +various hand–made wares of foreign styles, probably from +Syria or Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>In these periods, weapons, implements, and ornaments are of +copper (with bronze in the 'late' period); gold occurs rarely; +terra–cotta figures are few and rude; engraved seals are +cylindrical like those of Babylonia.</p> + +<p><em>Early Iron Age</em>: wheel–made pottery, either white +or bright red, with painted geometrical ornament in black +(supplemented on the white ware with purple–red); there is +also a black fabric imitating metallic forms.</p> + +<p><em>The early period</em> (1200–1000 B.C.) marks the +transition from bronze to iron implements, with survival of +Mycenaean decoration on the pottery, and replacement of cylindrical +by conical seals.</p> + +<p><em>The middle period</em> (1000–750 B.C.) has purely +geometrical decoration: terra–cotta figures are modelled +rudely by hand, and painted like the pottery.</p> + +<p><em>The late period</em> (750–500 B.C.) shows foreign +influences from Greece and from Phoenicia or Egypt, competing with +and enriching the native geometrical style. Scarab seals, +blue–glaze beads, and other personal ornaments, and silver +objects, appear. Terra–cotta figures stamped in a mould occur +side by side with modelled.</p> + +<p><em>Hellenic Age</em>, with increasing influence of Greek arts +and industries.</p> + +<p><em>Early or Hellenic period</em> (500–300 B.C.): the +native pottery degenerates, and Greek vases and terra–cottas +are imported and imitated; jewellery of gold and silver is fairly +common and of good quality; with engraved seals set in signet +rings: the bronze mirrors are circular, with a +handle–spike.</p> + +<p><em>Middle or Hellenistic period</em> (300–50 B.C.): the +native pottery is almost wholly replaced by imitations of forms +from other parts of the Greek world, especially from Syria and Asia +Minor: large handled wine–jars ( <em>amphorae</em> ) are +common: terra–cottas and jewellery also follow Greek styles: +coloured stones are set in rings and ear–rings.</p> + +<p><em>Late or Graeco–Roman period</em> (50 B.C.–A.D. +400): pottery is partly replaced by vessels of blown glass: clay +lamps, red–glazed jugs, so called 'tear–bottles' of +spindle–shapes, ear–rings of beads strung on wire, +bronze rings and bracelets, circular mirrors without handles, and +bronze coins are characteristics.</p> + +<p><em>Byzantine Age</em> (after A.D. 400): Christian burial in +surface graves supersedes the use of rock–hewn tombs: +funerary equipment goes out of use, except a few personal +ornaments, which are of mean appearance, and may bear Christian +symbols. Domestic pottery is coarse, ungraceful, and frequently +ribbed on the outside. Clay lamps have long nozzles, and Christian +symbols. Glass becomes clumsy and less common; and glazed bowls and +cups come into use. Occasional rich finds of silver plate (salvers, +cups, spoons, &c.) and personal ornaments, have been made among +Byzantine ruins.</p> + +<p>On mediaeval and later sites, various glazed fabrics of pottery +are found, and occasionally examples of the glazed and painted +jugs, plates, and tiles known to collectors as 'Rhodian' or +'Damascus' ware.</p> + +<p><b>Inscriptions</b> occur on settlement–sites, in +sanctuaries and associated with tombs: usually cut on slabs or +blocks of soft limestone, though marble and other harder stones +were used in Hellenistic and Roman times. Besides the ordinary +Greek (see <a href="#ill4">Illustration IV</a>), and Roman alphabets +the Phoenician +alphabet (see <a href="#ill10">Illustrations X</a> and <a +href="#ill11">XI</a>) was in use at Kition +(Larnaca), in the great sanctuaries at Idalion (Dali), and +occasionally elsewhere; and from early times until the fourth +century a syllabary peculiar to Cyprus, often very rudely hewn, in +irregular lines, on ill–shaped blocks. Such 'Cypriote +inscriptions' (see accompanying <a href="#ill7">Illustration VII</a>) +are of great +value and interest, and have been often overlooked among building +material drawn from old sites. In all doubtful cases, a 'squeeze' +should be made by one of the methods described in the first part of +this volume and submitted to the Keeper of Antiquities. The stamped +inscriptions on the handles of wine–jars are worth +preserving, as evidence for the course of trade.</p> + +<p><b>Coins</b> were issued in Cyprus from the sixth century +onward; first in silver; later (in the fourth century B.C.) +occasionally in gold, and from the fourth century commonly in +copper. A Ptolemaic coinage succeeded in the third century that of +the local rulers; the Roman coinage, with inscriptions sometimes in +Greek, sometimes in Latin, lasts from Augustus to the beginning of +the third century. Coins of the Byzantine Emperors and of the +Lusignan Kings are common.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill7"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill7.gif" width="650" +height="198" border="3" alt="Illustration VII: Bilingual (Greek and +Cypriote) Dedication to Demeter and Persephone from Curium"> +</p> + +<h4>Illustration VII: Bilingual (Greek And Cypriote) Dedication to +Demeter and Persephone from Curium</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="5-2">CHAPTER V</a></h2> + +<br> +<h3>CENTRAL AND NORTH SYRIA</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[See the diagrams of flint implements, <a +href="#ill2">Illustration II</a>; of +pottery and weapons, &c., <a href="#ill8">VIII</a> & <a +href="#ill9">IX</a>; of alphabets, <a href="#ill10">X</a> & <a +href="#ill11">XI</a>.]</p> + +<p>The following notes are to be accepted as only a rough and +imperfect guide, since no part of Syria, north of Palestine, has +been widely or minutely explored, and the archaeology of the +earliest period, in Central Syria, for example, is almost +unknown.</p> + +<p>The periods into which the archaeological history of Syria +should be divided are roughly, as follows:</p> + +<p> I. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Age, to +about 2000 B.C.<br> + II. Bronze Age or Early Hittite, to about 1100 +B.C.<br> + III. Iron Age or Late Hittite, to about 550 B.C.<br> + IV. Persian Period, to about 330 B.C.<br> + V. Hellenistic Period, to about 100 +B.C.<br> + VI. Roman Period.<br> + VII. Byzantine Period.</p> + +<p class= "centclass">I. <em>Neolithic.</em></p> + +<p>No purely Neolithic sites yet known, but lowest strata of +remains at Sakjegözu and Sinjerli, on the Carchemish citadel, and +in certain kilns at Yunus near by, and also pot–burials among +house remains are of this Age. (But see Chapter VIII, Mesopotamia, +whose Neolithic period is similar.)</p> + +<p><b>Stone implements:</b> as in Greece, including obsidian of +very clear texture, probably of inner Asiatic, not Aegean +production. Bone needles and other implements.</p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b> Four varieties have been observed: (1) buff +ground with simple linear decoration applied direct on the gritty +body–clay in lustreless pigments, black, +chocolate–brown, or red, according to the firing; (2) +greenish–buff face, hand–polished, with polychrome +varnish decoration of vandykes and other geometric motives; (3) +monochrome, black to grey, not burnished, but sometimes decorated +with incised linear patterns; (4) plain red or buff (e.g. large +urns in which Neolithic burials were found on the Carchemish +citadel). All pottery hand–made.</p> + +<p><em>Figurines</em> : rude clay and stone figurines are likely to +occur, but have as yet been found very rarely in Neolithic +strata.</p> + +<p><em>Copper implements</em>: traces observed at Carchemish: to be +looked for.</p> + +<p class= "centclass">II. <em>Bronze Age (Early Hittite).</em></p> + +<p>(a) Early period to about 1500 B.C. Cist–graves made of +rough stone slabs, near crude brick houses. Conjunction of such +slabs with bricks would be an indication of an early Bronze Age +site. Rare pot–burials survive.</p> + +<p><b>Implements.</b> Spear–heads of long tapering form +rounded sharply at the base which has long tang (<a +href="#ill9">IX</a>, Fig. 5): +poker–like butts (<a href="#ill9">IX</a>, Fig. 2): knives with +curved tangs: +'toggle' pins: all bronze (but a silver toggle–pin has been +found) (<a href="#ill9">IX</a>, Figs. 1,8).</p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b> All wheel–made but rough: light red or +buff faced of reddish clay: decoration rare and only in simple +zigzags or waves in reddish–brown pigment: long–stemmed +vases of 'champagne–glass' form are common (<a +href="#ill8">VIII</a>, Fig. 4): +rarely a creamy slip is applied to the red clay.</p> + +<p>(b) <em>Later period.</em> Cist–graves apart from houses, +in cemeteries.</p> + +<p><b>Implements.</b> Long narrow celts often riveted: +spear–heads, leaf–shaped or triangular (<a +href="#ill9">IX</a>, Figs. 3, 6, +10): axe–heads with socket, swelling blade and curved cutting +edge: pins both 'toggle' and unpierced, straight and bent over.</p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b> Wheel–made, well potted, and commonly +<em>ring–burnished</em>, the process beginning at the base of +a vase and climbing spirally: little painted decoration: face +usually dusky brown over pinkish body clay, but red and +yellow–white faced wares also found: shapes, mostly bowls, +open and half closed: ring feet, but no handles to vases: only +occasionally lug–ears (<a href="#ill9">IX</a>, Figs. +1,2,3,5,6). Rims well turned +over belong to the latest period, in which elaborate +<em>ring–burnishing</em> is common.</p> + +<p><b>Beads, &c.</b> Diamond–shaped, with incised +decoration, in clay or stone, common. Pendants, &c., of shell, +lapis lazuli, cornelian, crystal. Cylinders, of rude design like +Babylonian First Dynasty, in stone and bone. Spindle–whorls +in steatite and clay.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill8"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill8.gif" width="700" +height="1077" border="3" alt="Illustration VIII: Syrian Pottery"></p> + +<h4>Illustration VIII: Syrian Pottery</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<p class= "centclass">III. <em>Iron Age (Late Hittite).</em></p> + +<p>To this belong the mass of 'Hittite' remains in Syria. Graves +are unlined pits, with urn burials, the corpse having been +cremated. Cylinders, &c., showing traces of fire, will belong +to this Age.</p> + +<p><b>Implements and weapons.</b> Arrow–heads of bronze: +spear–heads of bronze and iron: axes, knives, and picks of +iron (miniature models occur in graves): daggers of iron. +<em>Fibulae</em> , of bronze, semicircular and triangular (as in +Asia Minor) (<a href="#ill9">IX</a>, Figs. 4, 9, 11): plain armlets +of bronze: pins, +spatulae, &c., of bronze: thin appliqué ornaments. Bronze bowls +(gilt) with gadroon or lotus ornament (moulded) in later period. +Steatite censers, in form of a cup held by a human hand, are not +uncommon (<a href="#ill9">IX</a>, Fig. 7).</p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b> Tall narrow–mouthed urns, +bath–shaped vessels, and bell–kraters common (<a +href="#ill8">VIII</a>, +Fig. 10): trefoil–mouth <em>oenochoae</em> and +<em>hydriae</em> ; also <em>amphorae</em> (<a href="#ill8">VIII</a>, +Fig. 7).</p> + +<p>In earlier period, white or drab slipped surface with geometric +patterns (rarely rude birds) in black. In later period, pinkish +glaze with geometric patterns in black–brown, concentric +circles being a common motive. Tripod bowls in unslipped 'kitchen' +ware (<a href="#ill8">VIII</a>, Fig. 8). Blue or greenish glazed +albarelli, with white, +brown, or yellow bands, occur (as in Rhodes).</p> + +<p><b>Figurines.</b> Drab clay, painted with red or black bands and +details. Two types: (a) Horsemen; (b) Goddesses of columnar shape, +often with flower headdresses, and sometimes carrying a child.</p> + +<p><b>Seals, &c.</b> Scarabs with designs of Egyptian +appearance: cylinders, steatite or (more commonly) glazed paste, +lightly and often scratchily engraved: hard stone seals finely +engraved: flattened spheroids in steatite with Hittite symbols on +both faces, inscriptions being often garbled.</p> + +<p><b>Inscriptions.</b> Most of those in <b>Hittite</b> script, +both relieved and incised, found in Syria, are of this Age, but +chiefly of the earlier part of it (cf. <a href="#ill6">Illustration +VI</a>). Those in +<b>Semitic</b> characters begin in this Age; and to its later part +(8th–7th cents.) belong important Aramaic inscriptions, e.g. +the Bar–Rekub monuments of Sinjerli (Shamal). See tables of +letter–forms appended to Palestine section, <a +href="#ill10">Illustrations X</a> +& <a href="#ill11">XI</a>.</p> + +<p class= "centclass">IV. Persian Period.</p> + +<p> Imported Egyptian and Egypto–Phoenician objects +(bronze bowls as in Age III: scarabs: figure–amulets), +Rhodian (pottery), Attic (coins, small black–figure vases, +&c.).</p> + +<p><b>Weapons and implements.</b> Iron. Long swords: spearheads, +socketed, often with square or diamond mid–rib: short +double–edged daggers with round pommels: chapes (bronze) with +moulded or beaten relief–work: knives, small and slightly +curved: arrow–heads (usually bronze and triangular): +horse– bits (usually bronze) with heavy knobbed +side–bars: ear–rings, wire armlets and pins (generally +plain) of bronze: <em>fibulae</em> as in Age III: circular mirrors, +plain, of bronze: anklets of heavy bronze: kohl–pots, bronze, +of hollow cylindrical form, with plain sticks.</p> + +<p><b>Pottery.</b> As in Age II, plain, polished, rarely +ring–burnished, but of less careful workmanship (<a +href="#ill8">VIII</a>, Fig. +9.) Glazed albarelli, 'pilgrim–bottles', aryballi, &c., +(as in Age III) common. White–yellow slipped ware with bands +of black survives rarely from Age III.</p> + +<p><b>Stone vessels.</b> Bowls on inverted cup–shaped feet +not uncommon (<a href="#ill8">VIII</a>, Fig. 11).</p> + +<p><b>Beads and seals.</b> Eye–beads in mosaic glass, and +other glass beads (hard stone and bronze more rarely): conoid seals +in hard crystalline stones, usually engraved with figure praying to +the Moon–god: also soft stone, glass and paste conoids. +Scarabs and scaraboids in paste. Cylinders become scarce.</p> + +<p class= "centclass">V. <em>Hellenistic.</em> VI. <em>Roman.</em> VII. +<em>Byzantine.</em></p> + +<p>Most of the characteristic Syrian products of all these Periods +do not differ materially from those found in other East +Mediterranean lands, e.g. Greece and Asia Minor. The change to +Persian (Sassanian) types comes in the late seventh century +A.D.</p> + +<p>Two classes of objects, examples of the first of which are +mostly of Age III, but may be Persian, Hellenistic, or even Roman, +are very commonly met with in Syria:</p> + +<p><b>1. Figurines,</b> single or in pairs or threes, of bronze or +terra–cotta, representing cult–types. Most common is a +standing god with peaked cap, short tunic, and arm raised in act of +smiting: a seated goddess also common: figures of animals, +especially a bull; and phallic objects (these mainly Roman).</p> + +<p><b>2. Glass</b> plain (iridescent from decay), ribbed, or +moulded, in great variety of forms–bowls, jugs, cups, &c. +Mostly late Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine, and especially +common and of fine quality in the Orontes valley.</p> + +<p>Parti–coloured glass (with white or yellow bands and +threads) is earlier (Persian Period). Painted and enamelled glass +with gilt or polychrome designs is later (ninth to fifteenth +century, Arab).</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill9"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill9.gif" width="600" +height="945" border="3" alt="Illustration IX: Syrian Weapons, +etc."></p> + +<h4>Illustration IX: Syrian Weapons, etc.</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="6-2">CHAPTER VI</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>PALESTINE</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[See the diagrams of flint implements, <a +href="#ill2">Illustrations II</a>; +pottery, <a href="#ill12">XII</a>; alphabets, <a +href="#ill14">XIV</a> & <a href="#ill15">XV</a>.]</p> + +<h4>I. General Principles.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>1. Study of the <b>pottery</b> of the country, not merely from +books but from actual specimens, is an absolutely essential +preliminary. Without an acquaintance with this branch of +Palestinian archaeology, so thorough that any sherd presenting the +least character can be immediately assigned to its proper period, +no field research of any value can be carried out. (See further V +below.)</p> + +<p>2. A knowledge of the various Semitic alphabets is necessary for +copying inscriptions. Unless the traveller be also acquainted with +the languages he had better be cautious about copying Semitic +inscriptions; without such knowledge he runs the risk of confusing +different Semitic letters, which often closely resemble one +another. He should, however, be able to make squeezes and +photographs.</p> + +<p>The following are the languages and scripts which may be found +in Palestinian Epigraphy.</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" +width="450" summary="Languages and Scripts which may be found in +Palestinian Epigraphy"> +<tr> +<td>Egyptian, in Hieroglyphics.</td> +<td>Greek</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Babylonian Cuneiform.</td> +<td>Latin.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Assyrian Cuneiform.</td> +<td>Arabic, in Cufic script</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Hebrew, in ancient script.</td> +<td>Arabic, in modern script.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap">Hebrew, in square +character. </td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="4">Armenian (in mosaic pavements, + also graffiti in Church of Holy Sepulchre).</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Phoenician.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Moabite.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>Aramaic.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Tables of the chief alphabetic and numeral forms of the West +Semitic scripts are given in <a href="#ill10">Illustrations X</a> +& <a href="#ill11">XI</a>; for the +Greek, see <a href="#ill4">Illustration IV</a>.</p> + +<p>3. The traveller should have had practice in making measured +drawings<br> +of buildings.</p> + +<p>4. For some branches of work a good knowledge of Arabic is<br> +indispensable—not the miserable pidgin jargon usually spoken +by Europeans, nor yet the highly complex literary language, which +is unintelligible to the ordinary native, but the colloquial of the +country, spoken grammatically and properly pronounced. Work done +through dragomans is never entirely satisfactory, because it +requires the unattainable condition that the dragoman should be as +much a scientific student of anthropology and of archaeology as the +traveller himself.</p> + +<p>5. The student for whom these pages are written should not +attempt any excavation, unless he has been trained under a +practical excavator, and has learnt how work, which is essentially +and inevitably destructive of evidence, can be made to yield +profitable fruit. There is plenty of work that can be done on the +surface of the ground without excavation.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill10"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill10.gif" width="621" +height="1071" border="3" alt="Illustration X: Table of West Semitic +Alphabets"></p> + +<h4>Illustration X: Table of West Semitic Alphabets</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<a name="ill11"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill11.gif" width="300" +height="757" border="3" alt="Illustration XI: Table of West Semitic +Numerals"></p> + +<h4>Illustration XI: Table of West Semitic Numerals</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<h4>II. Sites of Towns and Villages.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>1. <b>Nomenclature.</b> The sites of ancient towns and villages +are usually conspicuous in Palestine, and are recognized in the +local nomenclature. They are denoted by the words <em>tall</em> , +plural <em>tulûl</em> , meaning 'mound', and <em>khirbah</em> , +plural <em>khirab</em> meaning 'ruin'. These words are commonly +spelt in English <em>tell</em> and <em>khirbet</em> (less correctly +<em>khurbet</em> ) and we use these more familiar forms here. As a +rule, though not invariably, the sense of these terms is +distinguished. A tell is a site represented by a mound of +stratified accumulation, the result of occupation extending over +many centuries, and easily recognizable among natural hillocks by +its regular shape, smooth sides, and flat top. A khirbet is a field +of ruins in which there is little or no stratification. Nearly all +the sites of the latter type are the remains of villages not older +than the Byzantine or Roman period.</p> + +<p>2. <b>Identification of ancient sites.</b> This is a task less +easy than it appears to be, and many of the current identifications +of Biblical sites call for revision. Similarity of name, on which +most of these identifications depend, is apt to be misleading; in +many cases sites identified thus with Old Testament places are not +older than the Byzantine Period. [1] This similarity of name may +sometimes be a mere accident; it may also sometimes be accounted +for by a transference of site, the inhabitants having for some +special reason moved their town to a new situation. In such cases +the tell representing the older site may perhaps await +identification in the neighbourhood. In attempting to establish +identifications, the date of the site, as determined from the +potsherds, and its suitability to the recorded history of the +ancient site in question, are elements of equal importance with its +name.</p> + +<p><small>[1] An example is Khirbet Teku'a, long identified with +the Biblical Tekoa.</small></p> + +<p>Note: The traveller should be cautioned against embarking on the +study of place–names, identification of scriptural sites, +&c., before mastering the principles of Arabic phonetics. Many +of the attempts made at rendering the names of Palestinian +place–names in European books are simply grotesque. The +following are the chief pitfalls:</p> + +<p><small> (1) Confusion of the vowels, the pronunciation of +which is obscure.<br> + (2) The consonant <em>'ain</em> , to which the untrained +European ear is deaf, and which in consequence is often omitted. +Less frequently it may be over–conscientiously inserted in a +place where it does not exist. Sometimes the <em>'ain</em> and its +associated vowel are transposed (as <em>M'alula</em> for +<em>Ma'lula</em> ) making unpronounceable combinations of +consonants.<br> + (3) The letter <em>kaf</em> , often dropped in pronunciation, +and therefore often omitted.<br> + (4) The letter <em>ghain</em> , which an unaccustomed ear +confuses with either <em>g</em> or <em>r</em><br> + (5) The reduplicated letters, which a European is apt to +hear and to write as single.<br> + (6) The nuances between the different <em>d</em> , <em>h</em> +, <em>k</em> , <em>t</em> , and <em>s</em> sounds.</small></p> + +<p><b>3. Surface–exploration of a tell.</b> The +stratification can rarely be studied on the surface only: +superficial indications of this are obscured by the plough, +weather, vegetation, and the activities of modern natives who grub +for building–stone and for the chance of buried treasure. +Only by trenching can the strata be exposed. An exception to this +rule is afforded by <em>Tell el–Hesy</em> (Lachish) explored +by Dr. Petrie in 1890–1: here the erosion of a stream had +exposed enough of the strata for a reconnaissance. In the majority +of cases the most that a visitor can hope to do is to pick up stray +antiquities on the surface of the ground, and ascertain therefrom +the limits of date.</p> + +<p>The chief clue is afforded by the pottery (see below, V), sherds +of which, large and small, are strewn in considerable numbers on +every ancient site. Scarabs, seals, bronze implements, iron +fragments, beads, bone ornaments, and the like may also be noticed. +A trained eye is essential even for such surface finds: one man may +walk over a mound and find nothing, another may walk in his steps +and gather quite an interesting harvest of small objects.</p> + +<p>Surface indications of buried buildings (or rather foundations) +may be noted both on the top and on the sides of a tell. Lines of +wall may not infrequently be traced. Often the vegetation growing +on the surface indicates the presence of structures underneath +(either by burnt–up patches amid luxuriant growths, or vice +versa).</p> + +<p><b>4. Surface exploration of a khirbet.</b> The task here is, +generally sneaking, simpler. In a khirbet there is usually no great +depth of accumulation; indeed, the bare rock frequently crops up in +the middle of such a site. There is, therefore, as a rule only one +historical period represented. Potsherds, coins (Roman, Jewish, +Byzantine, early Islamic, sometimes Crusader), tesserae of mosaic +pavements, fragments of iron nails, beads, minute metal ornaments +(as bronze wire finger–rings) are to be picked up on khirbet +sites.</p> + +<p>The remains of walls are usually more easily traceable in +khirbet than in tell sites, though much damage has been done by +quarrying for modern buildings. These walls should be carefully +examined: buildings other than mere houses (churches, synagogues, +baths) may sometimes be detected. Cisterns should be noted. Some of +these are not very obvious and the traveller should be on his guard +against falling into them.</p> + +<p>All stones should be examined, as there is a chance of finding +inscriptions.</p> + +<p>5. In all work on ancient sites the investigator must make a +point of noting everything, irrespective of its apparent +importance, and of carefully training a critical judgement in +interpreting his observations. It is impossible to lay down general +principles that govern every case completely: every site presents +its own individual problems.</p> + +<h4>III. Rock–cut Tombs.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>1. All Palestine is honeycombed with rock–cut tombs, which +form a fascinating and inexhaustible field of study. Unfortunately +all that are in the least degree visible have long ago been rifled, +and in recent years those pests, the curio–hunting tourists, +have done incalculable harm by stimulating the native +tomb–robber and dealer.</p> + +<p>2. The explorer of rock–cut tombs must be indifferent to +mud, damp, evil smells, noxious insects, and other discomforts, and +he must be prepared to squeeze through very narrow passages, much +clogged with earth. He is recommended to be on his guard against +scorpions and snakes.</p> + +<p>3. A plan and vertical section of the tomb should be drawn. The +measurements should be taken carefully, not only for the sake of +the accuracy of the plan, but also for metrological purposes.</p> + +<p>4. The rock outside the entrance of the tomb–chamber +should be examined. It often shows rebating or other cutting, +designed to receive the foundations of a masonry mausoleum +(resembling in general style the rock–hewn monuments in the +Kedron Valley at Jerusalem). As a rule such structures have been +entirely destroyed for the sake of their stones.</p> + +<p>5. The tool–marks of the tomb–quarriers should be +examined, as they sometimes reveal interesting technical +points.</p> + +<p>6. Every inch of the surface of the excavation, inside and out, +must be examined for ornaments, symbols, or inscriptions. These may +be either cut or painted, and often are very inconspicuous. +Ornaments are usually floral in type, though in late tombs +figure–subjects are occasionally to be found. Symbols are +either Jewish (the seven– branched candlestick) or Christian +(the cross, A–Ω, or the like). Inscriptions are not +necessarily formally cut: they are sometimes mere scratched +graffiti, which would be sure to escape notice unless carefully +looked for (as in the so–called 'Tombs of the Prophets' on +the Mount of Olives).</p> + +<p><b>7. Dating of tombs.</b> The savage rifling to which +Palestinian tombs have been subjected has much reduced the material +available for dating them. The following general principles apply +to Southern Palestine: those in Northern Palestine and Syria still +await a more exact study:</p> + +<p>The earliest tombs known in the country were mere natural caves, +into which the dead were cast, often very unceremoniously.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Second Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> +1800–1400 B.C.) hewn chambers began to be used. These are in +the form of cylindrical shafts with a doorway at the bottom leading +sideways into the burial–chamber. Natural caves are still +frequently used.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Third Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> +1400–1000 B.C.) the shaft: form disappears and an artificial +cave, rudely hewn out, takes its place. The entrance is in the side +of the chamber, though not necessarily at the level of the floor. +Rude shelves for the reception of the bodies are sometimes, but not +always, cut in the sides of the chamber.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Fourth Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> +1000–550 B.C.) the tomb–chambers are of the same kind, +but are as a rule smaller.</p> + +<p>In Southern Palestine the well–made tomb–chambers, +such as are to be seen in great numbers around Jerusalem, are all +post–exilic. There is an immense variety in plan, some tombs +being single chambers, others complications of several chambers. +The late excavation absurdly called the 'Tombs of the Kings' at +Jerusalem is quite a labyrinth of rockcut chambers. In exploring +such a structure a careful search should be made for devices for +deluding thieves: special precautions are sometimes taken to +conceal the entrance to inner groups of chambers. There are some +interesting examples of this in the cemetery in the <em>Wadi +er–Rababi</em>, south of Jerusalem. However, all tombs of +this period fall into two groups, <em>kõk</em> tombs and +<em>arcosolium</em> tombs. In the former the receptacles for bodies +are of the kind known by the Hebrew name <em>kõkîm</em> +—shafts, of a size to accommodate one body (sometimes large +enough for two or three) driven horizontally into the wall of the +chamber. In the normal <em>kõk</em> tomb–chamber there are +nine <em>kõkîm</em> , three in each wall except the wall containing +the entrance doorway. But there are many other arrangements. In the +'Tombs of the Judges' there is a double row of <em>kõkîm</em> in +the entrance chamber. The explorer should not forget that a +<em>kõk</em> sometimes contains a secret entrance to further +chambers at its inner end. In <em>arcosolium</em> tombs the +receptacles are benches cut in the wall, like the berths in a +steamer's cabin. These are sometimes sunk, so as to resemble +rock–cut sarcophagi.</p> + +<p>The late tombs round Jerusalem are in the form of caves driven +horizontally into the hill–sides. Further south, e.g. in the +region round Beit Jibrin, they are more frequently sunk vertically, +the entrance being in the roof of the burial chamber, or approached +by a square shaft (a reversion to the Second Semitic form, except +that these latter have <em>round</em> shafts).</p> + +<h4>IV. Caves.</h4> + +<p>The history of the artificial caves hewn in the soft limestone +of Palestine, is quite unknown. The caves of the neighbourhood of +Beit Jibrin provide ample material for several months' +exploration.</p> + +<p>Though the caves are labyrinthine there is little fear of an +explorer losing his way: he should, however, be well provided with +lights, as it would be extremely awkward to be left in the +innermost recess of a cave consisting of ten or a dozen chambers +united by narrow creep– passages, without adequate +illumination. There are occasionally unexpected and dangerous +pitfalls: and hyenas and serpents often shelter in the caves. The +present writer has explored many of them entirely alone, but this +is, on the whole, not to be recommended.</p> + +<p>Besides planning the cave, its walls should be searched for +inscriptions, &c. It should be remembered, however, that these +may have been added at any time and do not necessarily belong to +the original excavation. Symbols, apparently of a phallic nature, +are sometimes cut on the walls, as well as crosses and other +Christian devices, and Cufic inscriptions. Frequently the walls are +pitted with the loculi of a columbarium, which, however, appear to +be too small to receive cinerary urns and must be intended for some +other purpose.</p> + +<h4>V. Pottery.</h4> + +<p> Owing to the importance of the subject a special section +on Pottery is given here, and the two accompanying plates (<a +href="#ill12">XII</a>) +show some of the commonest types of vessels. But the student cannot +learn all he will need to know of Palestinian pottery from a few +pages of print. A representative series of specimens will be found +in the Jerusalem Museum: he may supplement his study of these by +the perusal of reports on excavations, such as Petrie, <em>Tell +el–Hesy</em> (pp. 40–50); Bliss, <em>A Mound of Many +Cities</em> (passim); <em>Excavations in Palestine</em> (pp. +71–141); Macalister, <em>Excavation of Gezer</em> (vol. ii, +pp. 128–239; and plates); Sellin, <em>Jericho</em> ; +Schumacher, <em>Tell el–Mutasellim</em></p> + +<p><em>Pre–Semitic Period</em> (down to <em>circa.</em> 2000 +B.C.). Ware hand–modelled, without wheel, coarse, gritty, and +generally soft–baked and very porous. The section of a clean +fracture is usually of a dirty yellowish colour, resembling in +appearance coarse oatmeal porridge. Bases usually flat, +loop–handles or wavy handles on the bodies of the vessels: +mouths wide and lips curved outward. The body of the vessel often +decorated with drip lines or with a criss–cross, in red +paint.</p> + +<p><em>First Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> 2000–1800 +B.C.). Similar to the last: but the potter's wheel is used, and +horizontal painted and moulded rope–like ornament also found. +Combed ornament and burnished lines frequent.</p> + +<p><em>Second Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> 1800–1400 +B.C.). During this period imports from Egypt, Crete, the Aegean +Sea, and especially Cyprus were common, and potsherds originating +in those countries are frequently to be picked up: also local +imitations of these foreign wares. The ware of this period is on +the whole well– refined and well–modelled: the most +graceful shapes, in jugs and bowls, belong to it. Elaborate +polychrome decoration, including figures of birds. But little +moulded ornament.</p> + +<p><em>Third Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> 1400–1000 +B.C.). The same foreign influences are traceable, but rather as +reminiscent local imitations than as direct imports. Late Minoan +[Mycenaean] sherds are, however, frequent. The shapes of vessels +are less artistic than in the preceding period: the painted +ornament is also degenerated, being traced in wiry lines rather +than in the bold wash of the preceding period.</p> + +<p><em>Fourth Semitic Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> 1000–550 +B.C.). Late Cypriote imports. The local ware very poor, coarse, +gritty, inartistic. No painted ornament except mere lines: clumsy +moulded ornament frequent.</p> + +<p><em>Post–Exilic and Hellenistic Period</em> +(<em>circa.</em> 550–100 B.C.). Imports from Greece (sometimes +fragments of black or red figured vases, or lekythoi) and from the +Aegean Islands (especially wine–jars from Rhodes: stamped +handles of such are frequent). The native ware is easily +recognizable by its smoothness and hardness; when struck with a +stick a sherd emits a musical clink. The vessels are very fair +imitations of classical models, occasionally with painted ornament, +but more frequently moulded.</p> + +<p><em>Roman and Byzantine Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> 100 +B.C.–A.D. 600). The unmistakable character of the ware of +this period is the ribbed surface, with which nearly all vessels +are decorated. Fragments of ribbed pottery are strewn almost over +all Palestine. Ornament consisting of repeated impressions of +stamps now begins to appear. Lamps with decoration, inscriptions, +Christian or Jewish symbols common. Glass vessels also +frequent.</p> + +<p><em>Arab Period</em> (<em>circa.</em> A.D. 600 onwards). The +early Arab ware often bears painted decoration singularly like that +on Second and Third Semitic pottery, but a fatty soapy texture +characterizes the Arab ware, which is absent from the earlier +sherds. There is likewise a complete absence of representation of +natural forms (birds and the like). In or about the Crusader period +the use of ornamental glaze makes its appearance.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill12"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill12.gif" width="700" +height="567" border="0" alt="Illustration XII: Palestinian Pottery +Types."></p> + +<h4>Illustration XII: Palestinian Pottery Types.</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<h4>VI. Sanctuaries.</h4> + +<p>The hill–top shrines, now consecrated to saints of Islam, +are doubtless in origin ancient Canaanite high places. There is +here a rich but a very difficult field for investigation. The +difficulty lies in (a) gaining the confidence of those to whom the +sanctuaries are holy, and (b) guarding against wilful or +unconscious deception. Only long residence and frequent +intercourse, with the Muslim population will make it possible for +any one to obtain really trustworthy information as to the +traditions or the sites of these ancient sanctuaries. A knowledge +of Arabic is essential for a study of the sites themselves, as +there are frequently inscriptions cut or painted on the walls which +should be studied. The casual traveller cannot hope to carry out +researches of any value on these ancient sites.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the buildings are Crusaders' churches transformed. The +one really certain fact as to masonry dressing in Palestine may +here conveniently be noticed—that Crusader structures are +built of well–squared stones with a plane surface finished +off with a dressing consisting of very fine diagonal lines. Once +seen, this masonry dressing is absolutely unmistakable.</p> + +<p>Buildings thus identified as Crusader should be examined for +masons' marks.</p> + +<h4>VII. Miscellaneous.</h4> + +<p> The following are some other types of ancient remains with +which the traveller may meet almost anywhere in Palestine:</p> + +<p>(1) Prehistoric (Stone Age) sites. Marked by being strewn with +flint implements and chips: see a fine collection in the Museum of +the Assumptionists (Notre–Dame de France) at Jerusalem. +Specimens should be collected and the site mapped.</p> + +<p>(2) Dolmens. Frequent east of Jordan; rare, though not unknown, +in Western Palestine. Should be measured, photographed, described, +and mapped.</p> + +<p>(3) Rock–cuttings of various kinds, which should be +measured, planned, and mapped. Among these the commonest are:<br> + (a) Cisterns (usually bottle–shaped, a narrow +neck expanding below).<br> + (b) Cup–markings, common everywhere. Often +associated with cisterns.<br> + (c) Wine and olive presses: there is a great variety in +form, but they generally consist of two essential parts—a +shallow <em>pressing–vat</em> on which the fruit was +crushed, and a deeper <em>receiving–vat</em> in which the +expressed juice was collected. The vats are often lined with cement +containing datable potsherds, and are sometimes paved with mosaic +tesserae.<br> + (d) Quarries.</p> + +<p>(4) Sacred trees and bushes, recognized by the rags with which +they are festooned. Should be photographed and mapped, and their +legends ascertained, subject to the cautions given above under the +head of Sanctuaries.</p> + +<p>(5) Castles and churches, usually of the Crusader period: early +Saracenic buildings. Should be recorded by means of plans, +photographs, measured drawings, and written descriptions.</p> + +<p>(6) Mosaic pavements, usually belonging to Byzantine buildings; +should be recorded by means of coloured drawings.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="7-2">CHAPTER VII</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>EGYPT</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[See the diagrams of flint implements, <a +href="#ill2">Illustration II</a>; pottery, +<a href="#ill13">Illustration XIII</a>; and the table of hieroglyphic +signs liable to be +confused with each other, <a href="#ill1">Illustration I</a>]</p> + +<p><em>First Prehistoric Age</em> , 8000?–7000? B.C. +Cemeteries of round or oval pits on the desert; no towns known. Red +faced pottery, often with lustrous black top, earliest with +patterns of white slip lines: all hand–made. Block figures of +ivory or paste. Combs with long teeth and animal tops.</p> + +<p><em>Second Prehistoric Age</em> , 7000?–5500 B.C. Graves, +square pits. Red faced, and much coarse brown pottery. Buff with +red painting of cordage, spirals, and ships. Pot forms copied from +stone. Some pots globular with wavy ledge handles, changing to +cylinders with wavy band. Slate palettes in all prehistoric +periods.</p> + +<p><em>Early Dynasties</em> , 5500–4700 B.C. Towns and +cemeteries. Great mastabas of brick. Wooden coffins begin. Great +jars; hard, wheel–made pottery. Glazed tiles, &c. Stone +bowls common. Cylinder sealings on clay.</p> + +<p><em>Pyramid Period, IV–Vl Dynasties</em> , 4700–4000 +B.C. Sculptured stone tomb–chapels. Diorite bowls. Thick +brown pot offering bowls. Limestone statues, painted. Cornelian +amulets in strings.</p> + +<p><em>Vl–XI Dynasties</em> , 4200–3600 B.C. Copper +mirrors begin. Buttons, wide face, un–Egyptian work. Pottery +models of houses placed on grave edge.</p> + +<p><em>Middle Kingdom, Xll–XIII Dynasties</em> , +3600–2900 B.C. Brick pyramids. Large rock tomb–chapels, +painted. Hard drab pottery. Alabaster kohl–pots, good forms. +Globular beads, large; cornelian, amethyst, and green glaze. Scroll +pattern scarabs.</p> + +<p><em>XIV–XVII Dynasties</em> 2900–1600 B.C. Small +flasks with handles, black with pricked patterns. Coarsely cut +scarabs. Shell beads.</p> + +<p><em>New Kingdom XVIII–XXI Dynasties</em> , 1587–952 +B.C. Small painted tombs. Pottery, red face black edge to 1500; +buff, red and black lines to 1400; blue bands 1400–1200. Hard +polished drab, about 1400–1350. Glass beads, &c., +abundant 1400–1300. Glaze deep blue 1500, brilliant blue +1400, poor blue 1300, green 1200: deep blue ushabtis 1100, pale and +rough 1000. Ushabtis, stone or wood engraved 1550–1450, +pottery 1450 to very coarse 1250, wood very coarse by 1250; glazed +fine 1300, decline to small rough lumps 800. Beads, minute coloured +glaze and stone to 1450, thin discs 1450–1350, coloured +pastes red and blue 1450 to 1300, yellow glass mainly 1300– +1200, poor glaze after 1200. Alabaster kohl–pots, clumsy +forms to 1450; tubes of stone, glaze, wood, or reed +1450–1200.</p> + +<p><em>Bubastites, XXII–XXV Dynasties</em> , 950–664 +B.C. Clumsy large jars, widening to bottom, small handles. Green +glazed figures of cat–head goddess, cats, pigs, and sacred +eyes; coarse glass beads, yellow and black: copper wire bracelets. +Glass beads with blue spots in circles of brown and white. Scarabs +coarse and worst at 750. Fine work revived at 700 by Ethiopians. +Glazes dull, dirty, green. Glass unknown. Coffins very roughly +painted.</p> + +<p><em>Saites, XXVI–XXX Dynasties</em> , 664–342 B.C. +Pottery clumsy, mostly rough: some thin, smooth red. Greek +influence; silver coins from 500 onward. Iron tools beginning. +Glaze pale greyish and olive: some fine blue at 350. No glass. +Bronze figures common. Ushabtis with back pier and beard; fine 650 +to poor at 350.</p> + +<p><em>Ptolemies</em>, 332–30 B.C. Pottery clumsy and small. +Many Rhodian jars with Greek stamped handles. Glazes, dark violet +and yellow–green. Glass revived for inlay figures in shrines: +minute mosaic begins. Glazed beads scarce, no scarabs. Large copper +coins, silver tetradrachms, base in later time, and concave on +reverse.</p> + +<p><em>Romans</em>, 30 B.C.–A.D. 641. <em>The earlier half, +to</em> A.D. 300. Large brown amphorae, peg bottoms; ribbed after +180, wide ribbing at first, then narrower. Glass blown; fine white +and cut facets in 1st cent.; hollow brims 2nd–4th; stems and +pressed feet, 3rd–4th. Glass mosaic 1st cent.; coarser wall +mosaic 2nd cent. Glaze coarse blue, on thick clumsy bowls and jugs. +Red brick buildings as well as mud brick, coins: billon +tetradrachms in 1st cent., almost copper in 2nd, small copper dumps +in 3rd, leaden tokens from A.D. 180 to 260. Some large copper in +1st and 2nd, thinner than the Ptolemaic. Potsherds used for writing +receipts and letters. Abundance of moulded terra–cottas, and +small lamps.</p> + +<p><em>Roman, Second Period</em>, A.D. 300–641. The +Constantinian Age brings in new styles. Much salmon–coloured +hard pottery, mainly platters and flat dishes. Brown amphorae soft +and smaller, with narrow ribbing. No glaze. Much very thin glass. +Coins: little thin flat copper, as in rest of Empire, ending about +450. No Egyptian coinage, except a very few rough lumps from +Justinian to Heraclius, I+B on back. Letters written on potsherds +and flakes of limestone.</p> + +<p>Red brick the material for all large buildings. Limestone +capitals of debased leafage. Rudely cut relief patterns in wood. +Coarsely carved and turned bone or ivory. Pottery in Byzantine Age +with white facing and rudely painted figures. Textiles, with +embroidery in colours, and especially purple discs with thread +designs of the earlier Arab period. A characteristic of late Roman +and Arab mounds is the organic smell.</p> + +<p><em>Muhammadan Period.</em> Seventh to fifteenth centuries. +Characterized by great amounts of glazed pottery. Smaller +antiquities found in cemeteries or on ruined sites, the earliest +transitional, and related to Coptic examples of the same kinds. +Pottery: lamps at first continue Christian forms and are unglazed; +afterwards long spouted lamps of dark green glaze. Fragments of +vessels, &c., from the rubbish heaps of old Cairo are glazed; a +typical faience has a soft sandy body of light colour with painted +designs in blue or blue and brown with transparent glaze. Those of +the Mamluk period, and probably some of earlier date, show a +general resemblance to Western Asiatic contemporary wares, due to +importation of potters from Syria, Asia Minor, and Persia (between +twelfth and fifteenth centuries). Other varieties have decoration +in metallic lustre on an opaque white tin glaze; others again have +monochrome glazes imitating imported Chinese wares. Inscriptions +very rare. Glass: if found, is in fragments; rich coloured enamel +designs are seldom earlier than the thirteenth century. Textiles: +chiefly found in small pieces; the colours rich; ornament +consisting of geometrical designs and Cufic inscriptions. Any silk, +or printed patterns, should be secured.</p> + +<p>No information about papyri is given here, for the reason that +any site containing them should not be touched except by a trained +excavator.</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill13"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill13a.gif" width="700" +height="1148" border="3" alt="Illustration XIII: Egyptian Pottery +Types"></p> + +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill13b.gif" width="700" +height="1148" border="3" alt="Illustration XIII: Egyptian Pottery +Types"></p> + +<h4>Illustration XIII: Egyptian Pottery Types</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h2><a name="8-2">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2> + +<br> + + +<h3>MESOPOTAMIA</h3> + +<br> +<br> + <br> + + +<p>[See the diagrams of flint implements, <a +href="#ill2">Illustration II</a>; pottery +and brick–forms, <a href="#ill14">Illustration XIV</a>; +cuneiform signs, and other +scripts <a href="#ill15">Illustration XV</a>].</p> + +<br> +<a name="ill14"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill14.gif" width="700" +height="929" border="3" alt="Illustration XIV: Mesopotamian Pottery, +Seals, etc."></p> + +<h4>Illustration XIV: Mesopotamian Pottery, Seals, etc.</h4> + +<br> +<br> +<a name="ill15"></a> <br> +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill15.gif" width="650" +height="890" border="3" alt="Illustration XV: Cuneiform and Other +Scripts"></p> + +<h4>Illustration XV: Cuneiform and Other Scripts</h4> + +<br> +<br> + + +<p>Mesopotamian antiquities are nearly always found in +<b>Tells</b>, or artificial mounds, which are the sites of ancient +towns or temples. The surrounding plain for a distance of several +hundred yards out, whether steppe–desert or untilled land, +will usually be found to be productive of antiquities, either a few +inches or few feet deep or, in the case of the dessert, actually +lying upon the surface. These are usually the result of rainstorms +washing out antiquities from the tell itself. Each tell or ganglion +of connected tells usually has a number of small subsidiary tells +round about it, the sites of small isolated buildings or villages +connected with the central settlement. Originally the settlements +were built upon natural rises of the ground which stood up as +islands in the fen–country.</p> + +<p>Visitors should give the local names of tells in Arabic +characters, when possible, so that mistakes in transliteration into +English may be avoided. Antiquities bought in the neighbourhood of +a tell should be noted as coming from that neighbourhood. +Depredations by Arabs (or by others!) should be noted, and reported +to the nearest Political Officer or Inspector of Antiquities. The +barbarous practice of forcibly dislodging inscribed bricks from +walls, as trophies and 'souvenirs', which has unhappily been common +during the war, should never be imitated and always discountenanced +as much as possible.</p> + +<p>Other good spots for antiquities than tells are rare. In the +mountainous and stony country of the North we may meet with +<b>rock– sculptures</b>, as at Bavian, and these should +always be recorded by a traveller, even if he is not certain that +they have not been remarked before: something new may turn up at +any time. Antiquities acquired in the neighbourhood of such +monuments should be noted, and their precise place of origin +ascertained, if possible, as in this way the site of some ancient +settlement adjoining the monument may be identified. The open +ruin–fields, or <em>Khurbas</em> , characteristic of +Palestine are not usual, except in the case of Parthian or +Sassanian palace ruins such as Ctesiphon, Hatra, or Ukheidhir, +which were often abandoned almost as soon as they were built, so +that no later population could pile up rubbish–heaps or +graves above them.</p> + +<p>In order to aid the visitor to get some idea of the age of a +tell or other site from the antiquities found on its surface and +its neighbourhood, and so to be able to give some idea of what is +likely to be found in it, the following hints have been drawn +up.</p> + +<p>In the first place, most of the surface remains, are, as +elsewhere, pottery sherds. These should tell us their date by their +appearance. It must be said, however, that our experience on the +subject of the development of Mesopotamian pottery is limited. +Owing to the attention of Assyriologists having been so long +focussed on the study of the cuneiform records, to the neglect of +general archaeology, we have nothing like the knowledge of these +things that we have in Egypt or in Greece. Such minutiae of +information as our common knowledge of ceramic development in Egypt +or in Greece gives us with regard to these countries, enabling us +to date sites with great accuracy, are not vet available for +Mesopotamia. And if for this reason all possible information as to +the objects found on archaeological sites is desirable, it is also +impossible yet to give the visitor any absolute guide to the +distinctive appearance of pottery at every period. The main periods +are known. The 'prehistoric', the Sumerian, the late Babylonian, +and the Parthian styles are easily distinguishable. If a visitor is +able to tell us that such–and–such a mound is +prehistoric or is Parthian, or that settlements of both periods +existed on it, this is what we want. One of the most general of +criteria with regard to pottery is whether it is glazed or not. If +glazed, it is, generally speaking, late. Other things besides +pottery are of course found, and the presence or the absence of +metal, and the occurrence of stone implements, are important. But +it must be remembered that stone was used long into the 'Bronze' +Age, and contemporaneously with copper. There is no sudden break +between the two periods. Fragments of shell and +mother–of–pearl, often with incised designs, are very +characteristic of the earliest period. Coins are of late date; a +tell with coins on it is certain to contain buildings as late as +the fourth or third century B.C. (though it may also contain far +older buildings as well). One of the most useful criteria of age +is: Bricks. The form of the brick is a very good guide to date. The +Babylonians used both kiln–baked and crude bricks. The oldest +type, whether baked or crude, is plano–convex in form, and +uninscribed. The mortar is bitumen. Later on rectangular bricks, +often square, made in moulds, were introduced. These usually bore +the name of the royal builder. Later on bricks became generally +oblong and much like our own. In the sixth century the square shape +was revived. Both shapes were in use at the Nebuchadnezzar period. +Glazed bricks were then common. Under the Persians mortar took the +place of bitumen. Under the Parthians and Sassanians, bricks were +yellow, oblong, small, and very hard. Details will be found below, +The names of various excavated sites are given in brackets as the +'classical' sources of information on certain points, and as the +places from which type–antiquities have come to our Museums. +Ancient names are in capitals; museums in italics.</p> + +<p>I. PREHISTORIC (?) AGE: <em>Chalcolithic (aeneolithic) +period</em> , before 3500 B.C.</p> + +<p>Until quite recently no traces of the Stone Age had been +discovered in Babylonia other than a few possible palaeoliths lying +on the surface of the desert: all traces of a Neolithic Age were +supposed to have been buried beneath the alluvium of the valley. In +Assyria, however, neolithic traces in the shape of obsidian flakes +had been discovered by the late Prof. L. W. King in the course of +his excavation of the mound of Kuyunjik (NINEVEH), besides +fragments of painted pottery resembling those from the earliest +deposits in Asia Minor and those found by the American geologist +Pumpelly in his diggings in the <em>kurgans</em> of Turkestan, (to +which he assigned an extremely remote date B.C.). In Persia, and +about the head of the Persian Gulf, somewhat similar pottery was +discovered by de Morgan and the other French excavators at Susa, +Tepé Musyãn, Bandar Bushir, and other places: here again the dates +were put at a very remote period. With the exception of a few flint +saw–blades from Warka [1], Fara, Zurghul, and Babylon [2], no +similar remains had been found in Babylonia until, in 1918, Capt. +R. Campbell Thompson, exploring on behalf of the British Museum, +discovered flint and obsidian flakes and painted pottery lying on +the surface of the desert at Tell Abu Shahrein (ERIDU), and also at +Tell Muqayyar (UR). The continued excavations carried out by Mr. H. +R. Hall for the Museum in 1919 have produced more of the same +evidence from both places, besides a new 'prehistoric' site at Tell +el–Ma'abed or Tell el–'Obeid near Ur. It seems that +these antiquities date from the very end of the neolithic, or +rather to the succeeding 'chalcolithic', age; whether they are +really prehistoric, as regards Babylonian history, must until more +evidence from stratified deposits is found remain undecided. They +prove the occupation of the head of the Persian Gulf at the +beginning of history by a people whose primitive art was closely +akin to that of early Elam, and distinct from that of the +Sumerians.</p> + +<p><small>[1] Found by Loftus in 1854: their early date was not +recognized at the time.<br> + [2] Koldewey, <em>Excavations at Babylon, E.T.</em>, p. 261, fig. +182. Koldewey curiously speaks of the saw–blades as +'palaeolithic.' They are, of course, nothing of the +sort.</small></p> + +<p><b>Characteristics:</b> flint, chert, obsidian, green and red +jasper, and quartz–crystal flakes, arrowheads, cores, and +saw–blades. Chert and limestone rough hoe–blades +(easily mistaken for palaeolithic implements; they are, however, +much flatter); polished serpentine or jasper celts; lentoid +(lentil–shaped), amygdaloid (almond–shaped), and +discoid beads of cornelian, crystal, obsidian, &c., unpolished; +nails of translucent quartz and obsidian (obviously imitations of +metal types); hard grey pottery sickles, pottery cones of various +sizes, and pottery objects like gigantic nails bent up at the ends; +pottery painted with designs in black, usually geometrical (see +<a href="#ill14">Illustration XIV</a>, Fig. 1), but sometimes showing +plant–forms +or even animals. This ware is often very fine, so much so as to +look as if wheelmade. The shapes are chiefly bowls (often closely +resembling early Egyptian stone bowl types), pots with +suspension–handles or lugs, and spouted 'kettles'. All these +objects are at Shahrein and el–'Obeid found lying on the +desert surface at the distance of 50 or 100 yards from the tell; +they are supposed to have been washed out of the lower strata of +the latter by rains. Objects of this kind should be recorded from +any site, and the neighbourhood of a desert tell should always be +searched for them.</p> + +<p>II. EARLY BRONZE (Copper) AGE: <em>First Sumerian +(pre–Sargonic) Period; c.</em> 3500–3000 B.C. Earliest +Sumerian civilization.</p> + +<p><b>Typical sites.</b> Older strata at Telloh (LAGASH); Fara +(SHURUPPAK); Tell 'Obeid (ancient name as yet unknown); Shahrein +(ERIDU).</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> <em>Writing.</em> First appearance of +script, already conventionalized from pictographs. Cut on stone and +incised on clay tablets and bricks of characteristic early style. +<em>Brick</em> buildings, with crenellated walls (until the +discovery of Tell 'Obeid supposed to date only from the later +Sumerian period) of typical <em>plano–convex bricks</em> , +baked or crude, usually with thumb–mark down length of convex +side (Shahrein), or with two thumb–holes (for carrying the +brick when wet?), or vent–holes ('Obeid); at first +uninscribed, later with long inscriptions; measuring 10 x 6 x +2–2 ¼ ins. (Shahrein), and 8 x 6 x 2–2 ¼ +ins. ('Obeid); poorly shaped and baked (see <a href="#ill14">XIV</a>, +Fig. 3). Bitumen +used for mortar; laid very thick. Hard white stucco on internal +faces of crude brick house walls, often decorated with red, white, +and black painted horizontal stripes (Shahrein.) <em>Pottery.</em> +Wheel and hand–made; drab, fine or coarse paste, unpainted +and usually undecorated. Typical shapes: (see <a +href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Figs. 2 abc) +mostly handleless vases, and cups, and spouted 'kettles' (again +often resembling early Egyptian types).</p> + +<p><em>Metals: Copper.</em> Extensive use: large copper figures of +animals, heads cast, bodies of copper plates fastened by nails over +a core of clay with a mixture of bitumen and straw; the figures +have eyes, tongues, and teeth of red and white stone and nacre +(Tell 'Obeid); goat's head with inlaid eyes of nacre (Fara). +Otherwise ordinary treatment of eye shows a number of wrinkle lines +round it, and it is always disproportionately large (bull's heads, +Tell 'Obeid and Telloh). Small fragments of copper or bronze on the +surface of a tell should never be neglected, as there may be enough +in any fragment to give an idea of possible archaic remains within +the tell.</p> + + +<p><em>Silver.</em> Rare. Fine engraved vase of Entemena (Telloh, +<em>Louvre</em> ).</p> + +<p><em>Gold.</em> Not uncommon. Copper nails with gold–plated +heads (Shahrein).</p> + +<p><em>Stone.</em> Portrait figures in round (Bismâya, Telloh, +&c.), usually representing men, with face and head shaven; very +prominent large curved nose; usually squatting with arms crossed, +sometimes standing; only garment a kilt apparently made of locks of +natural wool. Usually inscribed in archaic characters on back of +shoulders. Material: a grey or a white limestone most usual; tufa +and dolerite also used. Reliefs: large stelae (Stele of the +Vultures; Telloh, <em>Louvre</em> , fragment in <em>B. M.</em> ), +completely inscribed; small relief plaques, inscribed (Telloh, +<em>Louvre</em> ). Flint carved and engraved cylinder– seals, +of limestone, black basalt, jasper, diorite, &c. Vases, bowls, +and cups (usually fragmentary), of white and pink limestone and +breccia. Maceheads of breccia, granite, &c., of same type as +the early Egyptian (Shahrein).</p> + +<p><em>Shell.</em> Very largely used for decoration; small plaques +of nacre often engraved with scenes of men worshipping, &c. +(Telloh); tessellated pillars with nacre plaques ('Obeid). +Seal–cylinders of shell.</p> + +<p><em>Wood.</em> Rarely survives; small beams plated with copper +('Obeid).</p> + +<p><em>Burials.</em> Pottery coffins with lids, mat burials; bodies +contracted; funerary furniture, copper, stone or pottery drinking +cups held near mouth: copper weapons, fish–hooks, net +weights; beads of agate, lapis, shell (unpolished); +colour–dishes, (Fara). (The idea that the Babylonians ever +burnt their dead is now discredited; the supposed +'fire–necropoles' at Zurghul, &c., are not +substantiated.)</p> + +<p>The burials are hard to distinguish from similar contracted +interments of later date, except that the furniture is more +abundant in early times and mat graves are unusual in later days +Mounds of this age may be known by the occurrence on the surface of +scraps of oxydized copper, nails, &c.; shell–fragments; +undecorated light drab sherds; and the typical small +plano–convex bricks.</p> + +<p>III. M<small>IDDLE</small> B<small>RONZE</small> +A<small>GE</small>. 1. <em>Early Semitic or Akkadian (Sargonid) +period; c.</em> 3000–2500 B.C.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Less crude style of art: development of +writing (see <a href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Fig. 1); first inscribed clay +tablets of usual +style; beginnings of cuneiform, developed from the archaic +semi–pictographic character. Bricks still plano–convex; +stamped inscriptions begin. Stone maceheads of same type as +earlier. Large and well–cut cylinder–seals of fine +limestone, lapis, diorite, granite, and shell are characteristic of +the period: they are generally of an easily recognizable form +(reel–shaped) with sides showing a marked concavity (see <a +href="#ill14">XIV</a>, +Fig. 5). The great development of art is shown by the stele of +Naram–Sin ( <em>Louvre</em> ) found at Susa. Not many mounds +of this period have been dug.</p> + +<p>2. <em>Later Sumerian (Gudea) and early Semitic Babylonian +(Hammurabi) periods; c.</em> 2500–1800 B.C.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Typical 'Gudea' style of sculpture, in +round and relief (Telloh, <em>Louvre</em> ); materials hard +diorite, dolerite and basalt as well as limestone: characteristic +treatment of eye with heavily marked brows: elaborate tiaras and +head–dresses of female figures, &c. Very high +development. Regular use of cuneiform on clay tablets and cones +(see <a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Figs. 13–15); non–cuneiform +character (in a +developed form) still used in brick stamps (<a href="#ill15">XV</a>, +Fig. 10) and on +stone monuments. Bricks (<a href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Fig. 4) now +rectangular and well +made, either square (14 ins., usually, by 2 ½ ins. thick) or +oblong (11 ½ x 8 x 2 ½ ins., or 10 x 5 x 2 ½ +ins.) with stamps or incised inscriptions of Ur–Engur, Dungi, +Bur–Sin, Gudea and other kings (<a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. +10), from Ur, +Shahrein, Telloh, Niffer, &c. Bricks of Bur–Sin from +Shahrein often have inscription–stamps also on the smaller +sides (thickness). Great buildings of crude and baked brick +(Telloh, Ur); temple–towers (ziggurats) of crude brick faced +with burnt brick (Ur, Shahrein, Niffer). Town ruins of Hammurabi's +age (Babylon): crude brick: plans always confused and haphazard. +Bitumen still used for mortar. Burials, contracted, often in double +pots (mouth to mouth), sealed with bitumen. With the bodies are +found large numbers of agate and cornelian beads, unpolished.</p> + +<p>Mounds of this period may be recognized by the typical square or +oblong bricks (often with thumb–holes), with stamps of kings' +names, &c., in non–cuneiform characters, or with +hand–incised inscriptions in early cuneiform, made while the +clay was wet; clay tablets or cones inscribed in early cuneiform; +copper nails (those with gold– plated heads found at Shahrein +may also date from this time); drab or black pottery sherds with +impressed or incised designs, generally rough and evidently made +with a piece of stick or the thumb–nail; rough stone +quern–slabs with rubbers, grinding and hammer–stones, +&c.; and the burials described above (these, however, also +occur in later times).</p> + +<p>IV. L<small>ATER</small> B<small>RONZE</small> +A<small>GE</small>: <em>Kassite, Middle Babylonian, and Early +Assyrian periods; c.</em> 1800– 1000 B.C.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Stabilization of Babylonian art; typical +'Kassite' cylinder–seals with straight sides (<a +href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Fig. 6); +disappearance of old non–cuneiform character with gradual +disuse of Sumerian; early stone–cut inscriptions in cuneiform +(see <a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. 16; an Elamite inscription). +Occasional and rare +appearance of glazed pottery (imitation of Egyptian), and +multi–coloured glass; early Assyrian sculpture (those +unversed in minutiae of Mesopotamian art will only be able to tell +this earlier work from the later by the earlier style of the +accompanying inscriptions). Not many mounds of this period have +been dug.</p> + +<p>V. E<small>ARLY</small> I<small>RON</small> A<small>GE</small>: +1. <em>Late Babylonian and Assyrian periods; c.</em> 1000–540 +B.C.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Flourishing period of Assyrian art and +writing (for details see the archaeological books, which are very +full on this period). Mounds may be known by the occurrence of +fragments of granite or basalt bowl–querns, often with feet; +pieces or whole vases of the multi–coloured opaque glass +usually called 'Phoenician' (which are already found in the +preceding period); alabaster pots; straight– sided cylinder +seals (see <a href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Fig. 6); Syrian conical seals of +steatite (<a href="#ill14">XIV</a>, +Fig. 7); small and rude clay figures of deities, such as Ishtar or +Papsukal (the guardian of buildings), and animals, such as horses, +sheep, doves, ducks, &c.; bronze pins, often with birds on the +heads; baked clay tablets of the fine Kuyunjik type (see <a +href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. +12; script, Fig. 17); pottery lamps with long protruding curved +nozzles; pottery vases simple and undecorated save by incised +lines, as for many centuries past (for types see <a +href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Figs. 9 a b c +d); light–blue glazed ware introduced from Egypt towards end +of period; polychrome glazed ware with designs of rosettes, +chevrons) &c., somewhat earlier; large pots without feet common +for storage of grain and oil, sometimes for tablets: mouth often +closed with a brick. Stone pithoi are also found. Vertical drains +or sinks, made of a number of pottery cylindrical drums, fitting on +top of or into one another, are found everywhere on +town–mounds of this period; visitors should avoid tumbling +into them, as they are often open or only covered by a very thin +crust of earth. Usually they are perforated to allow of soaking +into the surrounding earth, and are, when excavated whole, +generally found capped by, a beehive–shaped perforated cover. +Sometimes these drains were made of old pots with their lower parts +broken off, and fitted into one another. Secular buildings were of +burnt brick; sacred buildings usually of crude brick, from +religious conservatism. Crude bricks nearly always oblong; burnt +bricks square (14 ins.) or oblong (9x6x3 ins.). The burnt brick of +Nebuchadnezzar's time is extraordinarily fine and hard, and the +bitumen–mortar so finely spread as to be almost invisible +(Babylon). Walls of this reign have a rock–like solidity and +tenacity that should make them easily recognizable. Those of +immediately preceding reigns show the bitumen far more clearly, and +the bricks are usually not as finely made as Nebuchadnezzar's; at +Babylon the latter's work is thus at once distinguishable from that +of Nabopolassar. A typical brick– inscription of +Nebuchadnezzar is illustrated above, <a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. +11. It is in the +revived archaic script, always used for this purpose by the late +Babylonian kings. Use of coloured glazed brick is characteristic of +period; often relief figures of animals are made up of glazed +bricks each specially moulded for its proper position and numbered +(Ishtar Gate, Babylon). Royal palaces were often decorated with +reliefs depicting conquests, &c., carved on slabs of +alabastrine marble placed along the brick walls, with great statues +of human– headed bulls ( <em>Cherubim</em> ), &c. (Nimrud +(CALAH), Kuyunjik (NINEVEH), Khorsabad. <em>Brit. Mus.</em> and +<em>Louvre</em> ) Burials usually in drab clay pot–coffins +(larnakes) with covers; bodies still contracted; funerary furniture +scanty, consisting chiefly of pins, beads, an occasional +cylinder–seal, and a few pots (<a href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Figs. +9 a b c d). Ribbed +pots with blue (weathered green) glaze, often pitched both within +and without, were also employed towards the end of the period, +inverted over the bodies. Also anthropoid pottery sarcophagi, an +idea imported from Egypt. Child burials in bowls. Iron objects +sometimes buried with the dead; often found in palace–ruins +(weapons, horse–furniture, &c.). Bronze commonly used for +gates, door, bolts, &c. (Gates of Shalmaneser's palace; +<em>Brit. Mus.</em> ).</p> + +<p>2. <em>Persian (Achaemenian) period: c.</em>540–330 +B.C.</p> + +<p>This period is distinguished from the former by the less +frequent use of bronze, the introduction of coinage, and the +development of the simplified Persian cuneiform writing (never on +tablets, only on stone monuments; see <a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. +18). Bitumen ceased +to be used as mortar in buildings. Persian walls (e. g. the Apadana +at Babylon) are easily distinguished by the use of clay mortar, and +the unusual thickness of the mortar–courses between the +bricks. Burials in shallow trough–like pottery coffins, with +the bodies at full length, but with the knees slightly flexed +(these continued during the next period).</p> + +<p>VI. M<small>IDDLE</small> I<small>RON</small> +A<small>GE</small>: 1. <em>Greek and Parthian periods; c.</em>330 +B.C.–220 A.D.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Sudden degeneration and disappearance of +the ancient native civilization and art; imitation of Greek +culture, Greek buildings (theatre at Babylon), and inscriptions; +Greek legends on Parthian coins; Parthian kings call themselves +'Philhellenes'; Graeco–Roman architecture imitated (Hatra). +Graeco–Roman terra– cottas, pottery lamps, +pilgrim–flasks and bone–carvings; classical seal gems; +Roman glass; fragments of imitation of classical sculpture in +marble (the material being adopted as well as the style); and, of +course, coins—these are characteristic remains found on +mounds of this period. About l00 B.C. the use of cuneiform was +given up; clay tablets were no longer used. Aramaic became the +usual form of writing; ink used on sherds; wax tablets. Small bowls +often found with ink–written incantations in +Judaeo–Aramaic (see <a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. 19). Mounds +of this period are +perhaps most easily recognized by the quantities of deep–blue +glazed sherds found lying about on them. The glaze is rather thin, +laid on a coarse drab ware, and is often cracked. The blue is very +fine, rivalling the old Egyptian. Burials of this period are often +found in (besides the shallow pottery coffins mentioned above) +rectangular oblong boxes of thin coarse ware with light friable +blue glaze (Babylon), or (later) in slipper–shaped coffins +(possibly Sassanian) of the same ware, rudely decorated with human +figures (warriors) in relief, on panels (Warka). The blue glaze has +often changed to a dark green, especially in the case of the Warka +slipper–coffins. The lids are cemented to the coffins. +Internments are now full length, the old custom of contraction +having been entirely abandoned [1]. Gold ornaments and pieces of +gold leaf, gold fillets, &c., are not unfrequently found with +the bodies, besides armlets, toe and finger rings, &c., of +silver and bronze, the finger–rings usually of ordinary Roman +types; pottery, lamps, and glass vessels. These coffins are often +in brick vaults, usually placed haphazard in the ground, as in +earlier times. Bricks small, hard, and yellow.</p> + +<p><small>[1] The western custom of cremation was never adopted, in +spite of the Hellenization of culture. It offended both Babylonian +and Iranian sentiment, although the Parthians were never very +orthodox followers of Ahuramazda, and venerated (at least +platonically) the most popular deities of the Greek +pantheon.</small></p> + +<p>2. <em>Sassanian Period; c.</em>220–650 A.D.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Reaction towards Oriental motives in +art: a typical <em>antîka</em> of the period is the Sassanian seal +of cornelian, chalcedony, or haematite, in shape sometimes a ring, +more often a flat sphere with one–third cut off to form a +seal–base, perforated for stringing (see <a +href="#ill14">XIV</a>, Fig. 8), and +inscribed in Pehlevi (see <a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. 20) a script +that to the +unitiated looks very like Cufie Arabic: the language is +Old–Persian, which was spoken by the court officials at +Ctesiphon, the language of the people being Aramaic. Sculpture +barbarized, but with a picturesque character of its own +(Nakhsh–i– Rustam, Tak–i–Bostãn), sometimes +reminiscent of Indian work. Architecture: Parthian–Roman +traditions (Ctesiphon). Pottery usually glazed blue (thicker +glaze). Unglazed bowls with Hebrew and Mandaitic magical +inscriptions. Bronze no longer used except for coins. Objects from +mounds very like those of preceding age, but less of Roman origin. +Not much known of burials; the Warka slipper–coffins usually +regarded as Parthian may possibly be of early Sassanian age.</p> + +<p>VII. L<small>ATER</small> I<small>RON</small> +A<small>GE</small>: <em>Muhammadan Period; c.</em>650–1500 +A.D.[1]</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Development of art under Persian +influence till Tartar conquest in thirteenth century: the +destruction and depopulation of the country at that time brought +all real artistic development to an end. Flourishing period: the +'Abbãsid Khalifate: ninth century: Hãrûn al–Rashîd. Ruins of +the ancient city and palaces of Samarrã: halls with modelled and +painted plaster–decorations, not only geometrical but also +(Persian heterodox influence) representing trees, birds, &c. No +more sculpture in round or relief of human figures or animals. The +only survival of classical tradition would appear to be to some +extent in architecture: Greek architects.</p> + +<p>Coins: thin gold, and silver, with Cufic inscriptions only (see +<a href="#ill15">XV</a>, Fig. 21). Mounds of this period may be known +by fragments of + + +marble–carving with Cufic inscriptions, plasterwork, Arab and +Persian vase and tile fragments in thick blue, green, yellow, or +brown glaze, metallic lustre–glaze, &c., variegated glass +bangles, and rings; bits of cloudy white glass (from lamps); +fragments of wood, carved and inlaid with bone, nacre, &c., in +geometrical patterns; textile fragments, (which are naturally not +commonly found in older mounds), &c.</p> + +<p>Nothing is said with regard to burials as these may not be +touched.</p> + +<p>[1] The limit of age which constitutes an 'antiquity' for legal +purposes is fixed in most antiquity–laws at 1500 A.D.</p> + +<h2>APPENDIX</h2> + +<h3><a name="sum">LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES</a></h3> + +<p>The following brief notes on the Laws of Antiquities in force in +the various territories with which this book is concerned must not +be taken as absolving the traveller from the necessity of +consulting the full text of the laws. At the time of going to +press, the Turkish Law presumably prevails in such parts of the +Turkish Empire as are not occupied by the troops of the Entente; in +the remainder, temporary regulations are in force which will +doubtless be modified when the new governments are established; and +it is possible that the Turkish Law itself may be brought into +greater harmony with modern ideas.</p> + +<h4>The Greek Law of Antiquities.</h4> + +<p align="center"><img src="images/ill20.gif" width="90%" +border="0" alt="Greek script"></p> + +<p>All antiquities found are the property of the Government and are +controlled by an Archaeological Commission, consisting of the Ephor +General of Antiquities and the ephors of the archaeological +collections in Athens. Fixed antiquities must be reported by the +discoverer to the Ephor General or one of the ephors of antiquities +or other official. Damaging of ruins or remains of monuments is +forbidden. Owners of the land on which portable antiquities +desirable for the National Museums are found are compensated to the +extent of half their value. Any person who finds antiquities on his +land must report them within five days, on pain of confiscation. +The same applies to any one who finds antiquities on another +person's land, or in any other way comes into possession of +antiquities. Informers against breaches of the law are rewarded by +the amount of the compensation due to those who keep the law. +Objects not considered worth keeping by the Museums are returned to +the owner of the land. Excavations, even on private property, must +be authorized by the Ministry of Education. The Government has the +right of expropriating land for purposes of excavation. In +Government excavations, the owner of the land receives +one–third of the value of the objects considered worth +keeping by the Museums. Secret excavation is punished by +confiscation of the finds, imprisonment and temporary loss of civil +rights. In authorized excavations by a landowner or his +representative the excavator receives half the value of the finds +taken by the Museums. Any one attempting to excavate on another +man's land is punished by imprisonment. Antiquities found in the +country may not be exported (on pain of imprisonment or fine and +temporary loss of civil rights) without permission, which is only +granted for objects not considered by the Archaeological Commission +to be of use to the Museums. Such objects on export are subject to +a tax of 10 percent. <em>ad valorem</em> unless declared entirely +valueless by the Commission. Antiquities imported into the country +must be declared in the Customs House and reported to the Ephor +General of Antiquities, a descriptive catalogue in duplicate being +sent, and cannot be re– exported without permission, which is +obtained by producing the articles with the original catalogue to +the Ephor General; if not reported they are regarded as having been +found in the country.</p> + +<h4>The Turkish Law of Antiquities.</h4> + +<p>Loi sur les Antiquités promulguée le 29 Séfer 1324 (10 Avril +1322). +Extrait du <em>Levant Herald</em> du 8, 9, 11 et 13 Juin +1906. Constantinople, Imprimerie du <em>Levant Herald,</em> Pera, +1906.</p> + +<p>Antiquities are controlled by the Director–General of the +Imperial Museums and a Commission, the Directors of Public +Instruction in the provinces acting as agents. All ancient +monuments and objects (including those of Islamic date) are the +property of the Government. Any fixed antiquities discovered must +be reported under pain of fine within 15 days to the official in +charge of antiquities, or in his absence to the nearest civil or +military official. Punishment by fine and imprisonment is inflicted +for destroying or injuring monuments, measuring or making +impressions without authorization.</p> + +<p>Transportable antiquities found on a man's land must be reported +by him within a week. The landowner receives half the value of +objects thus reported and bought by the State; objects not reported +are confiscated, and the landowner fined. This clause applies to +those who find antiquities on land belonging to other private +persons or to the State. Excavation is the exclusive privilege of +the Museums, but firmans may be obtained by scientific societies +and specialists. Unauthorized excavation is punished by +imprisonment and confiscation. The State has the right of making +preliminary soundings and of expropriation. Applications for leave +to excavate must be made to the Minister of Public Instruction. All +finds belong to the State. Unauthorized dealing in antiquities is +punishable by fine, imprisonment, and confiscation. Exportation of +antiquities found in the Empire is forbidden. Antiquities imported +must be reported to the directorate of antiquities, and may not be +sent from one part of the Empire to another, or re–exported, +without permission from the Director–General.</p> + +<h4>The Cypriote Law of Antiquities.</h4> + +<p>To Consolidate and Amend the Law relating to Ancient Monuments +and Antiquities, and to provide Museums. Law no. IV of 1905. See +Sir J. T. Hutchinson and S. Fisher, <em>The Statute Laws of +Cyprus,</em> 1878–1906 (London, 1906), pp. 595–608.</p> + +<p>Objects later than the Turkish conquest, and coins of Byzantine +or later times, are not deemed to be antiquities. All undiscovered +antiquities of movable character are the property of the +Government; all immovable antiquities are also the property of the +Government, unless some person shall be the owner of them. All +antiquities must be reported by the person in possession of them to +the Museum Committee, on pain of confiscation; antiquities found +except in the course of authorized excavations must be reported +within five days to the District Commissioner, One–third of +such movable antiquities is taken by the Government, +one–third by the finder, and one–third by the owner of +the land. Damage to ancient monuments is punished by fine or +imprisonment or both. Unauthorized excavation, even on land +belonging to the excavator, and the purchasing of objects illegally +excavated, are punished by fine or imprisonment or both. +Application for leave to excavate must be made to the Chief +Secretary for Government. All antiquities found in excavation +belong to the Government; only duplicates, and objects not required +by the Museum, are given to the excavator. The Government has the +right to expropriate land for the purpose of excavations. The +Museum Committee may acquire the interests of any private person in +an antiquity on payment of compensation. If the sum agreed on is +not paid within six months, the Museum Committee loses all right to +its acquisition. Export of antiquities is forbidden except with the +permission of the High Commissioner, which is granted only for +objects not required by the Museum or for antiquities the interests +in which the Museum Committee has failed to acquire in the manner +described.</p> + +<h4>The Egyptian Law of Antiquities.</h4> + +<p>La Nouvelle Loi sur les Antiquités de l'Égypte et ses annexes. +Service des Antiquités. Le Caire, Imprimerie de l'Institut français +d'archéologie orientala. 1913.</p> + +<p>All antiquities belong to the State. The State has the right of +expropriating ground containing antiquities. Transportable +antiquities when found must be reported to nearest administrative +authority or agents of the Service of Antiquities: the finder +receives half the objects thus reported or their value. Excavation, +dealing in antiquities, and exportation are forbidden unless under +authorization. Destruction of and damage to antiquities is +punishable by fine and imprisonment. Applications for leave to +export or to excavate should be made to the Director–General +of Service of Antiquities. A tax of 1 ½ per cent. is levied +on the declared value of objects passed for export. Leave to +excavate is granted only to savants recommended by Governments or +learned societies, or to private persons presenting proper +guarantees. The excavator pays the cost of guarding the site. The +Government takes half the portable objects found.</p> + +<h4>General Principles of a Model Law of Antiquities for the Near +and Middle East.</h4> + +<p>The following statement of Principles which should form the +foundation of the Laws of Antiquities to be enacted for the various +Provinces formerly under Turkish rule was drawn up by an +International Committee in Paris and recommended to the Commission +for regulating the Mandates under the League of Nations. It follows +closely the Recommendations of the Archaeological Joint Committee +on the same subject. It was proposed at the same time that the +Treaty with Turkey should enjoin the adoption by that Power of a +Law of Antiquities on the same lines:</p> + +<h4>Principes du reglement devant être adopté par chacune des +Puissances +mandataires.</h4> + +<p>1. 'ANTIQUITÉ' signifie toute construction, tout produit de +l'activite humaine, antérieur à l'année 1700.</p> + +<p>2. Toute personne qui, ayant découvert une antiquité, la signalera +a +un employé du Département des Antiquités du pays, sera récompensée +suivant la valeur de l'objet, le principe à adopter devant être +d'agir par encouragement plutôt que par menace.</p> + +<p>3. Aucun objet antique ne pourra êtré vendu sauf au Departement +des +Antiquités du pays, mais si ce Département renonce a l'acquérir la +vente en deviendra libre. Aucune antiquité ne pourra sortir du pays +sans un permis d'exportation dudit Département.</p> + +<p>4. Toute personne qui, exprès ou par négligence, détruira ou +détériorera un objet ou une construction antique, devra être passible +d'une peine à fixer par l'autorité du pays.</p> + +<p>5. Aucun déblaiement ni aucune fouille ayant pour objet la +recherche +d'antiquités ne seront permis sous peine d'amende, sauf aux personnes +autorisées par le Département des Antiquités du pays.</p> + +<p>6. Des conditions équitables devront être fixées par chaque +Puissance +mandataire pour l'expropriation temporaire ou permanente des terrains +qui pourraient offrir un intérêt historique ou archéologique.</p> + +<p>7. Les autorisations pour les fouilles ne devront être accordées +qu'aux personnes qui offrent des garanties suffisantes d'expérience +archéologique. Aucune des Puissances mandataires ne devra, en +accordant ces autorisations, agir de façon à écarter, sans motif +valable, les savants des autres nations.</p> + +<p>8. Les produits des fouilles pourront être divisés entre le +fouilleur et le Département des Antiquités de chaque pays dans une +proportion fixée par ce Departement. Si, pour des raisons +scientifiques, la division ne semble pas possible, le fouilleur devra +recevoir, au lieu d'une partie de la trouvaille, une juste +indemnité.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> + + +<h3><a name="index">INDEX</a></h3> + +<br> + + +<p>Abu Shahrein, 85, 88, 90.<br> +Achaemenian period in Mesopotamia, 93.<br> +Aegean, prehistoric age in the 36 f: pottery in Palestine, 73.<br> +Aeneolithic; <em>see</em> Chalcolithic. Akkadian period, 90.<br> +Alphabets: see Inscriptions.<br> +Aramaic inscriptions, 62, 66; in Mesopotamia, 93.<br> +Archaeological Joint Committee, 38.<br> +Arches, corbelled, 40.<br> +Arcosolium tombs, 71 f.<br> +Asia Minor, 47 ff.<br> +Assyrian period, 91.<br> +Attic pottery, 44 f.</p> + +<p>Babylon. 85, 90, 92 f.<br> +Babylonian period, 91.<br> +Bandar Bushir, 85.<br> +Barometer, 10, 33.<br> +Bavian, 83.<br> +Beads: Cypriote, 56: Egyptian, 78 f.; Greek, 41; Hittite, 60; +Mesopotamian, 88 ff.; Syrian, 64.<br> +Belt Jibrin, 73.<br> +Bitumen in Mesopotamia, 84, 88.<br> +Black–figured Greek pottery, 44.<br> +Bricks, 14 f.; in Egypt, 82; in Mesopotamia, 84–93.<br> +Bronze Age: in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 36 f.;in +Mesopotamia, 88; in Syria, 60.<br> +Bronze, forgeries in, 24.<br> +Brooches (fibulae): Greek, 40, 44; in Syria, 61 f.<br> +Bubastites, 79.<br> +Buildings, recording of, 14.<br> +Burials: <em>see</em> Tombs.<br> +Buying, advice about. 24 f.</p> + +<p>Calah, 92.<br> +Camera, 10 f.<br> +Casting in plaster, 19.<br> +Caves, 15, 72.<br> +Cemeteries, 15, 55, 70, 78: <em>see also</em> Tombs.<br> +Chalcolithic period: in Mesopotamia, 85: in Syria, 59 f.<br> +Cisterns in Palestine, 77.<br> +Coins; in Cyprus, 58; in Egypt, 79; in Mesopotamia, 84, 92 ff.;<br> + forgeries of, 24; making impressions of, 19 f; +recording finds of, 9.<br> +Combs, Egyptian, 78.<br> + Committee, Archaeological Joint, 28.<br> +Compass, prismatic, 10.<br> +Copper: in Mesopotamia, 88 f.; in Syria, 60.<br> +Copying, 17 ff.<br> +Corbelled arches, 40.<br> +'Corinthian' pottery, 41.<br> +Crete, 36; pottery from, in Palestine, 73.<br> +Crusaders' churches in Palestine, 76.<br> +Ctesiphon, 84, 94.<br> +Cuneiform inscriptions: in Asia Minor, 51; in Mesopotamia, 90 +ff.</p> + +<p>Cup–markings in Palestine, 77.<br> +Cyclopean walls, 40<br> +Cylinders and cylinder–sealings: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; +Hittite, 60, 62, 64; in Mesopotamia, 89 ff.<br> +Cyprus, 54 ff.; Law of Antiquities, 97; pottery from, in Palestine, +73.</p> + +<p>Dipylon period, 40.<br> +Dolmens in Palestine, 77.<br> +Drawing and copying, 17 f.</p> + +<p>Egypt, 78–82; Law of Antiquities, 98.<br> +Egyptian hieroglyphics, 20; pottery in Palestine, 73; scarabs +imitated in Syria,<br> + 62; stone bowls, Mesopotamian pottery types +resembling, 88.<br> +Eridu, 85, 88.<br> +Excavations: laws controlling, 95 ff.; unauthorized, 7.</p> + +<p>Fara, 85, 88 f.<br> +Fibulae: <em>see</em> Brooches.<br> +Figurines: Cypriote, 55; Greek, 35, 40 f., 44 f.; Syrian, 60, 62, +64.<br> +Finds, importance of not breaking up, 9.<br> +Flint implements, 29 ff.: <em>see also</em> Stone Age.<br> +Forgeries, 24 f.</p> + +<p>Geometric bronze age ware in Greece, 36; period, 40.<br> +Glass; in Cyprus, 57; in Egypt, 78 ff.; in Mesopotamia, 91; in +Syria, 64.<br> +Glaze, Egyptian, 78 f.; imitated in Babylonia, 91.<br> +Greece, 35 ff., Law of Antiquities, 95.</p> + +<p>Hatra, 84.<br> +Hebrew alphabets, 66.<br> +Hieroglyphics, copying of, 17, 20; Hittite, 51, 62.<br> +Hill sanctuaries in Palestine, 76.<br> +Hittite antiquities: in Asia Minor, 51; in Syria, 59 ff.</p> + +<p>Inscriptions: copying of, 17, 20 f.; Aramaic, 63, 66, 93; +cuneiform, 51, 87, in Cyprus, 57,<br> + Greek, 44, 51 f; Hittite, 51, 62; Latin, 53; +Lycian,51; Lydian, 51; in Palestinian tombs, 71;<br> + Semitic, 62, 66 f., 87.<br> +Institutions, archaeological, 26 f.<br> +Iron Age: in Asia Minor, 50; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 40; in +Mesopotamia, 91–93; in Syria, 60, 62.<br> +Itinerary, recording of, 13 f.</p> + +<p>Jewellery, forged, 24.</p> + +<p>Kassite period, 91.<br> +Khirbet (khirbah), 68 ff.<br> +Khorsabad, 92.<br> +Kohl–pots, 62,78 f.<br> +Kõk tombs, 71 f.<br> +Kuyunjik, 85, 92.</p> + +<p>Laconian pottery, 45.<br> +Lagash, 88.<br> +Lamps, Aegean, 37.<br> +Latin inscriptions in Asia Minor, 53.<br> +Laws of Antiquities, 7, 95 ff.<br> +Levelling, 33.<br> +Licences for acquiring antiquities, 9.<br> +Lycian inscriptions and monuments, 51.<br> +Lydian inscriptions, 51.</p> + +<p>Ma'abed, Tell el–, 85.<br> +Mastabas, 78.<br> +Mapping, 13.<br> +Mesopotamia, 83 ff.<br> +Minoan Age. 36; pottery in Palestine, 73.<br> +'Minyan' ware, 37.<br> +Mortar, bitumen, 84, 90, 92.<br> +Mosaic, 77, 79.<br> +Mounds, 14: <em>see also</em> Tell.<br> +Muqayyar, Tell, 85.<br> +Museums, use of, 7 f.<br> +'Mycenaean' Age, 37; pottery in Palestine, 73.</p> + +<p>Naksh–i–Rustam, 94.<br> +Neolithic Age: <em>see</em> Stone Age.<br> +Niffer, 90.<br> +Nimrud, 92.<br> +Nineveh, 85, 92.<br> +Numerals, West Semitic, 67.</p> + +<p>'Obeid, Tell el–, 85, 88 f.<br> +Obsidian: Aegean, 37; Mesopotamian, 85, 88.<br> +Olive–presses in Palestine, 77.<br> +Orientalizing Greek antiquities, 41, 44.<br> +Outfit, 10 f.</p> + +<p>Packing of antiquities, 22 f.<br> +Palestine, 65 ff.<br> +Papyri, forged, 24.<br> +Paraffin–wax, 22 f.<br> +Parthian period in Mesopotamia, 93.<br> +Pehlevi script, 93 f.<br> +Persian period: in Mesopotamia, 92; in Syria, 62.<br> +Photography, 10 f., 21 f.<br> +Phrygian inscriptions, 55.<br> +Pins: Greek, 40, 44; Hittite, 60, 62; Mesopotamian, 91.<br> +Place–names, Eastern, 68 f., 83.<br> +Planning, 14, 16 f.<br> +Plaster casting, 19 f.<br> +Pottery, <em>passim</em> ; hand–made and wheel–made, +29, 49 f; importance of, 29. 84; packing of, 23.<br> +Preservation of antiquities, 22 f.<br> +'Proto–Corinthian' pottery, 41.<br> +Ptolemaic period, 79.</p> + +<p>Red–figured Greek pottery, 44.<br> +Rhodian jar–handles: in Egypt, 79; in Palestine, 73.<br> +Rock–cut tombs, 70 f.<br> +Rock–sculptures in Mesopotamia, 83.</p> + +<p>Saites, 79.<br> +Samarrã, 94.<br> +Sanctuaries: in Cyprus, 54 f.; in Palestine, 76.<br> +Sargonid period, 90.<br> +Sassanian period, 93 f.<br> +Scarabs: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; in Syria, 62, 64; forged, +24.<br> +Schools of archaeology, 8, 26 f.<br> +Sculpture, squeezing of, 18.<br> +Seals: Aegean, 37; Hittite, 62; Mesopotamian, 86, 89, 91; +Sassanian,<br> +93; Syrian, of Persian period, 64: <em>see also</em> Cylinders, +Scarabs.<br> +Semitic inscriptions, 62, 65–7, 87.<br> +Shahrein, Tell Abu, 85, 88, 90.<br> +Shuruppak, 88.<br> +Sinjerli, 59, 62.<br> +Sites, identification of, 68.<br> +Societies, archaeological, 8, 26 f.<br> +Squeezing, 17 ff.<br> +Stone Age, 29 ff.; in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 35 +f.; in Mesopotamia, 84 f., 88; in Palestine, 76; in Syria, 59 +f.<br> +Sumerian period, 88 ff.<br> +Susa, 85.<br> +Syria, Central and North, 59ff.</p> + +<p>Tak–i–Bostãn, 94.<br> +Tall: <em>see</em> Tell.<br> +Telephotography, 12.<br> +Tell (mound), 68 f., 83.<br> +Telloh, 88 ff.<br> +Tepé Musyãn, 85.<br> +Terra–cottas; <em>see</em> Figurines.<br> +Trees, sacred, 77.<br> +Tombs and burials: in Cyprus, 55; in Mesopotamia. 89–94; 'of +the Kings', at Jerusalem, 71;<br> + rockcut, in Palestine, 70 f.; in Syria, 59 f: <em>see +also</em> Cemeteries.<br> +Turkish Law of Antiquities, 96.</p> + +<p>Ukheidir, 84.<br> +Ur, 85, 90.<br> +'Urfirnis' ware, 37.<br> +Ushabtis, 78 f.</p> + +<p>Warka, 85, 93 f.<br> +Wine–presses in Palestine, 77.</p> + +<p>Zurghul, 85, 89.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 13575-h.txt or 13575-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/5/7/13575">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/5/7/13575</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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