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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:42:23 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:42:23 -0700 |
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diff --git a/13552-h/13552-h.htm b/13552-h/13552-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa4b67a --- /dev/null +++ b/13552-h/13552-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,48776 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ceylon; an Account of the Island Physical, Historical, and Topographical with Notices of Its Natural History, Antiquities and Productions, Volume 1 (of 2), by James Emerson Tennent</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + + li {list-style-type: none} + + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + p {font-size: 1.0em; text-align: justify;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%; margin-top: 3em;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + + table, td, th {border:1px black solid; } + td {padding: 0px 2px;} + + .footnote {font-size: 0.8em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;} + .footnote p {text-align: justify;} + + .figcenter {text-align: center; border: 0} + .figcenter img {border: 0} + .figcenter p {text-align: center; border: 0;} + + .figright {text-align: center; float: right; clear: both;} + .figleft {text-align: center; float: left; clear: both;} + .figright img, + .figleft img {margin: 10px; width: 200px; border: 0;} + .figright p, + .figleft p {text-align: center; width: 200px; border: 0; + padding: 0; margin: 0;} + + .figrt {text-align: center; margin: 5px; float: right;} + .figrt img {width: 50px; border: 0;} + .figrt p {text-align: center; width: 100px;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; + margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0;/* padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;*/} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + + .side {float:right; + font-size: 75%; + width: 25%; + padding-left:10px; + border-left: dashed thin; + margin-left: 10px; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; + clear: right;} + hr.full { width: 100%; } + a:link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:#ff0000} + pre.pg {font-size: 8pt;} + + --> + +/*]]>*/ +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13552 ***</div> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Ceylon; an Account of the Island Physical, +Historical, and Topographical with Notices of Its Natural History, +Antiquities and Productions, Volume 1 (of 2), by James Emerson Tennent</h1> +<hr class="full" /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/001.jpg"><img src="images/001.jpg" alt= + "NOOSING WILD ELEPHANTS" /></a> + + <p>Frontispiece for Vol I + <br /> + NOOSING WILD ELEPHANTS--Vol 2 p 359 368 &c</p> + </div> + + <h1>CEYLON</h1> + + <h3>AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND</h3> + + <h3>PHYSICAL, HISTORICAL, AND TOPOGRAPHICAL</h3> + + <h5>WITH</h5> + + <h3>NOTICES OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES AND PRODUCTIONS</h3> + + <h5>BY</h5> + + <h2>SIR JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.</h2> + + <h5>ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS, PLANS AND DRAWINGS</h5> + + <h4>FOURTH EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED</h4> + + <h3>VOLUME I.</h3> + + <h4>LONDON</h4> + + <h4>1860</h4> + <hr /> + + <h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + <h4>OF</h4> + + <h2>THE FIRST VOLUME.</h2> + + <h3>PART I.</h3> + + <h4>PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.</h4> + + <h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + + <h4>GEOLOGY.—MINERALOGY.—GEMS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>I. <i>General Aspect.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Singular beauty of the island <a href="#pg003">3</a></li> + + <li>Its ancient renown in consequence <a href= + "#pg004">4</a></li> + + <li>Fable of its "perfumed winds" (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg004">4</a></li> + + <li>Character of the scenery <a href="#pg005">5</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>II. <i>Geographical Position</i> <a href="#pg006">6</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Ancient views regarding it amongst the Hindus,—"the + Meridian of Lanka" <a href="#pg007">6</a></li> + + <li>Buddhist traditions of former submersions (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg007">7</a></li> + + <li>Errors as to the dimensions of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg008">8</a></li> + + <li>Opinions of Onesicritus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Pliny, + Ptolemy, Agathemerus <a href="#pg008">8,</a> <a href= + "#pg009">9</a></li> + + <li>The Arabian geographers <a href="#pg009">9</a></li> + + <li>Sumatra supposed to be Ceylon (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg010">10</a></li> + + <li>True latitude and longitude <a href="#pg011">11</a></li> + + <li>General Eraser's map of Ceylon (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg011">11</a></li> + + <li>Geological formation <a href="#pg012">12</a></li> + + <li>Adam's Bridge <a href="#pg013">13</a></li> + + <li>Error of supposing Ceylon to be a detached fragment of + India <a href="#pg014">14</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>III. <i>The Mountain System</i> <a href="#pg014">14</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Remarkable hills, Mihintala and Sigiri <a href= + "#pg015">15</a></li> + + <li>Little evidence of volcanic action <a href= + "#pg016">16</a></li> + + <li>Rocks, gneiss <a href="#pg016">16</a></li> + + <li>Rock temples <a href="#pg017">17</a></li> + + <li>Laterite or "Cabook" <a href="#pg017">17</a></li> + + <li>Ancient name Tamba-panni (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg017">17</a></li> + + <li>Coral formation <a href="#pg019">19</a></li> + + <li>Extraordinary wells <a href="#pg021">21</a></li> + + <li>Darwin's theory of coral wells examined (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg022">22</a></li> + + <li><i>The soil of Ceylon</i> generally poor <a href= + "#pg024">24</a></li> + + <li>"Patenas," their phenomena obscure <a href= + "#pg024">24</a></li> + + <li>Rice lands between the hills <a href="#pg026">26</a></li> + + <li>Soil of the plains, "Talawas" <a href="#pg027">27</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>IV. <i>Metals</i>.—Tin <a href="#pg029">29</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Gold, nickel, cobalt <a href="#pg029">29</a></li> + + <li>Quicksilver (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg029">29</a></li> + + <li>Iron <a href="#pg030">30</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>V. <i>Minerals</i>.—Anthracite, plumbago, kaolin, nitre + caves <a href="#pg031">31</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>List of Ceylon minerals (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg032">32</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>VI. <i>Gems</i>, ancient fame of <a href="#pg032">32</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Rose-coloured quartz (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg033">33</a></li> + + <li>Mode of searching for gems <a href="#pg034">34</a></li> + + <li>Rubies <a href="#pg034">34</a></li> + + <li>Sapphire, topaz, garnet, and cinnamon stone, cat's-eye, + amethyst, moonstone <a href="#pg037">37</a>, <a href= + "#pg038">38</a></li> + + <li>Diamond not found in Ceylon (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg038">38</a></li> + + <li>Gem-finders and lapidaries <a href="#pg039">39</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>VII. <i>Rivers</i>.—Their character <a href= + "#pg040">40</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>The Mahawelli-ganga <a href="#pg041">41</a></li> + + <li>Table of the rivers <a href="#pg041">41</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>VIII. <i>Singular coast formation</i>, and its causes <a href= + "#pg043">43</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>The currents and their influence <a href= + "#pg044">44</a></li> + + <li>Word "Gobb" explained (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg046">46</a></li> + + <li>Vegetation of the sand formations <a href= + "#pg048">48</a></li> + + <li>Their suitability for the coconut <a href= + "#pg051">51</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>IX. <i>Harbours</i>.—Galle and Trincomalie <a href= + "#pg052">52</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Tides <a href="#pg052">52</a></li> + + <li>Red infusoria <a href="#pg053">53</a></li> + + <li>Population of Ceylon <a href="#pg053">53</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. II.</h3> + + <h4>CLIMATE.—HEALTH AND DISEASE.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Uniformity of temperature <a href="#pg054">54</a></li> + + <li>Brilliancy of foliage <a href="#pg056">56</a></li> + + <li>Colombo.—<i>January</i>—long shore wind <a href= + "#pg056">56</a></li> + + <li><i>February</i>—cold nights (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg057">57</a></li> + + <li><i>March, April</i> <a href="#pg058">58</a></li> + + <li><i>May</i>—S.W. monsoon <a href="#pg058">58</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Aspect of the country before it <a href= + "#pg059">59</a></li> + + <li>Lightning <a href="#pg060">60</a></li> + + <li>Rain, its violence <a href="#pg061">61</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>June</i> <a href="#pg062">62</a></li> + + <li><i>July</i> and <i>August</i>, <i>September</i>, + <i>October</i>, <i>November</i>. N.E. monsoon <a href= + "#pg063">63</a></li> + + <li><i>December</i> <a href="#pg064">64</a></li> + + <li>Annual quantity of rain in Ceylon and Hindustan (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg065">65</a></li> + + <li>Opposite climates of the same mountain <a href= + "#pg066">66</a></li> + + <li>Climate of <i>Galle</i> <a href="#pg067">67</a></li> + + <li><i>Kandy</i> and its climate <a href="#pg067">67</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Mists and hail <a href="#pg069">69</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Climate of <i>Trincomalie</i> (<i>text and note</i>) <a href= + "#pg070">70</a></li> + + <li><i>Jaffna</i> and its climate <a href="#pg071">71</a></li> + + <li>Waterspouts <a href="#pg072">72</a></li> + + <li>Anthelia <a href="#pg073">73</a></li> + + <li>Buddha rays <a href="#pg073">73</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon as a sanatarium.—<i>Neuera-ellia</i> <a href= + "#pg074">74</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Health <a href="#pg075">75</a></li> + + <li>Malaria <a href="#pg075">75</a></li> + + <li>Food and wine <a href="#pg076">76</a>, <a href= + "#pg077">77</a></li> + + <li>Effects of the climate of Ceylon on disease <a href= + "#pg079">79</a></li> + + <li>Precautions for health <a href="#pg080">80</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. III</h3> + + <h4>VEGETATION.—TREES AND PLANTS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li><i>The Flora</i> of Ceylon imperfectly known <a href= + "#pg083">83</a></li> + + <li>Vegetation similar to that of India and the Eastern Archipelago + <a href="#pg084">84</a></li> + + <li>Trees of the sea-borde.—Mangroves—Screw-pines, + Sonneratia <a href="#pg085">85</a></li> + + <li>The Northern Plains.—Euphorbiæ Cassia.—Mustard-tree + of Scripture <a href="#pg087">87</a></li> + + <li>Western coast.—Luxurious vegetation <a href= + "#pg087">87</a></li> + + <li>Eastern coast <a href="#pg088">88</a></li> + + <li>Pitcher plant.—Orchids <a href="#pg088">88</a></li> + + <li>Vines <a href="#pg089">89</a></li> + + <li><i>Botany of the Mountains</i>.—Iron-wood, Bamboo, + European fruit-trees <a href="#pg090">90</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Tea-plant—<i>Rhododendron</i>—<i>Mickelia</i> + <a href="#pg090">90</a></li> + + <li>Rapid disappearance of dead trees in the forests <a href= + "#pg091">91</a></li> + + <li>Trees with natural buttresses <a href="#pg091">91</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Flowering Trees</i>.—Coral tree <a href= + "#pg092">92</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>The Murutu—Imbul—Cotton tree—Champac + <a href="#pg093">93</a></li> + + <li>The Upas Tree—Poisons of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg095">95</a></li> + + <li>The Banyan <a href="#pg095">95</a></li> + + <li>The Sacred Bo-tree <a href="#pg097">97</a></li> + + <li>The India Rubber-tree—The Snake-tree <a href= + "#pg098">98</a></li> + + <li>Kumbuk-tree: lime in its bark <a href="#pg099">99</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Curious Seeds</i>.—The Dorian, <i>Sterculia foetida</i> + <a href="#pg100">100</a> + + <ul> + <li>The Sea Pomegranate <a href="#pg100">100</a></li> + + <li>Strychnos, curious belief as to its poison <a href= + "#pg101">101</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Euphorbia</i>—The <i>Cow-tree,</i> error regarding + (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg101">101</a></li> + + <li>Climbing plants, Epiphytes, and flowering creepers <a href= + "#pg102">102</a></li> + + <li><i>Orchids</i>—Brilliant terrestrial orchid, the + Wanna-raja.—Square-stemmed Vine <a href="#pg103">103</a></li> + + <li> + <i>Gigantic climbing Plants</i> <a href="#pg104">104</a> + + <ul> + <li>Enormous bean <a href="#pg105">105</a></li> + + <li>Bonduc seeds.—Ratans—Ratan bridges <a href= + "#pg106">106</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Thorny Trees</i>.—Raised as a natural fortification by + the Kandyans <a href="#pg107">107</a> + + <ul> + <li>The buffalo thorn, <i>Acacia tomentosa</i> <a href= + "#pg108">108</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Palms</i> <a href="#pg109">109</a> + + <ul> + <li>Coco-nut—Talipat <a href="#pg110">110</a></li> + + <li>Palmyra <a href="#pg111">111</a></li> + + <li>Jaggery Palm—Arcea Palm <a href="#pg112">112</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Betel-chewing,</i> its theory and uses <a href= + "#pg112">112</a> + + <ul> + <li>Pingos <a href="#pg114">114</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Timber Trees</i> <a href="#pg115">115</a> + + <ul> + <li>Jakwood—Del—Teak <a href="#pg116">116</a></li> + + <li>Suria <a href="#pg117">117</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Cabinet + Woods</i>.—Satin-wood—Ebony—Cadooberia <a href= + "#pg117">117</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Calamander, its rarity and beauty <a href= + "#pg118">118</a></li> + + <li>Tamarind <a href="#pg119">119</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Fruit-trees</i> <a href="#pg119">119</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Remarkable power of trees to generate cold and keep their + fruit chill <a href="#pg121">121</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Aquatic Plants</i>—Lotus, red and blue <a href= + "#pg123">123</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Desmanthus natans, an aquatic sensitive plant <a href= + "#pg123">123</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <h3>PART II.</h3> + + <h4>ZOOLOGY.</h4> + + <h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + + <h4>MAMMALIA.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Neglect of Zoology in Ceylon <a href="#pg127">127</a></li> + + <li>Monkeys <a href="#pg128">128</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Wanderoo <a href="#pg129">129</a></li> + + <li>Error regarding the <i>Silenus Veter</i> (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg129">129</a></li> + + <li>Presbytes Cephalopterus <a href="#pg130">130</a></li> + + <li>P. Ursinus in the Hills <a href="#pg131">131</a></li> + + <li>P. Thersites in the Wanny <a href="#pg132">132</a></li> + + <li>P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie <a href= + "#pg132">132</a></li> + + <li>No dead monkey ever found <a href="#pg133">133</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Loris <a href="#pg133">133</a></li> + + <li>Bats <a href="#pg135">135</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Flying fox <a href="#pg135">135</a></li> + + <li>Horse-shoe bat <a href="#pg136">136</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Carnivora</i>.—Bears <a href="#pg137">137</a></li> + + <li>Their ferocity <a href="#pg138">138</a></li> + + <li>Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg139">139</a></li> + + <li>Leopards <a href="#pg139">139</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Curious belief <a href="#pg140">140</a></li> + + <li>Anecdotes of leopards <a href="#pg142">142</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Palm-cat <a href="#pg144">144</a></li> + + <li>Civet <a href="#pg144">144</a></li> + + <li>Dogs <a href="#pg144">144</a></li> + + <li>Jackal <a href="#pg145">145</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>The horn of the jackal <a href="#pg145">145</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mungoos <a href="#pg145">145</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Its fights with serpents <a href="#pg146">146</a></li> + + <li>Theory of its antidote <a href="#pg147">147</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Squirrels <a href="#pg148">148</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Flying squirrel <a href="#pg148">148</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tree rat <a href="#pg149">149</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Story of a rat and a snake <a href="#pg149">149</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coffee rat <a href="#pg149">149</a></li> + + <li>Bandicoot <a href="#pg150">150</a></li> + + <li>Porcupine <a href="#pg150">150</a></li> + + <li>Pengolin <a href="#pg151">151</a></li> + + <li><i>Ruminantia</i>.—The Gaur <a href="#pg151">151</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Oxen <a href="#pg152">152</a></li> + + <li>Humped cattle <a href="#pg152">152</a></li> + + <li>Encounter of a cow and a leopard <a href= + "#pg153">153</a></li> + + <li>Buffaloes <a href="#pg154">154</a></li> + + <li>Sporting buffaloes <a href="#pg155">155</a></li> + + <li>Peculiar structure of the hoof <a href= + "#pg155">155</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Deer <a href="#pg156">156</a></li> + + <li>Meminna <a href="#pg157">157</a></li> + + <li>Elephants <a href="#pg158">158</a></li> + + <li>Whales <a href="#pg158">158</a></li> + + <li>General view of the mammalia of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg159">159</a></li> + + <li>List of Ceylon mammalia <a href="#pg159">159</a></li> + + <li>Curious parasite of the bat (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg161">161</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. II.</h3> + + <h4>BIRDS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Their numbers <a href="#pg163">163</a></li> + + <li>Songsters <a href="#pg163">163</a></li> + + <li>Hornbills, the "bird with two heads" <a href= + "#pg164">164</a></li> + + <li>Pea fowl <a href="#pg165">165</a></li> + + <li>Sea birds, their number <a href="#pg165">165</a></li> + + <li>I. <i>Accipitres</i>.—Eagles <a href= + "#pg166">166</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Falcons and hawks <a href="#pg166">166</a></li> + + <li>Owls—the devil bird <a href="#pg167">167</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>II. <i>Passeres</i>.—Swallows <a href= + "#pg167">167</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Kingfishers—sunbirds <a href="#pg168">168</a></li> + + <li>Bul-bul—tailor bird—and weaver <a href= + "#pg169">169</a></li> + + <li>Crows, anecdotes of <a href="#pg170">170</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>III. <i>Scansores</i>.—Parroquets <a href= + "#pg172">172</a></li> + + <li>IV. <i>Columbiæ</i>.—Pigeons <a href= + "#pg173">173</a></li> + + <li>V. <i>Gallinæ</i>.—Jungle-fowl <a href= + "#pg174">174</a></li> + + <li>VI. <i>Grallæ</i>.—Ibis, stork, &c. <a href= + "#pg175">175</a></li> + + <li>VII. <i>Anseres</i>.—Flamingoes <a href= + "#pg175">175</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Pelicans <a href="#pg176">176</a></li> + + <li>Game.—Partridges, &c.<a href= + "#pg176">176</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>List of Ceylon birds <a href="#pg177">177</a></li> + + <li>List of birds peculiar to Ceylon <a href="#pg180">180</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. III.</h3> + + <h4>REPTILES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li><i>Lizards</i>.—Iguana <a href="#pg182">182</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Kabragoya, barbarous custom in preparing the cobra-tel + poison (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg183">183</a></li> + + <li>The green calotes <a href="#pg184">184</a></li> + + <li>Chameleon <a href="#pg184">184</a></li> + + <li>Ceratophora <a href="#pg185">185</a></li> + + <li>Geckoes,—their power of reproducing limbs <a href= + "#pg185">185</a>, <a href="#pg186">186</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crocodiles <a href="#pg186">186</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Their power of burying themselves in the mud <a href= + "#pg187">187</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Tortoises</i>—Curious parasite <a href= + "#pg188">188</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Land tortoises <a href="#pg189">189</a></li> + + <li>Edible turtle <a href="#pg190">190</a></li> + + <li>Huge Indian tortoises (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg190">190</a></li> + + <li>Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the + tortoise-shell <a href="#pg190">190</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Serpents</i>.—Venomous species rare <a href= + "#pg191">191</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Cobra de capello <a href="#pg192">192</a></li> + + <li>Instance of land snakes found at sea <a href= + "#pg193">193</a></li> + + <li>Tame snakes (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg193">193</a></li> + + <li>Singular tradition regarding the cobra de capello <a href= + "#pg194">194</a></li> + + <li>Uropeltidæ.—New species discovered in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg195">195</a></li> + + <li>Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello <a href= + "#pg195">195</a></li> + + <li>Anecdotes of snakes <a href="#pg196">196</a></li> + + <li>The Python <a href="#pg196">196</a></li> + + <li>Water snakes <a href="#pg197">197</a></li> + + <li>Snake stones <a href="#pg197">197</a></li> + + <li>Analysis of one <a href="#pg199">199</a></li> + + <li>Cæcilia <a href="#pg201">201</a></li> + + <li>Large frogs <a href="#pg202">202</a></li> + + <li>Tree frogs <a href="#pg202">202</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>List of Ceylon reptiles <a href="#pg203">203</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. IV.</h3> + + <h4>FISHES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known <a href= + "#pg205">205</a></li> + + <li>Fish for table, seir fish <a href="#pg205">205</a></li> + + <li>Sardines, poisonous? <a href="#pg206">206</a></li> + + <li>Sharks <a href="#pg207">207</a></li> + + <li>Saw-fish <a href="#pg207">207</a></li> + + <li>Fish of brilliant colours <a href="#pg207">207</a></li> + + <li>Curious fish described by Ælian (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg207">207</a></li> + + <li>Fresh-water fish, little known,—not much eaten <a href= + "#pg208">208</a></li> + + <li>Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake <a href="#pg209">209</a></li> + + <li>Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes <a href= + "#pg209">209</a></li> + + <li>Their re-appearance after rain <a href="#pg209">209</a></li> + + <li>Mode of fishing in the ponds <a href="#pg210">210</a></li> + + <li>Showers of fish <a href="#pg210">210</a></li> + + <li>Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable <a href= + "#pg212">212</a></li> + + <li>Fish moving on dry land <a href="#pg213">213</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Instances in Guiana (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg214">214</a></li> + + <li>Perca Scandens, ascends trees <a href="#pg215">215</a></li> + + <li>Doubts as to the story of Daldorf <a href= + "#pg217">217</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fishes burying themselves during the dry season <a href= + "#pg218">218</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>The <i>protopterus</i> of the Gambia <a href= + "#pg218">218</a></li> + + <li>Instances in the fish of the Nile <a href= + "#pg218">218</a></li> + + <li>Instances in the fish of South America <a href= + "#pg219">219</a></li> + + <li>Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in + Ceylon <a href="#pg220">220</a></li> + + <li>Other animals that so bury themselves, Melaniæ, Ampullariæ, + &c. <a href="#pg220">220</a></li> + + <li>The animals that so bury themselves in India (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg220">220</a></li> + + <li>Analogous case of (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg221">221</a></li> + + <li>Theory of æstivation and hybernation <a href= + "#pg221">221</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fish in hot-water in Ceylon <a href="#pg224">224</a></li> + + <li>List of Ceylon fishes <a href="#pg224">224</a></li> + + <li>Instances of fishes failing from the clouds <a href= + "#pg226">226</a></li> + + <li>Overland migration of fishes known to the Greeks and Romans + <a href="#pg227">227</a></li> + + <li>Note on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley <a href= + "#pg229">229</a></li> + + <li>Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus.<a href= + "#pg231">231</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. V.</h3> + + <h4>MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>I. <i>Conchology</i>—General character of Ceylon shells + <a href="#pg233">233</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Confusion regarding them in scientific works and + collections <a href="#pg234">234</a></li> + + <li>List of Ceylon shells <a href="#pg235">235</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>II. <i>Radiata</i>.—Star fish <a href= + "#pg244">244</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Sea slugs <a href="#pg245">245</a></li> + + <li>Parasitic worms <a href="#pg245">245</a></li> + + <li>Planaria <a href="#pg235">235</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>III. <i>Acalephæ</i>, abundant <a href="#pg246">246</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Corals little known <a href="#pg246">246</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VI.</h3> + + <h4>INSECTS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Profusion of insects in Ceylon <a href="#pg247">247</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Imperfect knowledge of <a href="#pg247">247</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>I. <i>Coleoptera</i>.—Beetles <a href= + "#pg248">248</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Scavenger beetles <a href="#pg249">249</a></li> + + <li>Coco-nut beetles <a href="#pg249">249</a></li> + + <li>Tortoise beetles <a href="#pg250">250</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>II. <i>Orthoptera</i>.—Mantis and leaf-insects <a href= + "#pg250">250</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Stick-insects <a href="#pg252">252</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>III. <i>Neuroptera</i>—Dragon flies <a href= + "#pg252">252</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Ant-lion <a href="#pg252">252</a></li> + + <li>White ants <a href="#pg253">253</a></li> + + <li>Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages (<i>text and + note</i>) <a href="#pg254">254</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>V. <i>Hymenoptera</i>.—Mason Wasps <a href= + "#pg256">256</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Wasps <a href="#pg257">257</a></li> + + <li>Bees <a href="#pg257">257</a></li> + + <li>Carpenter Bee <a href="#pg258">258</a></li> + + <li>Ants <a href="#pg258">258</a></li> + + <li>Burrowing ants <a href="#pg262">262</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>VI. <i>Lepidoptera</i>.—Butterflies <a href= + "#pg262">262</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Sylph <a href="#pg263">263</a></li> + + <li>Lycænidæ <a href="#pg264">264</a></li> + + <li>Moths <a href="#pg265">265</a></li> + + <li>Silk worms (<i>text and note</i>) <a href= + "#pg265">265</a></li> + + <li>Wood-carrying Moths <a href="#pg266">266</a></li> + + <li>Pterophorus <a href="#pg267">267</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>VII. <i>Homoptera</i> <a href="#pg267">267</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Cicada <a href="#pg267">267</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>VIII. <i>Hemiptera</i> <a href="#pg267">267</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Bugs <a href="#pg267">267</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>IX. <i>Aphaniptera</i> <a href="#pg268">268</a></li> + + <li>X. <i>Diptera</i>.—Mosquitoes <a href= + "#pg268">268</a></li> + + <li>General character of Ceylon insects <a href= + "#pg269">269</a></li> + + <li>List of insects in Ceylon <a href="#pg274">274</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VII.</h3> + + <h4>ARACHNIDE, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACEA, ETC.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Spiders <a href="#pg294">294</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Strange nests of the wood spiders <a href= + "#pg295">295</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><i>Olios Taprobanius</i> <a href= + "#pg295">295</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><i>Mygale fasciata</i> <a href= + "#pg295">295</a></li> + + <li>Ticks <a href="#pg296">296</a></li> + + <li>Mites.—<i>Trombidium tinctorum</i> <a href= + "#pg297">297</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Myriapods</i>.—Centipedes <a href= + "#pg297">297</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Cermatia <a href="#pg298">298</a></li> + + <li>Scolopendra crassa <a href="#pg298">298</a></li> + + <li>S. pollipes <a href="#pg299">299</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Millipeds</i>—Iulus <a href="#pg299">299</a></li> + + <li><i>Crustacea</i> <a href="#pg300">300</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Calling crabs <a href="#pg300">300</a></li> + + <li>Land crabs <a href="#pg301">301</a></li> + + <li>Painted crabs <a href="#pg301">301</a></li> + + <li>Paddling crabs <a href="#pg301">301</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Annelidæ</i>, Leeches.—The land leech <a href= + "#pg302">302</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Medical leech <a href="#pg305">305</a></li> + + <li>Cattle leech <a href="#pg306">306</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>List of Articulata, &c.<a href="#pg307">307</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>PART III.</h3> + + <h4>THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.</h4> + + <h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + + <h4>SOURCES OF SINGHALESE HISTORY—THE MAHAWANSO.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Ceylon formerly thought to have no authentic history <a href= + "#pg311">311</a></li> + + <li>Researches of Turnour <a href="#pg312">312</a></li> + + <li>Biographical sketch of Turnour (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg312">312</a></li> + + <li>The Mahawanso <a href="#pg314">314</a></li> + + <li>Recovery of the "tika" on the Mahawanso <a href= + "#pg315">315</a></li> + + <li>Outline of the Mahawanso <a href="#pg315">315</a></li> + + <li>Turnour's <i>epitome</i> of Singhalese history <a href= + "#pg316">316</a></li> + + <li>Historical proofs of the Mahawanso <a href= + "#pg317">317</a></li> + + <li>Identity of Sandracottus and Chandragupta <a href= + "#pg318">318</a></li> + + <li>Ancient map of Ceylon (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg318">318</a></li> + + <li>List of Ceylon sovereigns <a href="#pg320">320</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. II.</h3> + + <h4>THE ABORIGINES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Singhalese histories all illustrative of Buddhism <a href= + "#pg325">325</a></li> + + <li>A Buddha <a href="#pg325">325</a></li> + + <li>Gotama Buddha, his history <a href="#pg326">326</a></li> + + <li>Amazing prevalence of his religion (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg326">326</a></li> + + <li>His three visits to Ceylon <a href="#pg327">327</a></li> + + <li>Inhabitants of the island at that time supposed to be of + Malayan type <a href="#pg327">327</a></li> + + <li>Legend of their Chinese origin <a href="#pg328">328</a></li> + + <li>Probably identical with the aborigines of the Dekkan <a href= + "#pg328">328</a></li> + + <li>Common basis of their language <a href="#pg328">328</a></li> + + <li>Characteristics of vernacular Singhalese <a href= + "#pg329">329</a></li> + + <li>State of the aborigines before Wijayo's invasion <a href= + "#pg330">330</a></li> + + <li>Story of Wijayo <a href="#pg330">330</a></li> + + <li>The natives of Ceylon described as <i>Yakkos</i> and + <i>Nagas</i> <a href="#pg331">331</a></li> + + <li>Traces of serpent-worship in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg331">331</a></li> + + <li>Coincidence of the Mahawanso with the Odyssey (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg332">332</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. III.</h3> + + <h4>CONQUEST OF WIJAYO, B.C. 543.—ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM, + B.C. 307.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Early commerce of Ceylon described by the Chinese <a href= + "#pg335">335</a></li> + + <li>Wijayo as a colonizer <a href="#pg336">336</a></li> + + <li>His treatment of the native population <a href= + "#pg336">336</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 505. His death and successors <a href= + "#pg336">336</a></li> + + <li>A number of petty kingdoms formed <a href="#pg337">337</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon divided into three districts: Pihiti, Rohuna, and Maya + <a href="#pg337">337</a></li> + + <li>The village system established <a href="#pg337">337</a></li> + + <li>Agriculture introduced <a href="#pg338">338</a></li> + + <li>Irrigation imported from India <a href="#pg338">338</a></li> + + <li>The first tank constructed, B.C. 504 (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg338">338</a></li> + + <li>Rapid progress of the island <a href="#pg339">339</a></li> + + <li>Toleration of Wijayo and his followers <a href= + "#pg339">339</a></li> + + <li>Establishment of Buddhism, 307 B.C. <a href= + "#pg340">340</a></li> + + <li>Preaching of Mahindo <a href="#pg340">340</a></li> + + <li>Planting of the sacred Bo-tree <a href="#pg341">341</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. IV.</h3> + + <h4>THE BUDDHIST MONUMENTS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Buddhist architecture introduced in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg344">344</a></li> + + <li>The first <i>dagobas</i> built <a href="#pg345">345</a></li> + + <li>Their mode of construction and vast dimensions <a href= + "#pg346">346</a></li> + + <li>The earliest Buddhist <i>temples</i> <a href= + "#pg346">346</a></li> + + <li><i>Images</i> and <i>statues</i> a later innovation <a href= + "#pg347">347</a></li> + + <li>First residences of the priesthood <a href= + "#pg347">347</a></li> + + <li>The formation of <i>monasteries</i> and <i>wiharas</i> <a href= + "#pg348">348</a></li> + + <li>The first wihara built <a href="#pg349">349</a></li> + + <li>Form of the modern wiharas <a href="#pg349">349</a></li> + + <li>Inconvenient numbers of the Buddhist priesthood <a href= + "#pg350">350</a></li> + + <li>Originally fed by the kings and the people <a href= + "#pg350">350</a></li> + + <li>Caste annulled in the case of priests <a href= + "#pg351">351</a></li> + + <li>The priestly robe and its peculiarities <a href= + "#pg351">351</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. V.</h3> + + <h4>SINGHALESE CHIVALRY.—ELALA AND DUTUGAIMUNU.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Progress of civilisation <a href="#pg352">352</a></li> + + <li>The new settlers agriculturists <a href="#pg352">352</a></li> + + <li>Malabars enlisted as soldiers and seamen <a href= + "#pg353">353</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 237. The revolt of Sena and Gutika <a href= + "#pg353">353</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 205. Usurpation of Elala <a href="#pg353">353</a></li> + + <li>His character and renown <a href="#pg353">353</a></li> + + <li>The victory of Dutugaimunu <a href="#pg354">354</a></li> + + <li>Progress of the south of the island <a href= + "#pg355">355</a></li> + + <li>Building of the great Ruanwellé Dagoba <a href= + "#pg355">355</a></li> + + <li>Building of the Brazen Palace <a href="#pg356">356</a></li> + + <li>Its vicissitudes and ruins <a href="#pg357">357</a></li> + + <li>Death and character of Dutugaimunu <a href= + "#pg358">358</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VI.</h3> + + <h4>THE INFLUENCES OP BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>The Mahawanse or Great Dynasty <a href="#pg360">360</a></li> + + <li>The Suluwanse or Inferior Dynasty <a href="#pg360">360</a></li> + + <li>Services rendered by the Great Dynasty <a href= + "#pg360">360</a></li> + + <li>Frequent usurpations and the cause <a href= + "#pg361">361</a></li> + + <li>Disputed successions <a href="#pg361">361</a></li> + + <li>Rising influence of the priesthood <a href= + "#pg362">362</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 104. Their first endowment with land <a href= + "#pg363">363</a></li> + + <li>Rapid increase of the temple estates <a href= + "#pg364">364</a></li> + + <li>Their possessions and their vow of poverty reconciled <a href= + "#pg364">364</a></li> + + <li>Acquire the compulsory labour of temple-tenants <a href= + "#pg365">365</a></li> + + <li>Impulse thus given to cultivation <a href="#pg365">365</a></li> + + <li>And to the construction of enormous tanks <a href= + "#pg365">365</a></li> + + <li>Tanks conferred on the temples <a href="#pg365">365</a></li> + + <li>The great tank of Minery formed, A.D. 272 <a href= + "#pg365">365</a></li> + + <li>Subserviency of the kings to the priesthood <a href= + "#pg366">366</a></li> + + <li>Large possessions of the temples at the present day <a href= + "#pg366">366</a></li> + + <li>Cultivation of flowers for the temples <a href= + "#pg367">367</a></li> + + <li>Their singular profusion <a href="#pg367">367</a></li> + + <li>Fruit trees planted by the Buddhist sovereigns <a href= + "#pg367">367</a></li> + + <li>Edicts of Asoca <a href="#pg368">368</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VII.</h3> + + <h4>FATE OF THE ABORIGINES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Aborigines forced to labour for the new settlers <a href= + "#pg369">369</a></li> + + <li>Immensity of the structures erected by them <a href= + "#pg370">370</a></li> + + <li>Slow amalgamation of the natives with the strangers <a href= + "#pg370">370</a></li> + + <li>The worship of snakes and demons continued <a href= + "#pg370">370</a></li> + + <li>Treatment of the aborigines by the kings <a href= + "#pg371">371</a></li> + + <li>Their formal disqualification for high office <a href= + "#pg371">371</a></li> + + <li>Their rebellions <a href="#pg371">371</a></li> + + <li>They retire into the mountains and forests <a href= + "#pg372">372</a></li> + + <li>Their singular habits of seclusion <a href= + "#pg372">372</a></li> + + <li>Traces of their customs at the present day <a href= + "#pg373">373</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VIII.</h3> + + <h4>EXTINCTION OF THE GREAT DYNASTY.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>B.C. 104 Walagam-bahu I <a href="#pg374">374</a></li> + + <li>His wars with the Malabars <a href="#pg374">374</a></li> + + <li>The South of Ceylon free from Malabar invasion <a href= + "#pg374">374</a></li> + + <li>The Buddhist doctrines first formed into books <a href= + "#pg375">375</a></li> + + <li>The formation of rock-temples <a href="#pg376">376</a></li> + + <li>Apostacy of Chora Naga <a href="#pg376">376</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon governed by queens <a href="#pg377">377</a></li> + + <li>Schisms in religion <a href="#pg377">377</a></li> + + <li>Buddhism tolerant of heresy but intolerant of schism <a href= + "#pg378">378</a></li> + + <li>Illustrations of Buddhist toleration <a href= + "#pg377">377</a></li> + + <li>Tolerance enjoined by Asoca <a href="#pg377">377</a></li> + + <li>The Wytulian heresy <a href="#pg377">377</a></li> + + <li>Corruption of Buddhism by the impurities of Brahnmanism + <a href="#pg380">380</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 275. Recantation and repentance of King Maha Sen <a href= + "#pg380">380</a></li> + + <li>End of the Solar race <a href="#pg381">381</a></li> + + <li>State of Ceylon at that period <a href="#pg381">381</a></li> + + <li>Prosperity of the North <a href="#pg381">381</a></li> + + <li>Description of Anarajapoora in the fourth century <a href= + "#pg382">382</a></li> + + <li>Its municipal organisation <a href="#pg382">382</a></li> + + <li>Its palaces and temples <a href="#pg382">382</a></li> + + <li>Popular error as to the area of the city (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg383">383</a></li> + + <li>Multitudes of the priesthood described by Fa Hian <a href= + "#pg384">384</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. IX</h3> + + <h4>KINGS OF THE LOWER DYNASTY.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Sovereigns of the Lower Dynasty, a feeble race <a href= + "#pg385">385</a></li> + + <li>Kings who were sculptors, physicians, and poets <a href= + "#pg386">386</a></li> + + <li>Earliest notice of Foreign Embassies to Rome and to China + <a href="#pg387">387</a></li> + + <li>Notices of Ceylon by Chinese Historians <a href= + "#pg387">387</a></li> + + <li>Fa Hian visits Ceylon A.D. 413 <a href="#pg387">387</a></li> + + <li>Anecdote related by Fa Hian (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg388">388</a></li> + + <li>History of "the Sacred Tooth" <a href="#pg388">388</a></li> + + <li>Murder of the king Dhatu Sena, A.D. 459 <a href= + "#pg389">389</a></li> + + <li>Infamous conduct of his son <a href="#pg391">391</a></li> + + <li>The fortified rock Sigiri <a href="#pg392">392</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. X.</h3> + + <h4>DOMINATION OF THE MALABARS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Origin of the Malabar invaders of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg395">395</a></li> + + <li>The ancient Indian kingdom of Pandya <a href= + "#pg395">395</a></li> + + <li>Malabar mercenaries enlisted in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg395">395</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 237. Revolt of Sena and Gutika <a href= + "#pg395">395</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 205. Usurpation of Elala <a href="#pg396">396</a></li> + + <li>B.C. 103. Second Malabar invasion <a href="#pg396">396</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 110. Third Malabar invasion <a href="#pg396">396</a></li> + + <li>Jewish evidence of Malabar conquest (<i>note</i>)<a href= + "#pg396">396</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 433. Fourth Malabar invasion <a href="#pg397">397</a></li> + + <li>The influence of the Malabars firmly established <a href= + "#pg398">398</a></li> + + <li>Distress of the Singhalese in the 7th century, as described by + Hiouen Thsang <a href="#pg399">399</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 642. Anarajapoora deserted, and Pollanarrua built <a href= + "#pg400">400</a></li> + + <li>The Malabars did nothing to improve the island <a href= + "#pg401">401</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 840. A fresh Malabar invasion <a href= + "#pg401">401</a></li> + + <li>The Singhalese seek to conciliate them by alliances <a href= + "#pg402">402</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 990. Another Malabar invasion <a href= + "#pg402">402</a></li> + + <li>Extreme misery of the island <a href="#pg402">402</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 1023. The Malabars seize Pollanarrua and occupy the entire + north of the island <a href="#pg403">403</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. XI.</h3> + + <h4>THE REIGN OF PRAKRAMA BAHU.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>A.D. 1071. Recovery of the island from the Malabars <a href= + "#pg404">404</a></li> + + <li>Wijayo Bahu I. expels the Malabars <a href= + "#pg405">405</a></li> + + <li>Birth of the Prince Prakrama <a href="#pg405">405</a></li> + + <li>His character and renown <a href="#pg405">405</a></li> + + <li>Immense public works constructed by him <a href= + "#pg406">406</a></li> + + <li>Restores the order of the Buddhist priesthood <a href= + "#pg406">406</a></li> + + <li>Intercourse between Siam and Ceylon <a href= + "#pg406">406</a></li> + + <li>Temples and sacred edifices built by Prakrama <a href= + "#pg407">407</a></li> + + <li>The Gal-Wihara at Pollanarrua <a href="#pg407">407</a></li> + + <li>Ruins of Pollanarrua <a href="#pg408">408</a></li> + + <li>Extraordinary extent of his works for irrigation <a href= + "#pg409">409</a></li> + + <li>Foreign wars of Prakrama <a href="#pg409">409</a></li> + + <li>His conquests in India <a href="#pg410">410</a></li> + + <li>The death of Prakrama Bahu <a href="#pg410">410</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. XII.</h3> + + <h4>FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY.</h4> + + <h4>ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE, A.D. 1505.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Prakrama Baku, the last powerful king <a href= + "#pg411">411</a></li> + + <li>Anarchy follows on his decease <a href="#pg411">411</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 1197. The Queen Leela-Wattee <a href="#pg412">412</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 1211. Return of the Malabar invaders <a href= + "#pg412">412</a></li> + + <li>The Malabars establish themselves at Jaffna <a href= + "#pg413">413</a></li> + + <li>Early history of Jaffna <a href="#pg413">413</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 1235. The new capital at Dambedenia <a href= + "#pg413">413</a></li> + + <li>Extending ruin of Ceylon <a href="#pg414">414</a></li> + + <li>Kandy founded as a new capital <a href="#pg414">414</a></li> + + <li>Successive removals of the seat of Government to Yapahoo, + Kornegalle, Gampola, Kandy, and Cotta <a href="#pg415">415</a></li> + + <li>Ascendancy of the Malabars <a href="#pg415">415</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 1410. The King of Ceylon carried captive to China <a href= + "#pg416">416</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon tributary to China <a href="#pg417">417</a></li> + + <li>Arrival of the Portuguese in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg418">418</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>PART IV.</h3> + + <h4>SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.</h4> + + <h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + + <h4>POPULATION, CASTE, SLAVERY, AND RAJA-KARIYA.</h4> + + <ul> + <li><i>Population</i> encouraged by the fertility of Ceylon + <a href="#pg421">421</a></li> + + <li>Evidence of its former extent in the ruins of the tanks and + canals <a href="#pg422">422</a></li> + + <li>Means by which the population was preserved <a href= + "#pg423">423</a></li> + + <li>Causes of its dispersion—the ruin of the tanks <a href= + "#pg424">424</a></li> + + <li>Domestic life similar to that of the Hindus <a href= + "#pg425">425</a></li> + + <li>Respect shown to females <a href="#pg425">425</a></li> + + <li>Caste perpetuated in defiance of religious prohibition <a href= + "#pg425">425</a></li> + + <li>Particulars in which caste in Ceylon differs from caste in + India <a href="#pg425">425</a></li> + + <li>Slavery, borrowed from Hindustan <a href="#pg425">425</a></li> + + <li>Compulsory labour or Raja-kariya <a href="#pg426">426</a></li> + + <li>Mode of enforcing it <a href="#pg427">427</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. II.</h3> + + <h4>AGRICULTURE, IRRIGATION, CATTLE, AND CROPS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Agriculture unknown before the arrival of Wijayo <a href= + "#pg429">429</a></li> + + <li>Rice was imported into Ceylon in the second century B.C. + <a href="#pg429">429</a></li> + + <li>The practice of irrigation due to the Hindu kings <a href= + "#pg430">430</a></li> + + <li>Who taught the science of irrigation to the Singhalese + (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg430">430</a></li> + + <li>The first tank constructed B.C. 504 <a href= + "#pg431">431</a></li> + + <li>Gardens and fruit-trees first planted <a href= + "#pg432">432</a></li> + + <li>Value of artificial irrigation in the north of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg432">432</a></li> + + <li>In the south of the island the rains sustain cultivation + <a href="#pg432">432</a></li> + + <li>Two harvests in the year in the south of the island <a href= + "#pg432">432</a></li> + + <li>In the north, where rains are uncertain, tanks indispensable + <a href="#pg432">432</a></li> + + <li>Irrigation the occupation of kings <a href= + "#pg434">434</a></li> + + <li>The municipal village-system of cultivation <a href= + "#pg434">434</a></li> + + <li>"<i>Assoedamising</i>" of rice lands in the mountains <a href= + "#pg434">434</a></li> + + <li>Temple villages and their tenure <a href="#pg434">434</a></li> + + <li>Farm-stock buffaloes and cows <a href="#pg435">435</a></li> + + <li>A Singhalese garden described <a href="#pg435">435</a></li> + + <li>Coco-nut palm rarely mentioned in early writings <a href= + "#pg436">436</a></li> + + <li>Doubt whether it be indigenous to Ceylon <a href= + "#pg436">436</a></li> + + <li>The Mango and other fruits <a href="#pg437">437</a></li> + + <li>Rice and curry mentioned in the second century B.C. <a href= + "#pg437">437</a></li> + + <li>Animal food used by the early Singhalese <a href= + "#pg438">438</a></li> + + <li>Betel, antiquity of the custom of chewing it <a href= + "#pg438">438</a></li> + + <li>Intoxicating liquors known at an early period <a href= + "#pg439">439</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. III.</h3> + + <h4>EARLY COMMERCE, SHIPPING, AND PRODUCTIONS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Trade entirely in the hands of strangers <a href= + "#pg440">440</a></li> + + <li>Native shipping unconnected with commerce <a href= + "#pg440">440</a></li> + + <li>Same indifference to trade prevails at this day <a href= + "#pg441">441</a></li> + + <li>Singhalese boats all copied from foreign models <a href= + "#pg442">442</a></li> + + <li>All sewn together and without iron <a href= + "#pg442">442</a></li> + + <li>Romance of the "Loadstone Island" <a href="#pg443">443</a></li> + + <li>The legend believed by Greeks and the Chinese <a href= + "#pg443">443</a></li> + + <li>Vessels with two prows mentioned by Strabo <a href= + "#pg444">444</a></li> + + <li>Foreign trade spoken of B.C. 204 <a href="#pg444">444</a></li> + + <li>Internal traffic in the ancient city of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg445">445</a></li> + + <li>Merchants traversing the island <a href="#pg445">445</a></li> + + <li>Early exports from Ceylon,—gems, pearls, &c. <a href= + "#pg445">445</a></li> + + <li>The imports, chiefly manufactures <a href="#pg446">446</a></li> + + <li>Horses and carriages imported from India <a href= + "#pg447">447</a></li> + + <li>Cloth, silk, &c., brought from Persia <a href= + "#pg447">447</a></li> + + <li>Kashmir, intercourse with <a href="#pg447">447</a></li> + + <li>Edrisi's account of Ceylon trade in the twelfth century + <a href="#pg448">448</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. IV.</h3> + + <h4>MANUFACTURES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Silk not produced in Ceylon <a href="#pg450">450</a></li> + + <li>Coir and cordage <a href="#pg450">450</a></li> + + <li>Dress; unshaped robes <a href="#pg450">450</a></li> + + <li><i>Manual and Mechanical Arts</i>—Weaving <a href= + "#pg451">451</a></li> + + <li>Priest's robes spun, woven, and dyed in a day <a href= + "#pg452">452</a></li> + + <li>Peculiar mode of cutting out a priest's robe <a href= + "#pg452">452</a></li> + + <li>Bleaching and dyeing <a href="#pg452">452</a></li> + + <li>Earliest artisans, immigrants <a href="#pg452">452</a></li> + + <li>Handicrafts looked down on <a href="#pg453">453</a></li> + + <li>Pottery <a href="#pg453">453</a></li> + + <li>Glass <a href="#pg454">454</a></li> + + <li>Glass mirrors <a href="#pg454">454</a></li> + + <li>Leather <a href="#pg454">454</a></li> + + <li>Wood carving <a href="#pg454">454</a></li> + + <li><i>Chemical Arts</i>—Sugar <a href="#pg455">455</a></li> + + <li>Mineral paints <a href="#pg455">455</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. V.</h3> + + <h4>WORKING IN METALS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Early knowledge of the use of iron <a href= + "#pg457">457</a></li> + + <li>Steel <a href="#pg457">457</a></li> + + <li>Copper and its uses <a href="#pg457">457</a></li> + + <li>Bells, bronze, lead <a href="#pg458">458</a></li> + + <li>Gold and silver <a href="#pg458">458</a></li> + + <li>Plate and silver ware <a href="#pg458">458</a></li> + + <li>Red coral found at Galle (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg459">459</a></li> + + <li>Jewelry and mounted gems <a href="#pg459">459</a></li> + + <li>Gilding.—Coin <a href="#pg460">460</a></li> + + <li>Coins mentioned in the Mahawanso <a href="#pg460">460</a></li> + + <li>Meaning of the term "massa" (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg460">460</a></li> + + <li>Coins of Lokiswaira <a href="#pg461">461</a></li> + + <li>General device of Singhalese coins <a href= + "#pg461">461</a></li> + + <li>Indian coinage of Prakrama Bahu <a href="#pg462">462</a></li> + + <li>Fish-hook money <a href="#pg463">463</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VI.</h3> + + <h4>ENGINEERING.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Engineering taught by the Brahmans <a href= + "#pg464">464</a></li> + + <li>Rude methods of labour <a href="#pg464">464</a></li> + + <li>Military engineering unknown <a href="#pg465">465</a></li> + + <li>Early attempts at fortification <a href="#pg465">465</a></li> + + <li>Fortified rock of Sigiri <a href="#pg465">465</a></li> + + <li>Forests, their real security <a href="#pg466">466</a></li> + + <li>Thorns planted as defences <a href="#pg466">466</a></li> + + <li><i>Bridges</i> and ferries <a href="#pg466">466</a></li> + + <li>Method of tying cut stone in forming tanks <a href= + "#pg467">467</a></li> + + <li>Tank sluices <a href="#pg467">467</a></li> + + <li>Defective construction of these reservoirs <a href= + "#pg467">467</a></li> + + <li>The art of engineering lost <a href="#pg468">468</a></li> + + <li>The "Giants' Tank" a failure <a href="#pg468">468</a></li> + + <li>An aqueduct formed, A.D. 66 <a href="#pg469">469</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VII.</h3> + + <h4>THE FINE ARTS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li><i>Music</i>, its early cultivation <a href= + "#pg470">470</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Harsh character of Singhalese music <a href= + "#pg470">470</a></li> + + <li>Tom-toms, their variety and antiquity <a href= + "#pg471">471</a></li> + + <li>Singhalese gamut <a href="#pg472">472</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Painting</i>.—Imagination discouraged <a href= + "#pg472">472</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Similarity of Singhalese to Egyptian art <a href= + "#pg472">472</a></li> + + <li>Rigid rules for religious design <a href= + "#pg473">473</a></li> + + <li>Similar trammels on art in Modern Greece (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg473">473</a></li> + + <li>And in Italy in the 15th century (<i>n.</i>) <a href= + "#pg474">474</a></li> + + <li>Celebrated Singhalese painters <a href= + "#pg475">475</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Sculpture</i>.—Statues of Buddha <a href= + "#pg475">475</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Built statues <a href="#pg477">477</a></li> + + <li>Painted statues <a href="#pg477">477</a></li> + + <li>Statues formed of gems <a href="#pg477">477</a></li> + + <li>Ivory and sandal-wood carved <a href="#pg477">477</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Architecture</i>, its ruins exclusively religious <a href= + "#pg478">478</a></li> + + <li>Domestic architecture mean at all times <a href= + "#pg478">478</a></li> + + <li>Stone quarried by wedges <a href="#pg478">478</a></li> + + <li>Immense slabs thus prepared <a href="#pg479">479</a></li> + + <li>Columns at Anarajapoora <a href="#pg479">479</a></li> + + <li>Materials for building <a href="#pg479">479</a></li> + + <li>Mode of constructing a dagoba <a href="#pg480">480</a></li> + + <li>Enormous dimensions of these structures <a href= + "#pg480">480</a></li> + + <li>Monasteries and wiharas <a href="#pg481">481</a></li> + + <li>Palaces <a href="#pg482">482</a></li> + + <li>Carvings in stone <a href="#pg483">483</a></li> + + <li>Ubiquity of the honours shown to goose <a href= + "#pg484">484</a></li> + + <li>Delicate outline of Singhalese carvings <a href= + "#pg488">488</a></li> + + <li>Temples and their decorations <a href="#pg488">488</a></li> + + <li>Cave temples of Ceylon <a href="#pg489">489</a></li> + + <li>The Alu-wihara <a href="#pg489">489</a></li> + + <li>Moulding in plaster <a href="#pg489">489</a></li> + + <li>Claim of the Singhalese to the invention of oil painting + <a href="#pg490">490</a></li> + + <li>Lacquer ware of the present day <a href="#pg490">490</a></li> + + <li>Honey-suckle ornament <a href="#pg491">491</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. VIII.</h3> + + <h4>SOCIAL LIFE.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Ancient cities and their organisation <a href= + "#pg493">493</a></li> + + <li>Public buildings, hospitals, shops <a href= + "#pg493">493</a></li> + + <li>Anarajapoora, as it appeared in 7th century <a href= + "#pg493">493</a></li> + + <li>The description of it by Fa Hian <a href="#pg495">495</a></li> + + <li>Carriages and Horses <a href="#pg495">495</a></li> + + <li>Horses imported from Persia <a href="#pg495">495</a></li> + + <li>Furniture of the houses <a href="#pg496">496</a></li> + + <li>Form of Government.—Revenue <a href="#pg497">497</a></li> + + <li>The Army and Navy <a href="#pg498">498</a></li> + + <li>Mode of recruiting <a href="#pg499">499</a></li> + + <li>Arms.—Bows <a href="#pg499">499</a></li> + + <li>Singular mode of drawing the bow with the foot (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg499">499</a></li> + + <li>Civil Justice <a href="#pg500">500</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. IX.</h3> + + <h4>SCIENCES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Education and schools <a href="#pg501">501</a></li> + + <li>Logic <a href="#pg502">502</a></li> + + <li>Astronomy and astrology <a href="#pg503">503</a></li> + + <li>Medicine and surgery <a href="#pg504">504</a></li> + + <li>King Buddha-dasa a physician <a href="#pg504">504</a></li> + + <li>Botany <a href="#pg505">505</a></li> + + <li>Geometry <a href="#pg505">505</a></li> + + <li>Lightning conductors <a href="#pg506">506</a></li> + + <li>Notice of a remarkable passage in the Mahawanso <a href= + "#pg507">507</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. X.</h3> + + <h4>SINGHALESE LITERATURE.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>The Pali language <a href="#pg512">512</a></li> + + <li>The temples the depositaries of learning <a href= + "#pg512">512</a></li> + + <li>Historiographers employed by the kings <a href= + "#pg512">512</a></li> + + <li>Ola books, how prepared <a href="#pg513">513</a></li> + + <li>A stile, and the mode of writing <a href="#pg513">513</a></li> + + <li>Books on plates of metal (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg513">513</a></li> + + <li>Differences between Elu and Singhalese <a href= + "#pg513">513</a></li> + + <li><i>Pali works</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Grammar <a href="#pg514">514</a></li> + + <li>Hardy's list of Singhalese books (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg515">515</a></li> + + <li>Pali books all written in verse <a href= + "#pg515">515</a></li> + + <li>The <i>Pittakas</i> <a href="#pg515">515</a></li> + + <li>The <i>Jatakas</i>—resemble the Talmud <a href= + "#pg516">516</a></li> + + <li>Pali literature generally <a href="#pg516">516</a></li> + + <li>The <i>Milinda-prasna</i> <a href="#pg516">516</a></li> + + <li>Pali historical books and their character <a href= + "#pg517">517</a></li> + + <li>The <i>Mahawanso</i> <a href="#pg517">517</a></li> + + <li>Scriptural coincidences in Pali books (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg518">518</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Sanskrit works</i>: + + <ul> + <li>Principally on science and medicine <a href= + "#pg520">520</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li> + <i>Elu and Singhalese works</i>: + + <ul> + <li>Low tone of the popular literature <a href= + "#pg520">520</a></li> + + <li>Chiefly ballads and metrical essays <a href= + "#pg521">521</a></li> + + <li>Exempt from licentiousness <a href="#pg521">521</a></li> + + <li>Sacred poems in honour of Hindu gods <a href= + "#pg521">521</a></li> + + <li>General literature of the people <a href= + "#pg522">522</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. XI.</h3> + + <h4>BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WORSHIP.</h4> + + <ul> + <li><i>Buddhism</i> as it exists in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg523">523</a></li> + + <li>Which was the more ancient, Brahmanism or Buddhism <a href= + "#pg523">523</a></li> + + <li>Various authorities (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg523">523</a></li> + + <li>Buddhism, its extreme antiquity <a href="#pg524">524</a></li> + + <li>Its prodigious influence <a href="#pg524">524</a></li> + + <li>Sought to be identified with the Druids (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg524">524</a></li> + + <li>Buddhism an agent of civilisation <a href="#pg525">525</a></li> + + <li>Its features in Ceylon <a href="#pg526">526</a></li> + + <li>The various forms elsewhere <a href="#pg527">527</a></li> + + <li>Points that distinguish it from Brahmanism <a href= + "#pg528">528</a></li> + + <li>Buddhist theory of human perfection <a href= + "#pg528">528</a></li> + + <li>Its treatment of <i>caste</i> <a href="#pg530">530</a></li> + + <li>Its respect for other religions <a href="#pg530">530</a></li> + + <li>Anecdote, illustrative of (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg530">530</a></li> + + <li>Its cosmogony <a href="#pg531">531</a></li> + + <li>Its doctrine of "<i>necessity"</i> <a href= + "#pg532">532</a></li> + + <li>Transmigration <a href="#pg533">533</a></li> + + <li>Illustration from Lucan (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg533">533</a></li> + + <li>The priesthood and its attributes <a href="#pg534">534</a></li> + + <li>Buddhist morals <a href="#pg534">534</a></li> + + <li>Prohibition to take life <a href="#pg534">534</a></li> + + <li>Form of worship <a href="#pg535">535</a></li> + + <li>Brahmanical corruptions <a href="#pg536">536</a></li> + + <li>Failure of Buddhism as a sustaining faith <a href= + "#pg537">537</a></li> + + <li>Its moral influence over the people <a href= + "#pg538">538</a></li> + + <li><i>Demon-worship</i> <a href="#pg539">539</a></li> + + <li>Trees dedicated to demons (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg540">540</a></li> + + <li>Devil priests and their orgies <a href="#pg541">541</a></li> + + <li>Ascendency of these superstitions <a href="#pg542">542</a></li> + + <li>Buddhism as an obstacle to Christianity <a href= + "#pg543">543</a></li> + + <li>Difficulties presented by the morals of Buddhism <a href= + "#pg544">544</a></li> + + <li>Prohibition against taking away life (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg544">544</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>PART V.</h3> + + <h4>MEDIÆVAL HISTORY.</h4> + + <h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + + <h4>CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>First heard of by the companions of Alexander the Great + <a href="#pg549">549</a></li> + + <li>Various ancient names of Ceylon (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg549">549</a></li> + + <li>Early doubts whether it was an island or a continent <a href= + "#pg550">550</a></li> + + <li>Mentioned by Aristotle <a href="#pg550">550</a></li> + + <li>Alleged mention of Ceylon in the Samaritan Pentateuch + (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg551">551</a></li> + + <li>Onesicritus's account <a href="#pg552">552</a></li> + + <li>Megasthenes' description <a href="#pg552">552</a></li> + + <li>Ælian's account borrowed from Megasthenes (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg552">552</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon known to the Phoenicians and to the Egyptians + (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg552">552</a></li> + + <li>Hippalus discovers the monsoons <a href="#pg553">553</a></li> + + <li>Effect of this discovery on Indian trade <a href= + "#pg554">554</a></li> + + <li>Pliny's account of Ceylon <a href="#pg555">555</a></li> + + <li>Story of Jambulus by Diodoros Siculus (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg556">556</a></li> + + <li>Embassy from Ceylon to Claudius <a href="#pg556">556</a></li> + + <li>Narrative of Rachias, and its explanation (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg557">557</a></li> + + <li>Lake Megisba, a tank <a href="#pg557">557</a></li> + + <li>Early intercourse with China <a href="#pg558">558</a></li> + + <li>The Veddahs described by Pliny <a href="#pg558">558</a></li> + + <li>Interval between Pliny and Ptolemy <a href= + "#pg558">558</a></li> + + <li>Ptolemy's account of Ceylon <a href="#pg559">559</a></li> + + <li>Explanation of his errors <a href="#pg559">559</a></li> + + <li>Ptolemy discriminates bays from estuaries (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg559">559</a></li> + + <li>Identification of Ptolemy's names <a href="#pg560">560</a></li> + + <li>His map <a href="#pg560">560</a></li> + + <li>His sources of information <a href="#pg561">561</a></li> + + <li>Agathemerus, Marcianus of Heraclea <a href= + "#pg562">562</a></li> + + <li>Cosmas Indicopleustes <a href="#pg562">562</a></li> + + <li>Palladius—St. Ambrosius (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg562">562</a></li> + + <li>State of Ceylon when Cosmas wrote <a href="#pg563">563</a></li> + + <li>Its commerce at that period <a href="#pg563">563</a></li> + + <li>In the hands of Arabs and Persians <a href= + "#pg564">564</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon as described by Cosmas <a href="#pg565">565</a></li> + + <li>Story of his informant Sopater <a href="#pg566">566</a></li> + + <li>Translation of Cosmas <a href="#pg567">567</a></li> + + <li>The gems and other productions of Ceylon—"a gaou" + (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg567">567</a></li> + + <li>Meaning of the term "Hyacinth" (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg568">568</a></li> + + <li>The great ruby of Ceylon, its history traced (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg568">568</a></li> + + <li>Cosmas corroborated by the Peripius <a href= + "#pg570">570</a></li> + + <li>Horses imported from Persia <a href="#pg570">570</a></li> + + <li>Export of elephants <a href="#pg570">570</a></li> + + <li>Note on Sanchoniathon <a href="#pg571">571</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. II.</h3> + + <h4>INDIAN, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN AUTHORITIES.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Absurd errors of the Hindus regarding Ceylon <a href= + "#pg578">578</a></li> + + <li>Their dread of Ceylon as the abode of demons <a href= + "#pg578">578</a></li> + + <li>Rise of the Mahometan power <a href="#pg579">579</a></li> + + <li>Persians and Arabs trade to India <a href="#pg579">579</a></li> + + <li>Story in Beladory of the first invasion of India by the + Mahometans (<i>text and note</i>) <a href="#pg580">580</a></li> + + <li>Character of the Arabian geographers <a href= + "#pg581">581</a></li> + + <li>Their superiority over the Greeks <a href="#pg581">581</a></li> + + <li>Greek <i>Paradoxical</i> literature <a href= + "#pg582">582</a></li> + + <li>A.D. 851. The two Mahometans <a href="#pg583">583</a></li> + + <li>Their account of Ceylon <a href="#pg583">583</a></li> + + <li>Adam's Peak <a href="#pg583">583</a></li> + + <li>Obsequies of a king <a href="#pg584">584</a></li> + + <li>Councils on religion and history <a href="#pg584">584</a></li> + + <li>Toleration <a href="#pg585">585</a></li> + + <li>Carmathic monument at Colombo (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg585">585</a></li> + + <li><i>Galle</i>, the seat of ancient trade <a href= + "#pg586">586</a></li> + + <li>Claim of Mantotte disproved <a href="#pg587">587</a></li> + + <li>Greek fire (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg588">588</a></li> + + <li>"<i>Kalah</i>" is Galle <a href="#pg589">589</a></li> + + <li>The Maharaja of Zabedj help possession of Galle <a href= + "#pg589">589</a></li> + + <li>Evidence of this in the Garsharsp-Namah <a href= + "#pg590">590</a></li> + + <li>Derivation of "Galle" (<i>text and note</i>) <a href= + "#pg591">591</a></li> + + <li>Aversion of the Singhalese to commerce <a href= + "#pg592">592</a></li> + + <li>Identification of the modern Veddahs with the ancient + Singhalese <a href="#pg593">593</a></li> + + <li>Their singular habits, as described by Robert Knox, Ribeyro, + and Valentyn <a href="#pg593">593</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>By Albyrouni <a href="#pg593">593</a></li> + + <li>By Palladius <a href="#pg593">593</a></li> + + <li>By Fa Hian <a href="#pg594">594</a></li> + + <li>By the Chinese writers (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg594">594</a></li> + + <li>By Pliny <a href="#pg594">594</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>For this reason the coast only known to strangers <a href= + "#pg595">595</a></li> + + <li><i>Arabian authors</i> who describe Ceylon <a href= + "#pg595">595</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Albateny and Massoudi <a href="#pg595">595</a></li> + + <li>Tabari (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg595">595</a></li> + + <li>Sinbad the Sailor <a href="#pg596">596</a></li> + + <li>Edrisi <a href="#pg597">597</a></li> + + <li>Kazwini <a href="#pg598">598</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cinnamon, no mention of <a href="#pg599">599</a></li> + + <li>Was cinnamon a native of Ceylon? <a href="#pg599">599</a></li> + + <li>No mention by Singhalese authors <a href="#pg600">600</a></li> + + <li>No mention of by Latin writers <a href="#pg600">600</a></li> + + <li>The <i>Regio Cinnamomifera</i> was in Africa (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg600">600</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>No mention by Arabs or Persians <a href= + "#pg600">600</a></li> + + <li>First noticed in Ceylon by Ibn Batuta <a href= + "#pg601">601</a></li> + + <li>By Nicola di Conti (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg601">601</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ibn Batuta describes Ceylon <a href="#pg604">604</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>His Travels <a href="#pg605">605</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. III.</h3> + + <h4>CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>Early Chinese trade with Ceylon <a href="#pg607">607</a></li> + + <li>Early Chinese travellers in India <a href="#pg607">607</a></li> + + <li>Chinese translations of M.S. Julien <a href= + "#pg608">608</a></li> + + <li>List of Chinese authors relating to Ceylon (<i>note</i>) + <a href="#pg608">608</a></li> + + <li>Their errors as to its form and site <a href= + "#pg609">609</a></li> + + <li>Their account of Adam's Peak and its gems <a href= + "#pg609">609</a></li> + + <li>Chinese names for Ceylon <a href="#pg610">610</a></li> + + <li>Curious habit of its traders <a href="#pg611">611</a></li> + + <li>They describe the two races, Tamils and Singhalese <a href= + "#pg611">611</a></li> + + <li>Origin of the cotton "Comboy" <a href="#pg612">612</a></li> + + <li>Costume of Ceylon <a href="#pg612">612</a></li> + + <li>Early commerce <a href="#pg613">613</a></li> + + <li>Works for irrigation noticed <a href="#pg613">613</a></li> + + <li>Island of Junk-Ceylon <a href="#pg614">614</a></li> + + <li>Galle resorted to by Chinese ships <a href= + "#pg614">614</a></li> + + <li>Vegetable productions <a href="#pg614">614</a></li> + + <li>Elephants, ivory, and jewels <a href="#pg615">615</a></li> + + <li>Skill of Singhalese goldsmiths and statuaries <a href= + "#pg615">615</a></li> + + <li>Pearls and gems sent to China <a href="#pg615">615</a></li> + + <li>No mention of cinnamon <a href="#pg616">616</a></li> + + <li>Chinese account of Buddhism in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg616">616</a></li> + + <li>Monasteries for priests first founded in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg616">616</a></li> + + <li>Cities of Ceylon in the sixth century <a href= + "#pg617">617</a></li> + + <li>Patriotism of Singhalese kings <a href="#pg617">617</a></li> + + <li>Domestic manners of the Singhalese <a href= + "#pg617">617</a></li> + + <li>Embassies from China to Ceylon <a href="#pg618">618</a></li> + + <li>Chinese travels prior to the sixth century <a href= + "#pg619">619</a></li> + + <li>Fa Hian's travels in sixth century <a href= + "#pg620">620</a></li> + + <li>First embassy from Ceylon to China, A.D. 405 <a href= + "#pg620">620</a></li> + + <li>Narrative of the image which it bore (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg620">620</a></li> + + <li>Ceylon tributary to China in sixth century <a href= + "#pg620">620</a></li> + + <li>Hiouen-Thsang describes Ceylon in the seventh century + (<i>note</i>) <a href="#pg621">621</a></li> + + <li>Events in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries <a href= + "#pg621">621</a></li> + + <li>King of Ceylon carried captive to China, A.D. 1405 <a href= + "#pg623">623</a></li> + + <li>Last embassy to China, A.D. 1459 <a href="#pg625">625</a></li> + + <li>Traces of the Chinese in Ceylon <a href="#pg626">626</a></li> + + <li>Evidences of their presence found by the Portuguese <a href= + "#pg626">626</a></li> + + <li>Modern Chinese account of Ceylon (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg626">626</a></li> + </ul> + + <h3>CHAP. IV.</h3> + + <h4>CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE MOORS, GENOESE, AND VENETIANS.</h4> + + <ul> + <li>The Moors of Ceylon <a href="#pg629">629</a></li> + + <li>Their origin <a href="#pg629">629</a></li> + + <li>The early Mahometans in India <a href="#pg629">629</a></li> + + <li>Arabians anciently settled in Ceylon <a href= + "#pg630">630</a></li> + + <li>Real descent of the modern "Moormen" <a href= + "#pg631">631</a></li> + + <li>Their occupation as traders, ancestral <a href= + "#pg632">632</a></li> + + <li>Their hostilities with the Portuguese <a href= + "#pg633">633</a></li> + + <li>They might have been rulers of Ceylon <a href= + "#pg633">633</a></li> + + <li>Indian trade prior to the route by the Cape <a href= + "#pg634">634</a></li> + + <li>The Genoese and Venetians in the East <a href= + "#pg634">634</a></li> + + <li>Rise of the Mongol empire <a href="#pg635">635</a></li> + + <li>Marco Polo, A.D. 1271 <a href="#pg635">635</a></li> + + <li>Visits Ceylon <a href="#pg636">636</a></li> + + <li>Friar Odoric, A.D. 1318 <a href="#pg636">636</a></li> + + <li>Jordan de Severac, A.D. 1323 (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg637">637</a></li> + + <li>Giov. de Marignola, A.D. 1349 (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg637">637</a></li> + + <li>Nicola di Conti, A.D. 1444 <a href="#pg637">637</a></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>The first traveller who speaks of Cinnamon <a href= + "#pg638">638</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Jerome de Santo Stefano (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg639">639</a></li> + + <li>Ludov. Barthema, A.D. 1506 <a href="#pg639">639</a></li> + + <li>Odoardo Barbosa, A.D. 1509 <a href="#pg640">640</a></li> + + <li>Andrea Corsali, A.D. 1515 (<i>note</i>) <a href= + "#pg640">640</a></li> + + <li>Cesar Frederic, A.D. 1563 <a href="#pg641">641</a></li> + + <li>Course of trade changed by the Cape route <a href= + "#pg642">642</a></li> + + <li>Irritation of the Venetians <a href="#pg643">643</a></li> + </ul> + <hr /> + + <h3>ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE FIRST VOLUME</h3> + + <p>MAPS.</p> + + <table width="100%" summary="displays table of maps"> + <tr> + <td width="60%">"Gobbs" on the East Coast</td> + + <td width="35%">By ARROWSMITH</td> + + <td width="5%"><a href="#pg045">45</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>"Gobbs" on the West Coast</td> + + <td>ARROWSMITH</td> + + <td><a href="#pg046">46</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Ceylon, according to the Sanskrit and Pali authors</td> + + <td>SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg318">318</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Map of Ancient India</td> + + <td>LASSEN</td> + + <td><a href="#pg330">330</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Position of Colombo, according to Ptolemy and Pliny</td> + + <td>SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg559">559</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Ceylon, according to Ptolemy and Pliny</td> + + <td>SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg560">560</a></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>PLANS AND CHARTS.</p> + + <table width="100%" summary="displays table of plans and charts"> + <tr> + <td width="60%">Geological System</td> + + <td width="35%">By</td> + + <td width="5%"><a href="#pg012">12</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Currents in the N.E. Monsoon</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg043">43</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Currents in the N.W. Monsoon</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg044">44</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Diagram of Rain in India and in Ceylon</td> + + <td>DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg066">66</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Diagram of the Anthelia</td> + + <td>DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg073">73</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Plan of a Fish-corral</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg211">211</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Summit of a Dagoba, with Lightning apparatus</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg509">509</a></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>WOOD ENGRAVINGS.</p>. + + <table width="100%" summary="displays table of wood engravings"> + <tr> + <td width="60%">Marriage of the Fig-tree and the Palm</td> + + <td width="35%">By MR. A. NICHOLL</td> + + <td width="5%"><a href="#pg096">96</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Fig-tree on the Ruins of Pollanarrua</td> + + <td>MR. A. NICHOLL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg097">97</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The "Snake-tree"</td> + + <td>MR. A. NICHOLL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg098">98</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The <i>Loris</i></td> + + <td>M.H. SYLVAT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg134">134</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The <i>Uropeltis grandis</i></td> + + <td>M.H. SYLVAT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg195">195</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>A <i>Chironectes</i></td> + + <td>M.H. SYLVAT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg207">207</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Method of Fishing in Pools</td> + + <td>From KNOX</td> + + <td><a href="#pg210">210</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The <i>Anabas</i> of the dry Tanks</td> + + <td>By DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg220">220</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Eggs of the Leaf Insect</td> + + <td>M.H. SYLVAT</td> + + <td><a href="#pg251">251</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td><i>Cermatia</i></td> + + <td>DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg298">298</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The Calling Crab</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg300">300</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Eyes and Teeth of the Land Leech</td> + + <td>DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg302">302</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Land Leeches</td> + + <td>DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg304">304</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Upper and under Surfaces of the <i>Hirudo + sanguisorba</i></td> + + <td>DR. TEMPLETON</td> + + <td><a href="#pg305">305</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The Bo-tree at Anarajapoora</td> + + <td>MR. A. NICHOLL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg343">343</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>A Dagoba at Kandy</td> + + <td>From a Photograph</td> + + <td><a href="#pg345">345</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Ruins of the Brazen Palace</td> + + <td>By MR. A. NICHOLL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg357">357</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The Alu Wihara</td> + + <td>MR. A. NICHOLL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg375">375</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The fortified Rock of Sigiri</td> + + <td>MR. A. NICHOLS</td> + + <td><a href="#pg392">392</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Coin of Queen Leela-Wattee</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg412">412</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Coin showing the <i>Trisula</i></td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg461">461</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Hook-money</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg463">463</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Ancient and Modern Tom-tom Beaters</td> + + <td>From the JOINVILLE MSS</td> + + <td><a href="#pg471">471</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>A Column from Anarajapoora</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg479">479</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sacred Goose from the Burmese Standard</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg485">485</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Hansa, from the old Palace at Kandy</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg487">487</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Honeysuckle Ornament</td> + + <td>From FERGUSSON'S <i>Handbook of Architecture</i></td> + + <td><a href="#pg491">491</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Egyptian Yoke and Singhalese Pingo</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td><a href="#pg497">497</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Veddah drawing the Bow with his Foot</td> + + <td>By MR. R. MACDOWALL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg499">499</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Method of Writing with a Style</td> + + <td>MR. R. MACDOWALL</td> + + <td><a href="#pg513">513</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The "Comboy," as worn by both Sexes</td> + + <td>MR. A. FAIRFIELD</td> + + <td><a href="#pg612">612</a></td> + </tr> + </table> + <hr /> + + <h2>NOTICE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.</h2> + + <p>The gratifying reception with which the following pages have been + honoured by the public and the press, has in no degree lessened my + consciousness, that in a work so extended in its scope, and + comprehending such a multiplicity of facts, errors are nearly + unavoidable both as to conclusions and detail. These, so far as I + became aware of them, I have endeavoured to correct in the present, + as well as in previous impressions.</p> + + <p>But my principal reliance for the suggestion and supply both of + amendments and omissions has been on the press and the public of + Ceylon; whose familiarity with the topics discussed naturally renders + them the most competent judges as to the mode in which they have been + treated. My hope when the book was published in October last was, + that before going again to press I should be in possession of such + friendly communications and criticisms from the island, as would have + enabled me to render the second edition much more valuable than the + previous one. In this expectation I have been agreeably disappointed, + the sale having been so rapid, as to require a fourth impression + before it was possible to obtain from Ceylon judicious criticisms on + the first. These in due time will doubtless arrive; and meanwhile, I + have endeavoured, by careful revision, to render the whole as far as + possible correct.</p> + + <p>J. EMERSON TENNENT.</p> + <hr /> + + <h2>NOTICE TO THE THIRD EDITION.</h2> + + <p>The call for a third edition on the same day that the second was + announced for publication, and within less than two months from the + appearance of the first, has furnished a gratifying assurance of the + interest which the public are disposed to take in the subject of the + present work.</p> + + <p>Thus encouraged, I have felt it my duty to make several + alterations in the present impression, amongst the most important of + which is the insertion of a Chapter on the doctrines of Buddhism as + it developes itself in Ceylon.[1] In the historical sections I had + already given an account of its introduction by Mahindo, and of the + establishments founded by successive sovereigns for its preservation + and diffusion. To render the narrative complete, it was felt + desirable to insert an abstract of the peculiar tenets of the + Buddhists; and this want it has been my object to supply. The sketch, + it will be borne in mind, is confined to the principal features of + what has been denominated "<i>Southern Buddhism</i>" amongst the + Singhalese; as distinguished from "<i>Northern Buddhism</i>" in + Nepal, Thibet, and China.[2] The latter has been largely illustrated + by the labours of Mr. B.H. HODGSON and the toilsome researches of M. + CSOMA of Körrös in Transylvania; and the minutest details of the + doctrines and ceremonies of the former have been unfolded in the + elaborate and comprehensive collections of Mr. SPENCE HARDY.[3] From + materials discovered by these and other earnest inquirers, Buddhism + in its general aspect has been ably delineated in the dissertations + of BURNOUF[4] and SAINT HILAIRE[5], and in the commentaries of + REMUSAT[6], STANISLAS JULIEN[7], FOUCAUX[8], LASSEN[9], and + WEBER.[10] The portion thus added to the present edition has been to + a great extent taken from a former work of mine on the local + superstitions of Ceylon, and the "<i>Introduction and Progress of + Christianity</i>" there; and as the section relating to Buddhism had + the advantage, previous to publication, of being submitted to the + Rev. Mr. GOGERLY, the most accomplished Pali scholar, as well as the + most erudite student of Buddhistical literature in the island, I + submit it with confidence as an accurate summary of the distinctive + views of the Singhalese on the leading doctrines of their national + faith.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg523">Part IV., c. xi.</a></p> + + <p>2: MAX MÜLLER; <i>History of Sanskrit Literature</i>, p. + 202.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, an account of the origin, laws; + discipline, sacred writings, mysterious rites, religious + ceremonies, and present circumstances of the Order of Mendicants, + founded by Gotoma Budha. 8vo. Lond. 1850; and <i>A Manual of + Buddhism in its Modern Development</i>. 8vo. Lond. 1853.</p> + + <p>4: BURNOUF, <i>Introduction à l'Histoire du Bouddhieme + Indien</i>. 4to. Paris. 1845; and translation of the <i>Lotus de la + bonne Loi</i>.</p> + + <p>5: J. BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE <i>Le Bouddha et sa Religion</i>. + 8vo. Paris. 1800.</p> + + <p>6: Introduction and Notes to the <i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i> of + FA HIAN.</p> + + <p>7: Life and travels of HIOUEN THSANG.</p> + + <p>8: Translation of <i>Lalitavistára</i> by M. PH. ED. + FOUCAUX.</p> + + <p>9: Author of the <i>Indische Alterthumskunde;</i> &c.</p> + + <p>10: Author of the <i>Indische Studien</i>; &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>A writer in the <i>Saturday Review</i>[1], in alluding to the + passage in which I have sought to establish the identity of the + ancient Tarshish with the modern Point de Galle[2], admits the force + of the coincidence adduced, that the Hebrew terms for "ivory, apes, + and peacocks"[3] (the articles imported in the ships of Solomon) are + identical with the Tamil names, by which these objects are known in + Ceylon to the present day; and, to strengthen my argument on this + point, he adds that, "these terms were so entirely foreign and alien + from the common Hebrew language as to have driven the Ptolemaist + authors of the Septuagint version into a blunder, by which the ivory, + apes, and peacocks come out as '<i>hewn and carven stones</i>.'" The + circumstance adverted to had not escaped my notice; but I forebore to + avail myself of it; for, although the fact is accurately stated by + the reviewer, so far as regards the Vatican MS., in which the + translators have slurred over the passage and converted "<i>ibha, + kapi</i>, and <i>tukeyim</i>" into [Greek: "lithôn toreutôn kai + pelekêtôn"] (literally, "stones hammered and carved in relief"); + still, in the other great MS. of the Septuagint, the <i>Codex + Alexandrinus</i>, which is of equal antiquity, the passage is + correctly rendered by "[Greek: odontôn elephantinôn kai pithêkôn kai + taônôn]." The editor of the Aldine edition[4] compromised the matter + by inserting "the ivory and apes," and excluding the "peacocks," in + order to introduce the Vatican reading of "stones."[5] I have not + compared the Complutensian and other later versions.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Novemb. 19, 1859, p. 612.</p> + + <p>2: <i>See</i> Vol. II. Pt. VII., c. i. p. 102.</p> + + <p>3: 1 <i>Kings</i>, x. 22.</p> + + <p>4: Venice, 1518.</p> + + <p>5: [Greek: Kai odontôn elephantinôn kai pithêkôn kai lithôn]. + [Greek: BASIA TRITÊ]. x. 22. It is to be observed, that Josephus + appears to have been equally embarrassed by the unfamiliar term + <i>tukeyim</i> for peacocks. He alludes to the voyages of Solomon's + merchantmen to Tarshish, and says that they brought hack from + thence gold and silver, <i>much</i> ivory, apes, <i>and + Æthiopians</i>—thus substituting "slaves" for + pea-fowl—"[Greek: kai polus elephas, Aithiopes te kai + pithêkoi]." Josephus also renders the word Tarshish by "[Greek: en + tê Tarsikê legomenê thalattê]," an expression which shows that he + thought not of the Indian but the western Tarshish, situated in + what Avienus calls the <i>Fretum Tartessium</i>, whence African + slaves might have been expected to come.—<i>Antiquit. + Judaicæ</i>, l. viii. c. vii sec. 2.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Rev. Mr. CURETON, of the British Museum, who, at my request, + collated the passage in the Chaldee and Syriac versions, assures me + that in both, the terms in question bear the closest resemblance to + the Tamil words found in the Hebrew; and that in each and all of them + these are of foreign importation.</p> + + <p>J. EMERSON TENNENT.</p> + + <p>LONDON: <i>November 28th</i>, 1859.</p> + <hr /> + + <h2>NOTICE TO THE SECOND EDITION.</h2> + + <p>The rapidity with which the first impression has been absorbed by + the public, has so shortened the interval between its appearance and + that of the present edition, that no sufficient time has been allowed + for the discovery of errors or defects; and the work is re-issued + almost as a corrected reprint.</p> + + <p>In the interim, however, I have ascertained, that Ribeyro's + "Historical Account of Ceylon," which it was heretofore supposed had + never appeared in any other than the French version of the Abbe Le + Grand, and in the English translation of the latter by Mr. Lee[1], + was some years since printed for the first time in the original + Portuguese, from the identical MS. presented by the author to Pedro + II. in 1685. It was published in 1836 by the Academia Real das + Sciencias of Lisbon, under the title of "<i>Fatalidade Historica da + Ilka de Ceilão</i>;" and forms the Vth volume of the a "<i>Colleção + de Noticias para a Historia e Geograjia das Nações Ultramarinas</i>" + A fac-simile from a curious map of the island as it was then known to + the Portuguese, has been included in the present edition.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See Vol. II. Part vi. ch. i. p. 5, note.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid. p. 6.</p> + </div> + + <p>Some difficulty having been expressed to me, in identifying the + ancient names of places in India adverted to in the following pages; + and mediæval charts of that country being rare, a map has been + inserted in the present edition[1], to supply the want complained + of.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg330">Vol. I. p. 330.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The only other important change has been a considerable addition + to the Index, which was felt to be essential for facilitating + reference.</p> + + <p>J E.T.</p> + <hr /> + + <h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + + <p>There is no island in the world, Great Britain itself not + excepted, that has attracted the attention of authors in so many + distant ages and so many different countries as Ceylon. There is no + nation in ancient or modern times possessed of a language and a + literature, the writers of which have not at some time made it their + theme. Its aspect, its religion, its antiquities, and productions, + have been described as well by the classic Greeks, as by those of the + Lower Empire; by the Romans; by the writers of China, Burmah, India, + and Kashmir; by the geographers of Arabia and Persia; by the mediæval + voyagers of Italy and France; by the annalists of Portugal and Spain; + by the merchant adventurers of Holland, and by the travellers and + topographers of Great Britain.</p> + + <p>But amidst this wealth of materials as to the island, and its + vicissitudes in early times, there is an absolute dearth of + information regarding its state and progress during more recent + periods, and its actual condition at the present day.</p> + + <p>I was made sensible of this want, on the occasion of my + nomination, in 1845, to an office in connection with the government + of Ceylon. I found abundant details as to the capture of the maritime + provinces from the Dutch in 1795, in the narrative of Captain + PERCIVAL[1], an officer who had served in the expedition; and the + efforts to organise the first system of administration are amply + described by CORDINER[2], Chaplain to the Forces; by Lord + VALENTIA[3], who was then travelling in the East; and by ANTHONY + BERTOLACCI[4], who acted as auditor-general to the first governor, + Mr. North, afterwards Earl of Guilford. The story of the capture of + Kandy in 1815 has been related by an anonymous eye-witness under the + pseudonyme of PHILALETHES[5], and by MARSHALL in his <i>Historical + Sketch</i> of the conquest.[6] An admirable description of the + interior of the island, as it presented itself some forty years ago, + was furnished by Dr. DAVY[7], a brother of the eminent philosopher, + who was employed on the medical staff in Ceylon, from 1816 till + 1820.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>An Account of the Island of Ceylon</i>, &c., by Capt. + R. PERCIVAL, 4to. London, 1805.</p> + + <p>2: <i>A Description of Ceylon</i>, &c., by the Rev. JAMES + CORDINER, A.M. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1807.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, and the Red Sea</i>, + by Lord Viscount VALENTIA. 3 vols. 4to. London, 1809.</p> + + <p>4: <i>A View of the Agricultural, Commercial, and Financial + Interests of Ceylon</i>, &c., by A. BERTOLACCI, Esq. London, + 1817.</p> + + <p>5: <i>A History of Ceylon from the earliest Period to the + Year</i> MDCCCXV, by PHILALETHES, A.M. 4to. Lond. 1817. The author + is believed to have been the Rev. G. Bisset.</p> + + <p>6: HENRY MARSHALL, F.R.S.E., &c. went to Ceylon as assistant + surgeon of the 89th regiment, in 1806, and from 1816 till 1821 was + the senior medical officer of the Kandyan provinces.</p> + + <p>7: <i>An Account of the Interior of Ceylon</i>, &c., by JOHN + DAVY, M.D. 4to, London, 1821.</p> + </div> + + <p>Here the long series of writers is broken, just at the + commencement of a period the most important and interesting in the + history of the island. The mountain zone, which for centuries had + been mysteriously hidden from the Portuguese and Dutch[1] was + suddenly opened to British enterprise in 1815. The lofty region, from + behind whose barrier of hills the kings of Kandy had looked down and + defied the arms of three successive European nations, was at last + rendered accessible by the grandest mountain road in India; and in + the north of the island, the ruins of ancient cities, and the + stupendous monuments of an early civilisation, were discovered in the + solitudes of the great central forests. English merchants embarked in + the renowned trade in cinnamon, which we had wrested from the Dutch; + and British capitalists introduced the cultivation of coffee into the + previously inaccessible highlands. Changes of equal magnitude + contributed to alter the social position of the natives; domestic + slavery was extinguished; compulsory labour, previously exacted from + the free races, was abolished; and new laws under a charter of + justice superseded the arbitrary rule of the native chiefs. In the + course of less than half a century, the aspect of the country became + changed, the condition of the people was submitted to new influences; + and the time arrived to note the effects of this civil + revolution.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: VALENTYN, In his great work on the Dutch possessions in + India, <i>Oud</i> <i>en Nieuw Oost-Indien</i>, alludes more than + once with regret to the ignorance in which his countrymen were kept + as to the interior of Ceylon, concerning which their only + information was obtained through fugitives and spies. (Vol. v. ch. + ii. p. 35; ch. xv. p. 205.)</p> + </div> + + <p>But on searching for books such as I expected to find, recording + the phenomena consequent on these domestic and political events, I + was disappointed to discover that they were few in number and + generally meagre in information. Major FORBES, who in 1826 and for + some years afterwards held a civil appointment in the Kandyan + country, published an interesting account of his observations[1]; and + his work derives value from the attention which the author had paid + to the ancient records of the island, whose contents were then + undergoing investigation by the erudite and indefatigable + TURNOUR.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>, &c., by Major FORBES. 2 + vols. 8vo. London. 1840.</p> + + <p>2: See <a href="#pg312">Vol. I. Part III. ch. iii. p. + 312.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>In 1843 Mr. BENNETT, a retired civil servant of the colony, who + had studied some branches of its natural history, and especially its + ichthyology, embodied his experiences in a volume entitled "<i>Ceylon + and its Capabilities</i>," containing a mass of information, somewhat + defective in arrangement. These and a number of minor publications, + chiefly descriptive of sporting tours in search of elephants and + deer, with incidental notices of the sublime scenery and majestic + ruins of the island, were the only modern works that treated of + Ceylon; but no one of them sufficed to furnish a connected view of + the colony at the present day, contrasting its former state with the + condition to which it has attained under the government of Great + Britain.</p> + + <p>On arriving in Ceylon and entering on my official functions, this + absence of local knowledge entailed frequent inconvenience. In my + tours throughout the interior, I found ancient monuments, apparently + defying decay, of which no one could tell the date or the founder; + and temples and cities in ruins, whose destroyers were equally + unknown. There were vast structures of public utility, on which the + prosperity of the country had at one time been dependent; artificial + lakes, with their conduits and canals for irrigation; the condition + of which rendered it interesting to ascertain the period of their + formation, and the causes of their abandonment; but to every inquiry + of this nature, there was the same unvarying reply: that information + regarding them might possibly be found in the <i>Mahawanso</i> or in + some other of the native chronicles; but that few had ever read them, + and none had succeeded in reproducing them for popular + instruction.</p> + + <p>A still more serious embarrassment arose from the want of + authorities to throw light on questions that were sometimes the + subject of administrative deliberation: there were native customs + which no available materials sufficed to illustrate; and native + claims, often serious in their importance, the consideration of which + was obstructed by a similar dearth of authentic data. With a view to + executive measures, I was frequently desirous of consulting the + records of the two European governments, under which the island had + been administered for 300 years before the arrival of the British; + their experience might have served as a guide, and even their + failures would have pointed out errors to be avoided; but here, + again, I had to encounter disappointment: in answer to my inquiries, + I was assured that <i>the records, both of the Portuguese and Dutch, + had long since disappeared from the archives of the colony</i>.</p> + + <p>Their loss, whilst in our custody, is the more remarkable, + considering the value which was attached to them by our predecessors. + The Dutch, on the conquest of Ceylon in the seventeenth century, + seized the official accounts and papers of the Portuguese; and a + memoir is preserved by VALENTYN, in which the Governor, Van Goens, on + handing over the command to his successor in 1663, enjoins on him the + study of these important documents, and expresses anxiety for their + careful preservation.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: VALENTYN, <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien</i>, &c., ch. xiii. + p. 174.</p> + </div> + + <p>The British, on the capture of Colombo in 1796, were equally + solicitous to obtain possession of the records of the Dutch + Government. By Art. XIV. of the capitulation they were required to be + "faithfully delivered over;" and, by Art. XI., all "surveys of the + island and its coasts" were required to be surrendered to the + captors.[1] But, strange to say, almost the whole of these + interesting and important papers appear to have been lost; not a + trace of the Portuguese records, so far as I could discover, remains + at Colombo; and if any vestige of those of the Dutch be still extant, + they have probably become illegible from decay and the ravages of the + white ants.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Amongst a valuable collection of documents presented to the + Royal Asiatic Society of London, by the late Sir Alexander + Johnston, formerly Chief Justice of Ceylon, there is a volume of + Dutch surveys of the Island, containing important maps of the coast + and its harbours, and plans of the great works for irrigation in + the northern and eastern provinces.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Note to the second edition</i>.—Since the first + edition was published, I have been told by a late officer of the + Ceylon Government, that many years ago, what remained of the Dutch + records were removed from the record-room of the Colonial Office to + the cutcherry of the government agent of the western province: + where some of them may still be found.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the loss is not utterly irreparable; duplicates of the Dutch + correspondence during their possession of Ceylon are carefully + preserved at Amsterdam; and within the last few years the Trustees of + the British Museum purchased from the library of the late Lord Stuart + de Rothesay the Diplomatic Correspondence and Papers of SEBASTIAÕ + JOZÉ CARVALHO E MELLO (Portuguese Ambassador at London and Vienna, + and subsequently known as the Marquis de Pombal), from 1738 to 1747, + including sixty volumes relating to the history of the Portuguese + possessions in India and Brazil during the 16th, 17th, and 18th + centuries. Amongst the latter are forty volumes of despatches + relative to India entitled <i>Collecçam Authentica de todas as Leys, + Regimentos, Alvarás e mais ordens que se expediram para a India</i>, + <i>desde o establecimento destas conquístas; Ordenáda por proviram de + 28 de Marco de 1754</i>.[1] These contain the despatches to and from + the successive Captains-General and Governors of Ceylon, so that, in + part at least, the replacement of the records lost in the colony may + be effected by transcription.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: MSS. Brit Mus. No. 20,861 to 20,900.</p> + </div> + + <p>Meanwhile in their absence I had no other resource than the + narratives of the Dutch and Portuguese historians, chiefly VALENTYN, + DE BARROS, and DE COUTO, who have preserved in two languages the + least familiar in Europe, chronicles of their respective governments, + which, so far as I am aware, have never been republished in any + translation.</p> + + <p>The present volumes contain no detailed notice of the <i>Buddhist + faith</i> as it exists in Ceylon, of the <i>Brahmanical rites,</i> or + of the other religious superstitions of the island. These I have + already described in my history of <i>Christianity in Ceylon.</i>[1] + The materials for that work were originally designed to form a + portion of the present one; but having expanded to too great + dimensions to be made merely subsidiary, I formed them into a + separate treatise. Along with them I have incorporated facts + illustrative of the national character of the Singhalese under the + conjoint influences of their ancestral superstitions and the partial + enlightenment of education and gospel truth.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Christianity in Ceylon: its Introduction and Progress + under the Portuguese, the Dutch, the British and American Missions; + with an Historical Sketch of the Brahmanical and Buddhist + Superstitons</i> by Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT. London, Murray, + 1850.</p> + </div> + + <p>Respecting the <i>Physical Geography</i> and <i>Natural + History</i> of the colony, I found an equal want of reliable + information; and every work that even touched on the subject was + pervaded by the misapprehension which I have collected evidence to + correct; that Ceylon is but a fragment of the great Indian continent + dissevered by some local convulsion; and that the zoology and botany + of the island are identical with those of the mainland.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It may seem presumptuous in me to question the accuracy of + Dr. DAVY'S opinion on this point (see his <i>Account of the + Interior of Ceylon, &c</i>., ch. iii. p. 78), but the grounds + on which I venture to do so are stated, Vol. I. pp. 7, 27, 160, + 178, 208, &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>Thus for almost every particular and fact, whether physical or + historical, I have been to a great extent thrown on my own + researches; and obliged to seek for information in original sources, + and in French and English versions of Oriental authorities. The + results of my investigations are embodied in the following pages; and + it only remains for me to express, in terms however inadequate, my + obligations to the literary and scientific friends by whose aid I + have been enabled to pursue my inquiries.</p> + + <p>Amongst these my first acknowledgments are due to Dr. TEMPLETON, + of the Army Medical Staff, for his cordial assistance in numerous + departments; but above all in relation to the physical geography and + natural history of the island. Here his scientific knowledge, + successfully cultivated during a residence of nearly twelve years in + Ceylon, and his intimate familiarity with its zoology and + productions, rendered his co-operation invaluable;—and these + sections abound with evidences of the liberal extent to which his + stores of information have been generously imparted. To him and to + Dr. CAMERON, of the Army Medical Staff, I am indebted for many + valuable facts and observations on tropical health and disease, + embodied in the chapter on "<i>Climate</i>." Sir RODERICK I. + MURCHISON (without committing himself as to the controversial + portions of the chapter on the <i>Geology</i> and <i>Mineralogy</i> + of Ceylon) has done me the favour to offer some valuable suggestions, + and to express his opinion as to the general accuracy of the + whole.</p> + + <p>Although a feature so characteristic as that of its + <i>Vegetation</i> could not possibly be omitted in a work professing + to give an account of Ceylon, I had neither the space nor the + qualifications necessary to produce a systematic sketch of the Botany + of the island. I could only attempt to describe it as it exhibits + itself to an unscientific spectator; and the notices that I have + given are confined to such of the more remarkable plants as cannot + fail to arrest the attention of a stranger. In illustration of these, + I have had the advantage of copious communications from WILLIAM + FERGUSON, Esq., a gentleman attached to the Survey Department of the + Civil Service in Ceylon, whose opportunities for observation in all + parts of the island have enabled him to cultivate with signal success + his taste for botanical pursuits. And I have been permitted to submit + the portion of my work which refers to this subject to the revision + of the highest living authority on Indian botany, Dr. J.D. HOOKER, of + Kew.</p> + + <p>Regarding the <i>fauna</i> of Ceylon, little has been published in + any collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr. KELAART + entitled <i>Prodromus Faunæ Zeilanicæ</i>; several valuable papers by + Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD in the <i>Annals and Magazine of Natural + History</i> for 1852 and 1853; and some very imperfect lists appended + to PRIDHAM'S compiled account of the island.[1] KNOX, in the charming + narrative of his captivity, published in the reign of Charles II., + has devoted a chapter to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has + described the principal reptiles: but with these exceptions the + subject is almost untouched in works relating to the colony. Yet a + more than ordinary interest attaches to the inquiry, since Ceylon, + instead of presenting, as is generally assumed, an identity between + its <i>fauna</i> and that of Southern India, exhibits a remarkable + diversity of type, taken in connection with the limited area over + which they are distributed. The island, in fact, may be regarded as + the centre of a geographical circle, possessing within itself forms, + whose allied species radiate far into the temperate regions of the + north, as well as into Africa, Australia, and the isles of the + Eastern Archipelago.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>An Historical Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon + and its Dependencies</i>, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, + 1849. The author was never, I believe, in Ceylon, but his book is a + laborious condensation of the principal English works relating to + it. Its value would have been greatly increased had Mr. Pridham + accompanied his excerpts by references to the respective + authorities.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I have + endeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my own + observations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much + accuracy as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no + greater knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than is + ordinarily possessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good + fortune, however, in my journies to have the companionship of friends + familiar with many branches of natural science: the late Dr. GARDNER, + Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, an accomplished zoologist, Dr. TEMPLETON, and + others; and I was thus enabled to collect on the spot many + interesting facts relative to the structure and habits of the + numerous tribes of animals. These, chastened by the corrections of my + fellow-travellers, and established by the examination of collections + made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison with specimens + contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit as faithful + outlines of the <i>fauna</i> of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied by + lists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends, showing + the extent to which each particular branch had been investigated by + naturalists, up to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the + close of 1849. These, besides their inherent interest, will, I trust, + stimulate others to engage in the same pursuits, by exhibiting the + chasms, which it still remains for future industry and research to + fill up;—and the study of the zoology of Ceylon may thus serve + as a preparative for that of Continental India, embracing, as the + former does, much that is common to both, as well as possessing + within itself a fauna peculiar to the island, that will amply repay + more extended scrutiny.</p> + + <p>From these lists have been excluded all species regarding the + authenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained[1], and + of some of them, a very few have been printed in <i>italics</i>, in + order to denote the desirability of comparing them more minutely with + well determined specimens in the great national depositories before + finally incorporating them with the Singhalese catalogues.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr. + SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have + been admitted for reasons adduced. (See <a href="#pg234">Vol. I, p. + 234.</a>)</p> + </div> + + <p>In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in + these sections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I + have received from gentlemen interested in similar pursuits in + Ceylon: from Dr. KELAART and Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from + officers of the Ceylon Civil Service; the HON. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. + C.E. BULLER, Mr. MERCER, Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and + Mr. MITFORD.</p> + + <p>Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the press, + I have had the advantage of having portions of them read by Professor + HUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R. PATTERSON, + F.R.S., author of the <i>Introduction to Zoology</i>, and by Mr. ADAM + WHITE, of the British Museum; to each of whom I am exceedingly + indebted for the care they have bestowed. In an especial degree I + have to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. J.E. GRAY, F.R.S. for + valuable additions and corrections in the list of the Ceylon + Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAY for some notes on the nature and + qualities of the "Serpent Stone,"[1] submitted to him. I have + recorded in its proper place my obligations to Admiral FITZROY, for + his most ingenious theory in elucidation of the phenomena of the + <i>Tides</i> around Ceylon.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg199">Vol. I. Part II. ch. iii. p. + 199.</a></p> + + <p>2: See <a href="#pg116">Vol. II. Part VII. ch. i. p. + 116.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The extent to which my observations on <i>the Elephant</i> have + been carried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of this + noble creature are chiefly devoted to its habits and capabilities + <i>in captivity</i>; and very few works, with which I am acquainted, + contain illustrations of its instincts and functions when wild in its + native woods. Opportunities for observing the latter, and for + collecting facts in connection with them, are abundant in Ceylon, and + from the moment of my arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded + to me for studying the elephant in a state of nature, and obtaining + from hunters and natives correct information as to its oeconomy and + disposition. Anecdotes in connection with this subject, I received + from some of the most experienced residents In the island; amongst + others, Major SKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, + Mr. CRIPPS, and Mr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my + acknowledgments to PROFESSOR OWEN, of the British Museum, to whom + this portion of my manuscript was submitted previous to its committal + to the press.</p> + + <p>In the <i>historical sections</i> of the work, I have been + reluctantly compelled to devote a considerable space to a narrative + deduced from the ancient Singhalese chronicles; into which I found it + most difficult to infuse any popular interest. But the toil was not + undertaken without a motive. The oeconomics and hierarchical + institutions of Buddhism as administered through successive + dynasties, exercised so paramount an influence over the habits and + occupations of the Singhalese people, that their impress remains + indelible to the present day. The tenure of temple lands, the + compulsory services of tenants, the extension of agriculture, and the + whole system of co-operative cultivation, derived from this source + organisation and development; and the origin and objects of these are + only to be rendered intelligible by an inquiry into the events and + times in which the system took its rise. In connection with this + subject, I am indebted to the representatives of the late Mr. + TURNOUR, of the Ceylon Civil Service, for access to his unpublished + manuscripts; and to those portions of his correspondence with + Prinsep, which relate to the researches of these two distinguished + scholars regarding the Pali annals of Ceylon. I have also to + acknowledge my obligations to M. JULES MOHL, the literary executor of + M. E. BURNOUF, for the use of papers left by that eminent orientalist + in illustration of the ancient geography of the island, as exhibited + in the works of Pali and Sanskrit writers.</p> + + <p>I have been signally assisted inn my search for materials + illustrative of the social and intellectual condition of the + Singhalese nation, during the early ages of their history, by + gentlemen in Ceylon, whose familiarity with the native languages and + literature impart authority to their communications; by ERNEST DE + SARAM WIJEYESEKERE KAROONARATNE, the Maha-Moodliar and First + Interpreter to the Governor; and to Mr. DE ALWIS, the erudite + translator of the <i>Sidath Sangara.</i> From the Rev. Mr. GOGERLY of + the Wesleyan Mission, I have received expositions of Buddhist policy; + and the Rev. R SPENCE HARDY, author of the two most important modern + works on the archæology of Buddhism[1], has done me the favour to + examine the chapter on SINGHALESE <i>Literature,</i> and to enrich it + by numerous suggestions and additions.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Oriental Monachism,</i> 8vo. London, 1850; and <i>A Manual + of Buddhism,</i> 8vo. London, 1853</p> + </div> + + <p>In like manner I have had the advantage of communicating with MR. + COOLEY (author of the <i>History of Maritime and Inland + Discovery</i>) in relation to the <i>Mediæval History</i> of Ceylon, + and the period embraced by the narrative of the Greek, Arabian, and + Italian travellers, between the fifth and fifteenth centuries.</p> + + <p>I have elsewhere recorded my obligations to Mr. WYLIE, and to his + colleague, Mr. LOCKHART of Shanghæ, for the materials of one of the + most curious chapters of my work, that which treats of the knowledge + of Ceylon possessed by the Chinese in the Middle Ages. This is a + field which, so far as I know, is untouched by any previous writer on + Ceylon. In the course of my inquires, finding that Ceylon had been, + from the remotest times, the point at which the merchant fleets from + the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf met those from China and the + Oriental Archipelago; thus effecting an exchange of merchandise from + East and West; and discovering that the Arabian and Persian voyagers, + on their return, had brought home copious accounts of the island, it + occurred to me that the Chinese travellers during the same period had + in all probability been equally observant and communicative, and that + the results of their experience might be found in Chinese works of + the Middle Ages. Acting on this conjecture, I addressed myself to a + Chinese gentleman, WANG TAO CHUNG, who was then in England; and he, + on his return to Shanghæ, made known my wishes to Mr. WYLIE. My + anticipations were more than realised by Mr. WYLIE'S researches. I + received in due course, extracts from upwards of twenty works by + Chinese writers, between the fifth and fifteenth centuries, and the + curious and interesting facts contained in them are embodied in the + chapter devoted to that particular subject. In addition to these, the + courtesy of M. STANISLAS JULIEN, the eminent French Sinologue, has + laid me under a similar obligation for access to unpublished passages + relative to Ceylon, in his translation of the great work of HIOUEN + THSANG; in his translation of the great work of HIOUEN THSANG; + descriptive of the Buddhist country of India in the seventh + century.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mémoires sur les Contrées Occidentales</i>, traduites du + Sanscrit en Chinois, en l'an 648, par M. STANISLAS JULIEN.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is with pain that I advert to that portion of the section which + treats of the British rule in Ceylon; in the course of which the + discovery of the private correspondence of the first Governor, Mr. + North, deposited along with the Wellesley Manuscripts, in the British + Museum[1], has thrown an unexpected light over the fearful events of + 1803, and the massacre of the English troops then in garrison at + Kandy. Hitherto the honour of the British Government has been + unimpeached in these dark transactions; and the slaughter of the + troops has been uniformly denounced as an evidence of the treacherous + and "tiger-like" spirit of the Kandyan people.[2] But it is not + possible now to read the narrative of these events, as the motives + and secret arrangements of the Governor with the treacherous Minister + of the king are disclosed in the private letters of Mr. North to the + Governor-general of India, without feeling that the sudden + destruction of Major Davie's party, however revolting the remorseless + butchery by which it was achieved, may have been but the consummation + of a revenge provoked by the discovery of the treason concocted by + the Adigar in confederacy with the representative of the British + Crown. Nor is this construction weakened by the fact, that no + immediate vengeance was exacted by the Governor in expiation of that + fearful tragedy; and that the private letters of Mr. North to the + Marquis of Wellesley contain avowals of ineffectual efforts to hush + up the affair, and to obtain a clumsy compromise by inducing the + Kandyan king to make an admission of regret.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Additional MSS., Brit. Mus., No. 13864, &c.</p> + + <p>2: DE QUINCEY, <i>collected Works</i>, vol. xii. p. 14.</p> + </div> + + <p>I am aware that there are passages in the following pages + containing statements that occur more than once in the course of the + work. But I found that in dealing with so many distinct subjects the + same fact became sometimes an indispensable illustration of more than + one topic; and hence repetition was unavoidable even at the risk of + tautology.</p> + + <p>I have also to apologise for variances in the spelling of proper + names, both of places and individuals, occurring in different + passages. In extenuation of this, I can only plead the difficulty of + preserving uniformity in matters dependent upon mere sound, and + unsettled by any recognised standard of orthography.</p> + + <p>I have endeavoured in every instance to append references to other + authors, in support of statements which I have drawn from previous + writers; an arrangement rendered essential by the numerous instances + in which errors, that nothing short of the original authorities can + suffice to expose, have been reproduced and repeated by successive + writers on Ceylon.</p> + + <p>To whatever extent the preparation of this work may have fallen + short of its conception, and whatever its demerits in execution and + style, I am not without hope that it will still exhibit evidence that + by perseverance and research I have laboured to render it worthy of + the subject.</p> + + <p>JAMES EMERSON TENNENT.</p> + + <p>LONDON: <i>July 13th, 1859.</i></p> + <hr /> + + <h2>PART I.</h2> + + <h2>PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.</h2> + <hr /> + <a name="pg003" id="pg003"></a> + + <h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + + <h3>PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—GEOLOGY.—MINERALOGY.—GEMS, + CLIMATE, ETC.</h3> + + <p>GENERAL ASPECT.—Ceylon, from whatever direction it is + approached, unfolds a scene of loveliness and grandeur unsurpassed, + if it be rivalled, by any land in the universe. The traveller from + Bengal, leaving behind the melancholy delta of the Ganges and the + torrid coast of Coromandel; or the adventurer from Europe, recently + inured to the sands of Egypt and the scorched headlands of Arabia, is + alike entranced by the vision of beauty which expands before him as + the island rises from the sea, its lofty mountains covered by + luxuriant forests, and its shores, till they meet the ripple of the + waves, bright with the foliage of perpetual spring.</p> + + <p>The Brahmans designated it by the epithet of "the resplendent," + and in their dreamy rhapsodies extolled it as the region of mystery + and sublimity[1]; the Buddhist poets gracefully apostrophised it as + "a <a name="pg004" id="pg004"></a> pearl upon the brow of India;" the + Chinese knew it as the "island of jewels;" the Greeks as the "land of + the hyacinth and the ruby;" the Mahometans, in the intensity of their + delight, assigned it to the exiled parents of mankind as a new + elysium to console them for the loss of Paradise; and the early + navigators of Europe, as they returned dazzled with its gems, and + laden with its costly spices, propagated the fable that far to + seaward the very breeze that blew from it was redolent of perfume.[2] + In later and less imaginative times, Ceylon has still maintained the + renown of its attractions, and exhibits in all its varied charms "the + highest conceivable development of Indian nature."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Ils en ont fait une espèce de paradis, et se sont imaginé + que des êtres d'une nature angélique les + habitaient."—ALBYROUNI, Traité des Ères, &c.; REINAUD, + Géographie d'Aboulféda, Introd. sec. iii. p. ccxxiv. The renown of + Ceylon as it reached Europe in the seventeenth century is thus + summed up by PURCHAS in <i>His Pilgrimage</i>, b.v.c. 18, p. + 550:—"The heauens with their dewes, the ayre with a pleasant + holesomenesse and fragrant freshnesse, the waters in their many + riuers and fountaines, the earth diuersified in aspiring hills, + lowly vales, equall and indifferent plaines, filled in her inward + chambers with mettalls and jewells, in her outward court and vpper + face stored with whole woods of the best cinnamons that the sunne + seeth; besides fruits, oranges, lemons, &c. surmounting those + of Spaine; fowles and beasts, both tame and wilde (among which is + their elephant honoured by a naturall acknowledgement of excellence + of all other elephants in the world). These all have conspired and + joined in common league to present unto Zeilan the chiefe of + worldly treasures and pleasures, with a long and healthfull life in + the inhabitants to enjoye them. No marvell, then, if sense and + sensualitie have heere stumbled on a paradise."</p> + + <p>2: The fable of the "spicy breezes" said to blow from Arabia and + India, is as old as Ctesias; and is eagerly repeated by Pliny? lib. + xii. c. 42. The Greeks borrowed the tale from the Hindus, who + believe that the <i>Chandana</i> or sandal-wood imparts its odours + to the winds; and their poete speak of the Malayan as the westerns + did of the Sabæan breezes. But the allusion to such perfumed winds + was a trope common to all the discoverers of unknown lands: the + companions of Columbus ascribed them to the region of the Antilles; + and Verrazani and Sir Walter Raleigh scented them off the coast of + Carolina. Milton borrowed from Diodorus Siculus, lib. iii. c. 46, + the statement that:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Far off at sea north-east winds blow</p> + + <p>Sabæan odours from the spicy shore</p> + + <p>Of Araby the Blest."</p> + + <p>(<i>P.L.</i> iv. 163.)</p> + </div> + + <p>Ariosto employs the same imaginative embellishment to describe + the charms of Cyprus:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Serpillo e persa e rose e gigli e croco</p> + + <p>Spargon dall'odorifero terreno</p> + + <p>Tanta suavita, ch'in mar sentire</p> + + <p>La fa ogni vento che da terra spire."</p> + + <p>(<i>Oil. Fur.</i> xviii. 138.)</p> + </div> + + <p>That some aromatic smell is perceptible far to seaward, in the + vicinity of certain tropical countries, is unquestionable; and in + the instance of Cuba, an odour like that of violets, which is + discernible two or three miles from land, when the wind is off the + shore, has been traced by Poeppig to a species of <i>Tetracera</i>, + a climbing plant which diffuses its odour during the night. But in + the case of Ceylon? if the existence of such a perfume be not + altogether imaginary, the fact has been falsified by identifying + the alleged fragrance with cinnamon; the truth being that the + cinnamon laurel, unless it be crushed, exhales no aroma whatever; + and the peculiar odour of the spice is only perceptible after the + bark has been separated and dried.</p> + + <p>3: LASSEN, <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i> vol. i. p. 198.</p> + </div><a name="pg005" id="pg005"></a> + + <p><i>Picturesque Outline</i>.—The nucleus of its mountain + masses consists of gneissic, granitic, and other crystalline rocks, + which in their resistless upheaval have rent the superincumbent + strata, raising them into lofty pyramids and crags, or hurling them + in gigantic fragments to the plains below. Time and decay are slow in + their assaults on these towering precipices and splintered pinnacles; + and from the absence of more perishable materials, there are few + graceful sweeps along the higher chains or rolling downs in the lower + ranges of the hills. Every bold elevation is crowned by battlemented + cliffs, and flanked by chasms in which the shattered strata are seen + as sharp and as rugged as if they had but recently undergone the + grand convulsion that displaced them.</p> + + <p><i>Foliage and Verdure</i>.—The soil in these regions is + consequently light and unremunerative, but the plentiful moisture + arising from the interception of every passing vapour from the Indian + Ocean and the Bay of Bengal, added to the intense warmth of the + atmosphere, combine to force a vegetation so rich and luxuriant, that + imagination can picture nothing more wondrous and charming; every + level spot is enamelled with verdure, forests of never-fading bloom + cover mountain and valley; flowers of the brightest hues grow in + profusion over the plains, and delicate climbing plants, rooted in + the shelving rocks, hang in huge festoons down the edge of every + precipice.</p> + + <p>Unlike the forests of Europe, in which the excess of some peculiar + trees imparts a character of monotony and graveness to the outline + and colouring, the forests of Ceylon are singularly attractive from + the endless variety of their foliage, and the vivid contrast of its + hues. The mountains, especially those looking towards the east and + south, rise abruptly to prodigious and almost precipitous heights + above the level plains; the rivers wind through woods below like + threads of silver through green embroidery, till they are lost in a + dim haze which conceals the far horizon; and through this a line of + tremulous light marks where the sunbeams are glittering among the + waves upon the distant shore.</p><a name="pg006" id="pg006"></a> + + <p>From age to age a scene so lovely has imparted a colouring of + romance to the adventures of the seamen who, in the eagerness of + commerce, swept round the shores of India, to bring back the pearls + and precious stones, the cinnamon and odours, of Ceylon. The tales of + the Arabians are fraught with the wonders of "Serendib;" and the + mariners of the Persian Gulf have left a record of their delight in + reaching the calm havens of the island, and reposing for months + together in valleys where the waters of the sea were overshadowed by + woods, and the gardens were blooming in perennial summer.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: REINAUD, <i>Relation des Voyages Arabes, &c., dans le + neuvième siècle</i>. Paris, 1845, tom. ii. p. 129.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Geographical Position</i>.—Notwithstanding the fact that + the Hindus, in their system of the universe, had given prominent + importance to Ceylon, their first meridian, "the meridian of Lanka," + being supposed to pass over the island, they propounded the most + extravagant ideas, both as to its position and extent; expanding it + to the proportions of a continent, and at the same time placing it a + considerable distance south-east of India.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For a condensed account of the dimensions and position + attributed to Lanka, in the Mythic Astronomy of the Hindus, see + REINAUD's <i>Introduction to Aboulféda</i>, sec. iii. p. ccxvii., + and his <i>Mémoire sur l'Inde</i>, p. 342; WILFORD's <i>Essay on + the Sacred Isles of the West</i>, Asiat. Researches, vol. x, p. + 140.</p> + </div> + + <p>The native Buddhist historians, unable to confirm the + exaggerations of the Brahmans, and yet reluctant to detract from the + epic renown of their country by disclaiming its stupendous + dimensions, attempted to reconcile its actual extent with the fables + of the eastern astronomers by imputing to the agency of earthquakes + the submersion of vast regions by the sea.[1] But evidence is wanting + to corroborate the assertion <a name="pg007" id="pg007"></a> of such + an occurrence, at least within the historic period; no record of it + exists in the earliest writings of the Hindus, the Arabians, or + Persians; who, had the tradition survived, would eagerly have + chronicled a catastrophe so appalling.[2] Geologic analogy, so far as + an inference is derivable from the formation of the adjoining coasts, + both of India and Ceylon, is opposed to its probability; and not only + plants, but animals, mammalia, birds, reptiles, and insects, exist in + Ceylon, which are not to be found in the flora or fauna of the Indian + continent.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: SIR WILLIAM JONES adopted the legendary opinion that Ceylon + "formerly perhaps, extended much farther to the west and south, so + as to include Lanka or the equinoctial point of the Indian + astronomers."—<i>Discourse on the Institution of a Society + for inquiring into the History, &c., of the Borderers, + Mountaineers, and Islanders of Asia</i>.—Works, vol. i. p. + 120.</p> + + <p>The Portuguese, on their arrival in Ceylon in the sixteenth + century, found the natives fully impressed by the traditions of its + former extent and partial submersion; and their belief in + connection with it, will be found in the narratives and histories + of De Barros and Diogo de Couto, from which they have been + transferred, almost without abridgment, to the pages of Valentyn. + The substance of the native legends will be found in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, c. xxii. p. 131; and <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 180, + 190.</p> + + <p>2: The first disturbance of the coast by which Ceylon is alleged + to have been severed from the main land is said by the Buddhists to + have taken place B.C. 2387; a second commotion is ascribed to the + age of Panduwaasa, B.C. 504; and the subsidence of the shore + adjacent to Colombo is said to have taken place 200 years later, in + the reign of Devenipiatissa, B.C. 306. The event is thus recorded + in the <i>Rajavali</i>, one of the sacred books of + Ceylon:—"In these days the sea was seven leagues from Kalany; + but on account of what had been done to the teeroonansee (a priest + who had been tortured by the king of Kalany), the gods who were + charged with the conservation of Ceylon, became enraged and caused + the sea to deluge the land; and as during the epoch called + <i>duwapawrayaga</i> on account of the wickedness of Rawana, 25 + palaces and 400,000 streets were all over-run by the sea, so now in + this time of Tissa Raja, 100,000 large towns, 910 fishers' + villages, and 400 villages inhabited by pearl fishers, making + together eleven-twelfths of the territory of Kalany, were swallowed + up by the sea."—<i>Rajavali</i>, vol. ii. p. 180, 190.</p> + + <p>FORBES observes the coincidence that the legend of the rising of + the sea in the age of Panduwaasa, 2378 B.C., very nearly concurs + with the date assigned to the Deluge of Noah, 2348,—<i>Eleven + Years in Ceylon</i>, vol. ii. p. 258. A tradition is also extant, + that a submersion took place at a remote period on the east coast + of Ceylon, whereby the island of Giri-dipo, which is mentioned in + the first chapter of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, was engulfed, and the + dangerous rocks called the Great and Little Basses are believed to + be remnants of it.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, c. i.</p> + + <p>A <i>résumé</i> of the disquisitions which have appeared at + various times as to the submersion of a part of Ceylon, will be + found in a Memoir <i>sur la Géographie ancienne de Ceylon</i>, in + the Journal Asiatique for January, 1857, 5th ser., vol. ix. p. 12; + see also TURNOUR'S <i>Introd. to the Mahawanso</i>, p. xxxiv.</p> + + <p>3: Some of the mammalia peculiar to the island are enumerated at + p. 160; birds found in Ceylon but not existing in India are alluded + to at p. 178, and Dr. A. GÜNTHER, in a paper on the <i>Geographical + Distribution of Reptiles</i>, in the <i>Mag. of Nat. Hist.</i> for + March, 1859, says, "amongst these larger islands which are + connected with the middle palæotropical region, none offers forms + so different from the continent and other islands as Ceylon. It + might be considered the Madagascar of the Indian region. We not + only find there peculiar genera and species, not again to be + recognised in other parts; but even many of the common species + exhibit such remarkable varieties, as to afford ample means for + creating new nominal species," p. 280. The difference exhibited + between the insects of Ceylon and those of Hindustan and the Dekkan + are noticed by Mr. Walker in the present work, <a href="#pg270">p. + ii. ch. vii, vol. i. p. 270</a>. See on this subject RITTER'S + <i>Erdkunde</i>, vol. iv. p. 17.</p> + </div><a name="pg008" id="pg008"></a> + + <p>Still in the infancy of geographical knowledge, and before Ceylon + had been circumnavigated by Europeans, the mythical delusions of the + Hindus were transmitted to the West, and the dimensions of the island + were expanded till its southern extremity fell below the equator, and + its breadth was prolonged till it touched alike on Africa and + China.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: GIBBON, ch. xxiv.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Greeks who, after the Indian conquests of Alexander, brought + back the earliest accounts of the East, repeated them without + material correction, and reported the island to be nearly twenty + times its actual extent. Onesicritus, a pilot of the expedition, + assigned to it a magnitude of 5000 stadia, equal to 500 geographical + miles.[1] Eratosthenes attempted to fix its position, but went so + widely astray that his first (that is his most southern) parallel + passed through it and the "Cinnamon Land," the <i>Regio + Cinnamomifera</i>, on the east coast of Africa.[2] He placed Ceylon + at the distance of seven days' sail from the south of India, and he + too assigned to its western coast an extent of 5000 stadia.[3] Both + those authorities are quoted by Strabo, who says that the size of + Taprobane was not less than that of Britain.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: STRABO, lib. v. Artemidorus (100 B.C.), quoted by Stephanus + of Byzantium, gives to Ceylon a length of 7000 stadia and a breadth + of 500.</p> + + <p>2: STRABO, lib. ii. c. i. s. 14.</p> + + <p>3: The text of Strabo showing this measure makes it in some + places 8000 (Strabo, lib. v.); and Pliny, quoting Eratosthenes, + makes it 7000.</p> + + <p>4: STRABO, lib. ii. c. v. s. 32. Aristotle appears to have had + more correct information, and says Ceylon was not so large as + Britain.—<i>De Mundo</i> ch. iii.</p> + </div><a name="pg009" id="pg009"></a> + + <p>The round numbers employed by those authors, and by the Greek + geographers generally, who borrow from them, serve to show that their + knowledge was merely collected from rumours; and that in all + probability they were indebted for their information to the stories + of Arabian or Hindu sailors returning from the Eastern seas.</p> + + <p>Pliny learned from the Singhalese Ambassador who visited Rome in + the reign of Claudius, that the breadth of Ceylon was 10,000 stadia + from west to east; and Ptolemy fully developed the idea of his + predecessors, that it lay opposite to the "Cinnamon Land," and + assigned to it a length from north to south of nearly <i>fifteen + degrees</i>, with a breadth of <i>eleven</i>, an exaggeration of the + truth nearly twenty-fold.[1] Agathemerus copies Ptolemy; and the + plain and sensible author of the "Periplus" (attributed to Arrian), + still labouring with the delusion of the magnitude of Ceylon, makes + it stretch almost to the opposite coast of Africa.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PTOLEMY, lib. vii. c. 4.</p> + + <p>2: ARRIAN, <i>Periplus</i>, p. 35. Marcianus Heracleota (whose + Periplus has been reprinted by HUDSON, in the same collection from + which I have made the reference to that of Arrian) gives to Ceylon + a length of 9500 stadia with a breadth of 7500.—MAR. HER. p. + 26.</p> + </div> + + <p>These extravagant ideas of the magnitude of Ceylon were not + entirely removed till many centuries later. The Arabian geographers, + Massoudi, Edrisi, and Aboulfeda, had no accurate data by which to + correct the errors of their Greek predecessors. The maps of the + fourteenth and fifteenth centuries repeated their distortions[1]; and + Marco Polo, in the fourteenth century, who gives the island the usual + exaggerated dimensions, yet informs us that it is now but one half + the size it had been at a former period, the rest having been + engulfed by the sea.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of Ceylon as it is figured in the + <i>Mappe-mondes</i> of the Middle Ages, see the <i>Essai</i> of the + VICOMTE DE SANTAREM, <i>Sur la Cosmographie et Cartographie</i>, + tom. iii. p. 335, &c.</p> + + <p>2: MARCO POLO, p. 2, c. 148. A later authority than Marco Polo, + PORCACCHI, in his <i>Isolario</i>, or "Description of the most + celebrated Islands in the World," which was published at Venice in + A.D. 1576, laments his inability even at that time to obtain any + authentic information as to the boundaries and dimensions of + Ceylon; and, relying on the representations of the Moors, who then + carried on an active trade around its coasts, he describes it as + lying under the equinoctial line, and possessing a circuit of 2100 + miles. "Ella gira di circuito, secondo il calcole fatto da Mori, + che modernamente l'hanno nauigato d'ogn'intorno due mila et cento + miglia et corre mæstro e sirocco; et per il mezo d'essa passa la + linea equinottiale et è el principio del primo clima al terzo + paralello."—<i>L'Isole piu Famose del Monde, descritte da</i> + THOMASO PORCACCHI, lib. iii. p. 30.</p> + </div><a name="pg010" id="pg010"></a> + + <p>Such was the uncertainty thrown over the geography of the island + by erroneous and conflicting accounts, that grave doubts came to be + entertained of its identity, and from the fourteenth century, when + the attention of Europe was re-directed to the nascent science of + geography, down to the close of the seventeenth, it remained a + question whether Ceylon or Sumatra was the Taprobane of the + Greeks.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: GIBBON states, that "Salmasius and most of the ancients + confound the islands of Ceylon and Sumatra."—<i>Decl. and + Fall</i> ch. xl. This is a mistake. Saumaise was one of those who + maintained a correct opinion; and, as regards the "ancients," they + had very little knowledge of <i>Further India</i> to which Sumatra + belongs; but so long as Greek and Roman literature maintained their + influence, no question was raised as to the identity of Ceylon and + Taprobane. Even in the sixth century Cosmas Indicopleustes declares + unhesitatingly that the Sielediva of the Indians was the Taprobane + of the Greeks.</p> + + <p>It was only on emerging from the general ignorance of the Middle + Ages that the doubt was first promulgated. In the Catalan Map of + A.D. 1375, entitled <i>Image du Monde</i>, Ceylon is omitted, and + Taprobane is represented by Sumatra (MALTE BRUN, <i>Hist. de + Geogr.</i> vol. i, p. 318); in that of <i>Fra Mauro</i>, the + Venetian monk, A.D. 1458, Seylan is given, but <i>Taprobane</i> is + added over <i>Sumatra</i>. A similar error appears in the + <i>Mappe-monde,</i> by RUYCH, in the Ptolemy of A.D. 1508, and in + the writings of the geographers of the sixteenth century, GEMMA + FRISIUS, SEBASTIAN MUNSTER, RAMUSIO, JUL. SCALIGER, ORTELIUS, and + MERCATOR. The same view was adopted by the Venetian NICOLA DI + CONTI, in the first half of the fifteenth century, by the + Florentine ANDREA CORSALI, MAXIMILIANUS TRANSYLVANUS, VARTHEMA, and + PIGAFETTA. The chief cause of this perplexity was, no doubt, the + difficulty of reconciling the actual position and size of Ceylon + with the dimensions and position assigned to it by Strabo and + Ptolemy, the latter of whom, by an error which is elsewhere + explained, extended the boundary of the island far to the east of + its actual site. But there was a large body of men who rejected the + claim of Sumatra, and DE BARROS, SALMASIUS, BOCHART CLUVERIUS, + CELLARIUS, ISAAC VOSSIUS and others, maintained the title of + Ceylon. A <i>Mappe-monde</i> of A.D. 1417, preserved in the Pitti + Palace at Florence compromises the dispute by designating Sumatra + <i>Taprobane Major</i>. The controversy came to an end at the + beginning of the eighteenth century, when the overpowering + authority of DELISLE resolved the doubt, and confirmed the modern + Ceylon as the Taprobane of antiquity. WILFORD, in the <i>Asiatic + Researches</i> (vol. x. p. 140), still clung to the opposite + opinion, and KANT undertook to prove that Taprobane was + Madagascar.]</p> + </div><a name="pg011" id="pg011"></a> <i>Latitude and + Longitude</i>.—There has hitherto been considerable uncertainty + as to the position assigned to Ceylon in the various maps and + geographical notices of the island: these have been corrected by more + recent observations, and its true place has been ascertained to be + between 5° 55' and 9° 51' north latitude, and 79° 41' 40" and 81° 54' + 50" east longitude. Its extreme length from north to south, from + Point Palmyra to Dondera Head, is 271-1/2 miles; its greatest width + 137-1/2 miles, from Colombo on the west coast to Sangemankande on the + east; and its area, including its dependent islands, 25,742 miles, or + about one-sixth smaller than Ireland.[1] + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Down to a very recent period no British colony was more + imperfectly surveyed and mapped than Ceylon; but since the recent + publication by Arrowsmith of the great map by General Fraser, the + reproach has been withdrawn, and no dependency of the Crown is more + richly provided in this particular. In the map of Schneider, the + Government engineer in 1813, two-thirds of the Kandyan Kingdom are + a blank; and in that of the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge, + re-published so late as 1852, the rich districts of Neuera-kalawa + and the Wanny, in which there are innumerable villages (and + scarcely a hill), are marked as "<i>unknown mountainous + region</i>." General Fraser, after the devotion of a lifetime to + the labour, has produced a survey which, in extent and minuteness + of detail, stands unrivalled. In this great work he had the + co-operation of Major Skinner and of Captain Gallwey, and to these + two gentlemen the public are indebted for the greater portion of + the field-work and the trigonometrical operations. To judge of the + difficulties which beset such an undertaking, it must be borne in + mind that till very recently travelling in the interior of Ceylon + was all but impracticable, in a country unopened even by bridle + roads, across unbridged rivers, over mountains never trod by the + foot of a European, and amidst precipices inaccessible to all but + the most courageous and prudent. Add to this that the country is + densely covered with forest and jungle, with trees a hundred feet + high, from which here and there the branches had to be cleared to + obtain a sight of the signal stations. The triangulation was + carried on amidst privations, discomfort, and pestilence, which + frequently prostrated the whole party, and forced their attendants + to desert them rather than encounter such hardships and peril. The + materials collected by the colleagues of General Fraser under these + discouragements have been worked up by him with consummate skill + and perseverance. The base line, five and a quarter miles in + length, was measured in 1845 in the cinnamon plantation at + Kaderani, to the north of Colombo, and its extremities are still + marked by two towers, which it was necessary to raise to the height + of one hundred feet, to enable them to be discerned above the + surrounding forests. These it is to be hoped will be carefully kept + from decay, as they may again be called into requisition.</p> + + <p>As regards the sea line of Ceylon, an admirable chart of the + West coast, from Adam's Bridge to Dondera Head, has been published + by the East India Company from a survey in 1845. But information is + sadly wanted as to the East and North, of which no accurate charts + exist, except of a few unconnected points, such as the harbour of + Trincomalie.</p> + </div><a name="pg012" id="pg012"></a> + + <div class="figleft"> + <a href="images/012.jpg"><img src="images/012.jpg" width="50%" alt= + "Ceylon is pear shaped" /></a> + </div> + + <p><i>General Form</i>.—In its general outline the island + resembles a pear—and suggests to its admiring inhabitants the + figure of those pearls which from their elongated form are suspended + from the tapering end. When originally upheaved above the ocean its + shape was in all probability nearly circular, with a prolongation in + the direction of north-east. The mountain zone in the south, covering + an area of about 4212 miles[1], may then have formed the largest + proportion of its entire area—and the belt of low lands, known + as the Maritime Provinces, consists to a great extent of soil from + the disintegration of the gneiss, detritus from the hills, alluvium + carried down the rivers, and marine deposits gradually collected on + the shore. But in addition to these, the land has for ages been + slowly rising from the sea, and terraces abounding in marine shells + imbedded in agglutinated sand occur in situations far above + high-water mark. Immediately inland from Point de Galle, the surface + soil rests on a stratum of decomposing coral; and sea shells are + found at a considerable distance from the shore. Further north at + Madampe, between Chilaw and Negombo, the shells of pearl oysters and + other bivalves are turned up by the plough more than ten miles from + the sea.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This includes not only the lofty mountains suitable for the + cultivation of coffee, but the lower ranges and spurs which connect + them with the maritime plains.</p> + </div><a name="pg013" id="pg013"></a> + + <p>These recent formations present themselves in a still more + striking form in the north of the island, the greater portion of + which may be regarded as the conjoint production of the coral polypi, + and the currents, which for the greater portion of the year set + impetuously towards the south. Coming laden with alluvial matter + collected along the coast of Coromandel, and meeting with obstacles + south of Point Calimere, they have deposited their burthens on the + coral reefs round Point Pedro; and these gradually raised above the + sea-level, and covered deeply by sand drifts, have formed the + peninsula of Jaffna and the plains that trend westward till they + unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's Bridge—itself raised + by the same agencies, and annually added to by the influences of the + tides and monsoons.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The barrier known as Adam's Bridge, which obstructs the + navigation of the channel between Ceylon and Ramnad, consists of + several parallel ledges of conglomerate and sandstone, hard at the + surface, and growing coarse and soft as it descends till it rests + on a bank of sand, apparently accumulated by the influence of the + currents at the change of the monsoons. See an <i>Essay</i> by + Captain STEWART <i>on the Paumbem Passage</i>. Colombo, 1837. See + Vol. II. p. 554.</p> + </div> + + <p>On the north-west side of the island, where the currents are + checked by the obstruction of Adam's Bridge, and still water prevails + in the Gulf of Manaar, these deposits have been profusely heaped, and + the low sandy plains have been proportionally extended; whilst on the + south and east, where the current sweeps unimpeded along the coast, + the line of the shore is bold and occasionally rocky.</p> + + <p>This explanation of the accretion and rising of the land is + somewhat opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon was torn from the + main land of India[1] by a convulsion, during which the Gulf of + Manaar and the narrow channel at Paumbam were formed by the + submersion of the adjacent land. The two theories might be reconciled + by supposing the sinking to have occurred at an early period, and to + have been followed by the uprising still in progress. But on a closer + examination of the structure and direction of the mountain <a name= + "pg014" id="pg014"></a> system of Ceylon, it exhibits no traces of + submersion. It seems erroneous to regard it as a prolongation of the + Indian chains; it lies far to the east of the line formed by the + Ghauts on either side of the peninsula, and any affinity which it + exhibits is rather with the equatorial direction of the intersecting + ranges of the Nilgherries and the Vindhya. In their geological + elements there is, doubtless, a similarity between the southern + extremity of India and the elevated portions of Ceylon; but there are + also many important particulars in which their specific differences + are irreconcilable with the conjecture of previous continuity. In the + north of Ceylon there is a marked preponderance of aqueous strata, + which are comparatively rare in the vicinity of Cape Comorin; and + whilst the rocks of the former are entirely destitute of organic + remains[2]; fossils, both terrestrial and pelagic, have been found in + the Eastern Ghauts, and sandstone, in some instances, overlays the + primary rocks which compose them. The rich and black soil to the + south of the Nilgherries presents a strong contrast to the red and + sandy earth of the opposite coast; and both in the flora and fauna of + the island there are exceptional peculiarities which suggest a + distinction between it and the Indian continent.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: LASSEN, <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i>, vol. i. p. 193.</p> + + <p>2: At Cutchavelly, north of Trincomalie, there exists a bed of + calcareous clay, in which shells and crustaceans are found in a + semi-fossilised state; but they are all of recent species, + principally <i>Macrophthalmus</i> and <i>Scylla</i>. The breccia at + Jaffna contains recent shells, as does also the arenaceous strata + on the western coast of Manaar and in the neighbourhood of Galle. + The existence of the fossilised crustaceans in the north of Ceylon + was known to the early Arabian navigators. Abou-zeyd describes them + as, "Un animal de mer qui resemble à l'écrevisse; quand cet animal + sort de la mer, <i>il se convertit en pierre</i>." See REINAUD, + <i>Voyages faits par les Arabes</i>, vol. i. p. 21. The Arabs then; + and the Chinese at the present day, use these petrifactions when + powdered as a specific for diseases of the eye.</p> + </div><a name="pg015" id="pg015"></a> + + <p><i>Mountain System</i>.—At whatever period the mountains of + Ceylon may have been raised, the centre of maximum energy must have + been in the vicinity of Adam's Peak, the group immediately + surrounding which has thus acquired an elevation of from six to eight + thousand feet above the sea.[1] The uplifting force seems to have + been exerted from south-west to north-east; and although there is + much confusion in many of the intersecting ridges, the lower ranges, + especially those to the south and west of Adam's Peak, from Saffragam + to Ambogammoa, manifest a remarkable tendency to run in parallel + ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The following are the heights of a few of the most remarkable + places:—</p> + + <table summary="heights of noteable places" width="70%"> + <tr> + <td width="50%">Pedrotallagalla</td> + + <td width="50%">8280 English feet.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Kirrigalpotta</td> + + <td>7810 English feet.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Totapella</td> + + <td>7720 English feet.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Adam's Peak</td> + + <td>7420 English feet.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Nammoone-Koolle</td> + + <td>6740 English feet.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Plain of Neuera-ellia</td> + + <td>6210 English feet.</td> + </tr> + </table> + </div> + + <p>Towards the north, on the contrary, the offsets of the mountain + system, with the exception of those which stretch towards + Trincomalie, radiate to short distances in various directions, and + speedily sink down to the level of the plain. Detached hills of great + altitude are rare, the most celebrated being that of Mihintala, which + overlooks the sacred city of Anarajapoora: and Sigiri is the only + example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities, which form so + remarkable a feature in the table-land of the Dekkan, starting + abruptly from the plain with scarped and perpendicular sides, and + converted by the Indians into strongholds, accessible only by + precipitous pathways, or steps hewn in the solid rock.</p> + + <p>The crest of the Ceylon mountains is of stratified crystalline + rock, especially gneiss, with extensive veins of quartz, and through + this the granite has been everywhere intruded, distorting the riven + strata, and tilting them at all angles to the horizon. Hence at the + abrupt terminations of some of the chains in the district of + Saffragam, plutonic rocks are seen mingled with the dislocated + gneiss. Basalt makes its appearance both at Galle and Trincomalie. In + one place to the east <a name="pg016" id="pg016"></a> of + Pettigalle-Kanda, the rocks have been broken up in such confusion as + to resemble the effect of volcanic action—huge masses overhang + each other like suddenly-cooled lava; and Dr. Gygax, a Swiss + mineralogist, who was employed by the Government in 1847 to examine + and report on the mineral resources of the district, stated, on his + return, that having seen the volcanoes of the Azores, he found a + "strange similarity at this spot to one of the semi-craters round the + trachytic ridge of Seticidadas, in the island of St. Michael."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Beyond the very slightest symptoms of disturbance, + earthquakes are unknown in Ceylon: and although its geology + exhibits little evidence of volcanic action (with the exception of + the basalt, which occasionally presents an appearance approaching + to that of lava), there are some other incidents that seem to + suggest the vicinity of fire; more particularly the occurrence of + springs of high temperature, one at Badulla, one at Kitool, near + Bintenne, another near Yavi Ooto, in the Veddah country, and a + fourth at Cannea, near Trincomalie. I have heard of another near + the Patipal Aar south of Batticaloa. The water in each is so pure + and free from salts that the natives make use of it for all + domestic purposes. Dr. Davy adverts to another indication of + volcanic agency in the sudden and profound depth of the noble + harbour at Trincomalie, which even close by the beach is said to + have been hitherto unfathomed.</p> + + <p>The Spaniards believed Ceylon to be volcanic; and ARGENSOLA, in + his <i>Conquista de las Malucas</i>, Madrid, 1609, says it produced + liquid bitumen and sulphur:—"Fuentes de betùn liquido y + bolcanes de perpetuas llamas que arrojan entre las asperezas de la + montaña losas de açufre."—Lib. v. p. 184. It is needless to + say that this is altogether imaginary.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Gneiss</i>.—The great geological feature of the island + is, however, the profusion of gneiss, and the various new forms + arising from its disintegration. In the mountains, with the exception + of occasional beds of dolomite, no more recent formations overlie it; + from the period of its first upheaval, the gneiss has undergone no + second submersion, and the soil which covers it in these lofty + altitudes is formed almost entirely by its decay.</p> + + <p>In the lower ranges of the hills, gigantic portions of gneiss rise + conspicuously, so detached from the original chain and so rounded by + the action of the atmosphere, aided by their concentric lamellation, + that but for their prodigious dimensions, they might be regarded as + boulders. Close under one of these cylindrical masses, <a name= + "pg017" id="pg017"></a> 600 feet in height, and upwards of three + miles in length, the town of Kornegalle, one of the ancient capitals + of the island, has been built; and the great temple of Dambool, the + most remarkable Buddhist edifice in Ceylon, is constructed under the + hollow edge of another, its gilded roof being formed by the inverted + arch of the natural stone. The tendency of the gneiss to assume these + concentric and almost circular forms has been taken advantage of for + this purpose by the Singhalese priests, and some of their most + venerated temples are to be found under the shadow of the overarching + strata, to the imperishable nature of which the priests point as + symbolical of the eternal duration of their faith.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The concentric lamellar strata of the gneiss sometimes extend + with a radius so prolonged that slabs may be cut from them and used + in substitution for beams of timber, and as such they are + frequently employed in the construction of Buddhist temples. At + Piagalla, on the road between Galle and Colombo, within about four + miles of Caltura, there is a gneiss hill of this description on + which a temple has been so erected. In this particular rock the + garnets usually found in gneiss are replaced by rubies, and nothing + can exceed the beauty of the hand-specimens procurable from a + quarry close to the high road on the landward side; in which, + however, the gems are in every case reduced to splinters.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Laterite or "Cabook</i>."—A peculiarity, which is one of + the first to strike a stranger who lands at Galle or Colombo, is the + bright red colour of the streets and roads, contrasting vividly with + the verdure of the trees, and the ubiquity of the fine red dust which + penetrates every crevice and imparts its own tint to every neglected + article. Natives resident in these localities are easily recognisable + elsewhere, by the general hue of their dress. This is occasioned by + the prevalence along the western coast of <i>laterite</i>, or, as the + Singhalese call it, <i>cabook</i>, a product of disintegrated gneiss, + which being subjected to detrition communicates its hue to the + soil.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: According to the <i>Mahawanso</i> "Tamba-panni," one of those + names by which Ceylon was anciently called, originated in an + incident connected with the invasion of Wijayo, B.C. 543, whose + followers, "exhausted by sea-sickness and faint from weakness, sat + down at the spot where they had landed out of the vessels, + supporting themselves on the palms of their hands pressed to the + ground, whence the name of Tamba-pannyo, '<i>copper-palmed</i>,' + from the colour of the soil. From this circumstance that wilderness + obtained the name of Tamba-panni; and from the same cause also this + renowned land became celebrated under that name."—TURNOUR'S + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vi. p. 50. From Tamba-panni came the Greek + name for Ceylon, <i>Taprobane</i>. Mr. de Alwis has corrected an + error in this passage of Mr. Turnour's translation; the word in the + original, which he took for <i>Tamba-panniyo</i>, or + "copper-palmed," being in reality <i>tamba-vanna</i>, or + "copper-coloured." Colonel Forbes questions the accuracy of this + derivation, and attributes the name to the <i>tamana</i> trees; + from the abundance of which he says many villages in Ceylon, as + well as a district in southern India, have been similarly called. + (<i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>, vol. i. p. 10.) I have not + succeeded in discovering what tree is designated by this name, nor + does it occur in MOON'S <i>List of Ceylon Plants</i>. On the + southern coast of India a river, which flows from the ghats to the + sea, passing Tinnevelly, is called Tambapanni. Tambapanni, as the + designation of Ceylon, occurs in the inscription on the rock of + Girnar in Guzerat, deciphered by Prinsep, containing an edict by + Asoka relative to the medical administration of India for the + relief both of man and beast, (<i>Asiat. Soc. Journ. Beng.</i> vol. + vii. p. 158.)</p><a name="pg018" id="pg018"></a> + </div> + + <p>The transformation of gneiss into laterite in these localities has + been attributed to the circumstance, that those sections of the rock + which undergo transition exhibit grains of magnetic iron ore + partially disseminated through them; and the phenomenon of the + conversion has been explained not by recurrence to the ordinary + conception of mere weathering, which is inadequate, but to the theory + of catalytic action, regard being had to the peculiarity of magnetic + iron when viewed in its chemical formula.[1] The oxide of iron thus + produced communicates its colouring to the laterite, and in + proportion as felspar and hornblende abound in the gneiss, the cabook + assumes respectively a white or yellow hue. So ostensible is the + series of mutations, that in ordinary excavations there is no + difficulty in tracing a continuous connection without definite lines + of demarcation between the soil and the laterite on the one hand, and + the laterite and gneiss rock on the other.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: From a paper read to the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh + by the Rev. J.G. Macvicar, D.D.</p> + + <p>2: From a paper on the Geology of Ceylon, by Dr. Gardner, in the + Appendix to Lee's translation of RIBEYRO'S <i>History of + Ceylon</i>, p, 206. The earliest and one of the ablest essays on + the geological system and mineralogy of Ceylon will be found in + DAVY'S <i>Account of the Interior of Ceylon</i>, London, 1821. It + has, however, been corrected and enlarged by recent + investigators.</p> + </div><a name="pg019" id="pg019"></a> + + <p>The tertiary rocks which form such remarkable features in the + geology of other countries are almost unknown in Ceylon; and the + "clay-slate, Silurian, old red sandstone, carboniferous, new red + sandstone, oolitic, and cretaceous systems" have not as yet been + recognised in any part of the island.[1] Crystalline limestone in + some places overlies the gneiss, and is worked for oeconomical + purposes in the mountain districts where it occurs.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Gardner.</p> + + <p>2: In the maritime provinces lime for building is obtained by + burning the coral and madrepore, which for this purpose is + industriously collected by the fishermen during the intervals when + the wind is off shore.</p> + </div> + + <p>Along the western coast, from Point-de-Galle to Chilaw, breccia is + found near the shores, from the agglutination of corallines and + shells mixed with sand, and the disintegrated particles of gneiss. + These beds present an appearance very closely resembling a similar + rock, in which human remains have been found imbedded, at the + north-east of Guadaloupe, now in the British Museum.[1] Incorporated + with them there are minute fragments of sapphires, rubies, and + tourmaline, showing that the sand of which the breccia is composed + has been washed down by the rivers from the mountain zone.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Gardner.</p> + </div> + + <p>NORTHERN PROVINCES.—<i>Coral Formation</i>.—But the + principal scene of the most recent formations is the extreme north of + the island, with the adjoining peninsula of Jaffna. Here the coral + rocks abound far above high-water mark, and extend across the island + where the land has been gradually upraised, from the eastern to the + western shore. The fortifications of Jaffna were built by the Dutch, + from blocks of breccia quarried far from the sea, and still exhibit, + in their worn surface, the outline of the shells and corallines of + which they mainly consist. The roads, in the absence of more solid + substances, are metalled with the same material; as the only other + rock which occurs is a loose description of <a name="pg020" id= + "pg020"></a> conglomerate, similar to that at Adam's Bridge and + Manaar.</p> + + <p>The phenomenon of the gradual upheaval of these strata is + sufficiently attested by the position in which they appear, and their + altitude above high-water mark; but, in close contiguity with them, + an equally striking evidence presents itself in the fact that, at + various points of the western coast, between the island of Manaar and + Karativoe, the natives, in addition to fishing for chank shells[1] in + the sea, dig them up in large quantities from beneath the soil on the + adjacent shores, in which they are deeply imbedded[2], the land + having since been upraised.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Turbinella rapa</i>, formerly known as <i>Voluta + gravis</i> used by the people of India to be sawn into bangles and + anklets.</p> + + <p>2: In 1845 an antique iron anchor was found under the soil at + the northwestern point of Jaffna, of such size and weight as to + show that it must have belonged to a ship of much greater tonnage + than any which the depth of water would permit to navigate the + channel at the present day.</p> + </div> + + <p>The sand, which covers a vast extent of the peninsula of Jaffna, + and in which the coco-nut and Palmyra-palm grow freely, has been + carried by the currents from the coast of India, and either flung + upon the northern beach in the winter months, or driven into the lake + during the south-west monsoon, and thence washed on shore by the + ripple, and distributed by the wind.</p> + + <p>The arable soil of Jaffna is generally of a deep red colour, from + the admixture of iron, and, being largely composed of lime from the + comminuted coral, it is susceptible of the highest cultivation, and + produces crops of great luxuriance. This tillage is carried on + exclusively by irrigation from innumerable wells, into which the + water rises fresh through the madrepore and sand; there being no + streams in the district, unless those percolations can be so called + which make their way underground, and rise through the sands on the + margin of the sea at low water.</p> + + <p><i>Wells in the Coral Rock</i>.—These phenomena occur at + Jaffna, in consequence of the rocks being magnesian limestone and + coral, overlying a bed of sand, and <a name="pg021" id="pg021"></a> + in some places, where the soil is light, the surface of the ground is + a hollow arch, so that it resounds as if a horse's weight were + sufficient to crush it inwards. This is strikingly perceptible in the + vicinity of the remarkable well at Potoor[1], on the west side of the + road leading from Jaffna to Point Pedro, where the surface of the + surrounding country is only about fifteen feet above the sea-level. + The well, however, is upwards of 140 feet in depth; the water fresh + at the surface, brackish lower down, and intensely salt below. + According to the universal belief of the inhabitants, it is an + underground pool, which communicates with the sea by a subterranean + channel bubbling out on the shore near Kangesentorre, about seven + miles to the north-west.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For the particulars of this singular well, see Vol. II. Pt. + IX. ch. vi. p. 536.</p> + </div> + + <p>A similar subterranean stream is said to conduct to the sea from + another singular well near Tillipalli, in sinking which the workmen, + at the depth of fourteen feet, came to the ubiquitous coral, the + crust of which gave way, and showed a cavern below containing the + water they were in search of, with a depth of more than thirty-three + feet. It is remarkable that the well at Tillipalli preserves its + depth at all seasons alike, uninfluenced by rains or drought; and a + steam-engine erected at Potoor, with the intention of irrigating the + surrounding lands, failed to lower it in any perceptible degree.</p> + + <p>Other wells, especially some near the coast, maintain their level + with such uniformity as to be inexhaustible at any season, even after + a succession of years of drought—a fact from which it may + fairly be inferred that their supply is chiefly derived by + percolation from the sea.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: DARWIN, in his admirable account of the coral formations of + the Pacific and Indian oceans, has propounded a theory as to the + abundance of fresh water in the atolls and islands on coral reefs, + furnished by wells which ebb and flow with the tides. Assuming it + to be impossible to separate salt from sea water by filtration, he + suggests that the porous coral rock being permeated by salt water, + the rain which falls on the surface must sink to the level of the + surrounding sea, "and must accumulate there, displacing an equal + bulk of sea water—and as the portion of the latter in the + lower part of the great sponge-like mass rises and falls with the + tides, so will the fresh water near the + surface."—<i>Naturalist's Journal</i>, ch. xx. But subsequent + experiments have demonstrated that the idea of separating the salt + by filtration is not altogether imaginary; as Darwin seems to have + then supposed; and Mr. WITT, in a remarkable paper <i>On a peculiar + power possessed by Porous Media of removing matters from solution + in water</i>, has since succeeded in showing that "water containing + considerable quantities of saline matter in solution may, by merely + percolating through great masses of porous strata during long + periods, be gradually deprived of its salts <i>to such an extent as + probably to render even sea-water fresh</i>."—<i>Philos. + Mag</i>., 1856. Divesting the subject therefore of this difficulty, + other doubts would appear to suggest themselves as to the + applicability of Darwin's theory to coral formations in general. + For instance, it might be supposed that rain falling on a substance + already saturated with moisture, would flow off instead of sinking + into it; and that being of less specific gravity than salt water, + it would fail to "displace an equal bulk" of the latter. There are + some extraordinary but well attested statements of a thin layer of + fresh water being found on the surface of the sea, after heavy + rains in the Bay of Bengal. (<i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng</i>. vol. + v. p. 239.) Besides, I fancy that in the majority of atolls and + coral islands the quantity of rain which so small an area is + calculated to intercept would be insufficient of itself to account + for the extraordinary abundance of fresh water daily drawn from the + wells. For instance, the superficial extent of each of the + Laccadives is but two or three square miles, the surface soil + resting on a crust of coral, beneath which is a stratum of sand; + and yet on reaching the latter, fresh water flows in such + profusion, that wells and large tanks for soaking coco-nut fibre + are formed in any place by merely "breaking through the crust and + taking out the sand."—<i>Madras Journal</i>, vol. xiv. It is + curious that the abundant supply of water in these wells should + have attracted the attention of the early navigators, and Cosmas + Indicoplenstes, writing in the sixth century, speaks of the + numerous small islands off the coast of Taprobane, with abundance + of fresh water and coco-nut palms, although these islands rest on a + bed of sand. (<i>Cosmas Ind</i>. ed. Thevenot, vol. i. p. 3, 20). + It is remarkable that in the little island of Ramisseram, one of + the chain which connects Adam's Bridge with the Indian continent, + fresh water is found freely on sinking for it in the sand. But this + is not the case in the adjacent island of Manaar, which + participates in the geologic character of the interior of Ceylon. + The fresh water in the Laccadive wells always fluctuates with the + rise and fall of the tides. In some rare instances, as on the + little island of Bitra, which is the smallest inhabited spot in the + group, the water, though abundant, is brackish, but this is + susceptible of an explanation quite consistent with the experiments + of Mr. Witt, which require that the process of percolation shall be + continued "during <i>long</i> periods and through <i>great masses + of porous strata</i>;" Darwin equally concedes that to keep the + rain fresh when banked in, as he assumes, by the sea, the mass of + madrepore must be "sufficiently thick to prevent mechanical + admixture; and where the land consists of loose blocks of coral + with open interstices, the water, if a well be dug, is brackish." + Conditions analogous to all these particularised, present + themselves at Jaffna, and seem to indicate that the extent to which + fresh water is found there, is directly connected with percolation + from the sea. The quantity of rain which annually falls is less + than in England, being but thirty inches; whilst the average heat + is highest in Ceylon, and the evaporation great in proportion. + Throughout the peninsula, I am informed by Mr. Byrne, the + Government surveyor of the district, that as a general rule "<i>all + the wells are below the sea level</i>." It would be useless to sink + them in the higher ground, where they could only catch surface + water. The November rains fill them at once to the brim, but the + water quickly subsides as the season becomes dry, and "<i>sinks to + the uniform level, at which it remains fixed for the next nine or + ten months</i>, unless when slightly affected by showers." "<i>No + well below the sea level becomes dry of itself</i>," even in + seasons of extreme and continued drought. But the contents do not + vary with the tides, the rise of which is so trifling that the + distance from the ocean, and the slowness of filtration, renders + its fluctuations imperceptible.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, the well of Potoor, the phenomena of which + indicate its direct connection with the sea, by means of a fissure + or a channel beneath the arch of magnesian limestone, rises and + falls a few inches in the course of every twelve hours. Another + well at Navokeiry, a short distance from it, does the same, whilst + the well at Tillipalli is entirely unaffected as to its level by + any rains, and exhibits no alteration of its depths on either + monsoon. ADMIRAL FITZROY, in his <i>Narrative of the Surveying + Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle</i>, the expedition to which + Mr. Darwin was attached, adverts to the phenomenon in connection + with the fresh water found in the Coral Islands, and the rise and + fall of the wells, and the flow and ebb of the tide. He advances + the theory propounded by Darwin of the retention of the + river-water, which he says, "does not mix with the salt water which + surrounds it except at the edges of the land. The flowing tide + pushes on every side, the mixed soil being very porous, and causes + the water to rise: when the tide falls, the fresh water sinks also. + <i>A sponge full of fresh water placed gently in a basin of salt + water, will not part with its contents for a length of time if left + untouched</i>, and the water in the middle of the sponge will be + found untainted by salt for many days: perhaps much longer if + tried."—Vol. i. p. 365. In a perfectly motionless medium the + experiment of the sponge may no doubt be successful to the extent + mentioned by Admiral Fitzroy; and so the rain-water imbibed by a + coral rock might for a length of time remain fresh where it came + into no contact with the salt. But the disturbance caused by the + tides, and the partial intermixture admitted by Admiral Fitzroy, + must by reiterated occurrence tend in time to taint the fresh water + which is affected by the movement: and this is demonstrable even by + the test of the sponge; for I find that on charging one with + coloured fluid, and immersing it in a vessel containing water + perfectly pure, no intermixture takes place so long as the pure + water is undisturbed; but on causing an artificial tide, by + gradually withdrawing and as gradually replacing a portion of the + surrounding contents of the basin, the tinted water in the sponge + becomes displaced and disturbed, and in the course of a few ebbs + and flows its escape is made manifest by the quantity of colour + which it imparts to the surrounding fluid.</p><a name="pg022" id= + "pg022"></a> + </div> + + <p>An idea of the general aspect of Ceylon will be formed from what + has here been described. Nearly four parts of the island are + undulating plains, slightly diversified <a name="pg023" id= + "pg023"></a> by offsets from the mountain system which entirely + covers the remaining fifth. Every district, from the depths of the + valleys to the summits of the highest hills, is clothed with + perennial foliage; and even the sand-drifts, to the ripple on the sea + line, are carpeted <a name="pg024" id="pg024"></a> with verdure, and + sheltered from the sunbeams by the cool shadows of the palm + groves.</p> + + <p>SOIL.—But the soil, notwithstanding this wonderful display + of spontaneous vegetation, is not responsive to systematic + cultivation, and is but imperfectly adapted for maturing a constant + succession of seeds and cereal productions.[1] Hence arose the + disappointment which beset the earliest adventurers who opened + plantations of coffee in the hills, on discovering that after the + first rapid development of the plants, delicacy and languor ensued, + which were only to be corrected by returning to the earth, in the + form of manures, those elements with which it had originally been but + sparingly supplied, and which were soon exhausted by the first + experiments in cultivation.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See a paper in the Journal of Agriculture, for March, 1857, + Edin.: on <i>Tropical Cultivation and its Limits</i>, by Dr. + MACVICAR.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Patenas</i>.—The only spots hitherto found suitable for + planting coffee, are those covered by the ancient forests of the + mountain zone; and one of the most remarkable phenomena in the + oeconomic history of the island, is the fact that the grass lands on + the same hills, closely adjoining the forests and separated from them + by no visible line save the growth of the trees, although they seem + to be identical in the nature of the soil, have hitherto proved to be + utterly insusceptible of reclamation or culture by the coffee + planter.[1] These verdant openings, to which the natives have given + the name of <i>patenas</i>, generally occur about the middle + elevation of the hills, the summits and the hollows being covered + with the customary growth of timber trees, which also fringe the + edges of the mountain streams that trickle down these park-like + openings. The forest approaches boldly to the very edge of a + "patena," not disappearing <a name="pg025" id="pg025"></a> gradually + or sinking into a growth of underwood, but stopping abruptly and at + once, the tallest trees forming a fence around the avoided spot, as + if they enclosed an area of solid stone. These sunny expanses vary in + width from a few yards to many thousands of acres; in the lower + ranges of the hills they are covered with tall lemon-grass + <i>(Andropogon schoenanthus)</i> of which the oppressive perfume and + coarse texture, when full grown, render it distasteful to cattle, + which will only crop the delicate braird that springs after the + surface has been annually burnt by the Kandyans. Two stunted trees, + alone, are seen to thrive in these extraordinary prairies, <i>Careya + arborea</i> and <i>Emblica officinalis</i>, and these only below an + altitude of 4000 feet; above this, the lemon-grass is superseded by + harder and more wiry species; but the earth is still the same, a + mixture of decomposed quartz largely impregnated with oxide of iron, + but wanting the phosphates and other salts which are essential to + highly organised vegetation.[2] The extent of the patena land is + enormous in Ceylon, amounting to millions of acres; and it is to be + hoped that the complaints which have hitherto been made by the + experimental cultivators of coffee in the Kandyan provinces may + hereafter prove exaggerated, and that much that has been attributed + to the poverty of the soil may eventually be traced to deficiency of + skill on the part of the early planters.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Since the above was written, attempts have been made, chiefly + by natives to plant coffee on patena land. The result is a + conviction that the cultivation is practicable, by the use of + manures from the beginning; whereas forest land is capable, for + three or four years at least, of yielding coffee without any + artificial enrichment of the soil.</p> + + <p>2: HUMBOLDT is disposed to ascribe the absence of trees in the + vast grassy plains of South America, to "the destructive custom of + setting fire to the woods, when the natives want to convert the + soil into pasture: when during the lapse of centuries grasses and + plants have covered the surface with a carpet, the seeds of trees + can no longer germinate and fix themselves in the earth, although + birds and winds carry them continually from the distant forests + into the Savannahs."—<i>Narrative</i>, vol. i. ch. vi. p. + 242.</p> + </div> + + <p>The natives in the same lofty localities find no deficient returns + in the crops of rice, which they raise in the ravines and hollows, + into which the earth from above has been washed by the periodical + rains; but the cultivation of rice is so entirely dependent on the + <a name="pg026" id="pg026"></a> presence of water, that no inference + can be fairly drawn as to the quality of the soil from the abundance + of its harvest.</p> + + <p>The fields on which rice is grown in these mountains form one of + the most picturesque and beautiful objects in the country of the + Kandyans. Selecting an angular recess where two hills converge, they + construct a series of terraces, raised stage above stage, and + retiring as they ascend along the slope of the acclivity, up which + they are carried as high as the soil extends.[1] Each terrace is + furnished with a low ledge in front, behind which the requisite depth + of water is retained during the germination of the seed, and what is + superfluous is permitted to trickle down to the one below it. In + order to carry on this peculiar cultivation the streams are led along + the level of the hills, often from a distance of many miles, with a + skill and perseverance for which the natives of these mountains have + attained a great renown.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The conversion of the land into these hanging farms is known + in Ceylon as "assuedamizing," a term borrowed from the Kandyan + vernacular, in which the word "assuedamé" implies the process above + described.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the lowlands to the south, the soil partakes of the character + of the hills from whose detritus it is to a great extent formed. In + it rice is the chief article produced, and for its cultivation the + disintegrated laterite (<i>cabook</i>), when thoroughly irrigated, is + sufficiently adapted. The seed time in the southern section of the + island is dependent on the arrival of the rains in November and May, + and hence the mountains and the maritime districts at their base + enjoy two harvests in each year—the <i>Maha</i>, which is sown + about July and August, and reaped in December and January, the + <i>Yalla</i> which is sown in spring, and reaped from the 15th of + July to the 20th September. But owing to the different description of + seed sown in particular localites, and the extent to which they are + <a name="pg027" id="pg027"></a> respectively affected by the rains, + the times of sowing and harvest vary considerably on different sides + of the island.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The reaping of other descriptions of grain besides rice + occurs at various periods of the year according to the + locality.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the north, where the influence of the monsoons is felt with + less force and regularity, and where, to counteract their + uncertainty, the rain is collected in reservoirs, a wider discretion + is left to the husbandman in the choice of season for his + operations.[1] Two crops of grain, however, are the utmost that is + taken from the land, and in many instances only one. The soil near + the coast is light and sandy, but in the great central districts of + Neuera-kalawa and the Wanny, there is found in the midst of the + forests a dark vegetable mould, in which in former times rice was + abundantly grown by the aid of those prodigious artificial works for + irrigation which still form one of the wonders of the island. Many of + the tanks, though partially in ruins, cover an area from ten to + fifteen miles in circumference. They are now generally broken and + decayed; the waters which would fertilise a province are allowed to + waste themselves in the sands, and hundreds of square miles capable + of furnishing food for all the inhabitants of Ceylon are abandoned to + solitude and malaria, whilst rice for the support of the + non-agricultural population is annually imported from the opposite + coast of India.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This peculiarity of the north of Ceylon was noticed by the + Chinese traveller FA HIAN, who visited the island in the fourth + century, and says of the country around Anarajapoora: + "L'ensemencement des champs est suivant la volonté des gens; il n'y + a point de temps pour cela."—<i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i>; p. + 332.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Talawas</i>.—In these districts of the lowlands, + especially on the eastern coast of the island, and in the country + watered by the Mahawelli-ganga and the other great rivers which flow + towards the Bay of Bengal and the magnificent estuary of Trincomalie, + there are open glades which diversify the forest scenery somewhat + <a name="pg028" id="pg028"></a> resembling the grassy patenas in the + hills, but differing from them in the character of their soil and + vegetation. These park-like meadows, or, as the natives call them, + "talawas," vary in extent from one to a thousand acres. They are + belted by the surrounding woods, and studded with groups of timber + and sometimes with single trees of majestic dimensions. Through these + pastures the deer troop in herds within gunshot, bounding into the + nearest cover when disturbed.</p> + + <p>Lower still and immediately adjoining the sea-coast, the broken + forest gives place to brushwood, with here and there an assemblage of + dwarf shrubs; but as far as the eye can reach, there is one vast + level of impenetrable jungle, broken only by the long sweep of salt + marshes which form lakes in the rainy season, but are dry between the + monsoons, and crusted with crystals that glitter like snow in the + sunshine.</p> + + <p>On the western side of the island the rivers have formed broad + alluvial plains, in which the Dutch attempted to grow sugar. The + experiment has been often resumed since; but even here the soil is so + defective, that the cost of artificially enriching it has hitherto + been a serious obstruction to success commercially, although in one + or two instances, plantations on a small scale have succeeded to a + certain extent.</p> + + <p>METALS.—The plutonic rocks of Ceylon are but slightly + metalliferous, and hitherto their veins and deposits have been but + imperfectly examined. The first successful survey attempted by the + Government was undertaken during the administration of Viscount + Torrington, who, in 1847, commissioned Dr. Gygax to proceed to the + hill district south of Adam's Peak, and furnish a report on its + products. His investigations extended from Ratnapoora, in a + south-eastward direction, to the mountains which overhang Bintenne, + but the results obtained did not greatly enlarge the knowledge + previously possessed. He established the existence <a name="pg029" + id="pg029"></a> of <i>tin</i> in the alluvium along the base of the + mountains to the eastward towards Edelgashena; but so circumstanced, + owing to the flow of the Walleway river, that, without lowering its + level, the metal could not be extracted with advantage. The position + in which it occurs is similar to that in which tin ore presents + itself in Saxony; and along with it, the natives, when searching for + gems, discover garnets, corundum, white topazes, zircon, and + tourmaline.</p> + + <p><i>Gold</i> is found in minute particles at Gettyhedra, and in the + beds of the Maha Oya and other rivers flowing towards the west.[1] + But the quantity hitherto discovered has been too trivial to reward + the search. The early inhabitants of the island were not ignorant of + its presence; but its occurrence on a memorable occasion, as well as + that of silver and copper, is recorded in the Mahawanso as a + miraculous manifestation, which signalised the founding of one of the + most renowned shrines at the ancient capital.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ruanwellé, a fort about forty miles distant from Colombo, + derives its name from the sands of the river which flows below + it,—rang-welle, "golden sand." "Rang-galla," in the central + province, is referable to the same root—the rock of gold.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso,</i> ch. xxiii. p. 166, 167.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Nickel</i> and <i>cobalt</i> appear in small quantities in + Saffragam, and the latter, together with <i>rutile</i> (an oxide of + titanium) and <i>wolfram</i>, might find a market in China for the + colouring of porcelain.[1] <i>Tellurium</i>, another rare and + valuable metal, hitherto found only in Transylvania and the Ural, has + likewise been discovered in these <a name="pg030" id="pg030"></a> + mountains, <i>Manganese</i> is abundant, and <i>Iron</i> occurs in + the form of magnetic iron ore, titanite, chromate, yellow hydrated, + per-oxide and iron pyrites. In most of these, however, the metal is + scanty, and the ores of little comparative value, except for the + extraction of manganese and chrome. "But there is another description + of iron ore," says Dr. Gygax, in his official report to the Ceylon + Government, "which is found in vast abundance, brown and compact, + generally in the state of carbonate, though still blended with a + little chrome, and often molybdena. It occurs in large masses and + veins, one of which extends for a distance of fifteen miles; from it + millions of tons might be smelted, and when found adjacent to fuel + and water-carriage, it might be worked to a profit. The quality of + the iron ore found in Ceylon is singularly fine; it is easily + smelted, and so pure when reduced as to resemble silver. The rough + ore produces from <i>thirty</i> to <i>seventy-five</i> per cent., and + on an average fully <i>fifty</i>. The iron wrought from it requires + no puddling, and, converted into steel, it cuts like a diamond. The + metal could be laid down in Colombo at £6 per ton, even supposing the + ore to be brought thither for smelting, and prepared with English + coal; but <i>anthracite</i> being found upon the spot, it could be + used in the proportion of three to one of the British coal; and the + cost correspondingly reduced."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Asiatic Annual Register</i> for 1799 contains the + following:—</p> + + <p>"<i>Extract from a letter from Colombo, dated 26th Oct. + 1798</i>.</p> + + <p>"A discovery has been lately made here of a very rich mine of + <i>quicksilver,</i> about six miles from this place. The + appearances are very promising, for a handful of the earth on the + surface will, by being washed, produce the value of a rupee. A + guard is set over it, and accounts sent express to the Madras + Government."—P. 53. See also PERCIVAL'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. + 539.</p> + + <p>JOINVILLE, in a MS, essay on <i>The Geology of Ceylon</i>, now + in the library of the East India Company, says that near + Trincomalie there is "un sable noir, composé de détriments de + trappe et de cristaux de fer, <i>dans lequel on trouve par le + lavage beaucoup de mercure</i>."</p> + </div> + + <p>Remains of ancient furnaces are met with in all directions + precisely similar to those still in use amongst the natives. The + Singhalese obtain the ore they require without the trouble of mining; + seeking a spot where the soil has been loosened by the latest rains, + they break off a sufficient quantity, which, in less than three + hours, they convert into iron by the simplest possible means. None of + their furnaces are capable of smelting more than twenty pounds of + ore, and yet this quantity yields from seven to ten pounds of good + metal.</p> + + <p>The <i>anthracite</i> alluded to by Dr. Gygax is found in <a name= + "pg031" id="pg031"></a> the southern range of hills near Nambepane, + in close proximity to rich veins of <i>plumbago</i>, which are + largely worked in the same district, and the quantity of the latter + annually exported from Ceylon exceeds a thousand tons. + <i>Molybdena</i> is found in profusion dispersed through many rocks + in Saffragam, and it occurs in the alluvium in grey scales, so nearly + resembling plumbago as to be commonly mistaken for it. <i>Kaolin</i>, + called by the natives <i>Kirimattie</i>, appears at Neuera-ellia at + Hewahette, Kaduganawa, and in many of the higher ranges as well as in + the low country near Colombo; its colour is so clear as to suit for + the manufacture of porcelain[1]; but the difficulty and cost of + carriage render it as yet unavailing for commerce, and the only use + to which it has hitherto been applied is to serve for whitewash + instead of lime.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The kaolin of Ceylon, according to an analysis in 1847, + consists of—</p> + + <table summary="analysis of Ceylon's kaolin"> + <tr> + <td>Pure kaolin</td> + + <td align="right">70.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silica</td> + + <td align="right">26.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Molybdena and iron oxide </td> + + <td align="right">4.0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td align="right">100.0</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>In the <i>Ming-she</i>, or history of the Ming dynasty, A.D. + 1368-1643, by Chan-ting-yuh, "pottery-stone" is; enumerated among + the imports into China from Ceylon.—B. cccxxvi. p. 5.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Nitre</i> has long been known to exist in Ceylon, where the + localities in which it occurs are similar to those in Brazil. In + Saffragam alone there are upwards of sixty caverns known to the + natives, from which it may be extracted, and others exist in various + parts of the island, where the abundance of wood to assist in its + lixiviation would render that process easy and profitable. Yet so + sparingly has this been hitherto attempted, that even for purposes of + refrigeration, crude saltpetre is still imported from India.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The mineralogy of Ceylon has hitherto undergone no scientific + scrutiny, nor have its mineral productions been arranged in any + systematic and comprehensive catalogue. Specimens are to be found + in abundance in the hands of native dealers; but from indifference + or caution they express their inability to afford adequate + information as to their locality, their geological position, or + even to show with sufficient certainty that they belong to the + island. Dr. Gygax, as the results of some years spent in exploring + different districts previous to 1847, was enabled to furnish a list + of but thirty-seven species, the site of which he had determined by + personal inspection. These were:—</p> + + <table summary="list of minerals of Ceylon"> + <tr> + <td>1.</td> + + <td>Rock crystal</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>2.</td> + + <td>Iron quartz</td> + + <td>Saffragam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>3.</td> + + <td>Common quartz</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>4.</td> + + <td>Amethyst</td> + + <td>Galle Back, Caltura.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>5.</td> + + <td>Garnet</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>6.</td> + + <td>Cinnamon stone</td> + + <td>Belligam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>7.</td> + + <td>Harmotome</td> + + <td>St. Lucia, Colombo.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>8.</td> + + <td>Hornblende</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>9.</td> + + <td>Hypersthene</td> + + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>10.</td> + + <td>Common corundum</td> + + <td>Badulla.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>11.</td> + + <td>Ruby</td> + + <td>Ditto and Saffragam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>12.</td> + + <td>Chrysoberyl</td> + + <td>Ratganga, North Saffragam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>13.</td> + + <td>Pleonaste</td> + + <td>Badulla.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>14.</td> + + <td>Zircon</td> + + <td>Wallawey-ganga, Saffragam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>15.</td> + + <td>Mica</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>16.</td> + + <td>Adular</td> + + <td>Patna Hills, North-east.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>17.</td> + + <td>Common felspar</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>18.</td> + + <td>Green felspar</td> + + <td>Kandy.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>19.</td> + + <td>Albite</td> + + <td>Melly Matté.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>20.</td> + + <td>Chlorite</td> + + <td>Kandy.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>21.</td> + + <td>Pinite</td> + + <td>Patna Hills.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>22.</td> + + <td>Black tourmaline</td> + + <td>Neuera-ellia.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>23.</td> + + <td>Calespar</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>24.</td> + + <td>Bitterspar</td> + + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>25.</td> + + <td>Apatite</td> + + <td>Galle Back.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>26.</td> + + <td>Fluorspar</td> + + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>27.</td> + + <td>Chiastolite</td> + + <td>Mount Lavinia.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>28.</td> + + <td>Iron pyrites</td> + + <td>Peradenia.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>29. </td> + + <td>Magnetic iron pyrites </td> + + <td>Ditto, Rajawelle.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>30.</td> + + <td>Brown iron ore</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>31.</td> + + <td>Spathose iron ore</td> + + <td>Galle Back.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>32.</td> + + <td>Manganese</td> + + <td>Saffragam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>33.</td> + + <td>Molybden glance</td> + + <td>Abundant.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>34.</td> + + <td>Tin ore</td> + + <td>Saffragam.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>35.</td> + + <td>Arseniate of nickel</td> + + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>36.</td> + + <td>Plumbago</td> + + <td>Morowa Corle.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>37.</td> + + <td>Epistilbite</td> + + <td>St. Lucia.</td> + </tr> + </table> + </div> + + <p>GEMS.—But the chief interest which attaches to the <a name= + "pg032" id="pg032"></a> mountains and rocks of this region, arises + from the fact that they contain those mines of <i>precious stones</i> + which from time immemorial have conferred renown on Ceylon. The + ancients celebrated the gems as well as the pearls of "Taprobane;" + the tales of mariners returning from their eastern expeditions + supplied to the story-tellers of the Arabian Nights their fables of + the jewels of "Serendib;" and the travellers of the Middle Ages, on + returning to Europe, told of the "sapphires, topazes, amethysts, + garnets, and other costly stones" of Ceylon, and of the ruby which + belonged to <a name="pg033" id="pg033"></a> the king of the island, + "a span in length, without a flaw, and brilliant beyond + description."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Travels of</i> MARCO POLO, <i>a Venetian, in the + Thirteenth Century</i>, Lond. 1818.</p> + </div> + + <p>The extent to which gems are still found is sufficient to account + for the early traditions of their splendour and profusion; and + fabulous as this story of the ruby of the Kandyan kings may be, the + abundance of gems in Saffragam has given to the capital of the + district the name of <i>Ratnapoora</i>, which means literally "the + city of rubies."[1] They are not, however, confined to this quarter + alone, but quantities are still found on the western plains between + Adam's Peak and the sea, at Neuera-ellia, in Oovah, at Kandy, at + Mattelle in the central province, and at Ruanwelli near Colombo, at + Matura, and in the beds of the rivers eastwards towards the ancient + Mahagam.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In the vicinity of Ratnapoora there are to be obtained masses + of quartz of the most delicate rose colour. Some pieces, which were + brought to me in Colombo, were of extraordinary beauty; and I have + reason to believe that it can be obtained in pieces large enough to + be used as slabs for tables, or formed into vases and columns, I + may observe that similar pieces are to be found in the south of + Ireland, near Cork.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the localities which chiefly supply the Ceylon gems are the + alluvial plains at the foot of the stupendous hills of Saffragam, in + which the detritus of the rocks has been carried down and intercepted + by the slight elevations that rise at some distance from the base of + the mountains. The most remarkable of these gem-bearing deposits is + in the flat country around Ballangodde, south-east of Ratnapoora; but + almost every valley in communication with the rocks of the higher + ranges contains stones of more or less value, and the beds of the + rivers flowing southward from the mountain chain are so rich in + comminuted fragments of rubies, sapphires, and garnets[1], that their + sands in <a name="pg034" id="pg034"></a> some places are used by + lapidaries in polishing the softer stones, and in sawing the + elephants' grinders into plates. The cook of a government officer at + Galle recently brought to him a ruby about the size of a small pea, + which he had taken from the crop of a fowl.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. BAKER, in a work entitled <i>The Rifle and the Hound in + Ceylon</i>, thus describes the sands of the Manic Ganga, near the + ruins of Mahagam, in the south-eastern extremity of the + island:—"The sand was composed of mica, quartz, sapphire, + ruby, and jacinth; but the large proportion of ruby sand was so + extraordinary that it seemed to rival Sinbad's story of the vale of + gems. The whole of this was valueless, but the appearance of the + sand was very inviting, as the shallow stream in rippling over it + magnified the tiny gems into stones of some magnitude. I passed an + hour in vainly searching for a ruby worth collecting, but the + largest did not exceed the size of a mustard seed."—BAKER'S + <i>Rifle and Hound in Ceylon</i>, p. 181.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of late years considerable energy has been shown by those engaged + in the search for gems; neglected districts have been explored, and + new fields have been opened up at such places as Karangodde and + Weraloopa, whence stones have been taken of unusual size and + value.</p> + + <p>It is not, however, in the recent strata of gravel, nor in those + now in process of formation, that the natives search for gems. They + penetrate these to the depth of from ten to twenty feet, in order to + reach a lower deposit distinguished by the name of <i>Nellan</i>, in + which the objects of their search are found. This is of so early a + formation that it underlies the present beds of rivers, and is + generally separated from them or from the superincumbent gravel by a + hard crust (called <i>Kadua</i>), a few inches in thickness, and so + consolidated as to have somewhat the appearance of laterite, or of + sun-burnt brick. The nellan is for the most part horizontal, but + occasionally it is raised into an incline as it approaches the base + of the hills. It appears to have been deposited previous to the + eruption of the basalt, on which in some places it reclines, and to + have undergone some alteration from the contact. It consists of + water-worn pebbles firmly imbedded in clay, and occasionally there + occur large lumps of granite and gneiss, in the hollows under which, + as well as in "pockets" in the clay (which from their shape the + natives denominate <a name="pg035" id="pg035"></a> "elephants' + footsteps") gems are frequently found in groups as if washed in by + the current.</p> + + <p>The persons who devote themselves to this uncertain pursuit are + chiefly Singhalese, and the season selected by them for "gemming" is + between December and March, when the waters are low.[1] The poorer + and least enterprising adventurers betake themselves to the beds of + streams, but the most certain though the most costly course is to + sink pits in the adjacent plains, which are consequently indented + with such traces of recent explorers. The upper gravel is pierced, + the covering crust is reached and broken through, and the nellan + being shovelled into conical baskets and washed to free it from the + sand, the residue is carefully searched for whatever rounded crystals + and minute gems it may contain.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A very interesting account of <i>Gems and Gem Searching</i>, + by Mr. WM. STEWART, appeared in the <i>Colombo Observer</i> for + June, 1855.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is strongly characteristic of the want of energy in the + Singhalese, that although for centuries those alluvial plains and + watercourses have been searched without ceasing, no attempt appears + to have been made to explore the rocks themselves, in the debris of + which the gems have been brought down by the rivers. Dr. Gygax says: + "I found at Hima Pohura, on the south-eastern decline of the + Pettigalle-Kanda, about the middle of the descent, a stratum of grey + granite containing, with iron pyrites and molybdena, innumerable + rubies from one-tenth to a fourth of an inch in diameter, and of a + fine rose colour, but split and falling to powder. It is not an + isolated bed of minerals, but a regular stratum extending probably to + the same depth and distance as the other granite formations. I + followed it as far as was practicable for close examination, but + everywhere in the lower part of the valley I found it so decomposed + that the hammer sunk in the rock, and even bamboos were growing on + it. On the higher ground near some <a name="pg036" id="pg036"></a> + small round hills which intercept it, I found the rubies changed into + brown corundum. Upon the hills themselves the trace was lost, and + instead of a stratum there was merely a wild chaos of blocks of + yellow granite. I carefully examined all the minerals which this + stratum contains,—felspar, mica, and quartz molybdena, and iron + pyrites,—and I found all similar to those I had previously got + adhering to rough rubies offered for sale at Colombo. <i>I firmly + believe that in such strata the rubies of Ceylon are originally + found</i>, and that those in the white and blue clay at Ballangodde + and Ratnapoora are but secondary deposits. I am further inclined to + believe that these extend over the whole island, although often + intercepted and changed in their direction by the rising of the + yellow granite." It is highly probable that the finest rubies are to + be found in them, perfect and unchanged by decomposition; and that + they are to be obtained by opening a regular mine in the rock like + the ruby mine of Badakshan in Bactria described by Sir Alexander + Burnes. Dr. Gygax adds that having often received the minerals of + this stratum with the crystals perfect, he has reason to believe that + places are known to the natives where such mines might be opened with + confidence of success.</p> + + <p>Rubies both crystalline and amorphous are also found in a + particular stratum of dolomite at Bullatotte and Badulla, in which + there is a peculiar copper-coloured mica with metallic lustre. + <i>Star rubies</i>, the "asteria" of Pliny (so called from their + containing a movable six-rayed star), are to be had at Ratnapoora and + for very trifling sums. The blue tinge which detracts from the value + of the pure ruby, whose colour should resemble "pigeon's blood," is + removed by the Singhalese, by enveloping the stone in the lime of a + calcined shell and exposing it to a high heat. <i>Spinel</i> of + extremely beautiful colours is found in the bed of the + Mahawelli-ganga at Kandy, and from the locality it has obtained the + name of <i>Candite</i>.</p><a name="pg037" id="pg037"></a> + + <p>It is strange that although the <i>sapphire</i> is found in all + this region in greater quantity than the ruby, it has never yet been + discovered in the original matrix, and the small fragments which + sometimes occur in dolomite show that there it is but a deposit. From + its exquisite colour and the size in which it is commonly found, it + forms by far the most valuable gem of the island. A piece which was + dug out of the alluvium within a few miles of Ratnapoora in 1853, was + purchased by a Moor at Colombo, in whose hands it was valued at + upwards of four thousand pounds.</p> + + <p>The original site of the <i>oriental topaz</i> is equally unknown + with that of the sapphire. The Singhalese rightly believe them to be + the same stone only differing in colour, and crystals are said to be + obtained with one portion yellow and the other blue.</p> + + <p><i>Garnets</i> of inferior quality are common in the gneiss, but + finer ones are found in the hornblende rocks.</p> + + <p><i>Cinnamon-stone</i> (which is properly a variety of garnet) is + so extremely abundant, that vast rocks containing it in profusion + exist in many places, especially in the alluvium around Matura; and + at Belligam, a few miles east from Point-de-Galle, a vast detached + rock is so largely composed of cinnamon-stones that it is carried off + in lumps for the purpose of extracting and polishing them.</p> + + <p>The <i>Cat's-eye</i> is one of the jewels of which the Singhalese + are especially proud, from a belief that it is only found in their + island; but in this I apprehend they are misinformed, as specimens of + equal merit have been brought from Quilon and Cochin on the southern + coast of Hindostan. The cat's-eye is a greenish translucent quartz, + and when cut <i>en cabochon</i> it presents a moving internal + reflection which is ascribed to the presence of filaments of + asbestos. Its perfection is estimated by the natives in proportion to + the narrowness and sharpness of the ray and the pure olive-tint of + the ground over which it plays.</p><a name="pg038" id="pg038"></a> + + <p><i>Amethysts</i> are found in the gneiss, and some discoloured + though beautiful specimens in syenite; they are too common to be + highly esteemed. The "Matura Diamonds," which are largely used by the + native jewellers, consist of zircon, found in the syenite not only + uncoloured, but also of pink and yellow tints, the former passing for + rubies.</p> + + <p>But one of the prettiest though commonest gems in the island is + the "Moon-stone," a variety of pearly adularia presenting chatoyant + rays when simply polished. They are so abundant that the finest + specimens may be bought for a few shillings. These, with <i>aqua + marina</i>, a bad description of <i>opal rock crystal</i> in + extremely large pieces, <i>tourmaline</i>, and a number of others of + no great value, compose the list of native gems procurable in + Ceylon.[1] Diamonds, emeralds, agates, carnelians, opal and + turquoise, when they are exhibited by the natives, have all been + imported from India.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Caswini and some of the Arabian geographers assert that the + diamond is found at Adam's Peak; but this is improbable, as there + is no formation resembling the <i>cascalhao</i> of Brazil or the + diamond conglomerate of Golconda. If diamonds were offered for sale + in Ceylon, in the time of the Arab navigators, they must have been + brought thither from India, (<i>Journ. As. Soc. Beng.</i> xiii. + 633.)</p> + </div> + + <p>During the dynasty of the Kandyan sovereigns, the right of digging + for gems was a royalty reserved jealously for the King; and the + inhabitants of particular villages were employed in their search + under the superintendence of hereditary officers, with the rank of + "Mudianse." By the British Government the monopoly was early + abolished as a source of revenue, and no license is now required by + the jewel-hunters.</p> + + <p>Great numbers of persons of the worst-regulated habits are + constantly engaged in this exciting and precarious trade; and serious + demoralisation is engendered amongst the villagers by the idle and + dissolute adventurers who resort to Saffragam. Systematic industry + suffers, and the cultivation of the land is frequently <a name= + "pg039" id="pg039"></a> neglected whilst its owners are absorbed in + these speculative and tantalising occupations.</p> + + <p>The products of their searches are disposed of to the Moors, who + resort to Saffragam from the low country, carrying up cloth and salt, + to be exchanged for gems and coffee. At the annual Buddhist festival + of the Pera-hara, a jewel-fair is held at Ratnapoora, to which the + purchasers resort from all parts of Ceylon. Of late years, however, + the condition of the people in Saffragam has so much improved that it + has become difficult to obtain the finest jewels, the wealthier + natives preferring to retain them as investments: they part with them + reluctantly, and only for gold, which they find equally convenient + for concealment.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: So eager is the appetite for hoarding in these hills, that + eleven rupees (equal to twenty-two shillings) have frequently been + given for a sovereign.</p> + </div> + + <p>The lapidaries who cut and polish the stones are chiefly Moors, + but their tools are so primitive, and their skill so deficient, that + a gem generally loses in value by having passed through their hands. + The inferior kinds, such as cinnamon-stones, garnets, and tourmaline, + are polished by ordinary artists at Kandy, Matura, and Galle; but the + more expert lapidaries, who cut rubies and sapphires, reside chiefly + at Caltura and Colombo.</p> + + <p>As a general rule, the rarer gems are less costly in Europe than + in Colombo. In London and Paris the quantities brought from all parts + of the world are sufficient to establish something like a market + value; but, in Ceylon, the supply is so uncertain that the price is + always regulated at the moment by the rank and wealth of the + purchaser. Strange to say, too, there is often an unwillingness even + amongst the Moorish dealers to sell the rarest and finest specimens; + those who are wealthy being anxious to retain them, and few but + stones of secondary value are offered for sale. Besides, the Rajahs + and native Princes of India, amongst whom the <a name="pg040" id= + "pg040"></a> passion for jewels is universal, are known to give such + extravagant prices that the best are always sent to them from + Ceylon.</p> + + <p>From the Custom House returns it is impossible to form any + calculation as to the value of the precious stones exported from the + island. A portion only appears, even of those sent to England, the + remainder being carried away by private parties. Of the total number + found, one-fourth is probably purchased by the natives themselves, + more than one-half is sent to the Continent of India, and the + remainder represents the export to Europe. Computed in this way, the + quantity of precious stones found in the island may be estimated at + 10,000<i>l</i>. per annum.</p> + + <p>RIVERS.—From the mountainous configuration of the country + and the abundance of the rains, the rivers are large and numerous in + the south of the island—ten of considerable magnitude flowing + into the sea on the west coast, between Point-de-Galle and Manaar, + and a still greater number, though inferior in volume, on the east. + In the low country, where the heat is intense and evaporation + proportionate, they derive little of their supply from springs; and + the passing showers which fall scarcely more than replace the + moisture drawn by the sun from the parched and thirsty soil.</p> + + <p>Hence in the plains there are comparatively few rivulets or + running streams; the rivers there flow in almost solitary lines to + the sea; and the beds of their minor affluents serve only to conduct + to them the torrents which descend at the change of each monsoon, + their channels at other times being exhausted and dry. But in their + course through the hills, and the broken ground at their base, they + are supplied by numerous feeders, which convey to them the frequent + showers that fall in high altitudes. Hence their tracks are through + some of the noblest scenery in the world; rushing through ravines and + glens, and falling over precipitous rocks in the depths of wooded + valleys, <a name="pg041" id="pg041"></a> they exhibit a succession of + rapids, cataracts, and torrents, unsurpassed in magnificence and + beauty. On reaching the plains, the boldness of their march and the + graceful outline of their sweep are indicative of the little + obstruction opposed by the sandy and porous soil through which they + flow. Throughout their entire course dense forests shade their banks, + and, as they approach the sea, tamarisks and over-arching mangroves + mark where their waters mingle with the tide.</p> + + <p>Of all the Ceylon rivers, the most important by far is the + Mahawelli-ganga—the Ganges of Ptolemy—which, rising in + the south near Adam's Peak, traverses more than one-third of the + mountain zone[1], drains upwards of four thousand square miles, and + flows into the sea by a number of branches, near the noble harbour of + Trincomalie. The following table gives a comparative view of the + magnitude of the rivers that rise in the hills, and of the extent of + the low country traversed by each of them:—</p> + + <table summary="Ceylon river data"> + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Embouchure.</td> + + <td>Square Miles drained in Mountain Zone.</td> + + <td>Square Miles drained in the low Country, about</td> + + <td>Length of Course of the main Stream.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Mahawelii-ganga</td> + + <td>near Trincomalie</td> + + <td align="right">1782</td> + + <td align="right">2300</td> + + <td align="right">134</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Kirinde</td> + + <td>at Mahagan</td> + + <td align="right">34</td> + + <td align="right">300</td> + + <td align="right">62</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Wellawey</td> + + <td>near Hambangtotte</td> + + <td align="right">263</td> + + <td align="right">500</td> + + <td align="right">69</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Neivalle</td> + + <td>at Matura</td> + + <td align="right">64</td> + + <td align="right">200</td> + + <td align="right">42</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>(Three Rivers)</td> + + <td>near Tangalle</td> + + <td align="right">56</td> + + <td align="right">200</td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Gindura</td> + + <td>near Galle</td> + + <td align="right">180</td> + + <td align="right">200</td> + + <td align="right">59</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Kalu-oya</td> + + <td>at Caltura</td> + + <td align="right">841</td> + + <td align="right">300</td> + + <td align="right">72</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Kalany</td> + + <td>Colombo</td> + + <td align="right">692</td> + + <td align="right">200</td> + + <td align="right">84</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>The Kaymel or Mahaoya</td> + + <td>near Negombo</td> + + <td align="right">253</td> + + <td align="right">200</td> + + <td align="right">68</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Dederoo-oya</td> + + <td>near Chilaw</td> + + <td align="right">38</td> + + <td align="right">700</td> + + <td align="right">70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td></td> + + <td align="right">4212</td> + + <td align="right">5100</td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg012">p. 12</a>, for a definition + of what constitutes the "mountain zone" of Ceylon.</p> + </div> + + <p>In addition to these, there are a number of large rivers which + belong entirely to the plains in the northern and south-eastern + portions of the island, the principal <a name="pg042" id="pg042"></a> + of which are the Arive and the Moderegam, which flow into the Gulf of + Manaar; the Kala-oya and the Kanda-lady, which empty themselves into + the Bay of Calpentyn; the Maniek or Kattragam, and the Koombookgam, + opposite to the Little Bass rocks and the Naveloor, the Chadawak, and + Arookgam, south of Batticaloa. The extent of country drained by these + latter streams is little short of thirteen thousand square miles.</p> + + <p>Very few of the rivers of Ceylon are navigable, and these only by + canoes and flat-bottomed paddy boats, which ascend some of the + largest for short distances, till impeded by the rapids, occasioned + by rocks in the lowest range of the hills. In this way the Niwalle at + Matura can be ascended for about fifteen miles, as far as Wellehara; + the Kalu-ganga can be traversed from Caltura to Ratnapoora; the + Bentotte river for sixteen miles to Pittagalla; and the Kalany from + Colombo to the foot of the mountains near Ambogammoa. The + Mahawelli-ganga is navigable from Trincomalie to within a short + distance of Kanda[1]; and many of the lesser streams, the Kirinde and + Wellawey in the south, and the Kaymel, the Dedroo-oya, and the Aripo + river on the west of the island, are used for short distances by + boats.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of the capabilities of the Mahawelli-ganga, as + regards navigation, see BROOKE'S <i>Report, Roy. Geog. Journ.</i> + vol. iii. p. 223. and <i>post</i>, Vol. II. p. 423.</p> + </div> + + <p>All these streams are liable, during the fury of the monsoons, to + be surcharged with rain till they overflow their banks, and spread in + wide inundations over the level country. On the subsidence of these + waters, the intense heat of the sun acting on the surface they leave + deserted, produces a noxious and fatal malaria. Hence the rivers of + Ceylon present the curious anomaly, that whilst the tanks and + reservoirs of the interior diffuse a healthful coolness around, the + running water of the rivers is prolific of fevers; and in some + seasons so deadly is the pestilence that the Malabar coolies, as well + <a name="pg043" id="pg043"></a> as the native peasantry, betake + themselves to precipitate flight.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It has been remarked along the Mahawelli-ganga, a few miles + from Kandy, that during the deadly season, after the subsidence of + the rains, the jungle fever generally attacks one face of the hills + through which it winds, leading the opposite side entirely + exempted, as if the poisonous vapour, being carried by the current + of air, affected only those aspects against which it directly + impinged.</p> + </div> + + <p>Few of the larger rivers have been bridged, except those which + intersect the great high roads from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, and + thence to Kandy. Near the sea this has been effected by timber + platforms, sustained by piles sufficiently strong to withstand the + force of the floods at the change of each monsoon. A bridge of boats + connects each side of the Kalany, and on reaching the Mahawelli-ganga + at Peradenia, one of the most picturesque structures on the island is + a noble bridge of a single arch, 205 feet in span, chiefly + constructed of satin-wood, and thrown across the river by General + Fraser in 1832.</p> + + <p>On reaching the margin of the sea, an appearance is presented by + the outline of the coast, near the embouchures of the principal + rivers, which is very remarkable. It is common to both sides of the + island, though it has attained its greatest development on the east. + In order to comprehend its formation, it is necessary to observe that + Ceylon lies in the course of the ocean currents in the Bay of Bengal, + which run north or south according to the prevalence of the monsoon, + and with greater or less velocity in proportion to its force at + particular periods.</p> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/043.jpg"><img src="images/043.jpg" alt= + "Ocean current in the northeast monsoon." /></a> + + <p>CURRENT IN THE NE MONSOON.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the beginning and during the strength of the northeast monsoon + the current sets strongly along the coast of Coromandel to the + southward, a portion of it frequently entering <a name="pg044" id= + "pg044"></a> Palks Bay to the north of Ceylon; but the main stream + keeping invariably to the east of the island, runs with a velocity of + from one and a half to two miles an hour, and after passing the Great + Bass, it keeps its course seaward. At other times, after the monsoon + has spent its violence, the current is weak, and follows the line of + the land to the westward as far as Point-de-Galle, or even to + Colombo.</p> + + <div class="figleft"> + <a href="images/044.jpg"><img src="images/044.jpg" alt= + "Ocean current in the southwest monsoon." /></a> + + <p>CURRENT IN THE S.W. MONSOON.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the south-west monsoon the current changes its direction; and, + although it flows steadily to the northward, its action is very + irregular and unequal till it readies the Coromandel coast, after + passing Ceylon. This is accounted for by the obstruction opposed by + the headlands of Ceylon, which so intercept the stream that the + current, which might otherwise set into the Gulf of Manaar, takes a + south-easterly direction by Galle and Donedra Head.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of the currents of Ceylon, see HORSBURGH's + <i>Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, &c.</i>; + vol i. p. 516, 536, 580; KEITH JOHNSTON's <i>Physical Atlas</i>, + plate xiii. p. 50.</p> + </div> + + <p>There being no lakes in Ceylon[1], in the still waters of which + the rivers might clear themselves of the earthy matter swept along in + their rapid course from the hills, they arrive at the beach laden + with sand and alluvium, and at their junction with the ocean being + met transversely by the gulf-streams, the sand and soil with which + they are laden, instead of being carried out to sea, are heaped up in + bars along the shores, and these, being augmented by similar deposits + held in <a name="pg045" id="pg045"></a> suspension by the currents, + soon extend to north, and south, and force the rivers to flow behind + them in search of a new outlet.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pliny alludes to a lake in Ceylon of vast dimensions, but it + is clear that his informants must have spoken of one of the huge + tanks for the purpose of irrigation. Some of the + <i>Mappe-mondes</i> of the Middle Ages place a lake in the middle + of the island, with a city inhabited by astrologers; but they have + merely reproduced the error of earlier geographers. (SANTAREM, + <i>Cosmog</i>. tom. iii. p. 336.)</p> + </div> + + <p>These formations once commenced, their growth proceeds with + rapidity, more especially on the east side of the island; as the + southern current in skirting the Coromandel coast brings with it + quantities of sand, which it deposits, in tranquil weather, and this + being carried by the wind is piled in heaps from Point Pedro to + Hambangtotte. Hence at the latter point hills are formed of such + height and dimensions, that it is often necessary to remove buildings + out of their line of encroachment.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This is occasioned by the waste of the banks further north + during the violence of the N. E. monsoon; and the sand, being + carried south by the current, is intercepted by the headland at + Hambangtotte and thrown up these hills as described.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/045.jpg"><img src="images/045.jpg" alt= + "Gobbs on the East Coast" /></a> + + <p>GOBBS ON THE EAST COAST</p> + </div> + + <p>At the mouths of the rivers the bars thus created generally follow + the direction of the current, and the material deposited being dried + and partially consolidated in the intervals between the tides, long + embankments are gradually raised, behind which the rivers flow for + considerable distances before entering the sea. Occasionally these + embouchures become closed by the accumulations without, and the + pent-up water assumes the appearance of a still canal, more or less + broad according to the level of the beach, and extending for miles + along the coast, between the mainland and the new formations. But + when swollen by the rains, if not assisted by artificial outlets to + escape, they burst new openings for themselves, and not unfrequently + they leave their ancient channels converted into shallow lagoons + without any visible exit. Examples of these formations <a name= + "pg046" id="pg046"></a> present themselves on the east side of Ceylon + at Nilla-velle, Batticaloa, and a number of other places north and + south of Trincomalie.</p> + + <p>On the west coast embankments of this kind, although frequent are + less conspicuous than on the east, owing chiefly to the comparative + weakness of the current. For six months in the year during the + north-east monsoon that side of the island is exempt from a current + in any direction, and for the remaining six, the current from the + south not only rarely affects the Gulf of Manaar, but as it flows out + of the Indian Ocean it brings no earthy deposits. In addition to + this, the surf during the south-west monsoon rolls with such + turbulence on the level beach between Colombo and Point-de-Galle, as + in a great degree to disperse the accumulations of sand brought down + by the rivers, or heaped up by the tide, when the wind is off the + land. Still, many of the rivers are thrown back by embankments, and + after forming tortuous lakes flow for a long distance parallel to the + shore, before finding an escape for their waters. Examples of this + occur at Pantura, to the south of Colombo, and at Negombo, Chilaw, + and elsewhere to the north of it.</p> + + <div class="figleft"> + <a href="images/046.jpg"><img src="images/046.jpg" alt= + "Gobbs on the West Coast" /></a> + + <p>GOBBS ON THE WEST COAST</p> + </div> + + <p>In process of time these banks of sand[1] become <a name="pg047" + id="pg047"></a> covered with vegetation; herbaceous plants, shrubs, + and finally trees peculiar to saline soils make their appearance + <a name="pg048" id="pg048"></a> in succession, and as these decay, + their decomposition generates a sufficiency of soil to sustain + continued vegetation.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In the voyages of <i>The Two Mahometans</i>, the unique MS. + of which dates about A.D. 851, and is now in the Bibliothèque + Royale at Paris, Abon-zeyd, one of its authors, describes the + "Gobbs" of Ceylon—a word, he says, by which the natives + designate the valleys deep and broad which open to the sea. "En + face de cette íle y a de vastes <i>Gobb</i>, mot par lequel on + désigne une vallée, quand elle est à la fois longue et large, et + qu'elle débouche dans la mer. Les navigateurs emploient, pour + traverser le <i>gobb</i> appelé 'Gobb de Serendib,' deux mois et + même davantage, passant à travers des bois et des jardins, au + milieu d'une température moyenne."—REINAUD, <i>Voyages faits + par les Arabes</i>, vol. i. p. 129.</p> + + <p>A misapprehension of this passage has been admitted into the + English version of the <i>Voyages of the two Mahometans</i> which + is published in PINKERTON'S <i>Collections of Voyages and + Travels</i>, vol. iii.; the translator having treated gobb as a + term applicable to valleys in general. "Ceylon," he says, "contains + valleys of great length, which extend to the sea, and here + travellers repair for two months or more, in which one is called + Gobb Serendib, allured by the beauty of the scenery, chequered with + groves and plains, water and meadows, and blessed by a balmy air. + The valley opens to the sea, and is transcendently + pleasant."—PINKERTON'S <i>Voyages</i>, vol. vii. p. 218.</p> + + <p>But a passage in Edrisi, while it agrees with the terms of + Abou-zeyd, explains at the same time that these gobbs were not + valleys converted into gardens, to which the seamen resorted for + pleasure to spend two or three months, but the embouchures of + rivers flowing between banks, covered with gardens and forests, + into which mariners were accustomed to conduct their vessels for + more secure navigation, and in which they were subjected to + detention for the period stated. The passage is as follows in + Jaubert's translation of Edrisi, tom. i. p. 73:—"Cette île + (Serendib) depend des terres de l'Inde; ainsi que les vallées (in + orig. aghbab) par lesquelles se dechargent les rivières, et qu'on + nomme 'Vallées de Serendib.' Les navires y mouillent, et les + navigateurs y passent un mois ou deux dans l'abondance et dans les + plaisirs."</p> + + <p>It is observable that Ptolemy, in enumerating the ports and + harbours of Ceylon, maintains a distinction between the ordinary + bays, [Greek: kolpos], of which he specifies two corresponding to + those of Colombo and Trincomalie, and the shallower indentations, + [Greek: limên], of which he enumerates five, the positions of which + go far to identify them with the remarkable estuaries or + <i>gobbs</i>, on the eastern and western coast between Batticaloa + and Calpentyn.</p> + + <p>To the present day these latter gulfs are navigable for small + craft. On the eastern side of the island one of them forms the + harbour of Batticaloa, and on the western those of Chilaw and + Negombo are bays of this class. Through the latter a continuous + navigation has been completed by means of short connecting canals, + and a traffic is maintained during the south-west monsoon, from + Caltura to the north of Chilaw, a distance of upwards of eighty + miles, by means of craft which navigate these shallow channels.</p> + + <p>These narrow passages conform in every particular to the + description given by Abou-zeyd and Edrisi: they run through a + succession of woods and gardens; and as a leading wind is + indispensable for their navigation, the period named by the Arabian + geographers for their passage is perhaps not excessive during calms + or adverse winds.</p> + + <p>An article on the meaning of the word gobb will be found in the + <i>Journal Asiatique</i> for September, 1844; but it does not + exhibit clearly the very peculiar features of these openings. It is + contained in an extract from the work on India of ALBYROUNI, a + contemporary of Avicenna, who was born in the valley of the + Indus.—"Un golfe (gobb) est comme une encoignure et un détour + que fait la mer en pénétrant dans le continens: les navires n'y + sont pas sans péril particulièrement à l'égard du flux et + reflux."—<i>Extrait de l'ouvrage d'</i> ALBYROUNI <i>sur + l'Inde; Fragmens Arabes et Persans, relatifs à l'Inde, recueillés + par</i> M. REINAUD; <i>Journ. Asiat., Septembre et Octobre</i>, + 1844, p. 261. In the Turkish nautical work of SIDI ALI CHELEBI, the + <i>Mohit</i>, written about A.D. 1550, which contains directions + for sailors navigating the eastern seas, the author alludes to the + <i>gobbha's</i> on the coast of Arracan; and conscious that the + term was local not likely to be understood beyond those countries, + he adds that "gobbha" means "<i>a gulf full of shallows, shoals, + and breakers</i>." See translation by VON HAMMER, <i>Journ. Asiat. + Soc. Beng.</i> v. 466.</p> + </div> + + <p>The process of this conversion may be seen in all its stages at + various points along the coast of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>The margin of land nearest to the water is first taken possession + of by a series of littoral plants, which apparently require a large + quantity of salt to sustain their vegetation. These at times are + intermixed with others, which, though found further inland, yet + flourish in perfection on the shore. On the northern and + north-western coasts the glass worts[1] and salt worts[2] are the + first to appear on the newly raised banks, and being provided with + penetrating roots, a breakwater is thus early secured, and the drier + sand above becomes occupied with creeping plants which in their turn + afford shelter to a third and erect class.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Salicornia Indica.</p> + + <p>2: Salsola Indica.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Goat's-foot Ipomoea[1], which appears to encircle the world, + abounds on these shores, covering the surface to the water's edge + with its procumbent branches, which sending down roots from every + joint serve to give the bank its first firmness, whilst the profusion + of its purple-coloured flowers contrasts strikingly with its dark + green foliage.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ipomoea pes-capræ</p> + </div> + + <p>Along with the Ipomoea grow two species of beans[1] each endowed + with a peculiar facility for reproduction, thus consolidating the + sands into which they strike; and the moodu-gaeta-kola[2] (literally + the "jointed seashore plant,") with pink flowers and thick succulent + leaves.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Mooduawara (<i>Canavalia obtusifolia</i>), whose flowers + have the fragrance of the sweet pea, and <i>Dolichos + luteus</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Hydrophylax maritima.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another plant which performs an important function <a name="pg049" + id="pg049"></a> in the fertilisation of these arid formations, is the + <i>Spinifex squarrosus</i>, the "water pink," as it is sometimes + called by Europeans. The seeds of this plant are contained in a + circular head, composed of a series of spine-like divisions, which + radiate from the stalk in all directions, making the diameter of the + whole about eight to nine inches. When the seeds are mature, and + ready for dispersion, these heads become detached from the plant, and + are carried by the wind with great velocity along the sands, over the + surface of which they are impelled on their elastic spines. One of + these balls may be followed by the eye for miles as it hurries along + the level shore, dropping its seeds as it rolls, which speedily + germinate and strike root where they fall. The globular heads are so + buoyant as to float lightly on the water, and the uppermost spines + acting as sails, they are thus carried across narrow estuaries to + continue the process of embanking on newly-formed sand bars. Such an + organisation irresistibly suggests the wonderful means ordained by + Providence to spread this valuable plant along the barren beach to + which no seed-devouring bird ever resorts; and even the unobservant + natives, struck by its singular utility in resisting the + encroachments of the sea, have recorded their admiration by + conferring on it the name of <i>Maha-Rawana roewula</i>,—"the + great beard of Rawana or Rama."</p> + + <p>The banks being thus ingeniously protected from the action of the + air above, and of the water at their base, other herbaceous plants + soon cover them in quick succession, and give the entire surface the + first aspect of vegetation. A little retired above high water are to + be found a species of <i>Aristolochia</i>[1], the Sayan[2], or + <i>Choya</i>, <a name="pg050" id="pg050"></a> the roots of which are + the Indian Madder (in which, under the Dutch Government, some tribes + in the Wanny paid their tribute); the gorgeous <i>Gloriosa + superba</i>, the beautiful <i>Vistnu-karandi</i>[3] with its + profusion of blue flowers, which remind one of the English + "Forget-me-not," and the thickly-matted verdure of the + <i>Hiramana-doetta</i>[4], so well adapted for imparting consistency + to the soil. In the next stage low shrubs make their appearance, + their seeds being drifted by the waves and wind, and taking ready + root wherever they happen to rest. The foremost of these are the + Scævolas[5] and Screw Pines[6], which grow luxuriantly within the + actual wash of the tide, while behind them rises a dense growth of + peculiar plants, each distinguished by the Singhalese by the prefix + of "Moodu," to indicate its partiality for the sea.[7]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Aristolocia bracteata</i>. On the sands to the north of + Ceylon there is also the <i>A. Indica</i>, which forms the food of + the great red and white butterfly (<i>Papilio Hector</i>).</p> + + <p>2: <i>Hedyotis umbellata</i>. A very curious account of the + Dutch policy In relation to Choya dye will be found in a paper + <i>On the Vegetable Productions of Ceylon</i>, by W.C. ONDAATJIE, + in the <i>Ceylon Calendar</i> for 1853. See also BERTOLACCI, B. + iii. p. 270.</p> + + <p>3: Evolvulus alsinoides.</p> + + <p>4: Lippia nodiflora.</p> + + <p>5: Scævola takkada and S. Koenigii</p> + + <p>6: Pandanus odoratissimus.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Moodu-kaduru (Ochrosia parviflora); Moodu-cobbe + (Ornitrophe serrata); Moodu-murunga (Sophora tomentosa</i>,) + &c. &c. Amongst these marine shrubs the Nil-picha + (<i>Guettarda speciosca</i>), with its white and delightfully + fragrant flowers, is a conspicuous object on some parts of the + sea-shore between Colombo and Point-de-Galle.</p> + </div> + + <p>Where the sand in the lagoons and estuaries is more or less + mingled with the alluvium brought down by the rivers, there are + plants of another class which are equally characteristic. Amongst + these the Mangroves[1] take the first place in respect to their mass + of vegetation; then follow the Belli-patta[2] and Suriya-gaha[3], + with their large hibiscus-like flowers; the Tamarisks[4]; the + Acanthus[5], with its beautiful blue petals and holly-like leaves; + the Water Coco-nut[6]; the Ægiceras and Hernandia[7], with its + sonorous fruits; while the dry sands above are taken possession of by + the Acacias, <i>Salvadora Persica</i> (the true mustard-tree <a name= + "pg051" id="pg051"></a> of Scripture[8], which, here attains a height + of forty feet), Ixoras, and the numerous family of Cassias.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Two species of <i>Rhizophora</i>, two of <i>Bruguiera</i>, + and one of <i>Ceriops</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Paritimn tilliaceum.</p> + + <p>3: Thespesia populnea.</p> + + <p>4: Tamarix Indica.</p> + + <p>5: Dilivaria ilicifolia.</p> + + <p>6: Nipa fruticans.</p> + + <p>7: Hernandia sonora.</p> + + <p>8: The identification of this tree with the mustard-tree alluded + to by our Saviour is an interesting fact. The Greek term [Greek: + sinapis], which occurs Matt. xiii 31, and elsewhere, is the name + given to <i>mustard</i>; for which the Arabic equivalent is + <i>chardul</i> or <i>khardal</i>, and the Syriac <i>khardalo</i>. + The same name is applied at the present day to a tree which grows + freely in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, and generally throughout + Palestine; the seeds of which, have an aromatic pungency, which + enables them to be used instead of the ordinary mustard (<i>Sinapis + nigra</i>); besides which, its structure presents all the + essentials to sustain the illustration sought to be established in + the parable, some of which are wanting or dubious in the common + plant, It has a very small seed; it may be sown in a garden: it + grows into an "herb," and eventually "becometh a tree; so that the + birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof." With + every allowance for the extremest development attainable by + culture, it must be felt that the dimensions of the domestic + <i>sinapis</i> scarcely justify the last illustration; besides + which it is an annual, and cannot possibly be classed as a "tree." + The khardal grows abundantly in Syria: it was found in Egypt by Sir + Gardner Wilkinson; in Arabia by Bové; on the Indus by Sir Alexander + Burnes; and throughout the north-west of India it bears the name of + kharjal. Combining all these facts, Dr. Royle, in an erudite paper, + has shown demonstrative reasons for believing that the <i>Salvadora + Persica</i>, the "kharjal" of Hindostan, is the "khardal" of + Arabia, the "chardul" of the Talmud, and the "mustard-tree" of the + parable.</p> + </div> + + <p>Lastly, after a sufficiency of earth has been formed by the decay + of frequent successions of their less important predecessors, the + ground becomes covered by trees of ampler magnitude, most of which + are found upon the adjacent shores of the mainland—the + Margoza[1], from whose seed the natives express a valuable oil; the + Timbiri[2], with the glutinous nuts with which the fishermen "bark" + their nets; the Cashu-nut[3]; the Palu[4], one of the most valuable + timber trees of the Northern Provinces; and the Wood-apple[5], whose + fruit is regarded by the Singhalese as a specific for dysentery.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Azadirachta Indica.</p> + + <p>2: Diospyros glutinosa.</p> + + <p>3: Anacardium occidentale.</p> + + <p>4: Mimusopa hexandra.</p> + + <p>5: Ægle marmelos.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the most important fact connected with these recently formed + portions of land, is their extraordinary suitability for the growth + of the coco-nut, which requires the sea-air (and in Ceylon at least + appears never to attain its full luxuriance when removed to any + considerable distance from it)[1], and which, at the same time, + <a name="pg052" id="pg052"></a> requires a light and sandy soil, and + the constant presence of water in large quantities. All these + essentials are combined in the sea-belts here described, lying as + they do between the ocean on the one side and the fresh-water lakes + formed by the great rivers on the other, thus presenting every + requisite of soil and surface. It is along a sand formation of this + description, about forty miles long and from one to three miles + broad, that thriving coco-nut plantations have been recently + commenced at Batticaloa. At Calpentyn, on the western coast, a like + formation has been taken advantage of for the same purpose. At Jaffna + somewhat similar peculiarities of soil and locality have been seized + on for this promising cultivation; and, generally, along the whole + seaborde of Ceylon to the south and west, the shore for the breadth + of one or two miles exhibits almost continuous groves of coco-nut + palms.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Coco-nuts are cultivated at moderate elevations in the + mountain villages of the Interior; but the fruit bears no + comparison, in number, size, or weight, with that produced in the + lowlands, and near the sea, on either side of the island.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Harbours</i>.—With the exception of the estuaries above + alluded to, chiefly in the northern section of the island, the + outline of the coast is interrupted by few sinuosities. There are no + extensive inlets, or bays, and only two harbours—that of + <i>Point-de-Galle</i> which, in addition to being incommodious and + small, is obstructed by coral rocks, reefs of which have been + upreared to the surface, and render the entrance critical to strange + ships[1]; and the magnificent basin of Trincomalie, which, in extent, + security, and beauty, is unsurpassed by any haven in the world.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Owing to the obstructions at its entrance, Galle is extremely + difficult of access in particular winds. In 1857 it was announced + in the <i>Colombo Examiner</i> that "the fine ship the 'Black + Eagle' was blown out of Galle Roads the other day, with the pilot + on board; whilst the captain was temporarily engaged on shore; and + as she was not able to beat in again, she made for Trincomalie, + where she has been lying for a fortnight. Such an event is by no + means unprecedented at Galle."—<i>Examiner</i>, 20 Sept. + 1857.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Tides</i>.—The variation of the tides is so slight that + navigation is almost unaffected by it. The ordinary <a name="pg053" + id="pg053"></a> rise and fall is from 18 to 24 inches, with an + increase of about a third at spring tides. High water is later on the + eastern than on the western coast; occurring, on full and new moon, a + little after eleven o'clock at Adam's Bridge, about 1 o'clock at + Colombo, and 1.25 at Galle, whilst it attains its greatest elevation + between 5 and 6 o'clock in the harbour of Trincomalie.</p> + + <p><i>Red infusoria</i>.—On both sides of the island (but most + frequently at Colombo), during the south-west monsoon, a broad + expanse of the sea assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter than + brick-dust; and this is confined to a space so distinct that a line + seems to separate it from the green water which flows on either side. + Observing that the whole area changed its position without parting + with any portion of its colouring, I had some of the water brought on + shore, and, on examination with the microscope, it proved to be + filled with <i>infusoria</i>, probably similar to those which have + been noticed near the shores of South America, and whose abundance + has imparted a name to the "Vermilion Sea" off the coast of + California.</p> + + <p>THE POPULATION OF CEYLON, of all races, was, in 1857, 1,697,975; + but this was exclusive of the military and their families, both + Europeans and Malays, which together amounted to 5,430; and also of + aliens and other casual strangers, forming about 25,000 more.</p> + + <p>The particulars are as follow:—</p> + + <table summary= + "Population of Ceylon for various areas by race and sex"> + <tr> + <th>Provinces</th> + + <th colspan="2">Whites.</th> + + <th colspan="2">Coloured.</th> + + <th colspan="2">Total.</th> + + <th>Population to the sq. mile.</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th></th> + + <th>Males.</th> + + <th>Females.</th> + + <th>Males.</th> + + <th>Females.</th> + + <th>Males.</th> + + <th>Females.</th> + + <th></th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Western.</td> + + <td align="right">1,293</td> + + <td align="right">1,246</td> + + <td align="right">293,409</td> + + <td align="right">259,106</td> + + <td align="right">294,702</td> + + <td align="right">260,352</td> + + <td align="right">146.59</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>N. Western</td> + + <td align="right">21</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + + <td align="right">100,807</td> + + <td align="right">96,386</td> + + <td align="right">100,828</td> + + <td align="right">96,397</td> + + <td align="right">59.93</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Southern</td> + + <td align="right">238</td> + + <td align="right">241</td> + + <td align="right">156,900</td> + + <td align="right">149,649</td> + + <td align="right">157,138</td> + + <td align="right">149,890</td> + + <td align="right">143.72</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Eastern</td> + + <td align="right">201</td> + + <td align="right">143</td> + + <td align="right">39,923</td> + + <td align="right">35,531</td> + + <td align="right">40,124</td> + + <td align="right">35,674</td> + + <td align="right">16.08</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Northern</td> + + <td align="right">387</td> + + <td align="right">362</td> + + <td align="right">153,062</td> + + <td align="right">148,678</td> + + <td align="right">153,449</td> + + <td align="right">149,040</td> + + <td align="right">55.85</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Central</td> + + <td align="right">468</td> + + <td align="right">204</td> + + <td align="right">143,472</td> + + <td align="right">116,237</td> + + <td align="right">143,940</td> + + <td align="right">116,441</td> + + <td align="right">52.57</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td align="right">2,608</td> + + <td align="right">2,207</td> + + <td align="right">887,573</td> + + <td align="right">805,587</td> + + <td align="right">890,181</td> + + <td align="right">807,794</td> + + <td align="right">69.73</td> + </tr> + </table><a name="pg054" id="pg054"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. II.</h2> + + <h3>CLIMATE.—HEALTH AND DISEASE.</h3> + + <p>The climate of Ceylon, from its physical configuration and insular + detachment, contrasts favourably with that of the great Indian + peninsula. Owing to the moderate dimensions of the island, the + elevation of its mountains, the very short space during which the sun + is passing over it[1] in his regression from or approach to the + solstices, and its surrounding seas being nearly uniform in + temperature, it is exempt from the extremes of heating and cooling to + which the neighbouring continent of India is exposed. From the same + causes it is subjected more uniformly to the genial influences of the + trade winds that blow over the Indian Ocean and the Bay of + Bengal.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In his approach to the northern solstice, the sun, having + passed the equator on the 21st of March, reaches the south of + Ceylon about the 5th of April, and ten days later is vertical over + Point Pedro, the northern extremity of the island. On his return he + is again over Point Pedro about the 27th of August, and passes + southward over Dondera Head about the 7th of September.</p> + </div> + + <p>The island is seldom visited by hurricanes[1], or swept by + typhoons, and the breeze, unlike the hot and arid winds of Coromandel + and the Dekkan, is always more or less refreshing. The range of the + thermometer exhibits no violent changes, and never indicates a + temperature insupportably high. The mean on an annual average + scarcely exceeds 80° at Colombo, though in <a name="pg055" id= + "pg055"></a> exceptional years it has risen to 86°. But at no period + of the day are dangerous results to be apprehended from exposure to + the sun; and except during parts of the months of March, and April, + there is no season when moderate exercise is not practicable and + agreeable. For half the year, from October to May, the prevailing + winds are from the north-east, and during the remaining months the + south-west monsoon blows steadily from the great Indian Ocean. The + former, affected by the wintry chills of the vast tracts of land + which it traverses before crossing the Bay of Bengal, is subject to + many local variations and intervals of calm. But the latter, after + the first violence of its outset is abated, becomes nearly uniform + throughout the period of its prevalence, and presents the character + of an on-shore breeze extending over a prodigious expanse of sea and + land, and exerting a powerful influence along the regions of southern + Asia.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The exception to the exemption of Ceylon from hurricanes is + the occasional occurrence of a cyclone extending its circle till + the verge has sometimes touched Batticaloa, on the south-eastern + extremity of the island, causing damage to vegetation and + buildings. Such an event is, however, exceedingly rare. On the 7th + of January, 1805, H.M.S. "Sheerness" and two others were driven on + shore in a hurricane at Trincomalie.</p> + </div> + + <p>In Ceylon the proverbial fickleness of the winds, and the + uncertainty which characterises the seasons in northern climates, is + comparatively unknown; and the occurrence of changes or rain may be + anticipated with considerable accuracy in any month of a coming year. + There are, of course, abnormal seasons with higher ranges of + temperature, heavier rains, or droughts of longer continuance, but + such extremes are exceptional and rare. Great atmospheric changes + occur only at two opposite periods of the year, and so gradual is + their approach that the climate is monotonous, and one longs to see + again "the falling of the leaf" to diversify the sameness of + perennial verdure. The line is faint which divides the seasons. No + period of the year is divested of its seed-time and its harvest in + some part of the island; and fruit hangs ripe on the same branches + that are garlanded with opening buds. But as every plant has its own + period for the production of its flowers and fruit, each month is + characterised by its own peculiar flora.</p><a name="pg056" id= + "pg056"></a> + + <p>As regards the foliage of the trees, it might be expected that the + variety of tints would be wanting which forms the charm of a European + landscape, and that all nature would wear one mantle of unchanging + green. But it has been remarked by a tasteful observer[1] that such + is far from the fact, and though in Ceylon there is no revolution of + seasons, the change of leaf on the same plant exhibits colours as + bright as those which tinge the autumnal woods of America. It is not + the decaying leaves, but the fresh shoots, which exhibit these + brightened colours, the older are still vividly green, whilst the + young are bursting forth; and the extremities of the branches present + tufts of pale yellow, pink, crimson, and purple, which give them at a + distance the appearance of a cluster of flowers.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Prof. Harvey, Trin. Coll. Dublin.</p> + + <p>2: Some few trees, such as the margosa (<i>Azadirachta + Indica</i>), the country almond (<i>Terminalia catappa</i>), and + others, are deciduous, and part with their leaves. The cinnamon + shoots forth in all shades from bright yellow to dark crimson. The + maella <i>(Olax Zeylanica)</i> has always a copper colour; and the + ironwood trees of the interior have a perfect blaze of young + crimson leaves, as brilliant as flowers. The lovi-lovi + (<i>Flacourtia inermis</i>) has the same peculiarity; while the + large bracts of the mussænda (<i>Mussænda frondosa</i>) attract the + notice of Europeans for their angular whiteness.</p> + </div> + + <p>A notice of the variations exhibited by the weather at Colombo may + serve as an index to the atmospheric condition of the rest of the + island, except in those portions (such as the mountains of the + interior, and the low plains of the northern extremity) which exhibit + modifications of temperature and moisture incident to local + peculiarities.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.E. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 85.6º + Mean least 69.2º +Rain (inches) 3.1 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>January</i>.—At the opening of the year, the north-east + monsoon, which sets in two months previously, is nearly in mid + career. This wind, issuing from the chill north and robbed of its + aqueous vapour in passing over the elevated mountain regions on the + confines of China and Thibet, sweeps across the Bay of Bengal, whence + its lowest strata imbibe a quantity <a name="pg057" id="pg057"></a> + of moisture, moderate in amount, yet still leaving the great mass of + air far below saturation. Hence it reaches Ceylon comparatively dry, + and its general effects are parching and disagreeable. This character + is increased as the sun recedes towards its most southern + declination, and the wind acquires a more direct draught from the + north; passing over the Indian peninsula and almost totally digested + of humidity, it blows down the western coast of the island, and is + known there by the name of the "along-shore-wind." For a time its + influence is uncomfortable and its effects injurious both to health + and vegetation: it warps and rends furniture, dries up the surface of + the earth, and withers the delicate verdure which had sprung up + during the prevalence of the previous rains. These characteristics, + however, subside towards the end of the month, when the wind becomes + somewhat variable with a westerly tendency and occasional showers; + and the heat of the day is then partially compensated by the greater + freshness of the nights. The fall of rain within the month scarcely + exceeds three inches.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.E. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 89° + Mean least 71° +Rain (inches) 2.1 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>February</i> is dry and hot during the day, but the nights are + cloudless and cool, and the moonlight singularly agreeable. Rain is + rare, and when it occurs it falls in dashes, succeeded by damp and + sultry calms. The wind is unsteady and shifts from north-east to + north-west, sometimes failing entirely between noon and twilight. The + quantity of rain is less than in January, and the difference of + temperature between day and night is frequently as great as 15° or + 20°.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. MACVICAR, in a paper in the <i>Ceylon Miscellany</i>, + July, 1843, recorded the results of some experiments, made near + Colombo, as to the daily variation of temperature and Its effects + on cultivation, from which it appeared that a register thermometer, + exposed on a tuft of grass in the cinnamon garden in a clear night + and under the open sky, on the 2nd of January, 1841, showed in the + morning that it had been so low as 52°, and when laid on the ground + in the place in the sunshine on the following day, it rose to + upwards of 140° Fahr.</p> + </div><a name="pg058" id="pg058"></a> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.E. to N.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 87.7° + Mean least 73.1° +Rain (inches) 2.1 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>March</i>.—In March the heat continues to increase, the + earth receiving more warmth than it radiates or parts with by + evaporation. The day becomes oppressive, the nights unrefreshing, the + grass is withered and brown, the earth hard and cleft, the lakes + shrunk to shallows, and the rivers evaporated to dryness. Europeans + now escape from the low country, and betake themselves to the shade + of the forests adjoining the coffee-plantations in the hills; or to + the still higher sanatarium of Neuera-ellia, nearly the loftiest + plateau in the mountains of the Kandyan range. The winds, when any + are perceptible, are faint and unsteady with a still increasing + westerly tendency, partial showers sometimes fall, and thunder begins + to mutter towards sunset. At the close of the month, the mean + temperature will be found to have advanced about a degree, but the + sensible temperature and the force of the sun's rays are felt in a + still more perceptible proportion.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.W. to S.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 88.7° + Mean least 73.6° +Rain (inches) 7.4 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>April</i> is by far the most oppressive portion of the year for + those who remain at the sea-level of the island. The temperature + continues to rise as the sun in his northern progress passes + vertically over the island. A mirage fills the hollows with mimic + water; the heat in close apartments becomes extreme, and every living + creature flies to the shade from the suffocating glare of mid-day. At + length the sea exhibits symptoms of an approaching change, a ground + swell sets in from the west, and the breeze towards sunset brings + clouds and grateful showers. At the end of the month the mean + temperature attains its greatest height during the year, being about + 83° in the day, and 10° lower at night.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.W. to S.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 87.2° + Mean least 72.9° +Rain (inches) 13.3 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>May</i> is signalised by the great event of the change of the + monsoon, and all the grand phenomena which accompany its + approach.</p> + + <p>It is difficult for any one who has not <a name="pg059" id= + "pg059"></a> resided in the tropics to comprehend the feeling of + enjoyment which accompanies these periodical commotions of the + atmosphere; in Europe they would be fraught with annoyance, but in + Ceylon they are welcomed with a relish proportionate to the monotony + they dispel.</p> + + <p>Long before the wished-for period arrives, the verdure produced by + the previous rains becomes almost obliterated by the burning droughts + of March and April. The deciduous trees shed their foliage, the + plants cease to put forth fresh leaves, and all vegetable life + languishes under the unwholesome heat. The grass withers on the baked + and cloven earth, and red dust settles on the branches and thirsty + brushwood. The insects, deprived of their accustomed food, disappear + underground or hide beneath the decaying bark; the water-beetles bury + themselves in the hardened mud of the pools, and the <i>helices</i> + retire into the crevices of the stones or the hollows amongst the + roots of the trees, closing the apertures of their shells with the + hybernating epiphragm. Butterflies are no longer seen hovering over + the flowers, the birds appear fewer and less joyous, and the wild + animals and crocodiles, driven by the drought from their accustomed + retreats, wander through the jungle, and even venture to approach the + village wells in search of water. Man equally languishes under the + general exhaustion, ordinary exertion becomes distasteful, and the + native Singhalese, although inured to the climate, move with + lassitude and reluctance.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile the air becomes loaded to saturation with aqueous vapour + drawn up by the augmented force of evaporation acting vigorously over + land and sea: the sky, instead of its brilliant blue, assumes the + sullen tint of lead, and not a breath disturbs the motionless rest of + the clouds that hang on the lower range of hills. At length, + generally about the middle of the month, but frequently earlier, the + sultry suspense is broken by the arrival of the wished-for change. + The sun has by <a name="pg060" id="pg060"></a> this time nearly + attained his greatest northern declination, and created a torrid heat + throughout the lands of southern Asia and the peninsula of India. The + air, lightened by its high temperature and such watery vapour as it + may contain, rises into loftier regions and is replaced by indraughts + from the neighbouring sea, and thus a tendency is gradually given to + the formation of a current bringing up from the south the warm humid + air of the equator. The wind, therefore, which reaches Ceylon comes + laden with moisture, taken up in its passage across the great Indian + Ocean. As the monsoon draws near, the days become more overcast and + hot, banks of clouds rise over the ocean to the west, and in the + peculiar twilight the eye is attracted by the unusual whiteness of + the sea-birds that sweep along the strand to seize the objects flung + on shore by the rising surf.</p> + + <p>At last the sudden lightnings flash among the hills and sheet + through the clouds that overhang the sea[1], and with a crash of + thunder the monsoon bursts over the thirsty land, not in showers or + partial torrents, but in a wide deluge, that in the course of a few + hours overtops the river banks and spreads in inundations over every + level plain.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The lightnings of Ceylon are so remarkable, that in the + middle ages they were as well known to the Arabian seamen, who + coasted the island on their way to China, as in later times the + storms that infested the Cape of Good Hope were familiar to early + navigators of Portugal. In the <i>Mohit</i> of SIDI ALI CHELEBI, + translated by Von Hammer, it is stated that to seamen, sailing from + Diu to Malacca, "the sign of Ceylon being near is continual + lightning, be it accompanied by rain or without rain; so that 'the + lightning of Ceylon' is proverbial for a liar!"—<i>Journ. + Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i> v. 465.</p> + </div> + + <p>All the phenomena of this explosion are stupendous: thunder, as we + are accustomed to be awed by it in Europe, affords but the faintest + idea of its overpowering grandeur in Ceylon, and its sublimity is + infinitely increased as it is faintly heard from the shore, + resounding through night and darkness over the gloomy sea. The + lightning, when it touches the earth where <a name="pg061" id= + "pg061"></a> it is covered with the descending torrent, flashes into + it and disappears instantaneously; but, when it strikes a drier + surface, in seeking better conductors, it often opens a hollow like + that formed by the explosion of a shell, and frequently leaves behind + it traces of vitrification.[1] In Ceylon, however, occurrences of + this kind are rare, and accidents are seldom recorded from lightning, + probably owing to the profusion of trees, and especially of coco-nut + palms, which, when drenched with rain, intercept the discharge, and + conduct the electric matter to the earth. The rain at these periods + excites the astonishment of a European: it descends in almost + continuous streams, so close and so dense that the level ground, + unable to absorb it sufficiently fast, is covered with one uniform + sheet of water, and down the sides of acclivities it rushes in a + volume that wears channels in the surface.[2] For hours together, the + noise of the torrent, as it beats upon the trees and bursts upon the + roofs, flowing thence in rivulets along the ground, occasions an + uproar that drowns the ordinary voice, and renders sleep + impossible.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See DARWIN'S <i>Naturalist's Voyage</i>, ch. iii. for an + account of those vitrified siliceous tubes which are formed by + lightning entering loose sand. During a thunderstorm which passed + over Galle, on the 16th May, 1854, the fortifications were shaken + by lightning, and an extraordinary cavity was opened behind the + retaining wall of the rampart, where a hole, a yard in diameter, + was carried into the ground to the depth of twenty feet, and two + chambers, each six feet in length, branched out on either side at + its extremity.</p> + + <p>2: One morning on awaking at Pusilawa, in the hills between + Kandy and Neuera-ellia, I was taken to see the effect of a few + hours' rain, during the night, on a macadamised road which I had + passed the evening before. There was no symptom of a storm at + sunset, and the morning was bright and cloudless; but between + midnight and dawn such an inundation had swept the highway that in + many places the metal had been washed over the face of the + acclivity; and in one spot where a sudden bend forced the torrent + to impinge against the bank, it had scooped out an excavation + extending to the centre of the high road, thirteen feet in + diameter, and deep enough to hold a carriage and horses.</p> + </div> + + <p>This violence, however, seldom lasts more than an hour or two, and + gradually abates after intermittent paroxysms, and a serenely clear + sky supervenes. For some days, heavy showers continue to fall at + intervals <a name="pg062" id="pg062"></a> in the forenoon; and the + evenings which follow are embellished by sunsets of the most gorgeous + splendour, lighting the fragments of clouds that survive the recent + storm.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind S.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 85.8° + Mean least 74.4° +Rain (inches) 6.8 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>June</i>.—The extreme heat of the previous month becomes + modified in June: the winds continue steadily to blow from the + south-west, and frequent showers, accompanied by lightning and + thunder, serve still further to diffuse coolness throughout the + atmosphere and verdure over the earth.</p> + + <p>So instantaneous is the response of Nature to the influence of + returning moisture, that, in a single day, and almost between sunset + and dawn, the green hue of reviving vegetation begins to tint the + saturated ground. In ponds, from which but a week before the wind + blew clouds of sandy dust, the peasantry are now to be seen catching + the re-animated fish; and tank-shells and water-beetles revive and + wander over the submerged sedges. The electricity of the air + stimulates the vegetation of the trees; and scarce a week will elapse + till the plants are covered with the larvæ of butterflies, the forest + murmuring with the hum of insects, and the air harmonious with the + voice of birds.</p> + + <p>The extent to which the temperature is reduced, after the first + burst of the monsoon, is not to be appreciated by the indications of + the thermometer alone, but is rendered still more sensible by the + altered density of the air, the drier state of which is favourable to + evaporation, whilst the increase of its movement bringing it more + rapidly in contact with the human body, heat is more readily carried + off, and the coolness of the surface proportionally increased. It + occasionally happens during the month of June that the westerly wind + acquires considerable strength, sometimes amounting to a moderate + gale. The fishermen, at this period, seldom put to sea: their canoes + are drawn far up in lines upon the shore, and vessels riding in the + roads of <a name="pg063" id="pg063"></a> Colombo are often driven + from their anchorage and stranded on the beach.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind S.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 84.8º + Mean least 74.9º +Rain (inches) 3.4 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>July</i> resembles, to a great extent, the month which precedes + it, except that, in all particulars the season is more moderate, + showers are less frequent, there is less wind, and less absolute + heat.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind S.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 84.9° + Mean least 74.7° + Rain (inches) 2.8 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>August</i>.—In August the weather is charming, + notwithstanding withstanding a slight increase of heat, owing to + diminished evaporation; and the sun being now on its return to the + equator, its power is felt in greater force on full exposure to its + influence.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind S.W. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 84.9º + Mean least 74.8º +Rain (inches) 5.2 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>September</i>.—The same atmospheric condition continues + throughout September, but towards its close the sea-breeze becomes + unsteady and clouds begin to collect, symptomatic of the approaching + change to the north-east monsoon. The nights are always clear and + delightfully cool. Rain is sometimes abundant.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind S.W. and N.E. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 85.1º + Mean least 73.3º +Rain (inches) 11.2 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>October</i> is more unsettled, the wind veering towards the + north, with pretty frequent rain; and as the sun is now far to the + southward, the heat continues to decline.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.E. +Temperature, 24 hours: + Mean greatest 86.3º + Mean least 71.5º +Rain (inches) 10.7 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>November</i> sees the close of the south-west monsoon and the + arrival of the north-eastern. In the early part of the month the wind + visits nearly every point of the compass, but shows a marked + predilection for the north, generally veering from N.E. at night and + early morning, to N.W. at noon; calms are frequent and precede gentle + showers, and clouds form round the lower range of hills. By degrees + as the sun advances in its southern declination, and warms the lower + half of the great African continent, the current of heated air + ascending from the equatorial belt leaves <a name="pg064" id= + "pg064"></a> a comparative vacuum, towards which the less rarefied + atmospheric fluid is drawn down from the regions north, of the + tropic, bringing with it the cold and dry winds from the Himalayan + Alps, and the lofty ranges of Assam. The great change is heralded as + before by oppressive calms, lurid skies, vivid lightning, bursts of + thunder, and tumultuous rain. But at this change of the monsoon the + atmospheric disturbance is less striking than in May; the previous + temperature is lower, the moisture of the air is more reduced, and + the change is less agreeably perceptible from the southern breeze to + the dry and parching wind from the north.</p> + + <div class="side"> + <pre> +Wind N.E. +Temperature 24 hours: + Mean greatest 85° + Mean least 70° +Rain (inches) 4.3 +</pre> + </div> + + <p><i>December</i>.—In December the sun attains to its greatest + southern declination, and the wind setting steadily from the + northeast brings with it light but frequent rains from Bay Of Bengal. + The thermometer shows a maximum temperature of 85° with a minimum of + 70°; the morning and the afternoon are again enjoyable in the open + air, but at night every lattice that faces the north is cautiously + closed against the treacherous "along-shore-wind."</p> + + <p>Notwithstanding the violence and volume in which the rains have + been here described as descending during the paroxysms of the + monsoons, the total rain-fall in Ceylon is considerably less than on + the continent of Throughout Hindustan the annual mean is 117.5 and on + some parts on the Malabar coast, upwards of 300 inches have fallen in + a single year[1]; whereas the in Ceylon rarely exceeds 80, and the + highest registered in an exceptional season was 120 inches.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: At Mahabaleshwar, in the Western Ghauts, the annual mean is + 254 inches, and at Uttray Mullay; in Malabar, 263; whilst at Bengal + it is 209 inches at Sylhet; and 610.3 at Cherraponga.</p> + </div> + + <p>The distribution is of course unequal, both as to time and + localities, and in those districts where the <a name="pg065" id= + "pg065"></a> fall is most considerable, the number of rainless days + is the greatest.[1] An idea may be formed of the deluge that descends + in Colombo during the change of the monsoon, from the fact that out + of 72.4 inches, the annual average there, no less than 20.7 inches + fall in April and May, and 21.9 in October and November, a quantity + one-third greater than the total rain in England throughout an entire + year.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The average number of days on which rain fell at Colombo in + the years 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1835, was as follows:—</p> + + <table width="40%" summary= + "average number of rain days for each month in 1832,1833, 1834, 1835"> + <tr> + <th width="70%"> </th> + + <th width="30%">Days.</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>In January</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>February </td> + + <td align="right">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>March</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>April</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>May</td> + + <td align="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>June</td> + + <td align="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>July</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>August</td> + + <td align="right">10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>September</td> + + <td align="right">14</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>October</td> + + <td align="right">17</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>November</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>December</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Total</td> + + <td align="right">118</td> + </tr> + </table> + </div> + + <p>In one important particular the phenomenon, of the Dekkan affords + an analogy for that which presents itself in Ceylon. During the + south-west monsoon the clouds are driven against the lofty chain of + mountains that overhang the western shore of the peninsula, and their + condensed vapour descends there in copious showers. The winds, thus + early robbed of their moisture, carry but little rain to the plains + of the interior, and whilst Malabar is saturated by daily showers, + the sky of Coromandel is clear and serene. In the north-east monsoon + a condition the very opposite exists; the wind that then prevails is + much drier, and the hills which it encounters being of lower + altitude, the rains are carried further towards the interior, and + whilst the weather is unsettled and stormy on the eastern shore, the + western is comparatively exempt, and enjoys a calm and cloudless + sky.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The mean of rain is, on the western side of the Dekkan, 80 + inches, and on the eastern, 52.8.</p> + </div> + + <p>In like manner the west coast of Ceylon presents a contrast with + the east, both in the volume of rain in each of the respective + monsoons, and in the influence which the same monsoon exerts + simultaneously on the one side of the island and on the other. The + greatest <a name="pg066" id="pg066"></a> quantity of rain falls on + the south-western portion, in the month of May, when the wind from + the Indian Ocean is intercepted, and its moisture condensed by the + lofty mountain ranges, surrounding Adam's Peak. The region + principally affected by it stretches from Point-de-Galle, as far + north as Putlam, and eastward till it includes the greater portion of + the ancient Kandyan kingdom. But the rains do not reach the opposite + side of the island; whilst the west coast is deluged, the east is + sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens + that different aspects of the same mountain present at <a name= + "pg067" id="pg067"></a> the same moment the opposite extremes of + drought and moisture.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: ADMIRAL FITZROY has described, in his <i>Narrative of the + Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle</i>, the striking degree in + which this simultaneous dissimilarity of climate is exhibited on + opposite sides of the Galapagos Islands; one aspect exposed to the + south being covered with verdure and freshened with moisture, + whilst all others are barren and parched.—Vol. ii. p. 502-3. + The same state of things exists in the east and west sides of the + Peruvian Andes, and in the mountains of Patagonia. And no more + remarkable example of it exists than in the island of Socotra, east + of the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, the west coast of which, during + the north-east monsoon, is destitute of rain and verdure, whilst + the eastern side is enriched by streams and covered by luxuriant + pasturage.—<i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i> vol. iv. p. + 141.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/066.jpg"><img src="images/066.jpg" alt= + "DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE COMPARATIVE FALL OF RAIN" /></a> + + <p>DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE COMPARATIVE FALL OF RAIN ON THE SEABORDE + OF THE DEEKAN, AND AT COLOMBO, IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE OF + CEYLON.</p> + + <p>One maximum at the spring change of the monsoon anticipating a + little that on the West coast of India; another at the autumnal + change corresponding more exactly with that of the East coast. The + entire fall through the year more equably distributed at + Columbo.</p> + </div> + + <p>On the east coast, on the other hand, the fall, during the + north-east monsoon, is very similar in degree to that on the coast of + Coromandel, as the mountains are lower and more remote from the sea, + the clouds are carried farther inland and it rains simultaneously on + both sides of the island, though much less on the west than during + the other monsoon.</p> + + <p><i>The climate of Galle</i>, as already stated, resembles in its + general characteristics that of Colombo, but, being further to the + south, and more equally exposed to the influence of both the + monsoons, the temperature is not quite so high; and, during the cold + season, it falls some degrees lower, especially in the evening and + early morning.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: At Point-de-Galle, in 1854, the number of rainy days was as + follows:</p> + + <table width="40%" summary= + "the number of rainy days at Point-de-Galle, in 1854."> + <tr> + <th width="70%"></th> + + <th width="30%">Days.</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>January</td> + + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>February</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>March</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>April</td> + + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>May</td> + + <td align="right">23</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>June</td> + + <td align="right">18</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>July</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>August</td> + + <td align="right">21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>September</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>October</td> + + <td align="right">20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>November </td> + + <td align="right">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>December</td> + + <td align="right">13</td> + </tr> + </table> + </div> + + <p><i>Kandy</i>, from its position, shares in the climate of the + western coast; but, from the frequency of the mountain showers, and + its situation, at an elevation of upwards of sixteen hundred feet + above the level of the sea, it enjoys a much cooler temperature. It + differs from the low country in one particular, which is very + striking—the early period of the day at which the maximum heat + is attained. This at Colombo is generally between two and three + o'clock in the afternoon, whereas at Kandy the thermometer shows the + <a name="pg068" id="pg068"></a> highest temperature of the day + between ten and eleven o'clock in the morning.</p> + + <p>In the low country, ingenuity has devised so many expedients for + defence from the excessive heat of the forenoon, that the languor it + induces is chiefly experienced after sunset, and the coolness of the + night is insufficient to compensate for the exhaustion of the day; + but, in Kandy, the nights are so cool that it is seldom that warm + covering can be altogether dispensed with. In the colder months, the + daily range of the thermometer is considerable—approaching 30°; + in the others, it differs little from 15°. The average mean, however, + of each month throughout the year is nearly identical, deviating only + a degree from 76°, the mean annual temperature.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The following Table appeared in the <i>Colombo Observer</i>, + and is valuable from the care taken by Mr. Caley in its + preparation;</p> + + <p><i>Analysis of the Climate at Peradenia, from 1851 to 1858 + inclusive.</i></p> + + <table summary= + "Analysis of the Climate at Peradenia, from 1851 to 1858"> + <tr> + <th>Months.</th> + + <th colspan="4">Temperature.</th> + + <th colspan="2">Rainfall.</th> + + <th>Remarks.</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th></th> + + <th>Max.</th> + + <th>Min.</th> + + <th>Mean.</th> + + <th>Average of Years</th> + + <th>In.</th> + + <th>Average of Years</th> + + <th></th> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>January</td> + + <td>85.0</td> + + <td>52.5</td> + + <td>74.06</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td align="right">4.04</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Fine, sunny, heavy dew at night, hot days, and cold nights + and mornings.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>February</td> + + <td>87.75</td> + + <td>55.0</td> + + <td>75.76</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + + <td align="right">1.625</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Fine, sunny, dewy nights, foggy mornings, days hot, nights + and mornings cold.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>March</td> + + <td align="right">89.5</td> + + <td align="right">59.5</td> + + <td align="right">77.42</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + + <td align="right">3.669</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Generally a very hot and oppressive month.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>April</td> + + <td align="right">89.5</td> + + <td align="right">67.5</td> + + <td align="right">77.91</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + + <td align="right">7.759</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Showery, sultry, and oppressive weather.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>May</td> + + <td align="right">88.0</td> + + <td align="right">66.0</td> + + <td align="right">77.7</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">8.022</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Cloudy, windy, rainy; monsoon generally changes.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>June</td> + + <td align="right">86.0</td> + + <td align="right">71.0</td> + + <td align="right">76.69</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">7.155</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>A very wet and stormy month.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>July</td> + + <td align="right">86.0</td> + + <td align="right">67.0</td> + + <td align="right">75.64</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">5.72</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Ditto ditto</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>August</td> + + <td align="right">85.5</td> + + <td align="right">67.0</td> + + <td align="right">75.81</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">8.55</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Showery, but sometimes more moderate, variable</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>September</td> + + <td align="right">85.5</td> + + <td align="right">67.0</td> + + <td align="right">76.13</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">6.318</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Pretty dry weather, compared with the next two months.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>October</td> + + <td align="right">85.73</td> + + <td align="right">68.2</td> + + <td align="right">75.1</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">15.46</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Wind variable, much rain.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>November</td> + + <td align="right">84.0</td> + + <td align="right">62.0</td> + + <td align="right">74.79</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">14.732</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td>Wind variable, storms from all points of compass, wet; + monsoon generally changes.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>December</td> + + <td align="right">82.75</td> + + <td align="right">57.0</td> + + <td align="right">74.05</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + + <td align="right">7.72</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + + <td>Sometimes wet, but generally more moderate; towards end of + year like January weather.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td colspan="4">Mean yearly Temperature,75.92º</td> + + <td colspan="3">Mean yearly Rainfall, 91.75 in. nearly.</td> + + <td>Nov. 29, 1858 J.A. CALEY.</td> + </tr> + </table> + </div><a name="pg069" id="pg069"></a> + + <p>In all the mountain valleys, the soil being warmer than the air, + vapour abounds in the early morning for the most part of the year. It + greatly adds to the chilliness of travelling before dawn; but, + generally speaking, it is not wetting, as it is charged with the same + electricity as the surface of the earth and the human body. When seen + from the heights, it is a singular object, as it lies compact and + white as snow in the hollows beneath, but it is soon put in motion by + the morning currents, and wafted in the direction of the coast, where + it is dissipated by the sunbeams.</p> + + <p><i>Snow</i> is unknown in Ceylon; <i>Hail</i> occasionally falls + in the Kandyan hills at the change of the monsoon,[1] but more + frequently during that from the north-east. As observed at + Kornegalle, the clouds, after collecting as usual for a few evenings, + and gradually becoming more dense, advanced in a wedge-like form, + with a well-defined outline. The first fall of rain was preceded by a + downward blast of cold air, accompanied by hailstones which + outstripped the rain in their descent. Rain and hail then poured down + together, and, eventually, the latter only spread its deluge far and + wide, In 1852, the hail which thus fell at Kornegalle was of such a + size that half-a-dozen lumps filled a tumbler, In shape, they were + oval and compressed, but the mass appeared to have formed an + hexagonal pyramid, the base of which was two inches in diameter, and + about half-an-inch thick, gradually thinning towards the edge. They + were tolerably solid internally, each containing about the size of a + pea of clear ice at the centre, but the sides and angles were spongy + and flocculent, as if the particles had been driven together by the + force of <a name="pg070" id="pg070"></a> the wind, and had coalesced + at the instant of contact. A phenomenon so striking as the fall of + ice, at the moment of the most intense atmospherical heat, naturally + attracts the wonder of the natives, who hasten to collect the pieces, + and preserve them, when dissolved, in bottles, from a belief in their + medicinal properties. Mr. Morris, who has repeatedly observed + hailstones in the Seven Korles, is under the impression that their + occurrence always happens at the first outburst of the monsoon, and + that they fall at the moment, which is marked by the first flash of + lightning.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It is stated in the <i>Physical Atlas</i> of KEITH JOHNSTON, + that hail in India has not been noticed south of Madras. But in + Ceylon it has fallen very recently at Korngalle, at Badulla, at + Kaduganawa; and I have heard of a hail storm at Jaffna. On 1 the + 24th of Sept. 1857, during a thunder-storm, hail fell near Matelle + in such quantity that in places it formed drifts upwards of a foot + in depth.</p> + </div> + + <p>According to Professor Stevelly, of Belfast, the rationale of + their appearance on such occasions seems to be that, on the sudden + formation and descent of the first drops, the air expanding and + rushing into the void spaces, robs the succeeding drops of their + caloric so effectually as to send them to the earth frozen into + ice-balls.</p> + + <p>These descriptions, it will be observed, apply exclusively to the + southern regions on the east and west of Ceylon; and, in many + particulars, they are inapplicable to the northern portions of the + island. At Trincomalie, the climate bears a general resemblance to + that of the Indian peninsula south of Madras: showers are frequent, + but light, and the rain throughout the year does not exceed forty + inches. With moist winds and plentiful dew, this sustains a vigorous + vegetation near the coast; but in the interior it would be + insufficient for the culture of grain, were not the water husbanded + in tanks; and, for this reason, the bulk of the population are + settled along the banks of the great rivers.</p> + + <p>The temperature of this part of Ceylon follows the course of the + sun, and ranges from a minimum of 70° in December and January, to a + maximum of 94° in May and June; but the heat is rendered tolerable at + all seasons by the steadiness of the land and sea breezes.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The following facts regarding the climate of Trincomalie have + been, arranged from elaborate returns furnished by Mr. Higgs, the + master-attendant of the port, and published under the authority of + the meteorological department of the Board of Trade:—</p> + + <h5><i>Trincomalie</i>.</h5> + + <table summary="climate of Trincomalie"> + <tr> + <th>1854</th> + + <th>Mean Maximum Temperature</th> + + <th>Mean Minimum Temperature</th> + + <th>Extreme Range for the Month</th> + + <th>Highest Temperature Noted</th> + + <th>Days of Rain</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Jan.</td> + + <td align="right">81.3°</td> + + <td align="right">74.7°</td> + + <td align="right">14°</td> + + <td align="right">83</td> + + <td align="right">10</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Feb.</td> + + <td align="right">83.8</td> + + <td align="right">75.8</td> + + <td align="right">14</td> + + <td align="right">86</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Mar.</td> + + <td align="right">85.9</td> + + <td align="right">76.1</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + + <td align="right">88</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>April</td> + + <td align="right">89.6</td> + + <td align="right">78.9</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + + <td align="right">92</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>May</td> + + <td align="right">89.1</td> + + <td align="right">79.3</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + + <td align="right">93</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>June</td> + + <td align="right">90.0</td> + + <td align="right">79.5</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + + <td align="right">94</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>July</td> + + <td align="right">87.7</td> + + <td align="right">77.7</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + + <td align="right">90</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Aug.</td> + + <td align="right">87.9</td> + + <td align="right">77.4</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + + <td align="right">91</td> + + <td align="right">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sept.</td> + + <td align="right">89.3</td> + + <td align="right">77.8</td> + + <td align="right">18</td> + + <td align="right">93</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Oct.</td> + + <td align="right">85.2</td> + + <td align="right">75.8</td> + + <td align="right">15</td> + + <td align="right">89</td> + + <td align="right">14</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Nov.</td> + + <td align="right">81.0</td> + + <td align="right">74.9</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + + <td align="right">83</td> + + <td align="right">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Dec.</td> + + <td align="right">80.1</td> + + <td align="right">74.3</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + + <td align="right">82</td> + + <td align="right">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="6">Mean temperature for the year 81.4.</td> + </tr> + </table> + </div><a name="pg071" id="pg071"></a> + + <p>In the extreme north of the island, the peninsula of Jaffna, and + the vast plains of Neura-kalawa and the Wanny, form a third climatic + division, which, from the geological structure and peculiar + configuration of the district, differs essentially from the rest of + Ceylon. This region, which is destitute of mountains, is undulating + in a very slight degree; the dry and parching north-east wind + desiccates the soil in its passage, and the sandy plains are covered + with a low and scanty vegetation, chiefly fed by the night dews and + whatever moisture is brought by the on-shore wind. The total rain of + the year does not exceed thirty inches; and the inhabitants live in + frequent apprehension of droughts and famines. These conditions + attain their utmost manifestation at the extreme north and in the + Jaffna peninsula: there the temperature is the highest[1] in the + island, and, owing to the humidity of the situation and the total + absence of hills, it is but little affected by the changes of the + monsoons; and the thermometer keeps a regulated pace with the + progress of the sun to and from the solstices. The soil, except in + particular spots, is porous and sandy, formed from the detritus of + the coral rocks which it overlays. It is subject to droughts + sometimes of a whole <a name="pg072" id="pg072"></a> year's + continuance; and rain, when it falls, is so speedily absorbed, that + it renders but slight service to cultivation, which is entirely + carried on by means of tanks and artificial irrigation, in the + practice of which the Tamil population of this district exhibits + singular perseverance and ingenuity.[2] In the dry season, when + scarcely any verdure is discernible above ground, the sheep and goats + feed on their knees—scraping away the sand, in order to reach + the wiry and succulent roots of the grasses. From the constancy of + this practice horny callosities are produced, by which these hardy + creatures may be distinguished.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The mean lowest temperature at Jaffna is 70º, the mean + highest 90º; but in 1845-6 the thermometer rose to 90º and + 100º.</p> + + <p>2: For an account of the Jaffna wells, and the theory of their + supply with fresh water, see <a href="#pg021">ch. i. p. 21</a>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Water-spouts are frequent on the coast of Ceylon, owing to the + different temperature of the currents of air passing across the + heated earth and the cooler sea, but instances are very rare of their + bursting over land, or of accidents in consequence.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: CAMOENS, who had opportunities of observing the phenomena of + these seas during his service on board the fleet of Cabral, off the + coast of Malabar and Ceylon, has introduced into the <i>Lusiad</i> + the episode of a water-spout in the Indian Ocean; but, under the + belief that the water which descends had been previously drawn up + by suction from the ocean, he exclaims:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"But say, ye sages, who can weigh the cause,</p> + + <p>And trace the secret springs of Nature's laws;</p> + + <p>Say why the wave, of bitter brine erewhile,</p> + + <p>Should be the bosom of the deep recoil,</p> + + <p>Robbed of its salt, and from the cloud distil,</p> + + <p>Sweet as the waters of the limpid rill?"</p> + </div> + + <p>(Book v.)</p> + + <p>But the truth appears to be that the torrent which descends from + a water-spout, is but the condensed accumulation of its own vapour, + and, though in the hollow of the lower cone which rests upon the + surface of the sea, salt water may possibly ascend in the partial + vacuum caused by revolution; or spray may be caught up and + collected by the wind, still these cannot be raised by it beyond a + very limited height, and what Camoens saw descend was, as he truly + says, the sweet water distilled from the cloud.</p> + </div> + + <p>A curious phenomenon, to which the name of "anthelia" has been + given, and which may probably have suggested to the early painters + the idea of the glory surrounding the heads of beatified saints, is + to be seen in singular beauty, at early morning, in Ceylon. When the + light is intense, and the shadows proportionally dark—when the + sun is near the horizon, and the shadow of a person walking is thrown + on the dewy grass—each particle of dew furnishes a double + reflection from its concave <a name="pg073" id="pg073"></a> and + convex surfaces; and to the spectator his own figure, but more + particularly the head, appears surrounded by a halo as vivid as if + radiated from diamonds.[1] The Buddhists may possibly have taken from + this beautiful object their idea of the <i>agni</i> or emblem of the + sun, with which the head of Buddha is surmounted. But unable to + express a <i>halo</i> in sculpture, they concentrated it into a + <i>flame</i>.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: SCORESBY describes the occurrence of a similar phenomenon in + the Arctic Seas in July, 1813, the luminous circle being produced + on the particles of fog which rested on the calm water. "The lower + part of the circle descended beneath my feet to the side of the + ship, and although it could not be a hundred feet from the eye, it + was perfect, and the colours distinct. The centre of the coloured + circle was distinguished by my own shadow, the head of which, + enveloped by a halo, was most conspicuously pourtrayed. The halo or + glory evidently impressed on the fog, but the figure appeared to be + a shadow on the water; the different parts became obscure in + proportion to their remoteness from the head, so that the lower + extremities were not perceptible."—<i>Account of the Arctic + Regions</i>, vol. i. ch. v. sec. vi. p. 394. A similar phenomenon + occurs in the Khasia Hills, in the north-east of + Bengal.—<i>Asiat. Soc. Journ. Beng.</i> vol. xiii. p. + 616.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/073.jpg"><img src="images/073.jpg" alt= + "THE ANTHELIA AS IT APPEARS TO THE PERSON HIMSELF" /></a> + + <p>THE ANTHELIA AS IT APPEARS TO THE PERSON HIMSELF</p> + </div> + + <p>Another luminous phenomenon which sometimes appears in the hill + country, consists of beams of light, which intersect the sky, whilst + the sun is yet in the ascendant; sometimes horizontally, accompanied + by intermitting movements, and sometimes vertically, a broad belt of + the blue sky interposing between them.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: VIGNE mentions an appearance of this kind in the valley of + Kashmir: "Whilst the rest of the horizon was glowing golden over + the mountain tops, a broad well-defined ray-shaped streak of indigo + was shooting upwards in the zenith: it remained nearly stationary + about an hour, and was then blended into the sky around it, and + disappeared with the day. It was, no doubt, owing to the presence + of some particular mountains which intercepted the red rays, and + threw a blue shadow, by causing so much of the sky above Kashmir to + remain unaffected by them."—<i>Travels in Kashmir</i>, vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 115.</p> + </div><a name="pg074" id="pg074"></a> + + <p>In Ceylon this is doubtless owing to the air holding in suspension + a large quantity of vapour, which receives shadows and reflects rays + of light. The natives, who designate them "Buddha's rays," attach a + superstitious dread to their appearance, and believe them to be + portentous of misfortune—in every month, with the exception of + <i>May</i>, which, for some unexplained reason, is exempted.</p> + + <p>HEALTH.—In connection with the subject of "Climate," one of + the most important inquiries is the probable effect on the health and + constitution of a European produced by a prolonged exposure to an + unvarying temperature, upwards of 30 degrees higher than the average + of Great Britain. But to this the most tranquillising reply is the + assurance that <i>mere heat, even to a degree beyond that of Ceylon, + is not unhealthy in itself</i>. Aden, enclosed in a crater of an + extinct volcano, is not considered insalubrious; and the hot season + in India, when the thermometer stands at 100° at midnight, is + comparatively a healthy period of the year. In fact, in numerous + cases heat may be the means of removing the immediate sources of + disease. Its first perceptible effect is a slight increase, of the + normal bodily temperature beyond 98°, and, simultaneously, an + increased activity of all the vital functions. To this everything + contributes an exciting sympathy—the glad surprise of the + natural scenery, the luxury of verdure, the tempting novelty of + fruits and food, and all the unaccustomed attractions of a tropical + home. Under these combined influences the nervous sensibility is + considerably excited, and the circulation acquires greater velocity, + with somewhat diminished force. This is soon followed, <a name= + "pg075" id="pg075"></a> however, by the disagreeable evidences of the + effort made by the system to accommodate itself to the new + atmospheric condition. The skin often becomes fretted by "prickly + heat," or tormented by a profusion of boils, but relief being + speedily obtained through these resources, the new comer is seldom + afterwards annoyed by a recurrence of the process, unless under + circumstances of impaired tone, the result of weakened digestion or + climatic derangement.</p> + + <p><i>Malaria</i>.—Compared with Bengal and the Dekkan, the + climate of Ceylon presents a striking superiority in mildness and + exemption from all the extremes of atmospheric disturbance; and, + except in particular localities, all of which are well known and + avoided[1], from being liable after the rains to malaria, or infested + at particular seasons with agues and fever, a lengthened residence in + the island may be contemplated, without the slightest apprehension of + prejudicial results. These pestilential localities are chiefly at the + foot of mountains, and, strange to say, in the vicinity of some + active rivers, whilst the vast level plains, whose stagnant waters + are made available for the cultivation of rice, are seldom or never + productive of disease. It is even believed that the deadly air is + deprived of its poison in passing over an expanse of still water; and + one of the most remarkable circumstances is, that the points fronting + the aerial currents are those exposed to danger, whilst projecting + cliffs, belts of forest, and even moderately high walls, serve to + protect all behind them from attack.[2] In traversing <a name="pg076" + id="pg076"></a> districts suspected of malaria, experience has + dictated certain precautions, which, with ordinary prudence and + firmness, serve to neutralise the risk—retiring punctually at + sunset, generous diet, moderate stimulants, and the daily use of + quinine both before and after exposure. These, and the precaution, at + whatever sacrifice of comfort, to sleep under mosquito curtains, have + been proved in long journeys to be valuable prophylactics against + fever and the pestilence of the jungle.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Notwithstanding this general condition, fevers of a very + serious kind have been occasionally known to attack persons on the + coast, who had never exposed themselves to the miasma of the + jungle. Such instances have occurred at Galle, and more rarely at + Colombo. The characteristics of places in this regard have, in some + instances, changed unaccountably; thus at Persadenia, close to + Kandy, it was at one time regarded as dangerous to sleep.</p> + + <p>2: Generally speaking, a flat open country is healthy, either + when flooded deeply by rains, or when dried to hardness by the sun; + but in the process of dessication, its exhalations are perilous. + The wooded slopes at the base of mountains are notorious for + fevers; such as the <i>terrai</i> of the Nepal hills, the Wynaad + jungle, at the foot of the Ghauts, and the eastern side of the + mountains of Ceylon.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Food</i>.—Always bearing in mind that of the quantity of + food habitually taken in a temperate climate, a certain proportion is + consumed to sustain the animal heat, it is obvious that in the glow + of the tropics, where the heat is already in excess, this portion of + the ingesta not only becomes superfluous so far as this office is + concerned, but occasions disturbance of the other functions both of + digestion and elimination. Over-indulgence in food, equally with + intemperance in wine, is one fruitful source of disease amongst + Europeans in Ceylon; and maladies and mortality are often the result + of the former, in patients who would repel as an insult the + imputation of the latter.</p> + + <p>So well have national habits conformed to instinctive promptings + in this regard, that the natives of hot countries have unconsciously + sought to heighten the enjoyment of food by taking their principal + repast <i>after sunset</i>[1]; and the European in the East will + speedily discover for himself the prudence, not only of reducing the + quantity, but in regard to the quality of his meals, of adopting + those articles which nature has bountifully <a name="pg077" id= + "pg077"></a> supplied as best suited to the climate. With a moderate + use of flesh meat, vegetables, and especially farinaceous food, are + chiefly to be commended.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The prohibition of swine, which has formed an item in the + dietetic ritual of the Egyptians, the Hebrews, and Mahometans, has + been defended in all ages, from Manetho and Herodotus downwards, on + the ground that the flesh of an animal so foully fed has a tendency + to promote cutaneous disorders, a belief which, though held as a + fallacy in northern climates, may have a truthful basis in the + East.—ÆLIAN, <i>Hist. Anim.</i> 1. X. 16. In a recent general + order Lord Clyde has prohibited its use in the Indian army. Camel's + flesh, which is also declared unclean in Leviticus, is said to + produce in the Arabs serious derangement of the stomach.</p> + </div> + + <p>The latter is rendered attractive by the unrivalled excellence of + the Singhalese in the preparation of innumerable curries[1], each + tempered by the delicate creamy juice expressed from the flesh of the + coco-nut after it has been reduced to a pulp. Nothing of the same + class in India can bear a comparison with the piquant delicacy of a + curry in Ceylon, composed of fresh condiments and compounded by the + skilful hand of a native.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The popular error of thinking curry to be an invention of the + Portuguese in India is disproved by the mention in the + <i>Rajavali</i> of its use in Ceylon in the second century before + the Christian era, and in the <i>Mahawanso</i> in the fifth century + of it. This subject is mentioned elsewhere: see chapter on the Arts + and Sciences of the Singhalese.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>The use of fruit</i>—Fruits are abundant and wholesome; + but with the exception of oranges, pineapples, the luscious mango and + the indescribable "rambutan," for want of horticultural attention + they are inferior in flavour, and soon cease to be alluring.</p> + + <p><i>Wine</i>.—Wine has of late years become accessible to + all, and has thus, in some degree, been substituted for brandy; the + abuse of which at former periods is commemorated in the records of + those fearful disorders of the liver, derangements of the brain, + exhausting fevers, and visceral diseases, which characterise the + medical annals of earlier times. With a firm adherence to temperance + in the enjoyment of stimulants, and moderation in the pleasures of + the table, with attention to exercise and frequent resort to the + bath, it may be confidently asserted that health in Ceylon is as + capable of preservation and life as susceptible of enjoyment, as in + any country within the tropics.</p> + + <p><i>Exposure</i>.—Prudence and foresight are, however, as + indispensable there as in any other climate to escape well-understood + risks. Catarrhs and rheumatism are <a name="pg078" id="pg078"></a> as + likely to follow needless exposure to the withering "along-shore + wind" of the winter months in Ceylon[1], as they are traceable to + unwisely confronting the east winds of March in Great Britain; and + during the alternation, from the sluggish heat which precedes the + monsoon, to the moist and chill vapours that follow the descent of + the rains, intestinal disorders, fevers, and liver complaints are not + more characteristic of an Indian monsoon than an English autumn, and + are equally amenable to those precautions by which liability may be + diminished in either place.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg057">p. 57</a>. It is an + agreeable characteristic of the climate of Ceylon, that sun-stroke, + which is so common even in the northern portions of India, is + almost unknown in the island. Sportsmen are out all day long in the + hottest weather, a practice which would be thought more than + hazardous in Oude or the north-west provinces. Perhaps an + explanation of this may be found in the difference in moisture in + the two atmospheres, which may modify the degrees of evaporation; + but the inquiry is a curious one. It is becoming better understood + in the army that active service, and even a moderate exposure to + the solar rays (<i>always guarding them from the head</i>,) are + conducive rather than injurious to health in the tropics. The pale + and sallow complexion of ladies and children born in India, is + ascribable in a certain degree to the same process by which + vegetables are blanched under shades which exclude the + light:—they are reared in apartments too carefully kept + dark.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Paleness</i>.—At the same time it must be observed, that + the pallid complexion peculiar to old residents, is not alone + ascribable to an organic change in the skin from its being the medium + of perpetual exudation, but in part to a deficiency of red globules + in the blood, and mainly to a reduced vigour in the whole muscular + apparatus, including the action of the heart, which imperfectly + compensates by increased rapidity for diminution of power. It is + remarkable how suddenly this sallowness disappears, and is succeeded + by the warm tints of health, after a visit of a very few days to the + plains of Neuera-ellia, or the picturesque coffee plantations in the + hills that surround it.</p> + + <p><i>Ladies</i>.—Ladies, from their more regular and moderate + habits, and their avoidance of exposure, might be expected to + withstand the climate better than men; <a name="pg079" id= + "pg079"></a> and to a certain extent the anticipation appears to be + correct, but it by no means justifies the assumption of general + immunity. Though less obnoxious to specific disease, debility and + delicacy are the frequent results of habitual seclusion and avoidance + of the solar light. These, added to more obvious causes of occasional + illness, suggest the necessity of vigorous exertion and regular + exercise as indispensable protectives.</p> + + <p>If suitably clothed, and not injudiciously fed, children may + remain in the island till eight or ten years of age, when anxiety is + excited by the attenuation of the frame and the apparent absence of + strength in proportion to development. These symptoms, the result of + relaxed tone and defective nutrition, are to be remedied by change of + climate either to the more lofty ranges of the mountains, or, more + providently, to Europe.</p> + + <p><i>Effects on Europeans already Diseased</i>.—To persons + already suffering from disease, the experiment of a residence in + Ceylon is one of questionable propriety. Those of a scrofulous + diathesis need not consider it hazardous, as experience does not show + that in such there is any greater susceptibility to local or + constitutional disorders, or that when these are present, there is + greater difficulty in their removal.</p> + + <p>To those threatened with consumption, the island may be supposed + to offer some advantages in the equability of the temperature, and + the comparative quiescence of the lungs from reduced necessity for + respiratory effort. Besides, the choice of climates presented by + Ceylon enables a patient, by the easy change of residence to a + different altitude and temperature, avoiding the heats of one period + and the dry winds of another, to check to a great extent the + predisposing causes likely to lead to the development of tubercle. + This, with attention to clothing and systematic exercise as + preventives of active disease, may serve to restrain the further + progress though it fail to eradicate the tendency to phthibis. But + when already the formation of tubercle <a name="pg080" id= + "pg080"></a> has taken place to any considerable extent, and is + accompanied by softening, the morbid condition is not unlikely to + advance with alarming celerity; and the only compensating + circumstance is the diminution of apparent suffering, ascribable to + general languor, and the absence of the bronchial irritation + occasioned by cold humid air.</p> + + <p><i>Dyspepsia</i>.—Habitual dyspeptics, and those affected by + hepatic obstructions, had better avoid a lengthened sojourn in + Ceylon; but the tortures of rheumatism and gout, if they be not + reduced, are certainly postponed for longer intervals than those + conceded to the same sufferers in England. Gout, owing to the great + cutaneous excretion, in most instances totally disappears.</p> + + <p><i>Precautions for Health</i>.—Next to attention to diet, + health in Ceylon is mainly to be preserved by systematic exercise, + and a costume adapted to the climate and its requirements. + Paradoxical as it may sound, the great cause of disease in hot + climates is <i>cold</i>. Nothing ought more cautiously to be watched + and avoided than the chills produced by draughts and dry winds; and a + change of dress or position should be instantly resorted to when the + warning sensation of chilliness is perceived.</p> + + <p><i>Exercise</i>.—The early morning ride, after a single cup + of coffee and a biscuit on rising, and the luxury of the bath before + dressing for breakfast, constitute the enjoyments of the forenoon; + and a similar stroll on horseback, returning at sunset to repeat the + bath[1] preparatory to the evening toilette, completes the hygienic + discipline of the day. At night the introduction of the Indian punka + into bed-rooms would be valuable, a thin flannel coverlet being + spread over the bed. Nothing <a name="pg081" id="pg081"></a> serves + more effectually to break down an impaired constitution in the + tropics than the want of timely and refreshing sleep.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Je me souviens que les deux premières années que je fus en + ce pais-là, j'eus deux maladies: <i>alors je pris la coütume de me + bien laver soir et matin</i>, et pendant 16 ans que j'y ay demeuré + depuis, je n'ay pas senti le moindre mal."—RIBEYRO, <i>Hist. + de l'Isle de Ceylan</i>, vol. v. ch. xix. p. 149.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Dress</i>.—In the selection of dress experience has + taught the superiority of calico to linen, the latter, when damp from + the exhalation of the skin, causing a chill which is injurious, + whilst the former, from some peculiarity in its fibre, however moist + it may become, never imparts the same sensation of cold. The clothing + best adapted to the climate is that whose texture least excites the + already profuse perspiration, and whose fashion presents the least + impediment to its escape.[1] The discomfort of woollen has led to its + avoidance as far as possible; but those who, in England, may have + accustomed themselves to flannel, will find the advantage of + persevering to wear it, provided it is so light as not to excite + perspiration. So equipped for active exercise, exposure to the sun, + however hot, may be regarded without apprehension, provided the limbs + are in motion and the body in ordinary health; but the instinct of + all oriental races has taught the necessity of protecting the head, + and European ingenuity has not failed to devise expedients for this + all-important object.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Man not being created an aquatic animal, his skin cannot + with impunity be exposed to perpetual moisture, whether directly + applied or arising from perspiration retained by dress. The + importance to health of keeping the skin <i>dry</i> does not appear + to have hitherto received due attention."—PICKERING, <i>Races + of Man</i>, &c., ch. xliv.</p> + </div> + + <p>From what has been said, it will be apparent that, compared with + continental India, the securities for health in Ceylon are greatly in + favour of the island. As to the formidable diseases which are common + to both, their occurrence in either is characterised by the same + appalling manifestations: dysentery fastens, with all its fearful + concomitants, on the unwary and incautious; and cholera, with its + dark horrors, sweeps mysteriously across neglected districts, + exacting its hecatombs. But the visitation and ravages of both are + somewhat under control, and <a name="pg082" id="pg082"></a> the + experience bequeathed by each gloomy visitation has added to the + facilities for checking its recurrence.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "It is worthy of remark, that although all the troops in + Ceylon have occasionally, but at rare intervals; suffered severely + from cholera, the disease has in very few instances attacked the + officers; or indeed Europeans in the same grade of life. This is + one important difference to be borne in mind when estimating the + comparative risk of life in India and Ceylon. It must be due to the + difference in comforts and quarters, or more particularly to the + exemption from night duty, by far the most trying of the soldiers' + hardships. The small mortality amongst the officers of European + regiments in Ceylon is very remarkable."—<i>Note</i> by Dr. + CAMERON, Army Med. Staff.</p> + </div> + + <p>In some of the disorders incidental to the climate, and the + treatment of ulcerations caused by the wounds of the mosquitoes and + leeches, the native Singhalese have a deservedly high reputation; but + their practice, when it depends on specifics, is too empirical to be + safely relied on; and their traditional skill, though boasting a well + authenticated antiquity, achieves few triumphs in competition with + the soberer discipline of European science.</p><a name="pg083" id= + "pg083"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. III.</h2> + + <h3>VEGETATION.—TREES AND PLANTS.</h3> + + <p>Although the luxuriant vegetation of Ceylon has at all times been + the theme of enthusiastic admiration, its flora does not probably + exceed 3000 phænogamic plants[1]; and notwithstanding that it has a + number of endemic species, and a few genera, which are not found on + the great Indian peninsula, still its botanical features may be + described as those characteristic of the southern regions of + Hindustan and the Dekkan. The result of some recent experiments has, + however, afforded a curious confirmation of the opinion ventured by + Dr. Gardner, that, regarding its botany geographically, Ceylon + exhibits more of the Malayan flora and that of the Eastern + Archipelago, than of any portion of India to the west of it. Two + plants peculiar to Malacca, the nutmeg and the mangustin, have been + attempted, but unsuccessfully, to be cultivated in Bengal; but in + Ceylon the former has been reared near Colombo with such singular + success that its produce now begins to figure in the exports of the + island;—and mangustins, which, ten years ago, were exhibited as + <a name="pg084" id="pg084"></a> curiosities from a single tree in the + old Botanic Garden at Colombo, are found to thrive readily, and they + occasionally appear at table, rivalling in their wonderful delicacy + of flavour those which have heretofore been regarded as peculiar to + the Straits.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The prolific vegetation of the island is likely to cause + exaggeration in the estimate of its variety. Dr. Gardner, shortly + after his appointment as superintendent of the Botanic Garden at + Kandy, in writing to Sir W. Hooker, conjectured that the Ceylon + flora might extend to 4000 or 5000 species. But from a recent + <i>Report</i> of the present curator, Mr. Thwaites, it appears that + the indigenous phænogamic plants discovered up to August, 1856, was + 2670; of which 2025 were dicotyledonous, and 644 monocotyledonous + flowering plants, besides 247 ferns and lycopods. When it is + considered that this is nearly double the indigenous flora of + England, and little under <i>one thirtieth</i> of the entire number + of plants hitherto described over the world, the botanical richness + of Ceylon, in proportion to its area, must be regarded as equal to + that of any portion of the globe.</p> + </div> + + <p>Up to the present time the botany of Ceylon has been imperfectly + submitted to scientific scrutiny. Linnæus, in 1747, prepared his + <i>Flora Zeylanica</i>, from specimens collected by Hermann, which + had previously constituted the materials of the <i>Thesaurus + Zeylanicus</i> of Burman and now form part of the herbarium in the + British Museum. A succession of industrious explorers have been since + engaged in following up the investigation[1]; but, with the exception + of an imperfect and unsatisfactory catalogue by Moon, no enumeration + of Ceylon plants has yet been published. Dr. Gardner had made some + progress with a Singhalese Flora, when his death took place in 1849, + an event which threw the task on other hands, and has postponed its + completion for years.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Amongst the collections of Ceylon plants deposited in the + Hookerian Herbarium, are those made by General and Mrs. Walker, by + Major Champion (who left the island in 1848), and by Mr. Thwaites, + who succeeded Dr. Gardner in charge of the Royal Botanic Gardens at + Kandy. Moon, who had previously held that appointment, left + extensive collections in the herbarium at Peradenia which have been + lately increased by his successors; and Macrae, who was employed by + the Horticultural Society of London, has enriched their museum with + Ceylon plants. Some admirable letters of Mrs. Walker are printed in + HOOKER'S <i>Companion to the Botanical Magazine</i>. They include + an excellent account of the vegetation of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>2: Dr. Gardner, in 1848, drew up a short paper containing + <i>Some Remarks on the Flora of Ceylon</i>, which was printed in + the appendix to LEE'S <i>Translation of Ribeyro</i>: to this essay, + and to his personal communications during frequent journeys, I am + indebted for many facts incorporated in the following pages.</p> + </div> + + <p>From the identity of position and climate, and the apparent + similarity of soil between Ceylon and the southern extremity of the + Indian peninsula, a corresponding agreement might be expected between + their vegetable productions: and accordingly in its aspects and + subdivisions Ceylon participates in those distinctive features which + the monsoons have imparted respectively to the opposite shores of + Hindustan. The western coast <a name="pg085" id="pg085"></a> being + exposed to the milder influence of the south-west wind, shows + luxuriant vegetation, the result of its humid and temperate climate; + whilst the eastern, like Coromandel, has a comparatively dry and arid + aspect, produced by the hot winds which blow for half the year. The + littoral vegetation of the seaborde exhibits little variation from + that common throughout the Eastern archipelago; but it wants the + <i>Phoenix paludosa</i>[1], a dwarf <a name="pg086" id="pg086"></a> + date-palm, which literally covers the islands of the Sunderbunds at + the delta of the Ganges. A dense growth of mangroves[2] occupies the + shore, beneath whose overarching roots the ripple of the sea washes + unseen over the muddy beach.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Drs. HOOKER and THOMSON, in their <i>Introductory Essay to + the Flora of India</i>, speaking of Ceylon, state that the <i>Nipa + fruticans</i> (another characteristic palm of the Gangetic delta) + and <i>Cycads</i> are also wanting there, but both these exist (the + former abundantly), though perhaps not alluded to in any work on + Ceylon botany to which those authors had access. In connection with + this subject it may be mentioned, as a fact which is much to be + regretted, that, although botanists have been appointed to the + superintendence of the Botanic Gardens at Kandy, information + regarding the vegetation of the island is scarcely obtainable + without extreme trouble and reference to papers scattered through + innumerable periodicals. That the majority of Ceylon plants are + already known to science is owing to the coincidence of their being + also natives of India, whence they have been described; but there + has been no recent attempt on the part of colonial or European + botanists even to throw into a useful form the already published + descriptions of the commoner plants of the island. Such a work + would be the first step to a Singhalese Flora. The preparation of + such a compendium would seem, to belong to the duties of the + colonial botanist, and as such it was an object of especial + solicitude to the late superintendent, Dr. Gardner. But the + heterogeneous duties imposed upon the person holding his office + (the evils arising from which are elsewhere alluded to), have + hitherto been insuperable obstacles to the attainment of this + object, as they have also been to the preparation of a systematic + account of the general features of Ceylon vegetation. Such a work + is strongly felt to be a desideratum by numbers of intelligent + persons in Ceylon, who are not accomplished botanists, but who are + anxious to acquire accurate ideas as to the aspects of the flora at + different elevations, different seasons, and different quarters of + the island; of the kinds of plants that chiefly contribute to the + vegetation of the coasts, the plains, and mountains; of the general + relations that subsist between them and the flora of the Carnatic, + Malabar, and the Malay archipelago; and of the more useful plants + in science, arts, medicine, and commerce.</p> + + <p>To render such a work (however elementary) at once accurate as + well as interesting, would require sound scientific knowledge; and, + however skilfully and popularly written, there would still be + portions somewhat difficult of comprehension to the ordinary + reader; but curiosity would be stimulated by the very occurrence of + difficulty, and thus an impulse might be given to the acquisition + of rudimentary botany, which would eventually enable the inquirer + to contribute his quota to the natural history of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>P.S. Since the foregoing was written, Mr. Thwaites has announced + the early publication of a new work on Ceylon plants, to be + entitled <i>Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylaniæ: with Descriptions of the + new and little known genera and species</i>, and observations on + their habits, uses, &c. In the Identification of the species + Mr. Thwaites is to be assisted by Dr. Hooker, F.R.S.; and from + their conjoint labours we may at last hope for a production worthy + of the subject.</p> + + <p>2: Rhizophera Candelaria, Kandelia Rheedei, Bruguiera + gymnorhiza.</p> + </div> + + <p>Retiring from the strand, there are groups of <i>Sonneratia[1], + Avicennia, Heritiera</i>, and <i>Pandanus</i>; the latter with a stem + like a dwarf palm, round which the serrated leaves ascend in spiral + convolutions till they terminate in a pendulous crown, from which + drop the amber clusters of beautiful but uneatable fruit, with a + close resemblance in shape and colour to that of the pineapple, from + which, and from the peculiar arrangement of the leaves, the plant has + acquired its name of the Screw-pine.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: At a meeting of the Entomological Society in 1842, Dr. + Templeton sent, for the use of the members, many thin slices of + substance to replace cork-wood as a lining for insect cases and + drawers. Along with the soft wood he sent the following + notice:—"In this country (he writes from Colombo, Ceylon, May + 19, 1842), along the marshy banks of the large rivers, grows a very + large handsome tree, named <i>Sonneratia acida</i>, by the younger + Linnæus: its roots spread far and wide through the soft moist + earth, and at various distances along send up most extraordinary + long spindle-shaped excrescences four or five feet above the + surface. Of these Sir James Edward Smith remarks 'what these + horn-shaped excrescences are which occupy the soil at some distance + from the base of the tree from a span to a foot in length and of a + corky substance, as described by Rumphins, we can offer no + conjecture.' Most curious things (remarks Dr. Templeton) they are; + they all spring very narrow from the root, expand as they rise, and + then become gradually attenuated, occasionally forking, but never + throwing out shoots or leaves, or in any respect resembling the + parent root or wood. They are firm and close in their texture, + nearly devoid of fibrous structure, and take a moderate polish when + cut with a sharp instrument; but for lining insect boxes and making + setting-boards they have no equal in the world. The finest pin + passes in with delightful ease and smoothness, and is held firmly + and tightly so that there is no risk of the insects becoming + disengaged. With a fine saw I form them into little boards and then + smooth them with a sharp case knife, but the London veneering-mills + would turn them out fit for immediate use, without any necessity + for more than a touch of fine glass-paper. Some of my pigmy boards + are two feet long by three and a half inches wide, which is more + than sufficient for our purpose, and to me they have proved a vast + acquisition. The natives call them 'Kirilimow,' the latter syllable + signifying root"—TEMPLETON, <i>Trans. Ent. Soc.</i> vol. iii. + p. 302.</p> + </div><a name="pg087" id="pg087"></a> + + <p>A little further inland, the sandy plains are covered by a thorny + jungle, the plants of which are the same as those of the Carnatic, + the climate being alike; and wherever man has encroached on the + solitude, groves of coco-nut palms mark the vicinity of his + habitations.</p> + + <p>Remote from the sea, the level country of the north has a flora + almost identical with that of Coromandel; but the arid nature of the + Ceylon soil, and its drier atmosphere, is attested by the greater + proportion of euphorbias and fleshy shrubs, as well as by the wiry + and stunted nature of the trees, their smaller leaves and thorny + stems and branches.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Gardner.</p> + </div> + + <p>Conspicuous amongst them are acacias of many kinds; <i>Cassia + fistula</i> the wood apple (<i>Feronia elephantum</i>), and the + mustard tree of Scripture (<i>Salvadora Persica</i>), which extends + from Ceylon to the Holy Land. The margosa (<i>Azadirachta + Indica</i>), the satin wood, the Ceylon oak, and the tamarind and + ebony, are examples of the larger trees; and in the extreme north and + west the Palmyra palm takes the place of the coco-nut, and not only + lines the shore, but fills the landscape on every side with its shady + and prolific groves.</p> + + <p>Proceeding southward on the western coast, the acacias disappear, + and the greater profusion of vegetation, the taller growth of the + timber, and the darker tinge of the foliage, all attest the influence + of the increased moisture both from the rivers and the rains. The + brilliant <i>Ixoras, Erythrinas, Buteas, Jonesias, Hibiscus</i>, and + a variety of flowering shrubs of similar beauty, enliven the forests + with their splendour; and the seeds of the cinnamon, carried by the + birds from the cultivated gardens near the coasts, have germinated in + the sandy soil, and diversify the woods with the fresh verdure of its + polished leaves and delicately-tinted shoots. It is to be found + universally to a considerable height in the lower range of hills, and + thither the Chalias were <a name="pg088" id="pg088"></a> accustomed + to resort to cut and peel it, a task which was imposed on them as a + feudal service by the native sovereign, who paid an annual tribute in + prepared cinnamon to the Dutch, and to the present time this branch + of the trade in the article continues, but divested of its compulsory + character.</p> + + <p>The Dutch, in like manner, maintained, during the entire period of + their rule, an extensive commerce in pepper worts, which still + festoon the forest, but the export has almost ceased from Ceylon. + Along with these the trunks of the larger trees are profusely covered + with other delicate creepers, chiefly Convolvuli and Ipomoeas; and + the pitcher-plant (<i>Nepenthes distillatoria</i>) lures the + passer-by to halt and conjecture the probable uses of the curious + mechanism, by means of which it distils a quantity of limpid fluid + into the vegetable vases at the extremity of its leaves. The Orchideæ + suspend their pendulous flowers from the angles of branches, whilst + the bare roots and the lower part of the stem are occasionally + covered with fungi of the most gaudy colours, bright red, yellow, and + purple.</p> + + <p>Of the east side of the island the botany has never yet been + examined by any scientific resident, but the productions of the hill + country have been largely explored, and present features altogether + distinct from those of the plains. For the first two or three + thousand feet the dissimilarity is less perceptible to an + unscientific eye, but as we ascend, the difference becomes apparent + in the larger size of the leaves, and the nearly uniform colour of + the foliage, except where the scarlet shoots of the ironwood tree + (<i>Mesua ferrea</i>) seem, like flowers in their blood-red hue. Here + the broad leaves of the wild plantains (<i>Musa textilis</i>) + penetrate the soil among the broken rocks; and in moist spots the + graceful bamboo flourishes in groups, whose feathery foliage waves + like the plumes of the ostrich.[1] It is at these elevations that + <a name="pg089" id="pg089"></a> the sameness of the scenery is + diversified by the grassy patenas before alluded to[2], which, in + their aspect, though not their extent, may be called the Savannahs of + Ceylon. Here peaches, cherries, and other European fruit trees, grow + freely; but they become evergreens in this summer climate, and, + exhausted by perennial excitement, and deprived of their winter + repose, they refuse to ripen their fruit.[3] A similar failure was + discovered in some European vines, which were cultivated at Jaffna; + but Mr. Dyke, the government agent, in whose garden they grew, + conceiving that the activity of the plants might be equally checked + by exposing them to an extreme of warmth, as by subjecting them to + cold, tried, with perfect success, the experiment of laying bare the + roots in the strongest heat of the sun. The result verified his + conjecture. The circulation of the sap was arrested, the vines + obtained the needful repose, and the grapes, which before had fallen + almost unformed from the tree, are now brought to thorough maturity, + though inferior in flavour to those produced at home.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In the Malayan peninsula the bamboo has been converted into + an instrument of natural music, by perforating it with holes + through which the wind is permitted to sigh; and the effect is + described as perfectly charming. Mr. Logan, who in 1847 visited + Naning; contiguous to the frontier of the European settlement of + Malacca, on approaching the village of Kándáng, was surprised by + hearing "the most melodious sounds, some soft and liquid like the + notes of a flute, and others deep and full like the tones of an + organ. They were sometimes low, interrupted, or even single, and + presently they would swell into a grand burst of mingled melody. On + drawing near to a clump of trees; above the branches of which waved + a slender bamboo about forty feet in length, he found that the + musical tones issued from it, and were caused by the breeze passing + through perforations in the stem; the instrument thus formed is + called by the natives the <i>bulu perindu</i>, or plaintive + bamboo." Those which Mr. Logan saw had a slit in each joint, so + that each stem possessed fourteen or twenty notes.</p> + + <p>2: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg024">p. 24</a>.</p> + + <p>3: The apple-tree in the Peradenia Gardens seems not only to + have become an evergreen but to have changed its character in + another particular; for it is found to send out numerous runners + under ground, which continually rise into small stems and form a + growth of shrub-like plants around the parent tree.</p> + + <p>4: An equally successful experiment, to give the vine an + artificial winter by baring the roots, is recorded by Mr. BALLARD, + of Bombay, in the <i>Transactions of the Agric. and Hortic. Society + of India</i>, under date 24th May,1824. Calcutta. 1850. Vol. i. p. + 96.</p> + </div> + + <p>The tea plant has been raised with complete success in the hills + on the estate of the Messrs. Worms, at Rothschild, <a name="pg090" + id="pg090"></a> in Pusilawa[1]; but the want of any skilful + manipulators to collect and prepare the leaves, renders it hopeless + to attempt any experiment on a large scale, until assistance can be + secured from China, to conduct the preparation.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The cultivation of tea was attempted by the Dutch, but + without success.</p> + </div> + + <p>Still ascending, at an elevation of 6500 feet, as we approach the + mountain plateau of Neuera-ellia, the dimensions of the trees again + diminish, the stems and branches are covered with orchideæ and + mosses, and around them spring up herbaceous plants and balsams, with + here and there broad expanses covered with <i>Acanthaceæ</i>, whose + seeds are the favourite food of the jungle fowl, which are always in + perfection during the ripening of the Nilloo.[1] It is in these + regions that the tree-ferns (<i>Alsophila gigantea</i>) rise from the + damp hollows, and carry their gracefully plumed heads sometimes to + the height of twenty feet.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There are said to be fourteen species of the Nilloo + (<i>Strobilanthes</i>) in Ceylon. They form a complete under-growth + in the forest five or six feet in height, and sometimes extending + for miles. When in bloom, their red and blue flowers are a + singularly beautiful feature in the landscape, and are eagerly + searched by the honey bees. Some species are said to flower only + once in five, seven, or nine years; and after ripening their seed + they die. This is one reason assigned for the sudden appearance of + the rats, which have been elsewhere alluded to (vol. i. p. 149, ii. + p. 234) as invading the coffee estates, when deprived of their + ordinary food by the decay of the nilloo. It has been observed that + the jungle fowl, after feeding on the nilloo, have their eyes so + affected by it, as to be partially blinded, and permit themselves + to be taken by the hand. Are the seeds of this plant narcotic like + some of the <i>Solanaceaæ</i>? or do they cause dilatation of the + pupil, like those of the <i>Atropa Belladonna</i>?</p> + </div> + + <p>At length in the loftiest range of the hills the Rhododendrons are + discovered; no longer delicate bushes, as in Europe, but timber trees + of considerable height, and corresponding dimensions, and every + branch covered with a blaze of crimson flowers. In these forests are + also to be met with some species of <i>Michelia</i>, the Indian + representatives of the Magnolias of North America, several arboreous + <i>myrtaceæ</i> and <i>ternstromiaceæ</i>, the most common of which + is the camelia-like <i>Gordonia Ceylanica</i>.[1] These and + <i>Vaccinia, Gaultheria, <a name="pg091" id="pg091"></a> Symploci, + Goughia</i>, and <i>Gomphandra</i>, establish the affinity between + the vegetation of this region and that of the Malabar ranges, the + Khasia and Lower Himalaya.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Gardner.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Introduction to the Flora Indica</i> of Dr. HOOKER and Dr. + THOMSON, p. 120. London, 1855.</p> + </div> + + <p>Generally speaking, the timber on the high mountains is of little + value for oeconomic purposes. Though of considerable dimensions, it + is too unsubstantial to be serviceable for building or domestic uses; + and perhaps, it may be regarded as an evidence of its perishable + nature, that dead timber is rarely to be seen in any quantity + encumbering the ground, in the heart of the deepest forests. It seems + to go to dust almost immediately after its fall, and although the + process of destruction is infinitely accelerated by the ravages of + insects, especially the white ants (<i>termites</i>) and beetles, + which instantly seize on every fallen branch: still, one would expect + that the harder woods would, more or less, resist their attacks till + natural decomposition should have facilitated their operations and + would thus exhibit more leisurely the progress of decay. But here + decay is comparatively instantaneous, and it is seldom that fallen + timber is to be found, except in the last stage of conversion into + dust.</p> + + <p>Some of the trees in the higher ranges are remarkable for the + prodigious height to which they struggle upwards from the dense + jungle towards the air and light; and one of the most curious of + nature's devices, is the singular expedient by which some families of + these very tall and top-heavy trees throw out buttresses like walls + of wood, to support themselves from beneath. Five or six of these + buttresses project like rays from all sides of the trunk: they are + from six to twelve inches thick, and advance from five to fifteen + feet outward; and as they ascend, gradually sink into the hole and + disappear at the height of from ten to twenty feet from the ground. + By the firm resistance which they offer below, the trees <a name= + "pg092" id="pg092"></a> are effectually steadied, and protected from + the leverage of the crown, by which they would otherwise be uprooted. + Some of these buttresses are so smooth and flat, as almost to + resemble sawn planks.</p> + + <p>The greatest ornaments of the forest in these higher regions are + the large flowering trees; the most striking of which is the + Rhododendron, which in Ceylon forms a forest in the mountains, and + when covered with flowers, it seems from a distance as though the + hills were strewn with vermilion. This is the principal tree on the + summit of Adam's Peak, and grows to the foot of the rock on which + rests the little temple that covers the sacred footstep on its crest. + Dr. Hooker states that the honey of its flowers is believed to be + poisonous in some parts of Sikkim; but I never heard it so regarded + in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>One of the most magnificent of the flowering trees, is the coral + tree[1], which is also the most familiar to Europeans, as the natives + of the low country and the coast, from the circumstance of its stem + being covered with thorns, plant it largely for fences, and grow it + in the vicinity of their dwellings. It derives its English name from + the resemblance which its scarlet flowers present to red coral, and + as these clothe the branches before the leaves appear, their + splendour attracts the eye from a distance, especially when lighted + by the full blaze of the sun.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Erythrina Indica</i>. It belongs to the pea tribe, and + must not be confounded with the <i>Jatropha multifida</i> which has + also acquired the name of the <i>coral tree</i>. Its wood is so + light and spongy, that it is used in Ceylon to form corks for + preserve jars; and both there and at Madras the natives make from + it models of their implements of husbandry, and of their sailing + boats and canoes.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Murutu[1] is another flowering tree which may vie with the + Coral, the Rhododendron, or the Asoca, the favourite of Sanskrit + poetry. It grows to a considerable height, especially in damp places + and the neighbourhood of streams, and pains have been taken, <a name= + "pg093" id="pg093"></a> from appreciation of its attractions, to + plant it by the road side and in other conspicuous positions. From + the points of the branches panicles are produced, two or three feet + in length, composed of flowers, each the size of a rose and of all + shades, from a delicate pink to the deepest purple. It abounds in the + south-west of the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Lagerstroemia Reginæ.</p> + </div> + + <p>The magnificent Asoca[1] is found in the interior, and is + cultivated, though not successfully, in the Peradenia Garden, and in + that attached to Elie House at Colombo. But in Toompane, and in the + valley of Doombera, its loveliness vindicates all the praises + bestowed on it by the poets of the East. Its orange and crimson + flowers grow in graceful racemes, and the Singhalese, who have given + the rhododendron the pre-eminent appellation of the "great red + flower," (<i>maha-rat-mal</i>,) have called the Asoca the + <i>diya-rat-mal</i> to indicate its partiality for "moisture," + combined with its prevailing hue.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Jonesia Asoca.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the tree which will most frequently attract the eye of the + traveller, is the kattoo-imbul of the Singhalese[1], one of which + produces the silky cotton which, though incapable of being spun, + owing to the shortness of its delicate fibre, makes the most + luxurious stuffing for sofas and pillows. It is a tall tree covered + with formidable thorns; and being deciduous, the fresh leaves, like + those of the coral tree, do not make their appearance till after the + crimson flowers have covered the branches with their bright + tulip-like petals. So profuse are these gorgeous flowers, that when + they fall, the ground for many roods on all sides is a carpet of + scarlet. They are succeeded by large oblong pods, in which the black + polished seeds are deeply embedded in the floss which is so much + prized by the natives. The trunk is of an unusually bright green + colour, and the <a name="pg094" id="pg094"></a> branches issue + horizontally from the stem, in whorls of threes with a distance of + six or seven feet between each whorl.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Bombax Malabaricus</i>. As the genus Bombax is confined to + tropical America, the German botanists, Schott and Endlicher, have + assigned to the imbul its ancient Sanskrit name, and described it + as <i>Salmalia Malabarica</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Near every Buddhist temple the priests plant the Iron tree + (<i>Messua ferrea</i>)[1] for the sake of its flowers, with which + they decorate the images of Buddha. They resemble white roses, and + form a singular contrast with the buds and shoots of the tree, which + are of the deepest crimson. Along with its flowers the priests use + likewise those of the Champac (<i>Michelia Champaca</i>), belonging + to the family of magnoliaceæ. They have a pale yellow tint, with the + sweet oppressive perfume which is celebrated in the poetry of the + Hindus. From the wood of the champac the images of Buddha are carved + for the temples.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Gardner supposed the ironwood tree of Ceylon to have been + confounded with the <i>Messua ferrea</i> of Linnæus. He asserted it + to be a distinct species, and assigned to it the well-known + Singhalese name "<i>nagaha</i>," or <i>iron-wood tree</i>. But this + conjecture has since proved erroneous.</p> + </div> + + <p>The celebrated Upas tree of Java (<i>Antiaris toxicaria</i>) which + has been the subject of so many romances, exploded by Dr. + Horsfield[1], was supposed by Dr. Gardner to exist in Ceylon, but + more recent scrutiny has shown that what he mistook for it, was an + allied species, the <i>A. saccidora</i>, which grows at Kornegalle, + and in other parts of the island; and is scarcely less remarkable, + though for very different characteristics. The Ceylon species was + first brought to public notice by E. Rawdon Power, Esq., government + agent of the Kandyan province, who sent specimens of it, and of the + sacks which it furnishes, to the branch of the Asiatic Society at + Colombo. It is known to the Singhalese by the name of "ritigaha," and + is identical with the <i>Lepurandra saccidora</i>, from which the + natives of Coorg, like those of Ceylon, <a name="pg095" id= + "pg095"></a> manufacture an ingenious substitute for sacks by a + process which is described by Mr. Nimmo.[2] "A branch is cut + corresponding to the length and breadth of the bag required, it is + soaked and then beaten with clubs till the liber separates from the + timber. This done, the sack which is thus formed out of the bark is + turned inside out, and drawn downwards to permit the wood to be sawn + off, leaving a portion to form the bottom which is kept firmly in its + place by the natural attachment of the bark."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The vegetable poisons, the use of which is ascribed to the + Singhalese, are chiefly the seeds of the <i>Datura</i>, which act + as a powerful narcotic, and those of the <i>Croton tiglium</i>, the + excessive effect of which ends in death. The root of the <i>Nerium + odorum</i> is equally fatal, as is likewise the exquisitely + beautiful <i>Gloriosa superba</i>, whose brilliant flowers festoon + the jungle in the plains of the low country. See Bennett's account + of the <i>Antiaris</i>, in HORSFIELD'S <i>Plantæ Javanicæ</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Catalogue of Bombay Plants, p. 193. The process in Ceylon is + thus described in Sir W. HOOKER'S <i>Report on the Vegetable + Products</i> exhibited in Paris in 1855: "The trees chosen for the + purpose measure above a foot in diameter. The felled trunks are cut + into lengths, and the bark is well beaten with a stone or a club + till the parenchymatous part comes off, leaving only the inner bark + attached to the wood; which is thus easily drawn out by the hand. + The bark thus obtained is fibrous and tough, resembling a woven + fabric: it is sewn at one end into a sack, which is filled with + sand, and dried in the sun."</p> + </div> + + <p>As we descend the hills the banyans[1] and a variety of figs make + their appearance. They are the Thugs of the vegetable world, for + although not necessarily epiphytic, it may be said that in point of + fact no single plant comes to perfection, or acquires even partial + development, without the destruction of some other on which to fix + itself as its supporter. The family generally make their first + appearance as slender roots hanging from the crown or trunk of some + other tree, generally a palm, among the moist bases of whose leaves + the seed carried thither by some bird which had fed upon the fig, + begins to germinate. This root branching as it descends, envelopes + the trunk of the supporting tree with a network of wood, and at + length penetrating the ground, attains the dimensions of a stem. But + unlike a <i>stem</i> it throws out no buds, leaves, or flowers; the + true stem, with its branches, its foliage, and fruit, springs upwards + from the crown of the tree whence the root is seen descending; and + from it issue the pendulous rootlets, which, on reaching the earth, + fix themselves firmly and form the marvellous growth for which the + banyan is so celebrated.[2] In the <a name="pg096" id="pg096"></a> + depth of this grove, the original tree is incarcerated till, + literally strangled by the folds and weight of its resistless + companion, it dies and leaves the fig in undisturbed possession of + its place. It is not unusual in the forest to find a fig-tree which + had been thus upborne till it became a standard, now forming a hollow + cylinder, the centre of which was once filled by the sustaining tree: + but the empty walls form a circular network of interlaced roots and + branches; firmly agglutinated under pressure, and admitting the light + through interstices that look like loopholes in a turret.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ficus Indica.</p> + + <p>2: I do not remember to have seen the following passage from + Pliny referred to as the original of Milton's description of this + marvellous tree:—</p> + + <p>"Ipsa se serens, vastis diffunditur ramis: quorum imi adeo in + terram curvantur, ut annuo spatio infigantur, novamque sibi + <i>propaginem faciant circa parentem in orbem.</i> Intra septem eam + <i>æstivant pastores</i>, opacam pariter et munitam vallo arboris, + decora specie subter intuenti, proculve, <i>fornicato</i> arbore. + Foliorum latitudo <i>peltæ effigiem Amazonicæ</i> habet," + &c.—PLINY, 1. xii. c. 11.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"The fig-tree—not that kind for fruit renowned,</p> + + <p>But such as at this day to Indians known,</p> + + <p>In Malabar or Dekkan spreads her arms,</p> + + <p>Branching so broad and long, that on the ground</p> + + <p>The bended twigs take root, and <i>daughters grow</i></p> + + <p><i>About the mother tree: a pillar'd</i> shade</p> + + <p>High over arched and echoing walks between.</p> + + <p>There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,</p> + + <p>Shelters in cool and <i>tends his pasturing flocks</i></p> + + <p>At loop-holes cut through thickest shade. These leaves</p> + + <p>They gathered; broad as <i>Amazonian targe:</i></p> + + <p>And with what skill they had, together sewed</p> + + <p>To gird their waist," &c.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Par. Lost</i>, ix. 1100.</p> + + <p>Pliny's description is borrowed, with some embellishments, from + THEOPHRASTUS <i>de. Nat. Plant.</i> l. i. 7. iv. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/096.jpg"><img src="images/096.jpg" alt= + "MARRIAGE OF THE FIG-TREE AND THE PALM." /></a> + + <p>MARRIAGE OF THE FIG-TREE AND THE PALM.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another species of the same genus, <i>F. repens,</i> is a fitting + representative of the English ivy, and is constantly to be seen + clambering over rocks, turning <a name="pg097" id="pg097"></a> + through heaps of stones, or ascending some tall tree to the height of + thirty or forty feet, while the thickness of its own stem does not + exceed a quarter of an inch.</p> + + <p>The facility with which the seeds of the fig-tree take root where + there is a sufficiency of moisture to permit of germination, has + rendered them formidable assailants of the ancient monuments + throughout Ceylon. The vast mounds of brickwork which constitute the + remains of the Dagobas at Anarajapoora and Pollanarrua are covered + densely with trees, among which the figs are always conspicuous. One, + which has fixed itself on the walls of a ruined edifice at the latter + city, forms one of the most remarkable objects of the place—its + roots streaming downwards over the walls as if their wood had once + been fluid, follow every sinuosity of the building and terraces till + they reach the earth.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/097.jpg"><img src="images/097.jpg" alt= + "A FIG TREE ON THE RUINS OF POLLANARRUA." /></a> + + <p>A FIG TREE ON THE RUINS OF POLLANARRUA.</p> + </div> + + <p>To this genus belongs the Sacred Bo-tree of the Buddhists, + <i>Ficus religiosa,</i> which is planted close to every temple, and + attracts almost as much veneration as the <a name="pg098" id= + "pg098"></a> statue of the god himself. At Anarajapoora is still + preserved the identical tree said to have been planted 288 years + before the Christian era.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For a memoir of this celebrated tree, see the account of + Anarajapoora, Vol. II. p. 10.</p> + </div> + + <p>Although the India-rubber tree (<i>F. elastica</i>) is not + indigenous to Ceylon, it is now very widely diffused over the island. + It is remarkable for the pink leathery covering which envelopes the + leaves before expansion, and for the delicate tracing of the nerves + which run in equi-distant rows at right angles from the mid-rib. But + its most striking feature is the exposure of its roots, masses of + which appear above ground, extending on all sides from the base, and + writhing over the surface in undulations—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Like snakes in wild festoon,</p> + + <p>In ramous wrestlings interlaced,</p> + + <p>A forest Laocoon."[1]</p> + </div> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HOOD's poem of <i>The Elm Tree.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>So strong, in fact, is the resemblance, that the villagers give it + the name of the "Snake-tree." One, which grows close to Cotta, at the + Church Missionary establishment within a few miles of Colombo, + affords a remarkable illustration of this peculiarity.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/098.jpg"><img src="images/098.jpg" alt= + "THE SNAKE-TREE." /></a> + + <p>THE SNAKE-TREE.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is an avenue of these trees leading to the Gardens of + Peradenia, the roots of which meet from either side of the road, and + have so covered the surface by their agglutinated reticulations as to + form a wooden <a name="pg099" id="pg099"></a> framework, the + interstices of which retain the materials that form the + roadway.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Ferguson of the Surveyor-General's Department, assures me + that he once measured the root of a small wild fig-tree, growing in + a patena at Hewahette, and found it upwards of 140 feet in length, + whilst the tree itself was not 30 feet high.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Kumbuk of the Singhalese (called by the Tamils + Maratha-maram)[1] is one of the noblest and most widely distributed + trees in the island; it delights in the banks of rivers and moist + borders of tanks and canals; it overshadows the stream of the + Mahawelli-ganga, almost from Kandy to the sea; and it stretches its + great arms above the still water of the lakes on the eastern side of + the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pentaptera tomentosa <i>(Rox.)</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>One venerable patriarch of this species, which grows at Mutwal, + within three miles of Colombo, towers to so great a height above the + surrounding forests of coconut palms, that it forms a landmark for + the native boatmen, and is discernible from Negombo, more than twenty + miles distant. The circumference of its stem, as measured by Mr. W. + Ferguson, in 1850, was forty-five feet close to the earth, and seven + yards at twelve feet above the ground.</p> + + <p>The timber, which is durable, is applied to the carving of idols + for the temples, besides being extensively used for less dignified + purposes; but it is chiefly prized for the bark, which is sold as a + medicine, and, in addition to yielding a black dye, it is so charged + with calcareous matter that its ashes, when burnt, afford a + substitute for the lime which the natives chew with their betel.</p> + + <p>Some of the trees found in the forests of the interior are + remarkable for the curious forms in which they produce their seeds. + One of these, which sometimes grows to the height of one hundred feet + without throwing out a single branch, has been confounded with the + durian of the Eastern Archipelago, or supposed to be an allied + species[1], but it differs from it in the important particular + <a name="pg100" id="pg100"></a> that its fruit is not edible. The + real durian is not indigenous to Ceylon, but was brought there by the + Portuguese in the sixteenth century.[2] It has been very recently + re-introduced, and is now cultivated successfully. The native name + for the Singhalese tree, "Katu-boeda," denotes the prickles that + cover its fruit, which is as large as a coco-nut, and set with thorns + each nearly an inch in length.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It is the <i>Cullenia excelsa</i> of WIGHT's <i>Icones, + &c.</i> (761-2).</p> + + <p>2: PORCACCHI, in his <i>Isolario</i>, written in the sixteenth + century, enumerates the true durian as being then amongst the + ordinary fruit of Ceylon.—"Vi nasce anchora un frutto detto + Duriano, verde et grande come quei cocomeri, che a Venetia son + chiamati angurie: in mezo del quale trouano dentro cinque frutti de + sapor molto excellente."—Lib. iii. p. 188. Padua, A.D. + 1619.</p> + </div> + + <p>The <i>Sterculia foetida,</i> one of the finest and noblest of the + Ceylon forest-trees, produces from the end of its branches large + bunches of dark purple flowers of extreme richness and beauty; but + emitting a stench so intolerable as richly to entitle it to its very + characteristic botanical name. The fruit is equally remarkable, and + consists of several crimson cases of the consistency of leather, + within which are enclosed a number of black bean-like seeds: these + are dispersed by the bursting of their envelope, which splits open to + liberate them when sufficiently ripened.</p> + + <p>The Moodilla (<i>Barringtonia speciosa</i>) is another tree which + attracts the eye of the traveller, not less from the remarkably + shaped fruit which it bears than from the contrast between its dark + glossy leaves and the delicate flowers which they surround. The + latter are white, tipped with crimson, but the petals drop off early, + and the stamens, of which there are nearly a hundred to each flower, + when they fall to the ground might almost be mistaken for painters' + brushes. The tree (as its name implies) loves the shore of the sea, + and its large quadrangular fruits, of pyramidal form, being protected + by a hard fibrous covering, are tossed by the waves till they root + themselves on the beach. It grows freely at the mouths of the + principal rivers on the west <a name="pg101" id="pg101"></a> coast, + and several noble specimens of it are found near the fort of + Colombo.</p> + + <p>The Goda-kaduru, or <i>Strychnos nux-vomica</i> is abundant in + these prodigious forests, and has obtained an European celebrity on + account of its producing the poisonous seeds from which strychnine is + extracted. Its fruit, which it exhibits in great profusion, is of the + size and colour of a small orange, within which a pulpy substance + envelopes the seeds that form the "nux-vomica" of commerce. It grows + in great luxuriance in the vicinity of the ruined tanks throughout + the Wanny, and on the west coast as far south as Negombo. It is + singular that in this genus there should be found two plants, the + seeds of one being not only harmless but wholesome, and that of the + other the most formidable of known poisons.[1] Amongst the Malabar + immigrants there is a belief that the seeds of the goda-kaduru, if + habitually taken, will act as a prophylactic against the venom of the + cobra de capello; and I have been assured that the coolies coming + from the coast of India accustom themselves to eat a single seed per + day in order to acquire the desired protection from the effects of + this serpent's bite.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>tettan-cotta,</i> the use of which is described in + Vol. II. Pt. ix. ch. i. p. 411, when applied by the natives to + clarify muddy water, is the seed of another species of strychnos, + <i>S. potatorum</i>. The Singhalese name is <i>ingini</i> + (<i>tettan-cotta</i> is Tamil).</p> + + <p>2: In India, the distillers of arrack from the juice of the + coco-nut palm are said, by Roxburgh, to introduce the seeds of the + strychnus, in order to increase the intoxicating power of the + spirit.</p> + </div> + + <p>In these forests the Euphorbia[1], which we are accustomed to see + only as a cactus-like green-house plant, attains the size and + strength of a small timber-tree; its quadrangular stem becomes + circular and woody, and its square fleshy shoots take the form of + branches, or rise with a rounded top as high as thirty feet.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: E. Antiquorun.</p> + + <p>2: Amongst the remarkable plants of Ceylon, there is one + concerning which a singular error has been perpetuated in botanical + works from the time of Paul Hermann, who first described it in + 1687, to the present. I mean the <i>kiri-anguna</i> (Gymnema + lactiferum), evidently a form of the G. sylvestre, to which has + been given the name of the <i>Ceylon cow-tree</i>; and it is + asserted that the natives drink its juice as we do milk. LOUDON + (<i>Ency. of Plants</i>, p. 197) says, "The milk of the <i>G. + lactiferum</i> is used instead of the vaccine ichor, and the leaves + are employed in sauces in the room of cream." And LINDLEY, in his + <i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>, in speaking of the Asclepiads, says, "the + cow plant of Ceylon, 'kiri-anguna,' yields a milk of which the + Singhalese make use for food; and its leaves are also used when + boiled." Even in the <i>English Cyclopædia</i> of CHARLES KNIGHT, + published so lately as 1854, this error is repeated. (See art. + Cow-tree, p. 178.) But this in altogether a mistake;—the + Ceylon plant, like many others, has acquired its epithet of + <i>kiri</i>, not from the juices being susceptible of being used as + a substitute for milk, but simply from its resemblance to it in + colour and consistency. It is a creeper, found on the southern and + western coasts, and used medicinally by the natives, but never as + an article of food. The leaves, when chopped and boiled, are + administered to nurses by native practitioners, and are supposed to + increase the secretion of milk. As to its use, as stated by London, + in lieu of the vaccine matter, it is altogether erroneous. MOON, in + his <i>Catalogue of the Plants of Ceylon</i>, has accidentally + mentioned the kiri-anguna twice, being misled by the Pali synonym + "kiri-hangula": they are the same plant, though he has inserted + them as different, p. 21.</p> + </div><a name="pg102" id="pg102"></a> + + <p>But that which arrests the attention even of an indifferent + passer-by is the endless variety and almost inconceivable size and + luxuriance of the <i>climbing plants and epiphytes</i> which live + upon the forest trees in every part of the island. It is rare to see + a single tree without its families of dependents of this description, + and on one occasion I counted on a single prostrate stem no less than + sixteen species of Capparis, Beaumontia, Bignonia, Ipomoea, and other + genera, which, in its fall, it had brought along with it to the + ground. Those which are free from climbing plants have their higher + branches and hollows occupied by ferns and orchids, of which latter + the variety is endless in Ceylon, though the beauty of their flower + is not equal to those of Brazil and other tropical countries. In the + many excursions which I made with Dr. Gardner he added numerous + species to those already known, including the exquisite + <i>Saccolabium guttatum</i>, which we came upon in the vicinity of + Bintenne, but which had before been discovered in Java and the + mountains of northern India. Its large groups of lilac flowers hung + in rich festoons from the branches as we rode under them, and caused + us many an involuntary halt to admire and secure the + plants.</p><a name="pg103" id="pg103"></a> + + <p>A rich harvest of botanical discovery still remains for the + scientific explorer of the districts south and east of Adam's Peak, + whence Dr. Gardner's successor, Mr. Thwaites, has already brought + some remarkable species. Many of the Ceylon orchids, like those of + South America, exhibit a grotesque similitude to various animals; and + one, a <i>Dendrobium</i>., which the Singhalese cultivate in the + palms near their dwelling, bears a name equivalent to the + <i>White-pigeon flower,</i> from the resemblance which its clusters + present to a group of those birds in miniature clinging to the stem + with wings at rest.</p> + + <p>But of this order the most exquisite plant I have seen is the + <i>Anæctochilus setaceus</i>, a terrestrial orchid which is to be + found about the moist roots of the forest trees, and has drawn the + attention of even the apathetic Singhalese, among whom its singular + beauty has won for it the popular name of the Wanna Raja, or "King of + the Forest." It is common in humid and shady places a few miles + removed from the sea-coast; its flowers have no particular + attraction, but its leaves are perhaps the most exquisitely formed in + the vegetable kingdom; their colour resembles dark velvet, + approaching to black, and reticulated over all the surface with veins + of ruddy gold.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is another small orchid bearing a slight resemblance to + the wanna raja, which is often found growing along with it, called + by the Singhalese iri raja, or "striped king." Its leaves are + somewhat bronzed, but they are longer and narrower than those of + the wanna raja; and, as its Singhalese name implies, it has two + white stripes running through the length of each. They are not of + the same genus; the wanna raja being the only species of + <i>Anæctochilus</i> yet found in Ceylon.</p> + </div> + + <p>The branches of all the lower trees and brushwood are so densely + covered with convolvuli, and similar delicate climbers of every + colour, that frequently it is difficult to discover the tree which + supports them, owing to the heaps of verdure under which it is + concealed. One very curious creeper, which always catches the eye, is + the square-stemmed vine[1], whose fleshy four-sided runners climb the + <a name="pg104" id="pg104"></a> highest trees, and hang down in the + most fantastic bunches. Its stem, like that of another plant of the + same genus (the <i>Vitis Indica</i>), when freshly cut, yields a + copious draught of pure tasteless fluid, and is eagerly sought after + by elephants.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Cissus edulis, <i>Dalz</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>But it is the trees of older and loftier growth that exhibit the + rank luxuriance of these wonderful epiphytes in the most striking + manner. They are tormented by climbing plants of such extraordinary + dimensions that many of them exceed in diameter the girth of a man; + and these gigantic appendages are to be seen surmounting the tallest + trees of the forest, grasping their stems in firm convolutions, and + then flinging their monstrous tendrils over the larger limbs till + they reach the top, whence they descend to the ground in huge + festoons, and, after including another and another tree in their + successive toils, they once more ascend to the summit, and wind the + whole into a maze of living network as massy as if formed by the + cable of a line-of-battle ship. When, by-and-by, the trees on which + this singular fabric has become suspended give way under its weight, + or sink by their own decay, the fallen trunk speedily disappears, + whilst the convolutions of climbers continue to grow on, exhibiting + one of the most marvellous and peculiar living mounds of confusion + that it is possible to fancy. Frequently one of these creepers may be + seen holding by one extremity the summit of a tall tree, and grasping + with the other an object at some distance near the earth, between + which it is strained as tight and straight as if hauled over a block. + In all probability the young tendril had been originally fixed in + this position by the wind, and retained in it till it had gained its + maturity, where it has the appearance of having been artificially + arranged as if to support a falling tree.</p> + + <p>This peculiarity of tropical vegetation has been turned to + profitable account by the Ceylon woodmen, employed by the European + planters in felling forest <a name="pg105" id="pg105"></a> trees, + preparatory to the cultivation of coffee. In this craft they are + singularly expert, and far surpass the Malabar coolies, who assist in + the same operations. In steep and mountainous places where the trees + have been thus lashed together by the interlacing climbers, the + practice is to cut halfway through each stem in succession, till an + area of some acres in extent is prepared for the final overthrow. + Then severing some tall group on the eminence, and allowing it in its + descent to precipitate itself on those below, the whole expanse is in + one moment brought headlong to the ground; the falling timber forcing + down those beneath it by its weight, and dragging those behind to + which it is harnessed by its living attachments. The crash occasioned + by this startling operation is so deafeningly loud, that it is + audible for two or three miles in the clear and still atmosphere of + the hills.</p> + + <p>One monstrous creeping plant called by the Kandyans the + Maha-pus-wael, or "Great hollow climber,"[1] has pods, some of which + I have seen fully five feet long and six inches broad, with beautiful + brown beans, so large that the natives hollow them out, and carry + them as tinder-boxes.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Entada pursætha</i>. The same plant, when found in lower + situations, where it wants the soil and moisture of the mountains, + is so altered in appearance that the natives call it the + "heen-pus-wael;" and even botanists have taken it for a distinct + species. The beautiful mountain region of Pusilawa, now familiar as + one of the finest coffee districts in Ceylon, in all probability + takes its name from the giant bean, "Pus-waelawa."</p> + </div> + + <p>Another climber of less dimensions[1], but greater luxuriance, + haunts the jungle, and often reaches the tops of the highest trees, + whence it suspends large bunches of its yellow flowers, and + eventually produces clusters of prickly pods containing + greyish-coloured seeds, less than an inch in diameter, which are so + strongly coated with silex, that they are said to strike fire like a + flint.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Guilandina Bonduc.</p> + </div> + + <p>One other curious climber is remarkable for the vigour and + vitality of its vegetation, a faculty in which it equals, if it do + not surpass, the banyan. This is the <a name="pg106" id="pg106"></a> + <i>Cocculus cordifolius</i>, the "rasa-kindu" of the Singhalese, a + medicinal plant which produces the <i>guluncha</i> of Bengal. It is + largely cultivated in Ceylon, and when it has acquired the diameter + of half an inch, it is not unusual for the natives to cut from the + main stem a portion of from twenty to thirty feet in length, leaving + the dissevered plant suspended from the branches of the tree which + sustained it. The amputation naturally serves for a time to check its + growth, but presently small rootlets, not thicker than a pack-thread, + are seen shooting downwards from the wounded end; these swing in the + wind till, reaching the ground, they attach themselves in the soil, + and form new stems, which in turn, when sufficiently grown, are cut + away and replaced by a subsequent growth. Such is its tenacity of + life, that when the Singhalese wish to grow the <i>rasa-kindu</i>, + they twist several yards of the stem into a coil of six or eight + inches in diameter, and simply hang it on the branch of a tree, where + it speedily puts forth its large heart-shaped leaves, and sends down + its rootlets to the earth.</p> + + <p>The ground too has its creepers, and some of them very curious. + The most remarkable are the ratans, belonging to the Calamus genus of + palms. Of these I have seen a specimen 250 feet long and an inch in + diameter, without a single irregularity, and no appearance of foliage + other than the bunch of feathery leaves at the extremity.</p> + + <p>The strength of these slender plants is so extreme, that the + natives employ them with striking success in the formation of bridges + across the water-courses and ravines. One which crossed the falls of + the Mahawelliganga, in the Kotmahe range of hills, was constructed + with the scientific precision of an engineer's work. It was entirely + composed of the plant, called by the natives the "Waywel," its + extremities fastened to living trees, on the opposite sides of the + ravine through which a furious and otherwise impassable mountain + <a name="pg107" id="pg107"></a> torrent thundered and fell from rock + to rock with a descent of nearly 100 feet. The flooring of this + aerial bridge consisted of short splints of wood, laid transversely, + and bound in their places by thin strips of the waywel itself. The + whole structure vibrated and swayed with fearful ease, but the + coolies traversed it though heavily laden; and the European, between + whose estate and the high road it lay, rode over it daily without + dismounting.</p> + + <p>Another class of trees which excites the astonishment of an + European, are those whose stems are protected, as high as cattle can + reach, by thorns, which in the jungle attain a growth and size quite + surprising. One species of palm[1], the <i>Caryota horrida,</i> often + rises to a height of fifty feet, and has a coating of thorns for + about six or eight feet from the ground, each about an inch in + length, and so densely covering the stem that the bark is barely + visible.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This palm I have called a <i>Caryota</i> on the authority of + Dr. GARDNER, and of MOON'S <i>Catalogue</i>; but I have been + informed by Dr. HOOKER and Mr. THWAITES that it is an <i>Areca</i>. + The natives identify it with the Caryota, and call it the + "katu-kittul."</p> + </div> + + <p>A climbing plant, the "Kudu-miris" of the Singhalese[1], very + common in the hill jungles, with a diameter of three or four inches, + is thickly studded with knobs about half an inch high, and from the + extremity of each a thorn protrudes, as large and sharp as the bill + of a sparrow-hawk. It has been the custom of the Singhalese from time + immemorial, to employ the thorny trees of their forests in the + construction of defences against their enemies. The <i>Mahawanso</i> + relates, that in the civil wars, in the reign of Prakrama-bahu in the + twelfth century, the inhabitants of the southern portion of the + island intrenched themselves against his forces behind moats filled + with thorns.[2] And at an earlier period, during the contest of + Dutugaimunu with Elala, the same authority states, that a town which + he was about <a name="pg108" id="pg108"></a> to attack was + "surrounded on all sides by the thorny <i>Dadambo creeper</i> + (probably Toddalia aculeata), within which was a triple hue of + fortifications, with one gate of difficult access."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Toddalia aculeata.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i> ch. lxxiv.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i> ch. xxv.</p> + </div> + + <p>During the existence of the Kandyan kingdom as an independent + state, before its conquest by the British, the frontier forests were + so thickened and defended by dense plantations of these thorny palms + and climbers at different points, as to exhibit a natural + fortification impregnable to the feeble tribes on the other side, and + at each pass which led to the level country, movable gates, formed of + the same formidable thorny beams, were suspended as an ample security + against the incursions of the naked and timid lowlanders.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The kings of Kandy maintained a regulation "that no one; on + pain of death, should presume to cut a road through the forest + wider than was sufficient for one person to pass."—WOLF'S + <i>Life and Adventures</i>, p. 308.</p> + </div> + + <p>The pasture grounds throughout the vicinity of Jaffna abound in a + low shrub called the Buffalo-thorn[1], the black twigs of which are + beset at every joint by a pair of thorns, set opposite each other + like the horns of an ox, as sharp as a needle, from two to three + inches in length, and thicker at the base than the stem they grow + on.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Acacia latronum.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>The <i>Acacia tomentosa</i> is of the same genus, with thorns so + large as to be called the "<i>jungle-nail</i>" by Europeans. It is + frequent in the woods of Jaffna and Manaar, where it bears the Tamil + name of <i>Aani mulla</i>, or "elephant thorn." In some of these + thorny plants, as in the <i>Phoberos Goertneri, Thun.</i>,[1] the + spines grow not singly, but in branching clusters, each point + presenting a spike as sharp as a lancet; and where these formidable + <a name="pg109" id="pg109"></a> shrubs abound they render the forest + absolutely impassable, even to the elephant and to animals of great + size and force.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Wm. Ferguson writes to me, "This is the famous + <i>Katu-kurundu</i>, or 'thoray cinnamon,' of the Singhalese, + figured and described by Gaertner as the <i>Limonia pusilla</i>, + which after a great deal of labour and research I think I have + identified as the <i>Phoberos macrophyllus</i>" (W. and A. Prod. p. + 30). Thunberg alludes to it (<i>Travels</i>, vol. iv.)—"Why + the Singhalese have called it a cinnamon, I do not know, unless + from some fancied similarity in its seeds to those of the cinnamon + laurel."</p> + </div> + + <p>The family of trees which, from their singularity as well as their + beauty, most attract the eye of the traveller in the forests of + Ceylon, are the palms, which occur in rich profusion, although, of + upwards of six hundred species which are found in other countries, + not more than ten or twelve are indigenous to the island.[1] At the + head of these is the coco-nut, every particle of whose substance, + stem, leaves, and fruit, the Singhalese turn to so many accounts, + that one of their favourite topics to a stranger is to enumerate the + <i>hundred</i> uses to which they tell us this invaluable tree is + applied.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Thwaites has enumerated fifteen species (including the + coco-nut, and excluding the <i>Nipa fruticans</i>, which more + properly belongs to the family of screw-pines): viz. Areca, 4; + Caryota, 1; Calamus, 5; Borassus, 1; Corypha, 1; Phoenix, 2; Cocos, + 1.</p> + + <p>2: The following are only a few of the countless uses of this + invaluable tree. The <i>leaves</i>, for roofing, for mats, for + baskets, torches or chules, fuel, brooms, fodder for cattle, + manure. The <i>stem of the leaf</i>, for fences, for pingoes (or + yokes) for carrying burthens on the shoulders, for fishing-rods, + and innumerable domestic utensils. The <i>cabbage</i> or cluster of + unexpended leaves, for pickles and preserves. The <i>sap</i> for + <i>toddy</i>, for distilling arrack, and for making vinegar, and + sugar. The <i>unformed nut</i>, for medicine and sweetmeats. The + <i>young nut</i> and its milk, for drinking, for dessert; the + <i>green husk</i> for preserves. The <i>nut</i>, for eating, for + curry, for milk, for cooking. The <i>oil</i>, for rheumatism, for + anointing the hair, for soap, for candles, for light; and the + <i>poonak</i>, or refuse of the nut after expressing the oil, for + cattle and poultry. The <i>shell of the nut</i>, for drinking cups, + charcoal, tooth-powder, spoons, medicine, hookahs, beads, bottles, + and knife-handles. The <i>coir</i>, or fibre which envelopes the + shell within the outer husk, for mattresses, cushions, ropes, + cables, cordage, canvass, fishing-nets, fuel, brushes, oakum, and + floor mats. The <i>trunk</i>, for rafters, laths, railing, boats, + troughs, furniture, firewood; and when very young, the first + shoots, or cabbage, as a vegetable for the table. The entire list, + with a Singhalese enthusiast, is an interminable narration of the + virtues of his favourite tree.</p> + </div> + + <p>The most majestic and wonderful of the palm tribe is the + <i>talpat</i> or <i>talipat</i>[1], the stem of which sometimes + attains the height of 100 feet, and each of its enormous fan-like + leaves, when laid upon the ground, will form a semicircle of 16 feet + in diameter, and cover an area of nearly 200 superficial feet. The + tree flowers but once, and dies; and <a name="pg110" id="pg110"></a> + the natives firmly believe that the bursting of the shadix is + accompanied by a loud explosion. The leaves alone are converted by + the Singhalese to purposes of utility. Of them they form coverings + for their houses, and portable tents of a rude but effective + character; and on occasions of ceremony, each chief and headman on + walking abroad is attended by a follower, who holds above his head an + elaborately-ornamented fan, formed from a single leaf of the + talpat.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Corypha umbraculifera, <i>Linn.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>But the most interesting use to which they are applied is as + substitutes for paper, both for books and for ordinary purposes. In + the preparation of <i>olas</i>, which is the term applied to them + when so employed, the leaves are taken whilst still tender, and, + after separating the central ribs, they are cut into strips and + boiled in spring water. They are dried first in the shade, and + afterwards in the sun, then made into rolls, and kept in store, or + sent to the market for sale. Before they are fit for writing on they + are subjected to a second process, called <i>madema</i>. A smooth + plank of areca-palm is tied horizontally between two trees, each ola + is then damped, and a weight being attached to one end of it, it is + drawn backwards and forwards across the edge of the wood till the + surface becomes perfectly smooth and polished; and during the + process, as the moisture dries up, it is necessary to renew it till + the effect is complete. The smoothing of a single ola will occupy + from fifteen to twenty minutes.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See Vol. II. p. 528.</p> + </div> + + <p>The finest specimens in Ceylon are to be obtained at the Panselas, + or Buddhist monasteries; they are known as <i>pusk[(o]la</i> and are + prepared by the Samanera priests (novices) and the students, under + the superintendence of the priests.</p> + + <p>The raw leaves, when dried without any preparation, are called + <i>karak[(o]la</i>, and, like the leaves of the palmyra, are used + only for ordinary purposes by the Singhalese; but in the Tamil + districts, where palmyras are abundant, <a name="pg111" id= + "pg111"></a> and talpat palms rare, the leaves of the former are used + for books as well as for letters.</p> + + <p>The <i>palmyra</i>[1] is another invaluable palm, and one of the + most beautiful of the family. It grows in such profusion over the + north of Ceylon, and especially in the peninsula of Jaffna, as to + form extensive forests, whence its timber is exported for rafters to + all parts of the island, as well as to the opposite coast of India, + where, though the palmyra grows luxuriantly, its wood, from local + causes, is too soft and perishable to be used for any purpose + requiring strength and durability, qualities which, in the palmyra of + Ceylon, are pre-eminent. To the inhabitants of the northern provinces + this invaluable tree is of the same importance as the coco-nut palm + is to the natives of the south. Its fruit yields them food and oil; + its juice "palm wine" and sugar; its stem is the chief material of + their buildings; and its leaves, besides serving as roofs to their + dwellings and fences to their farms, supply them with matting and + baskets, with head-dresses and fans, and serve as a substitute for + paper for their deeds and writings, and for the sacred books, which + contain the traditions of their faith. It has been said with truth + that a native of Jaffna, if he be contented with ordinary doors and + mud walls, may build an entire house (as he wants neither nails nor + iron work), with walls, roof, and covering from the Palmyra palm. + From this same tree he may draw his wine, make his oil, kindle his + fire, carry his water, store his food, cook his repast, and sweeten + it, if he pleases; in fact, live from day to day dependent on his + palmyra alone. Multitudes so live, and it may be safely asserted that + this tree alone furnishes one-fourth the means of sustenance for the + population of the northern provinces.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Borassus flabelliformis</i>. For an account of the + Palmyra, and its cultivation in the peninsula of Jaffna, see + FERGUSON'S monograph on the <i>Palmyra Palm of Ceylon</i>, Colombo, + 1850.</p> + </div><a name="pg112" id="pg112"></a> + + <p>The <i>Jaggery Palm</i>[1], the <i>Kitool</i> of the Singhalese, + is chiefly cultivated in the Kandyan hills for the sake of its sap, + which is drawn, boiled down, and crystallised into a coarse brown + sugar, in universal use amongst the inhabitants of the south and west + of Ceylon, who also extract from its pith a farina scarcely inferior + to sago. The black fibre of the leaf is twisted by the Rodiyas into + ropes of considerable smoothness and tenacity. A single Kitool tree + has been pointed out at Ambogammoa, which furnished the support of a + Kandyan, his wife, and their children. A tree has been known to yield + one hundred pints of toddy within twenty-four hours.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Caryota urens.</p> + </div> + + <p>The <i>Areca</i>[1] <i>Palm</i> is the invariable feature of a + native garden, being planted near the wells and water-courses, as it + rejoices in moisture. Of all the tribe it is the most graceful and + delicate, rising to the height of forty or fifty feet[2], without an + inequality on its thin polished stem, which is dark green towards the + top, and sustains a crown of feathery foliage, in the midst of which + are clustered the astringent nuts for whose sake it is carefully + tended.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A. catechu.</p> + + <p>2: Mr. Ferguson measured an areca at Caltura which was + seventy-five feet high, and grew near a coco-nut which was upwards + of ninety feet. Caltura is, however, remarkable for the growth and + luxuriance of its vegetation.</p> + </div> + + <p>The chewing of these nuts with lime and the leaf of the + betel-pepper supplies to the people of Ceylon the same enjoyment + which tobacco affords to the inhabitants of other countries; but its + use is, if possible, more offensive, as the three articles, when + combined, colour the saliva of so deep a red that the lips and teeth + appear as if covered with blood. Yet, in spite of this disgusting + accompaniment, men and women, old and young, from morning till night + indulge in the repulsive luxury.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Elliot, of Colombo, has observed several cases of cancer + in the cheek which, from its peculiar characteristics, he has + designated the "betel-chewer's cancer."</p> + </div> + + <p>It is seldom, however, that we find in semi-civilised <a name= + "pg113" id="pg113"></a> life habits universally prevailing which have + not their origin, however ultimately they may be abused by excess, in + some sense of utility. The Turk, when he adds to the oppressive + warmth of the sun by enveloping his forehead in a cumbrous turban, or + the Arab, when he increases the sultry heat by swathing his waist in + a showy girdle, may appear to act on no other calculation than a + willingness to sacrifice comfort to a love of display; but the custom + in each instance is the result of precaution—in the former, + because the head requires especial protection from sun-strokes; and + in the latter, from the fact well known to the Greeks ([Greek: + eozônoi Achaioi]) that, in a warm climate, danger is to be + apprehended from a sudden chill to that particular region of the + stomach. In like manner, in the chewing of the areca-nut with its + accompaniments of lime and betel, the native of Ceylon is + unconsciously applying a specific corrective to the defective + qualities of his daily food. Never eating flesh meat by any chance, + seldom or never using milk, butter, poultry, or eggs, and tasting + fish but occasionally (more rarely in the interior of the island,) + the non-azotised elements abound in every article he consumes with + the exception of the bread-fruit, the jak, and some varieties of + beans. In their indolent and feeble stomachs these are liable to + degenerate into flatulent and acrid products; but, apparently by + instinct, the whole population have adopted a simple prophylactic. + Every Singhalese carries in his waistcloth an ornamented box of + silver or brass, according to his means, enclosing a smaller one to + hold a portion of chunam (lime obtained by the calcination of shells) + whilst the larger contains the nuts of the areca and a few fresh + leaves of the betel-pepper. As inclination or habit impels, he + scrapes down the nut, which abounds in catechu, and, rolling it up + with a little of the lime in a betel-leaf, the whole is chewed, and + finally swallowed, after provoking an extreme salivation. No medical + prescription could be more judiciously compounded to effect the + desired object <a name="pg114" id="pg114"></a> than this practical + combination of antacid, the tonic, and carminative.</p> + + <p>The custom is so ancient in Ceylon and in India that the Arabs and + Persians who resorted to Hindustan in the eighth and ninth centuries + carried back the habit to their own country; and Massoudi, the + traveller of Bagdad, who wrote the account of his voyages in A.D. + 943, states that the chewing of betel prevailed along the southern + coast of Arabia, and reached as far as Yemen and Mecca.[1] Ibn Batuta + saw the betel plant at Zahfar A.D. 1332, and describes it accurately + as trained like a vine over a trellis of reeds, or climbing the + steins of the coco-nut palm.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Massoudi, <i>Maraudj-al-Dzeheb</i>, as translated by REINAUD, + <i>Mémoire</i> <i>sur l'Lede</i>. p. 230.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Voyages</i>, &c. t. ii. p. 205.</p> + </div> + + <p>The leaves of the coca[1] supply the Indians of Bolivia and Peru + with a stimulant, whose use is equivalent to that of the betel-pepper + among the natives of Hindustan and the Eastern Archipelago. With an + admixture of lime, they are chewed perseveringly; but, unlike the + betel, the colour imparted by them to the saliva is greenish, instead + of red. It is curious, too, as a coincidence common to the humblest + phases of semi-civilised life, that, in the absence of coined money, + the leaves of the coca form a rude kind of currency in the Andes, as + does the betel in some parts of Ceylon, and tobacco amongst the + tribes of the south-west of Africa.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Erythroxylon coca.</p> + + <p>2: Tobacco was a currency in North America when Virginia was + colonised in the early part of the 17th century; debts were + contracted and paid in it, and in every ordinary transaction + tobacco answered the purposes of coin.</p> + </div> + + <p>Neither catechu nor its impure equivalent, "terra japonica," is + prepared from the areca in Ceylon; but the nuts are exported in large + quantities to the Maldive Islands and to India, the produce of which + they excel both in astringency and size. The fibrous wood of the + areca being at once straight, firm, and elastic, is employed for + making the pingoes (yokes for the shoulders), <a name="pg115" id= + "pg115"></a> by means of which the Singhalese coolie, like the + corresponding class among the ancient Egyptians and the Greeks, + carries his burdens, dividing them into portions of equal weight, one + of which is suspended from each end of the pingo. By a swaying motion + communicated to them as he starts, his own movement is facilitated, + whereas one unaccustomed to the work, by allowing the oscillation to + become irregular, finds it almost impossible to proceed with a load + of any considerable weight.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The natives of Tahti use a yoke of the same form as the + Singhalese <i>pingo</i>, but made from the wood of the <i>Hibiscus + tiliaceus.</i>—DARWIN, <i>Nat. Voy.</i> ch. xviii. p. 407. + For a further account of the pingo see <a href="#pg497">Vol. I. + Part iv. ch. viii. p. 497.</a></p> + </div> + + <p><i>Timber trees</i>, either for export or domestic use, are not + found in any abundance except in the low country, and here the + facility of floating them to the sea, down the streams which + intersect the eastern coast of the island, has given rise to an + active trade at Batticaloa and Trincomalie. But, unfortunately, the + indifference of the local officers entrusted with the issue of + licences to fell, and the imperfect control exercised over the + adventurers who embark in these speculations, has led to a + destruction of trees quite disproportionate to the timber obtained, + and utterly incompatible with the conservation of the valuable kinds. + The East India Company have had occasion to deplore the loss of their + teak forests by similar neglect and mismanagement; and it is to be + hoped that, ere too late, the attention of the Ceylon Government may + be so directed to this important subject as to lead to the + appointment of competent foresters, under whose authority and + superintendence the felling of timber may be carried on.</p> + + <p>An interesting memoir on the timber trees of Ceylon has been + prepared by a native officer at Colombo, Adrian Mendis, of Morottu, + carpeater-moodliar to the Royal Engineers, in which he has enumerated + upwards of ninety species, which, in various parts of the island, are + employed either as timber or cabinet woods.[1] Of these, the jak, + <a name="pg116" id="pg116"></a> the Kangtal of Bengal (<i>Artocarpus + integrifolia</i>), is, next to the coco-nut and Palmyra, by far the + most valuable to the Singhalese; its fruit, which sometimes attains + the weight of 50 lbs., supplying food for their table, its leaves + fodder for their cattle, and its trunk timber for every conceivable + purpose both oeconomic and ornamental. The Jak tree, as well as the + Del, or wild bread-fruit, is indigenous to the forests on the coast + and in the central provinces; but, although the latter is found in + the vicinity of the villages, it does not appear to be an object of + special cultivation. The Jak, on the contrary, is planted near every + house, and forms the shade of every garden. Its wood, at first + yellow, approaches the colour of mahogany after a little exposure to + the air, and resembles it at all times in its grain and marking.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mendis' List will be found appended to the <i>Ceylon + Calendar</i> for 1854.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Del (<i>Artocarpus pubescens</i>) affords a valuable timber, + not only for architectural purposes, but for ship-building. It and + the Halmalille[1] resembling but larger than the linden tree of + England, to which it is closely allied, are the favourite building + woods of the natives, and the latter is used for carts, casks, and + all household purposes, as well as for the hulls of their boats, from + the belief that It resists the attack of the marine worms, and that + some unctuous property in the wood preserves the iron work from + rust.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Berry a ammonilla.</p> + + <p>2: The Masula boats, which brave the formidable surf of Madrus + are made of Halmalille, which is there called "Trincomalie wood" + from the place of exportation.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Teak (<i>Tectona grandis</i>), which is superior to all + others, is not a native of this island, and although largely planted, + has not been altogether successful. But the satin-wood[1], in point + of size and durability, is by far the first of the timber trees of + Ceylon. For days together I have ridden under its magnificent shade. + All the forests around Batticaloa and Trincomalie, and as far north + as Jaffna, are thickly set with this valuable tree. It grows to the + height of a hundred feet, with a rugged <a name="pg117" id= + "pg117"></a> grey bark, small white flowers, and polished leaves, + with a somewhat unpleasant odour. Owing to the difficulty of carrying + its heavy beams, the natives only cut it near the banks of the + rivers, down which it is floated to the coast, whence large + quantities are exported to every part of the colony. The + richly-coloured and feathery pieces are used for cabinet-work, and + the more ordinary logs for building purposes, every house in the + eastern province being floored and timbered with satin-wood.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Chieroxylon Swietenia.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another useful tree, very common in Ceylon, is the Suria[1], with + flowers so like those of a tulip that Europeans know it as the tulip + tree. It loves the sea air and saline soils. It is planted all along + the avenues and streets in the towns near the coast, where it is + equally valued for its shade and the beauty of its yellow flowers, + whilst its tough wood is used for carriage shafts and gun-stocks.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Thespesia populnea.</p> + </div> + + <p>The forests to the east furnish the only valuable cabinet woods + used in Ceylon, the chief of which is ebony[1], which grows in great + abundance throughout all the flat country to the west of Trincomalie. + It is a different species from the ebony of Mauritius[2], and excels + it and all others in the evenness and intensity of its colour. The + centre of the trunk is the only portion which furnishes the extremely + black part which is the ebony of commerce; but the trees are of such + magnitude that reduced logs of two feet in diameter, and varying from + ten to fifteen feet in length, can readily be procured from the + forests at Trincomalie.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Diospyros ebenum.</p> + + <p>2: D. reticulata.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is another cabinet wood, of extreme beauty, called by the + natives Cadooberia. It is a bastard species of ebony[1], in which the + prevailing black is stained with stripes of rich brown, approaching + to yellow and pink. But its density is inconsiderable, and in + durability it is far inferior to that of true ebony.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: D. ebenaster.</p> + </div><a name="pg118" id="pg118"></a> + + <p>The Calamander[1], the most valuable cabinet wood of the island, + resembling rose-wood, but much surpassing it both in beauty and + durability, has at all times been in the greatest repute in Ceylon. + It grows chiefly in the southern provinces, and especially in the + forests at the foot of Adam's Peak; but here it has been so + prodigally felled, first by the Dutch, and afterwards by the English, + without any precautions for planting or production, that it has at + last become exceedingly rare. Wood of a large scantling is hardly + procurable at any price; and it is only in a very few localities, the + principal of which is Saffragam, in the western province, that even + small sticks are now to be found; one reason, assigned for this is + that the heart of the tree is seldom sound, a peculiarity which + extends to the Cadooberia.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: D. hirsuta.</p> + </div> + + <p>The twisted portions, and especially the roots of the latter, + yield veneers of unusual beauty, dark wavings and blotches, almost + black, being gracefully disposed over a delicate fawn-coloured + ground. Its density is so great (nearly 60 lbs. to a cubic foot) that + it takes an exquisite polish, and is in every way adapted for the + manufacture of furniture, in the ornamenting of which the native + carpenters excel. The chiefs and headmen, with a full appreciation of + its beauty, take particular pride in possessing specimens of this + beautiful wood, roots of which they regard as most acceptable + gifts.</p> + + <p>Notwithstanding its value, the tree is nearly eradicated, and runs + some risk of becoming extinct in the island; but, as it is not + peculiar to Ceylon, it may be restored by fresh importations from the + south-eastern coast of India, of which it is equally a native, and I + apprehend that the name, <i>Calamander</i>, which was used by the + Dutch, is but a corruption of "Coromandel."</p> + + <p>Another species of cabinet wood is produced from the Nedun[1], a + large tree common on the western coast; it <a name="pg119" id= + "pg119"></a> belongs to the Pea tribe, and is allied to the Sisso of + India. Its wood, which is lighter than the "Blackwood" of Bombay, is + used for similar purposes.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dalbergia lanceolaria.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Tamarind tree[1], and especially its fine roots, produce a + variegated cabinet wood of much beauty, but of such extreme hardness + as scarcely to be workable by any ordinary tool.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Tamarindus Indica.</p> + + <p>2: The natives of Western India have a belief that the shade of + the tamarind tree is unhealthy, if not poisonous. But in Ceylon it + is an object of the people, especially in the north of the island, + to build their houses under it, from the conviction that of all + trees its <i>shade is the coolest</i>. In this feeling, too, the + Europeans are so far disposed to concur that it has been suggested + whether there may not be something peculiar in the respiration of + its leaves. The Singhalese have an idea that the twigs of the + ranna-wara (<i>Cassia auriculata</i>) diffuse an agreeable + coolness, and they pull them for the sake of enjoying it by holding + them in their hands or applied to the head. In the south of Ceylon + it is called the Matura tea-tree, its leaves being infused as a + substitute for tea.</p> + </div> + + <p>As to fruit trees, it is only on the coast, or near the large + villages and towns, that they are found in any perfection. In the + deepest jungle the sight of a single coco-nut towering above the + other foliage is in Ceylon a never-failing landmark to intimate to a + traveller his approach to a village. The natives have a superstition + that the coco-nut will not grow <i>out of the sound of the human + voice</i>, and will die if the village where it had previously + thriven become deserted; the solution of the mystery being in all + probability the superior care and manuring which it receives in such + localities.[1] In the generality of the forest hamlets there are + always to be found a few venerable Tamarind trees of patriarchal + proportions, the ubiquitous Jak, with its huge fruits, weighing from + 5 to 50 lbs. (the largest eatable fruit in the world), each springing + from the rugged surface of the bark, and suspended by a powerful + stalk, which attaches it to the trunk of the tree. Lime-trees, + Oranges, and Shaddoks are carefully cultivated in these little + gardens, and occasionally the Rose-apple and the Cachu-nut, the + Pappaya, and invariably as plentiful a supply of Plantains as they + find it prudent to raise without inviting <a name="pg120" id= + "pg120"></a> the visits of the wild elephants, with whom they are + especial favourites.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See Vol. II. p. 125.</p> + </div> + + <p>These, and the Bilimbi and Guava, the latter of which is + naturalised in the jungle around every cottage, are almost the only + fruits of the country; but the Pine-apple, the Mango, the + Avocado-pear, the Custard-apple, the Rambutan (<i>Nephelium + lappaceum</i>), the Fig, the Granadilla, and a number of other + exotics, are successfully reared in the gardens of the wealthier + inhabitants of the towns and villages; and within the last few years + the peerless Mangustin of Malacca, the delicacy of which we can + imagine to resemble that of perfumed snow, has been successfully + cultivated in the gardens of Caltura and Colombo.</p> + + <p>With the exception of the orange, the fruits of Ceylon have one + deficiency, common, I apprehend, to all tropical countries. They are + wanting in that piquancy which in northern climates is attributable + to the exquisite perfection in which the sweet and aromatic flavours + are blended with the acidulous. Either the acid is so ascendant as to + be repulsive to the European palate, or the saccharine so + preponderates as to render Singhalese fruit cloying and + distasteful.</p> + + <p>Still, all other defects are compensated by the coolness which + pervades them; and, under the exhaustion of a blazing sun, no more + exquisite physical enjoyment can be imagined than the chill and + fragrant flesh of the pine-apple, or the abundant juice of the mango, + which, when freshly pulled, feels as cool as iced water. But the + fruit must be eaten instantly; even an interval of a few minutes + after it has been gathered is sufficient to destroy the charm; for, + once severed from the stem, it rapidly acquires the temperature of + the surrounding air.</p> + + <p>Sufficient admiration has hardly been bestowed upon the marvellous + power displayed by the vegetable world in adjusting its own + temperature, notwithstanding atmospheric fluctuations,—a + faculty in the manifestation <a name="pg121" id="pg121"></a> of which + it appears to present a counterpart to that exhibited by animal + oeconomy in regulating its heat. So uniform is the exercise of the + latter faculty in man and the higher animals, that there is barely a + difference of three degrees between the warmth of the body in the + utmost endurable vicissitudes of heat and cold; and in vegetables an + equivalent arrangement enables them in winter to keep their + temperature somewhat above that of the surrounding air, and in summer + to reduce it far below it. It would almost seem as if plants + possessed a power of producing cold analogous to that exhibited by + animals in producing heat; and of this beneficent arrangement man + enjoys the benefit in the luxurious coolness of the fruit which + nature lavishes on the tropics.</p> + + <p>The peculiar organisation by which this result is obtained is not + free from obscurity, but in all probability the means of adjusting + the temperature of plants is simply dependent on evaporation. As + regards the power possessed by vegetables of generating heat, + although it has been demonstrated to exist, it is in so trifling a + degree as to be almost inappreciable, except at the period of + germination, when it probably arises from the consumption of oxygen + in generating the carbonic acid gas which is then evolved. The + faculty of retaining this warmth at night and at other times may, + therefore, be referable mainly to the closing of the pores, and the + consequent check of evaporation.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, the faculty of maintaining a temperature below + that of the surrounding air, can only be accounted for by referring + it to the mechanical process of imbibing a continuous supply of fresh + moisture from the soil, the active transpiration of which imparts + coolness to every portion of the tree and its fruit. It requires this + combined operation to produce the desired result; and the extent to + which evaporation can bring down the temperature of the moisture + received by absorption, may be inferred from the fact that Dr. + Hooker, when <a name="pg122" id="pg122"></a> in the valley of the + Ganges, found the fresh milky juice of the Mudar (<i>calotropis</i>) + to be but 72°, whilst the damp sand in the bed of the river where it + grew was from 90° to 104°.</p> + + <p>Even in temperate climates this phenomenon is calculated to excite + admiration; but it is still more striking to find the like effect + rather increased than diminished in the tropics, where one would + suppose that the juices, especially of a small and delicate plant, + before they could be cooled by evaporation, would be liable to be + heated by the blazing sun.</p> + + <p>A difficulty would also seem to present itself in the instance of + fruit, whose juices, having to undergo a chemical change, their + circulation would be conjectured to be slower; and in the instance of + those with hard skins, such as the pomegranate, or with a tough + leathery coating, like the mango, the evaporation might be imagined + to be less than in those of a soft and spongy texture. But all share + alike in the general coolness of the plant, so long as circulation + supplies fluid for evaporation; and the moment this resource is cut + off by the separation of the fruit from the tree, the supply of + moisture failing, the process of refrigeration is arrested, and the + charm of agreeable freshness gone.</p> + + <p>It only remains to notice the aquatic plants, which are found in + greater profusion in the northern and eastern provinces than in any + other districts of the island, owing to the innumerable tanks and + neglected watercourses which cover the whole surface of this once + productive province, but which now only harbour the alligator, or + satisfy the thirst of the deer and the elephant.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See on this subject LINDLEY'S <i>Introduction to Botany</i>, + vol. ii. book ii. ch. viii. p. 215.</p> + + <p>CARPENTER, <i>Animal Physiology</i>, ch. ix. s. 407. CARPENTER'S + <i>Vegetable Physiology</i>, ch. xi. s. 407, Lond. 1848.</p> + </div> + + <p>The chief ornaments of these neglected sheets of water <a name= + "pg123" id="pg123"></a> are the large red and white Lotus[1], whose + flowers may be seen from a great distance reposing on their broad + green leaves. In China and some parts of India the black seeds of + these plants, which are not unlike little acorns in shape, are served + at table in place of almonds, which they are said to resemble, but + with a superior delicacy of flavour. At some of the tanks where the + lotus grows in profusion in Ceylon, I tasted the seeds enclosed in + the torus of the flowers, and found them white and + delicately-flavoured, not unlike the small kernel of the pine cone of + the Apennines. This red lotus of the island appears to be the one + that Herodotus describes as abounding in the Nile in his time, but + which is now extinct; with a flower resembling a rose, and a fruit in + shape like a wasp's nest, and containing seeds of the size of an + olive stone, and of an agreeable flavour.[2] But it has clearly no + identity with those which he describes as the food of the Lotophagi + of Africa, of the size of the mastic[3], sweet as a date, and capable + of being made into wine.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Nelumbium speciosum.</p> + + <p>2: Herodotus, b. ii. s. 92.</p> + + <p>3: The words are "[Greek: Esti megathos hoson te tês schinou]" + (Herod. b. iv. s. 177); and as [Greek: schinos] means also a + <i>squill</i> or a <i>sea-onion</i>, the fruit above referred to, + as the food of the Lotophagi, must have been of infinitely larger + size and in every way different from the lotus of the Nile, + described in the 2nd book, as well as from the lotus in the East. + Lindley records the conjecture that the article referred to by + Herodotus was the <i>nabk</i>, the berry of the lote-bush + (<i>Zizyphus lotus</i>), which the Arabs of Barbary still eat. + (<i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>, p. 582.)</p> + </div> + + <p>One species of the water lily, the <i>Nymphæa rubra</i>, with + small red flowers, and of great beauty, is common in the ponds near + Jaffna and in the Wanny; and I found in the fosse, near the fort of + Moeletivoe, the beautiful blue lotus, <i>N. stellata</i>, with lilac + petals, approaching to purple in the centre, which had not previously + been supposed to be a native of the island.</p> + + <p>Another very interesting aquatic plant, which was discovered by + Dr. Gardner in the tanks north of Trincomalie, is the <i>Desmanthus + natans</i>, with highly sensitive leaves floating <a name="pg124" id= + "pg124"></a> on the surface of the water. It is borne aloft by masses + of a spongy cellular substance, which occur at intervals along its + stem and branches, but the roots never touch the bottom, absorbing + nourishment whilst floating at liberty, and only found in contact + with the ground after the subsidence of water in the tanks.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A species of <i>Utricularia</i>, with yellow flowers (U. + stellaris), is a common water-plant in the still lakes near the + fort of Colombo, where an opportunity is afforded of observing the + extraordinary provision of nature for its reproduction. There are + small appendages attached to the roots, which become distended with + air, and thus carry the plant aloft to the surface, during the cool + season. Here it floats till the operation of flowering is over, + when the vesicles burst, and by its own weight it returns to the + bottom of the lake to ripen its seeds and deposit them in the soil; + after which the air vessels again fill, and again it re-ascends to + undergo the same process of fecundation.</p> + </div><a name="pg125" id="pg125"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>PART II.</h2> + + <h3>ZOOLOGY.</h3><a name="pg126" id="pg126"></a> <a name="pg127" id= + "pg127"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + + <h3>MAMMALIA.</h3> + + <p>With the exception of the Mammalia and the Birds, the fauna of + Ceylon has, up to the present, failed to receive that systematic + attention to which its richness and variety so amply entitle it. The + Singhalese themselves, habitually indolent and singularly unobservant + of nature in her operations, are at the same time restrained from the + study of natural history by tenets of their religion which forbid the + taking of life under any circumstances. From the nature of their + avocations, the majority of the European residents engaged in + planting and commerce, are discouraged from gratifying this taste; + and it is to be regretted that the civil servants of the government, + whose position and duties would have afforded them influence and + extended opportunity for successful investigation, have never seen + the importance of encouraging such studies.</p> + + <p>The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural science + in Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with the + medical staff of the army from 1816 to 1820, and his example + stimulated some of the assistant surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to + make collections in illustration of the productions of the colony. Of + the late Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He + was seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engaged + assiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced an + interchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth[1], the distinguished + naturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal,</i> vol. xv. p. 280, 314.</p> + </div><a name="pg128" id="pg128"></a> + + <p>The birds and rarer vertebrata of the island were thus compared + with their peninsular congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those + belonging to the island, so far as regards the higher classes of + animals, has been the result. The example so set has been + perseveringly followed by Mr. E.L. Layard and Dr. Kelaart, and + infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the zealous and untiring + energy with which he has devoted his attention and leisure to the + identification of the various interesting species forwarded from + Ceylon, and to their description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and + to the gentleman I have named, we are mainly indebted, for whatever + accurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology of the colony.</p> + + <p>The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first scientific + description in an able work published recently by Dr. Kelaart of the + army medical staff[1], which is by far the most valuable that has yet + appeared on the Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard + has supplied a fund of information especially in ornithology and + conchology. The zoophytes and crustacea have been investigated by + Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon for that purpose in 1852, and by + Professor Schmarda, of the University of Prague, who was lately sent + there for a similar object. From the united labours of these + gentlemen and others interested in the same pursuits, we may hope at + an early day to obtain such a knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon, as + may to some extent compensate for the long indifference of the + government officers.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ; being Contributions to the + Zoology of Ceylon</i>, by F. KELAART, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., &c. + &c. 2 vols. Colombo and London, 1852. Mr. DAVY, of the Medical + Staff; brother to Sir Humphry, published in 1821 his <i>Account of + the Interior of Ceylon and its Inhabitants</i>, which contains the + earliest notices of the natural history of the island, and + especially of the Ophidian reptiles.</p> + </div> + + <p>I. QUADRUMANA. 1 <i>Monkeys</i>.—To a stranger in the + tropics, among the most attractive creatures in the forests are the + troops of <i>monkeys</i>, which career in ceaseless chase among the + loftiest trees. In Ceylon there <a name="pg129" id="pg129"></a> are + five species, four of which belong to one group, the Wanderoos, and + the other is the little graceful grimacing <i>rilawa</i>[1], which is + the universal pet and favourite, of both natives and Europeans.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Macacus pileatus</i>, Shaw and Desmmarest. The "bonneted + Macaque" is common in the south and west; and a spectacled monkey + is <i>said</i> to inhabit the low country near to Bintenne; but I + have never seen one brought thence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON in the + <i>Mag. Nat. Hist</i>. n.s. xiv. p. 361, contains some interesting + facts relative to the Rilawa of Ceylon.</p> + </div> + + <p>KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an accurate + description of both; the Rilawas, with "no beards, white faces, and + long hair on the top of their heads, which parteth and hangeth down + like a man's, and which do a deal of mischief to the corn, and are so + impudent that they will come into their gardens, and eat such fruit + as grows there. And the Wanderoos, some as large as our English + Spaniel dogs, of a darkish grey colour, and black faces with great + white beards round from ear to ear, which makes them shew just like + old men. This sort does but little mischief, keeping in the woods, + eating only leaves and buds of trees, but when they are catched they + will eat anything."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: KNOX, <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the East + Indies</i>.—P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681.</p> + </div> + + <p>KNOX, whose experience was confined almost exclusively to the hill + country around Kandy, spoke in all probability of one large and + comparatively powerful species, <i>Presbytes ursinus</i>, which + inhabits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another of the same + group, <i>P. Thersites</i>, was, till recently, unknown to European + naturalists. The Singhalese word <i>Ouanderu</i> has a generic sense, + and being in every respect the equivalent for our own term of + "monkey," it necessarily comprehends the low country species, as well + as those which inhabit other parts of the island. And, in point of + fact, in the island there are no less than four animals, each of + which is entitled to the name of "wanderoo."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Down to a very late period, a large and somewhat + repulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenus + veter, <i>Linn</i>., was, from the circumstance of his possessing a + "great white beard," incorrectly assumed to be the "wanderoo" of + Ceylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has + figured in every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens + of the true Singhalese species were, however, received in Europe; + but in the absence of information in this country as to their + actual habitat, they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the + continent, under the name of <i>Leucoprymnus cephalopterus,</i> and + subsequently by Mr. E. Bennett, under that of <i>Semnopithecus + Nestor (Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> pt. i. p. 67: 1833); the generic and + specific characters being on this occasion most carefully pointed + out by that eminent naturalist. Eleven years later Dr. Templeton + forwarded to the Zoological Society a description, accompanied by + drawings, of the wanderoo of the western maritime districts of + Ceylon, and noticed the fact that the wanderoo of authors (S. + veter) was not to be found in the island except as an introduced + species in the custody of the Arab horse-dealers, who visit the + port of Colombo at stated periods. Mr. Waterhouse, at the meeting + (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> p. 1: 1844) at which this communication + was read, recognised the identity of the subject of Dr. Templeton's + description with that already laid before them by Mr. Bennett; and + from this period the species in question was believed to truly + represent the wanderoo of Knox. The later discovery, however, of + the P. ursinus by Dr. Kelaart, in the mountains amongst which we + are assured that Knox spent so many years of captivity, reopens the + question, but at the same time appears to me to clearly demonstrate + that in this latter we have in reality the animal to which his + narrative refers.</p> + </div><a name="pg130" id="pg130"></a> + + <p>Each separate species has appropriated to itself a different + district of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on the domain + of its neighbours.</p> + + <p>1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in the + island, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the low + country, the <i>P. cephalopterus</i> of Zimmerman.[1] It is an active + and intelligent creature, not much larger than the common bonneted + Macaque, and far from being so mischievous as others of the monkeys + in the island. In captivity it is remarkable for the gravity of its + demeanour and for an air of melancholy in its expression and + movements, which is completely in character with its snowy beard and + venerable aspect. Its disposition is gentle and confiding, it is in + the highest degree sensible of kindness, and eager for endearing + attentions, uttering a low plaintive cry when its sympathies are + excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habits when domesticated, + and spends much of its time in trimming its fur, and carefully + divesting its hair of particles of dust.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Leucoprymnus Nestor, <i>Bennett</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg131" id="pg131"></a> + + <p>Although common in the southern and western provinces, it is never + found at a higher elevation than 1300 feet.</p> + + <p>When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty + of these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for + berries and buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, and then + only when they have descended to recover seeds or fruit that have + fallen at the foot of their favourite trees. In their alarm, when + disturbed, their leaps are prodigious; but generally speaking, their + progress is made not so much by <i>leaping</i> as by swinging from + branch to branch, using their powerful arms alternately; and when + baffled by distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the + lower boughs of an opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their + descent being sufficient to cause a rebound, that carries them again + upwards, till they can grasp a higher branch; and thus continue their + headlong flight. In these perilous achievements, wonder is excited + less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures, frequently + encumbered as they are by their young, which cling to them in their + career, than by the quickness of their eye and the unerring accuracy + with which they seem almost to calculate the angle at which a descent + would enable them to cover a given distance, and the recoil to + elevate themselves again to a higher altitude.</p> + + <p>2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the larger + species, <i>P. ursinus</i>, which inhabits the mountain zone. The + natives, who designate the latter the <i>Maha</i> or Great Wanderoo, + to distinguish it from the <i>Kaloo</i>, or black one, with which + they are familiar, describe it as much wilder and more powerful than + its congener of the lowland forests. It is rarely seen by Europeans, + this portion of the country having till very recently been but + partially opened; and even now it is difficult to observe its habits, + as it seldom approaches the few roads which wind through these deep + solitudes. It <a name="pg132" id="pg132"></a> was first captured by + Dr. Kelaart in the woods near Neuera-ellia, and from its peculiar + appearance it has been named <i>P. ursinus</i> by Mr. Blyth.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name a passage + from MAJOR FORBES' <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>; and I can vouch + for the graphic accuracy of the remark.—"A species of very + large monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on + all fours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for + one."</p> + </div> + + <p>3. The <i>P. Thersites</i>, which is chiefly distinguished from + the others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for some + time doubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr. Templeton + from Neuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blyth + conferred this new name, was in reality native; but the occurrence of + a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has established its + existence as a separate species.</p> + + <p>Like the common wanderoo, this one was partial to fresh + vegetables, plantains, and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice, + beans, and gram. He was fond of being noticed and petted, stretching + out his limbs in succession to be scratched, drawing himself up so + that his ribs might be reached by the finger, and closing his eyes + during the operation, evincing his satisfaction by grimaces + irresistibly ludicrous.</p> + + <p>4. The <i>P. Priamus</i> inhabits the northern and eastern + provinces, and the wooded hills which occur in these portions of the + island. In appearance it differs both in size and in colour from the + common wanderoo, being larger and more inclining to grey; and in + habits it is much less reserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of the + island where the population is comparatively numerous, these monkeys + become so familiarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the + utmost daring and indifference. A flock of them will take possession + of a Palmyra palm; and so effectually can they crouch and conceal + themselves among the leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole + party becomes invisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, + however, excites <a name="pg133" id="pg133"></a> such an + irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they + never fail to betray themselves. They may be seen frequently + congregated on the roof of a native hut; and, some years ago, the + child of a European clergyman stationed at Tillipalli having been + left on the ground by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as + to cause its death.</p> + + <p>The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey + are never found in the forest; a belief which they have embodied in + the proverb that "he who has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddy + bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is certain to live + for ever." This piece of folk-lore has evidently reached Ceylon from + India, where it is believed that persons dwelling on the spot where a + hanuman monkey, <i>S. entellus</i>, has been killed, will die, and + that even its bones are unlucky, and that no house erected where they + are hid under ground can prosper. Hence when a house is to be built, + it is one of the employments of the Jyotish philosophers to ascertain + by their science that none such are concealed; and Buchanan observes + that "it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that no native + will acknowledge his having seen a dead hanuman."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: BUCHANAN'S <i>Survey of Bhagulpoor</i>, p. 142. At Gibraltar + it is believed that the body of <i>a dead monkey</i> is never found + on the rock.</p> + </div> + + <p>The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the little + loris[1], which, from its sluggish movements, nocturnal habits, and + consequent inaction during the day, has acquired the name of the + "Ceylon Sloth." There are two varieties in the island; one of the + ordinary fulvous brown, and another larger, whose fur is entirely + black. A specimen of the former was sent to me from Chilaw, on the + western coast, and lived for some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, + fruit, and vegetables. It was partial to ants and other insects, and + always eager for milk or the bone of a fowl. The naturally slow + motion of its limbs enables the loris to <a name="pg134" id= + "pg134"></a> approach its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds + before they can be alarmed by its presence. The natives assert that + it has been known to strangle the pea-fowl at night, and feast on the + brain. During the day the one which I kept was usually asleep in the + strange position represented below; its perch firmly grasped with all + hands, its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its head hidden + deep between its legs. The singularly-large and intense eyes of the + loris have attracted the attention of the Singhalese, who capture the + creature for the purpose of extracting them as charms and + love-potions, and this they are said to effect by holding the little + animal to the fire till its eyeballs burst. Its Tamil name is + <i>theivangu</i>, or "thin-bodied;" and hence a deformed child or an + emaciated person has acquired <a name="pg135" id="pg135"></a> in the + Tamil districts the same epithet. The light-coloured variety of the + loris in Ceylon has a spot on its forehead, somewhat resembling the + <i>namam</i>, or mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and, from + this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the + <i>Nama-theivangu</i>.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Loris gracilis, <i>Geoff</i>.</p> + + <p>2: There is an interesting notice of the loris of Ceylon by Dr. + TEMPLETON, in the <i>Mag. Nat. Hist</i>. 1844, ch. xiv. p. 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/134.jpg"><img src="images/134.jpg" alt= + "THE LORIS" /></a> + + <p>THE LORIS</p> + </div> + + <p>II. CHEIROPTERA. <i>Bats</i>.—The multitude of <i>bats</i> + is one of the features of the evening landscape; they abound in every + cave and subterranean passage, in the tunnels on the highways, in the + galleries of the fortifications, in the roofs of the bungalows, and + the ruins of every temple and building. At sunset they are seen + issuing from their diurnal retreats to roam through the twilight in + search of crepuscular insects, and as night approaches and the lights + in the rooms attract the night-flying lepidoptera, the bats sweep + round the dinner-table and carry off their tiny prey within the + glitter of the lamps. Including the frugivorous section about sixteen + species have been identified in Ceylon, and of these, two varieties + are peculiar to the island. The colours of some of them are as + brilliant as the plumage of a bird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a + rich ferruginous brown inclining to red.[1] The Roussette[2] of + Ceylon (the "Flying-fox," as it is usually called by Europeans) + measures from three to four feet from point to point of its extended + wings, and some of them have been seen wanting but a few inches of + five feet in the alar expanse. These sombre-looking creatures feed + chiefly on ripe fruits, the guava, the plantain, and the rose-apple, + and are abundant in all the maritime districts, especially at the + season when the silk-cotton tree, the <i>pulun-imbul</i>,[3] is + putting forth its flower-buds, of which <a name="pg136" id= + "pg136"></a> they are singularly fond. By day they suspend themselves + from the highest branches, hanging by the claws of the hind legs, + pressing the chin against the breast, and using the closed membrane + attached to the forearms as a mantle to envelope the head. At sunset + launching into the air, they hover with a murmuring sound occasioned + by the beating of their broad membranous wings, around the fruit + trees, on which they feed till morning, when they resume their + pensile attitude as before. They are strongly attracted to the + coco-nut trees during the period when toddy is drawn for + distillation, and exhibit, it is said, at such times symptoms + resembling intoxication.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>Rhinolophus affinis? <i>var</i>. rubidus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p> + + <p>Hipposideros murinus, <i>var</i>. fulvus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p> + + <p>Hipposideros speoris, <i>var</i>. aureus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p> + + <p>Kerivoula picta, <i>Pallas</i>.</p> + + <p>Scotophilus Heathii, <i>Horsf</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>2: Pteropus Edwardsii, <i>Geoff</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Eriodendron orientale, <i>Stead</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Mr. THWAITES, of the Royal Botanic Garden, at Kandy, in a + recent letter, 19th Dec. 1858, gives the following description of a + periodical visit of the pteropus to an avenue of + fig-trees:—"You would be much interested now in observing a + colony of the <i>pteropus</i> bat, which has established itself for + a season on some trees within sight of my bungalow. They came about + the same time last year, and, after staying a few weeks, + disappeared: I suppose they had demolished all the available food + in the neighbourhood. They are now busy of an evening eating the + figs of <i>Ficus elastica</i>, of which we have a long avenue in + the grounds, as I dare say you remember.</p> + + <p>"These bats take possession during the day of particular trees, + upon which they hang like so much ripe fruit, but they take it into + their heads to have some exercise every morning between the hours + of 9 and 11, during which they are wheeling about in the air by the + hundred, seemingly enjoying the sunshine and warmth. They then + return to their fevourite tree, and remain quiet until the evening, + when they move off towards their feeding ground. There is a great + chattering and screaming amongst them before they can get agreeably + settled in their places after their morning exercise; quarrelling, + I suppose, for the most comfortable spots to hang on by during the + rest of the day. The trees they take possession of become nearly + stripped of leaves; and it is a curious sight to see them in such + immense numbers. I do not allow them to be disturbed."</p> + </div> + + <p>The flying-fox is killed by the natives for the sake of its flesh, + which I have been told, by a gentleman who has eaten it, resembles + that of the hare.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In Western India the native Portuguese eat the flying-fox, + and pronounce it delicate, and far from disagreeable in + flavour.</p> + </div> + + <p>There are several varieties (some of them peculiar to the island) + of the horse-shoe-headed <i>Rhinolophus</i>, with the strange + leaf-like appendage erected on the extremity of the nose. It has been + suggested that bats, though nocturnal, are deficient in that keen + vision characteristic <a name="pg137" id="pg137"></a> of animals + which take their prey at night. I doubt whether this conjecture be + well founded; but at least it would seem that in their peculiar + oeconomy some additional power is required to supplement that of + vision, as in insects that of touch is superadded, in the most + sensitive development, to that of sight. Hence, it is possible that + the extended screen stretched at the back of their nostrils may be + intended by nature to facilitate the collection and conduction of + odours, as the vast development of the shell of the ear in the same + family is designed to assist in the collection of sounds—and + thus to reinforce their vision when in pursuit of their prey at + twilight by the superior sensitiveness of the organs of hearing and + smell, as they are already remarkable for that marvellous sense of + touch which enables them, even when deprived of sight, to direct + their flight with security, by means of the delicate nerves of the + wing. One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble bee[1], + and of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be seen about Colombo. + It is so familiar and gentle that it will alight on the cloth during + dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any effort + to escape before a wine glass can be inverted to secure it.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It is a <i>very</i> small Singhalese variety of Scotophilus + Coromandelicus; <i>F. Cuv</i>.</p> + + <p>2: For a notice of the curious parasite peculiar to the bat, see + <a href="#pg161">Note A.</a> end of this chapter.</p> + </div> + + <p>III. CARNIVORA.—<i>Bears</i>.—Of the <i>carnivora</i>, + the one most dreaded by the natives of Ceylon, and the only one of + the larger animals which makes the depths of the forest its habitual + retreat, is the bear[1], attracted by the honey which is to be found + in the hollow trees and clefts of the rocks. Occasionally spots of + fresh earth are observed which have been turned up by them in search + of some favourite root. They feed also on the termites and ants. A + friend of mine traversing the forest near Jaffna, at early dawn, had + his attention attracted by the <a name="pg138" id="pg138"></a> + growling of a bear, which was seated upon a lofty branch thrusting + portions of a red-ant's nest into its mouth with one paw, whilst with + the other he endeavoured to clear his eyebrows and lips of the angry + inmates which bit and tortured him in their rage. The Ceylon bear is + found only in the low and dry districts of the northern and + south-eastern coast, and is seldom met with on the mountains or the + moist and damp plains of the west. It is furnished with a bushy tuft + of hair on the back, between the shoulders, to which the young are + accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to provide for their own + safety. During a severe drought which prevailed in the northern + province in 1850, the district of Caretchy was so infested by bears + that the Oriental custom of the women resorting to the wells was + altogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence to find one of + these animals in the water, unable to climb up the yielding and + slippery soil, down which his thirst had impelled him to slide during + the night.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Prochilus labiatus, <i>Blainville</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Although the structure of the bear shows him to be naturally + omnivorous, he rarely preys upon flesh in Ceylon, and his solitary + habits whilst in search of honey and fruits, render him timid and + retiring. Hence he evinces alarm on the approach of man or other + animals, and, unable to make a rapid retreat, his panic rather than + any vicious disposition leads him to become an assailant in + self-defence. But so furious are his assaults under such + circumstances that the Singhalese have a terror of his attack greater + than that created by any other beast of the forest. If not armed with + a gun, a native, in the places where bears abound, usually carries a + light axe, called "kodelly," with which to strike them on the head. + The bear, on the other hand, always aims, at the face, and, if + successful in prostrating his victim, usually commences by assailing + the eyes. I have met numerous individuals on our journeys who + exhibited frightful scars from these encounters, the white seams + <a name="pg139" id="pg139"></a> of their wounds contrasting hideously + with the dark colour of the rest of their bodies.</p> + + <p>The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose chief stores consist of honey, live + in dread of the bears, because, attracted by its perfume, they will + not hesitate to attack their rude dwellings, when allured by this + irresistible temptation. The Post-office runners, who always travel + by night, are frequently exposed to danger from these animals, + especially along the coast from Putlam to Aripo, where they are found + in considerable numbers; and, to guard against surprise, they are + accustomed to carry flambeaux, to give warning to the bears, and + enable them to shuffle out of the path.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Amongst the Singhalese there is a belief that certain charms + are efficacious in protecting them from the violence of bears, and + those whose avocations expose them to encounters of this kind are + accustomed to carry a talisman either attached to their neck or + enveloped in the folds of their luxuriant hair. A friend of mine, + writing of an adventure which occurred at Anarajapoora, thus + describes an occasion on which a Moor, who attended him, was + somewhat rudely disabused of his belief in the efficacy of charms + upon bears:—"Desiring to change the position of a herd of + deer, the Moorman (with his charm) was sent across some swampy land + to disturb them. As he was proceeding we saw him suddenly turn from + an old tree and run back with all speed, his hair becoming + unfastened and like his clothes streaming in the wind. It soon + became evident that he was flying from some terrific object, for he + had thrown down his gun, and, in his panic, he was taking the + shortest line towards us, which lay across a swamp covered with + sedge and rushes that greatly impeded his progress, and prevented + us approaching him, or seeing what was the cause of his flight. + Missing his steps from one hard spot to another he repeatedly fell + into the water, but he rose and resumed his flight. I advanced as + far as the sods would bear my weight, but to go further was + impracticable. Just within ball range there was an open space, and, + as the man gained it, I saw that he was pursued by a bear and two + cubs. As the person of the fugitive covered the bear, it was + impossible to fire without risk. At last he fell exhausted, and the + bear being close upon him, I discharged both barrels. The first + broke the bear's shoulder, but this only made her more savage, and + rising on her hind legs she advanced with ferocious grunts, when + the second barrel, though I do not think it took effect, served to + frighten her, for turning round she retreated at full speed, + followed by the cubs. Some natives then waded through the mud to + the Moorman, who was just exhausted and would have been drowned but + that he fell with his head upon a tuft of grass: the poor man was + unable to speak, and for several weeks his intellect seemed + confused. The adventure sufficed to satisfy him that he could not + again depend upon a charm to protect him from bears, though he + always insisted that but for its having fallen from his hair where + he had fastened it under his turban, the bear would not have + ventured to attack him."</p> + </div> + + <p>Leopards[1] are the only formidable members of the <a name="pg140" + id="pg140"></a> tiger race in Ceylon, and they are neither very + numerous nor very dangerous as they seldom attack man. By Europeans + they are commonly called cheetahs; but the true cheetah, the hunting + leopard of India (<i>Felis jubata</i>), does not exist in Ceylon. + There is a rare variety which has been found in various parts of the + island, in which the skin, instead of being spotted, is of a uniform + black.[2] The leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture lands in + quest of the deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; + and the villagers often complain of the destruction of their cattle + by these formidable marauders. In relation to them, the natives have + a curious but firm conviction that when a bullock is killed by a + leopard, and, in expiring, falls so that <i>its right side is + undermost</i>, the leopard will not return to devour it. I have been + told by English sportsmen (some of whom share in the popular belief), + that sometimes, when they have proposed to watch by the carcase of a + bullock recently killed by a leopard, in the hope of shooting the + spoiler on his return in search of his prey, the native owner of the + slaughtered animal, though earnestly desiring to be avenged, has + assured them that it would be in vain, as, the beast having fallen on + its right side, the leopard would not return.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Felis pardus, <i>Linn</i>. What is called a leopard, or a + cheetah, in Ceylon, is in reality the true panther.</p> + + <p>2: F. melas, <i>Peron</i> and <i>Leseur</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely beautiful + skins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and occasionally + in spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the ground, within + which a kid is generally fastened as a bait; the door being held open + by a sapling bent down by the united force of several men, and so + arranged to act as a spring, to which a noose is ingeniously + attached, formed of plaited deer hide. The cries of the kid attract + the leopards, one of which, being tempted to enter, is enclosed by + the liberation of the spring and grasped firmly round the body by the + noose.</p><a name="pg141" id="pg141"></a> + + <p>Like the other carnivora, they are timid and cowardly in the + presence of man, never intruding on him voluntarily and making a + hasty retreat when approached. Instances have, however, occurred of + individuals having been slain by them, and like the tiger, it is + believed, that, having once tasted human blood they acquire an + habitual relish for it. A peon on night duty at the courthouse at + Anarajapoora, was some years ago carried off by a leopard from a + table in the verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep. At + Batticaloa a "cheetah" in two instances in succession was known to + carry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree to drive away + elephants from the rice-lands: but such cases are rare, and as + compared with their dread of the bear, the natives of Ceylon + entertain but slight apprehensions of the "cheetah." It is, however, + the dread of sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the jungle are + especially exposed to its attacks: and I am aware of one instance in + which a party having tied their dogs to the tent-pole for security, + and fallen asleep around them, a leopard sprang into the tent and + carried off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters.</p> + + <p>They are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour which + accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the natives to submit + themselves or their children to vaccination exposes the island to + frightful visitations of this disease; and in the villages in the + interior it is usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle to + serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leopards are certain + to be allured; and the medical officers are obliged to resort to + increased precautions in consequence. On one occasion being in the + mountains near Kandy, a messenger despatched to me through the jungle + excused his delay by stating that a "cheetah" had seated itself in + the only practicable path, and remained quietly licking its fore paws + and rubbing them over its face, till he was forced to drive it, with + stones, into the forest.</p><a name="pg142" id="pg142"></a> + + <p>Major Skinner, who for upwards of forty years has had occasion to + live almost constantly in the interior, occupied in the prosecution + of surveys and the construction of roads, is strongly of opinion that + towards man the disposition of the leopard is essentially pacific, + and that, when discovered, its natural impulse is to effect its + escape. In illustration of this, I insert an extract from one of his + letters, which describes an adventure highly characteristic of this + instinctive timidity.</p> + + <p>"On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak in the + prosecution of my military reconnoissances of the mountain, zone, I + fixed on a pretty little patena (i.e. meadow) in the midst of an + extensive and dense forest in the southern segment of the Peak Range, + as a favourable spot for operations. It would have been difficult, + after descending from the cone of the peak, to have found one's way + to this point, in the midst of so vast a wilderness of trees, had not + long experience assured me that good game tracks would be found + leading to it, and by one of them I reached it. It was in the + afternoon, just after one of those tropical sun-showers which + decorate every branch and blade with its pendant brilliants, and the + little patena was covered with game, either driven to the open space + by the drippings from the leaves or tempted by the freshness of the + pasture: there were several pairs of elk, the bearded antlered male + contrasting finely with his mate; and other varieties of game in a + profusion not to be found in any place frequented by man. It was some + time before I could allow them to be disturbed by the rude fall of + the axe, in our necessity to establish our bivouac for the night, and + they were so unaccustomed to danger, that it was long before they + took alarm at our noises.</p> + + <p>"The following morning, anxious to gain a height in time to avail + myself of the clear atmosphere of sunrise for my observations, I + started off by myself through the jungle, leaving orders for my men, + with my surveying instruments, to follow my track by the notches + which <a name="pg143" id="pg143"></a> I cut in the bark of the trees. + On leaving the plain, I availed myself of a fine wide game track + which lay in my direction, and had gone, perhaps half a mile from the + camp, when I was startled by a slight rustling in the nilloo[1] to my + right, and in another instant, by the spring of a magnificent leopard + which, in a bound of full eight feet in height over the lower + brushwood, lighted at my feet within eighteen inches of the spot + whereon I stood, and lay in a crouching position, his fiery gleaming + eyes fixed on me.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A species of one of the suffruticose <i>Acanthacea</i> which + grows abundantly in the mountain ranges of Ceylon. See <i>ante</i>, + <a href="#pg090">p. 90 n.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>"The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no weapon of + defence, and with one spring or blow of his paw the beast could have + annihilated me. To move I knew would only encourage his attack. It + occurred to me at the moment that I had heard of the power of man's + eye over wild animals, and accordingly I fixed my gaze as intently, + as the agitation of such a moment enabled me, on his eyes: we stared + at each other for some seconds, when, to my inexpressible joy, the + beast turned and bounded down the straight open path before me." + "This scene occurred just at that period of the morning when the + grazing animals retired from the open patena to the cool shade of the + forest: doubtless, the leopard had taken my approach for that of a + deer, or some such animal. And if his spring had been at a quadruped + instead of a biped, his distance was so well measured, that it must + have landed him on the neck of a deer, an elk, or a buffalo; as it + was, one pace more would have done for me. A bear would not have let + his victim off so easily."</p> + + <p>It is said, but I never have been able personally to verify the + fact, that the Ceylon leopard exhibits a peculiarity in being unable + entirely to retract its claws within their sheaths.</p> + + <p>Of the lesser feline species the number and variety <a name= + "pg144" id="pg144"></a> in Ceylon is inferior to that of India. The + Palm-cat[1] lurks by day among the fronds of the coco-nut trees, and + by night makes destructive forays on the fowls of the villagers; and, + in order to suck the blood of its victim, inflicts a wound so small + as to be almost imperceptible. The glossy genette[2], the + "<i>Civet</i>" of Europeans, is common in the northern province, + where the Tamils confine it in cages for the sake of its musk, which + they collect from the wooden bars on which it rubs itself. Edrisi, + the Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfth century, enumerates + musk as one of the productions then exported from Ceylon.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Paradoxurus typus, <i>F. Cuv</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Viverra Indica, <i>Geoffr., Hodgson</i>.</p> + + <p>3: EDRISI, <i>Géogr</i>., sec. vii. Jaubert's translation, t. + ii. p. 72.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Dogs</i>.—There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but + every village and town is haunted by mongrels of European descent, + which are known by the generic description of <i>Pariahs</i>. They + are a miserable race, acknowledged by no owners, living on the + garbage of the streets and sewers, lean, wretched, and mangy, and if + spoken to unexpectedly, shrinking with an almost involuntary cry. Yet + in these persecuted outcasts there survives that germ of instinctive + affection which binds the dog to the human race, and a gentle word, + even a look of compassionate kindness, is sufficient foundation for a + lasting attachment.</p> + + <p>The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking away life + in any form, permit the increase of these desolate creatures till in + the hot season they become so numerous as to be a nuisance; and the + only expedient hitherto devised by the civil government to reduce + their numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for their + destruction, when the Tamils and Malays pursue them in the streets + with clubs (guns being forbidden by the police for fear of + accidents), and the unresisting dogs are beaten to death on the + side-paths and door steps, where they had been taught to resort + <a name="pg145" id="pg145"></a> for food. Lord Torrington, during his + tenure of office, attempted the more civilised experiment of putting + some check on their numbers, by imposing a dog tax, the effect of + which would have been to lead to the drowning of puppies; whereas + there is reason to believe that dogs are at present <i>bred</i> by + the horse-keepers to be killed for sake of the reward.</p> + + <p><i>Jackal</i>.—The Jackal[1] in the low country hunts in + packs, headed by a leader, and these audacious prowlers have been + seen to assault and pull down a deer. The small number of hares in + the districts they infest is ascribed to their depredations. An + excrescence is sometimes found on the head of the jackal, consisting + of a small horny cone about half an inch in length, and concealed by + a tuft of hair. This the natives call <i>Narri-comboo</i>, and they + aver that this "Jackal's Horn" only grows on the head of the leader + of the pack.[2] The Singhalese and the Tamils alike regard it as a + talisman, and believe that its fortunate possessor can command by its + instrumentality the realisation of every wish, and that if stolen or + lost by him, it will invariably return of its own accord. Those who + have jewels to conceal, rest in perfect security if along with them + they can deposit a Narri-comboo, fully convinced that its presence is + an effectual safeguard against robbers.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Canis aureus. <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>2: In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London (No. 4362 + A), there is a cranium of a jackal which exhibits this strange + osseous process on the super-occipital; and I have placed along + with it a specimen of the horny sheath, which was presented to me + by Mr. Lavalliere, the district judge of Kandy.</p> + </div> + + <p>Jackals are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are frequent of + cattle being bitten by them and dying in consequence.</p> + + <p><i>The Mongoos</i>.—Of the Mongoos or Ichneumons five + species have been described; and one which frequents the hills near + Neuera-ellia[1], is so remarkable from its <a name="pg146" id= + "pg146"></a> bushy fur, that the invalid soldiers in the sanatarium, + to whom it is familiar, call it the "Ceylon Badger." I have found + universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no credit to the + European story of the Mongoos (<i>H. griseus</i>) resorting to some + plant, which no one has yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidote + against the bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys. There is + no doubt that in its conflicts with the cobra de capello and other + poisonous snakes, which it attacks with as little hesitation as the + harmless ones, it may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even to + retire into the jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but + a gentleman who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, assures + me that most usually the herb it resorted to was grass; and if this + were not at hand, almost any other that grew near seemed equally + acceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list of plants; such + as the <i>Ophioxylon serpentinum</i> and <i>Ophiorhiza mungos</i>, + the <i>Aristolochia Indica</i>, the <i>Mimosa octandru</i>, and + others, each of which has been asserted to be the ichneumon's + specific; whilst their multiplicity is demonstrative of the + non-existence of any one in particular to which the animal resorts + for an antidote. Were there any truth in the tale as regards the + mongoos, it would be difficult to understand, why other creatures, + such as the secretary bird and the falcon, which equally destroy + serpents, should be left defenceless, and the ichneumon alone + provided with a prophylactic. Besides, were the ichneumon inspired by + that courage which would result from the consciousness of security, + it would be so indifferent to the bite of the serpent, that we might + conclude that, both in its approaches and its assault, it would be + utterly careless as to the precise mode of its attack. Such, however, + is far <a name="pg147" id="pg147"></a> from being the case; and next + to its audacity, nothing is more surprising than the adroitness with + which it escapes the spring of the snake under a due sense of danger, + and the cunning with which it makes its arrangements to leap upon the + back and fasten its teeth in the head of the cobra. It is this + display of instinctive ingenuity that Lucan[2] celebrates where he + paints the ichneumon diverting the attention of the asp, by the + motion of his bushy tale, and then seizing it in the midst of its + confusion.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Herpestes vitticollis</i>. Mr. W. ELLIOTT, in his + <i>Catalogue of Mammalia found in the Southern Maharata + Country</i>, Madras, 1840, says, that "One specimen of this + Herpestes was procured by accident in the Ghat forests in 1829, and + is now deposited in the British Museum; it is very rare, inhabiting + only the thickest woods, and its habits are very little known," p. + 9. In Ceylon, it is comparatively common.</p> + + <p>2: The passage in Lucan is a versification of the same narrative + related by Pliny, lib. viii. ch. 35; and Ælian, lib. iii. ch. + 22.</p> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Aspidas ut Pharias caudâ solertior hostis</p> + + <p>Ludit, et iratas incertâ provocat umbrâ:</p> + + <p>Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras</p> + + <p>Effusæ toto comprendit guttura morsu</p> + + <p>Letiferam citra saniem; tune irrita pestis</p> + + <p>Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno."</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Pharsalia</i>, lib. iv. v. 729.</p> + + <p>The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has been referred to + the supposition that there may be some peculiarity in its + organisation which renders it <i>proof against</i> the poison of the + serpent. It remains for future investigation to determine how far + this conjecture is founded in truth; and whether in the blood of the + mongoos there exists any element or quality which acts as a + prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions are not without precedent + in the animal oeconomy: the hornbill feeds with impunity on the + deadly fruit of the strychnos; the milky juice of some species of + euphorbia, which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to the + zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, whose bite is + mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, is harmless to man and the + untamed creatures of the forest.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. LIVINGSTONE, <i>Tour in S. Africa</i>, p. 80. Is it a + fact that in America, pigs extirpate the rattlesnakes with + impunity?</p> + </div> + + <p>The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, which they + designate "<i>Hotambeya</i>," and which they <a name="pg148" id= + "pg148"></a> assert never preys upon serpents. A writer in the + <i>Ceylon Miscellany</i> mentions, that they are often to be seen + "crossing rivers and frequenting mud-brooks near Chilaw; the adjacent + thickets affording them shelter, and their food consisting of aquatic + reptiles, crabs, and mollusca."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This is possibly the "musbilai" or mouse-cat of Behar, which + preys upon birds and fish. Could it be the Urva of the Nepalese + (<i>Urva cancrivora</i>, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson describes as + dwelling in burrows, and being carnivorous and + ranivorous?—Vide <i>Journ. As. Soc. Beng.</i>, vol. vi. p. + 56.</p> + </div> + + <p>IV. RODENTIA. <i>Squirrels</i>.—Smaller animals in great + numbers enliven the forests and lowland plains with their graceful + movements. Squirrels[1], of which there are a great variety, make + their shrill metallic call heard at early morning in the woods, and + when sounding their note of warning on the approach of a civet or a + tree-snake, the ears tingle with the loud trill of defiance, which + rings as clear and rapid as the running down of an alarum, and is + instantly caught up and re-echoed from every side by their terrified + playmates.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Of two kinds which frequent the mountains, one which is + peculiar to Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who has + done me the honour to call it the <i>Sciurus Tennentii</i>. Its + dimensions are large, measuring upwards of two feet from head to + tail. It is distinguished from the <i>S. macrurus</i> by the + predominant black colour of the upper surface of the body, with the + exception of a rusty spot at the base of the ears.</p> + </div> + + <p>One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied subgenus, is + known as the "Flying Squirrel,"[1] from its being assisted in its + prodigious leaps from tree to tree, by the parachute formed by the + skin of the flanks, which on the extension of the limbs front and + rear, is laterally expanded from foot to foot. Thus buoyed up in its + descent, the spring which it is enabled to make from one lofty tree + to another resembles the flight of a bird rather than the bound of a + quadruped. Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one + common to Ceylon and India, the other (<i>Sciuropterus Layardii</i>, + Kelaart) is peculiar to the island, and is by far the most beautiful + of the family.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pteromys oral., <i>Tickel</i>. P. petaurista, + <i>Pallas</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg149" id="pg149"></a> + + <p><i>Rats</i>.—Among the multifarious inhabitants to which the + forest affords at once a home and provender is the tree rat[1], which + forms its nest on the branches, and by turns makes its visits to the + dwellings of the natives, frequenting the ceilings in preference to + the lower parts of houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the + rat-snake[2], whose domestication is encouraged by the native + servants, in consideration of its services in destroying vermin. I + had one day an opportunity of surprising a snake which had just + seized on a rat of this description, and of covering it suddenly with + a glass shade, before it had time to swallow its prey. The serpent, + which appeared stunned by its own capture, allowed the rat to escape + from its jaws, which cowered at one side of the glass in the most + pitiable state of trembling terror. The two were left alone for some + moments, and on my return to them the snake was as before in the same + attitude of sullen stupor. On setting them at liberty, the rat + bounded towards the nearest fence; but quick as lightning it was + followed by its pursuer, which seized it before it could gain the + hedge, through which I saw the snake glide with its victim in its + jaws.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There are two species of the tree rat in Ceylon: M. + rufescens, <i>Gray</i>; (M. flavescens; <i>Elliot</i>;) and Mus + nemoralis, <i>Blyth</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Coryphodon Blumenbachii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which made its + appearance for the first time in the coffee plantations on the + Kandyan hills in the year 1847, and in such swarms does it infest + them, that as many as a thousand have been killed in a single day on + one estate. In order to reach the buds and blossoms of the coffee, it + cuts such slender branches, as would not sustain its weight, and + feeds as they fall to the ground; and so delicate and sharp are its + incisors, that the twigs thus destroyed are detached by as clean a + cut as if severed with a knife. The coffee-rat[1] is an insular + variety of the <i>Mus hirsutus</i> of W. Elliot, found in Southern + India. They <a name="pg150" id="pg150"></a> inhabit the forests, + making their nests among the roots of the trees, and like the + lemmings of Norway and Lapland, they migrate in vast numbers on the + occurrence of a scarcity of their ordinary food. The Malabar coolies + are so fond of their flesh, that they evince a preference for those + districts in which the coffee plantations are subject to these + incursions, where they fry the rats in oil, or convert them into + curry.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Golunda Ellioti, <i>Gray</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Bandicoot</i>.—Another favourite article of food with the + coolies is the pig-rat or Bandicoot[1], which attains on those hills + the weight of two or three pounds, and grows to nearly the length of + two feet. As it feeds on grain and roots, its flesh is said to be + delicate, and much resembling young pork. Its nests, when rifled, are + frequently found to contain considerable quantities of rice, stored + up against the dry season.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mus bandicota, <i>Beckst</i>. The English term bandicoot is a + corruption of the Telinga name <i>pandikoku</i>, literally + <i>pig-rat</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Porcupine</i>.—The Porcupine[1] is another of the + <i>rodentia</i> which has drawn down upon itself the hostility of the + planters, from its destruction of the young coco-nut palms, to which + it is a pernicious and persevering, but withal so crafty, a visitor, + that it is with difficulty any trap can be so disguised, or any bait + made so alluring, as to lead to its capture. The usual expedient is + to place some of its favourite food at the extremity of a trench, so + narrow as to prevent the porcupine turning, whilst the direction of + his quills effectually bars his retreat. On a newly planted coco-nut + tope, at Hang-welle, within a few miles of Colombo, I have heard of + as many as twenty-seven being thus captured in a single night; but + such success is rare. The more ordinary expedient is to smoke them + out by burning straw at the apertures of their burrows. The flesh is + esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon, and in consistency, colour, and + flavour, it very much resembles that of a young pig.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Hystrix leucurus, <i>Sykes</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg151" id="pg151"></a> + + <p>V. EDENTATA, <i>Pengolin.</i>—Of the <i>Edentata</i> the + only example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater, called by the + Singhalese, Caballaya, but usually known by its Malay name of + <i>Pengolin</i>[1], a word indicative of its faculty of "rolling + itself up" into a compact ball, by bending its head towards its + stomach, arching its back into a circle, and securing all by a + powerful fold of its mail-covered tail. The feet of the pengolin are + armed with powerful claws, which they double in in walking like the + ant-eater of Brazil. These they use in extracting their favourite + food, the termites, from ant-hills and decaying wood. When at + liberty, they burrow in the dry ground to a depth of seven or eight + feet, where they reside in pairs, and produce annually one or two + young.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Manis pentadactyla, <i>Linn.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one from + the vicinity of Kandy, about two feet in length, was a gentle and + affectionate creature, which, after wandering over the house in + search of ants, would attract attention to its wants by climbing up + my knee, laying hold of my leg with its prehensile tail. The other, + more than double that length, was caught in the jungle near Chilaw, + and brought to me in Colombo. I had always understood that the + pengolin was unable to climb trees; but the one last mentioned + frequently ascended a tree in my garden, in search of ants, and this + it effected by means of its hooked feet, aided by an oblique grasp of + the tail. The ants it seized by extending its round and glutinous + tongue along their tracks. In both, the scales of the back were a + cream-coloured white, with a tinge of red in the specimen which came + from Chilaw, probably acquired by the insinuation of the Cabook dust + which abounds along the western coast of the island. Generally + speaking, they were quiet during the day, and grew restless as + evening and night approached.</p> + + <p>VI. RUMINATA. <i>The Gaur.</i>—Besides the deer and <a name= + "pg152" id="pg152"></a> some varieties of the humped ox, which have + been introduced from the opposite continent of India, Ceylon has + probably but one other indigenous <i>ruminant</i>., the buffalo.[1] + There is a tradition that the gaur, found in the extremity of the + Indian peninsula, was at one period a native of the Kandyan + mountains; but as Knox speaks of one which in his time "was kept + among the king's creatures" at Kandy[2], and his account of it + tallies with that of the <i>Bos Gaurus</i> of Hindustan, it would + appear even then to have been a rarity. A place between Neuera-ellia + and Adam's Peak bears the name of Gowra-ellia, and it is not + impossible that the animal may yet be discovered in some of the + imperfectly explored regions of the island.[3] I have heard of an + instance in which a very old Kandyan, residing in the mountains near + the Horton Plains, asserted that when young he had seen what he + believed to have been a gaur, and which he described as between an + elk and a buffalo in size, dark brown in colour, and very scantily + provided with hair.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Bubalus buffelus; <i>Gray</i>.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon, &c.</i>, A.D. 1681. + Book i. c, 6.</p> + + <p>3: KELAART, <i>Fauna Zeylan</i>., p. 87.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Oxen</i>.—Oxen are used by the peasantry both in + ploughing and in tempering the mud in the wet paddi fields before + sowing the rice; and when the harvest is reaped they "tread out the + corn," after the immemorial custom of the East. The wealth of the + native chiefs and landed proprietors frequently consists in their + herds of bullocks, which they hire out to their dependents during the + seasons for agricultural labour; and as they already supply them with + land to be tilled, and lend the seed which is to crop it, the further + contribution of this portion of the labour serves to render the + dependence of the peasantry on the chiefs and head-men complete.</p> + + <p>The cows are worked equally with the oxen; and <a name="pg153" id= + "pg153"></a> as the calves are always permitted to suck them, milk is + an article which the traveller can rarely hope to procure in a + Kandyan village. From their constant exposure at all seasons, the + cattle in Ceylon, both those employed in agriculture and on the + roads, are subject to the most devastating murrains, which sweep them + away by thousands. So frequent is the recurrence of these calamities, + and so extended their ravages, that they exercise a serious influence + over the commercial interests of the colony, by reducing the + facilities of agriculture, and augmenting the cost of carriage during + the most critical periods of the coffee season.</p> + + <p>A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, frequently carries off + the cattle in Assam and other hill countries on the continent of + India; and there, as in Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the + lungs and throat, and the internal derangement and external eruptive + appearances, seem to indicate that the disease is a feverish + influenza, attributable to neglect and exposure in a moist and + variable climate; and that its prevention might be hoped for, and the + cattle preserved by the simple expedient of more humane and + considerate treatment, especially by affording them cover at + night.</p> + + <p>During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred at + Neuera-ellia, which invested one of these pretty animals with an + heroic interest. A little cow, belonging to an English gentleman, was + housed, together with her calf, near the dwelling of her owner, and + being aroused during the night by her furious bellowing, the + servants, on hastening to the stall, found her goring a leopard, + which had stolen in to attack the calf. She had got him into a + corner, and whilst lowing incessantly to call for help, she continued + to pound him with her horns. The wild animal, apparently stupified by + her unexpected violence, was detained by her till despatched by a + gun.</p><a name="pg154" id="pg154"></a> + + <p><i>The Buffalo</i>.—Buffaloes abound in all parts of Ceylon, + but they are only to be seen in their native wildness in the vast + solitudes of the northern and eastern provinces, where rivers, + lagoons, and dilapidated tanks abound. In these they delight to + immerse themselves, till only their heads appear above the surface; + or, enveloped in mud to protect themselves from the assaults of + insects, luxuriate in the long sedges by the water margins.</p> + + <p>When the buffalo is browsing, a crow will frequently be seen + stationed on his back, engaged in freeing it from the ticks and other + pests which attach themselves to his leathery hide, the smooth brown + surface of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an unpleasant + polish in the sunlight. When in motion he throws back his clumsy head + till the huge horns rest on his shoulders, and the nose is presented + in a line with the eyes. When wild they are at all times uncertain in + disposition, but so frequently savage that it is never quite safe to + approach them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from their + repose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions they hurry into line, + draw up in defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in + advance; and, wheeling in circles, their horns clashing with a loud + sound as they clank them together in their rapid evolutions, the herd + betakes itself to flight. Then forming again at a safer distance, + they halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and throwing back + their heads to take a cautious survey of the intruders. The sportsman + rarely molests them, so huge a creature affording no worthy mark for + his skill, and their wanton slaughter adding nothing to the supply of + food for their assailant.</p> + + <p>In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese domesticate the + buffaloes, and use them to assist in the labour of the rice lands, + the villagers are much annoyed by the wild ones, which mingle with + the tame when sent out to the woods to pasture; and it constantly + <a name="pg155" id="pg155"></a> happens that a savage stranger, + placing himself at the head of the tame herd, resists the attempts of + the owners to drive them homewards at sunset. In the districts of + Putlam and the Seven Corles, buffaloes are generally used for + draught; and in carrying heavy loads of salt from the coast towards + the interior, they drag a cart over roads which would defy the weaker + strength of bullocks.</p> + + <p>In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I found the + natives making an ingenious use of them when engaged in shooting + water-fowl in the vast salt marshes and muddy lakes. Being an object + to which the birds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the buffalo + to the sport, and, concealed behind, the animal browsing listlessly + along, they guide it by ropes attached to its horns, and thus creep + undiscovered within shot of the flock. The same practice prevails, I + believe, in some of the northern parts of India, where they are + similarly trained to assist the sportsman in approaching deer. One of + these "sporting buffaloes" sells for a considerable sum.</p> + + <p>The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon as an + albino, with purely white hair and pink iris. There is a peculiarity + in the formation of its foot, which, though it must have attracted + attention, I have never seen mentioned by naturalists. It is + equivalent to an arrangement that distinguishes the foot of the + reindeer from that of the stag and the antelope. In them, the hoofs, + being constructed for lightness and flight, are compact and vertical; + but, in the reindeer, the joints of the tarsal bones admit of lateral + expansion, and the broad hoofs curve upwards in front, while the two + secondary ones behind (which are but slightly developed in the fallow + deer and others of the same family) are prolonged till, in certain + positions, they are capable of being applied to the ground, thus + adding to the circumference and sustaining power of the foot. It has + been usually suggested as the probable <a name="pg156" id= + "pg156"></a> design of this structure, that it is to enable the + reindeer to shovel under the snow in order to reach the lichens + beneath it; but I apprehend that another use of it has been + overlooked, that of facilitating its movements in search of food by + increasing the difficulty of its sinking in the snow.</p> + + <p>A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems to point to a + corresponding design. The ox, whose life is spent on firm ground, has + the bones of the foot so constructed as to afford the most solid + support to an animal of its great weight; but in the buffalo, which + delights in the morasses on the margins of pools and rivers, the + formation of the foot resembles that of the reindeer. The tarsi in + front extend almost horizontally from the upright bones of the leg, + and spread widely on touching the ground; the hoofs are flattened and + broad, with the extremities turned upwards; and the false hoofs + descend behind till, in walking, they make a clattering sound. In + traversing the marshes, this combination of abnormal incidents serves + to give extraordinary breadth to the foot, and not only prevents the + buffalo from sinking inconveniently in soft ground[1], but at the + same time presents no obstacle to the withdrawal of his foot from the + mud.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PROFESSOR OWEN has noticed a similar fact regarding the + rudiments of the second and fifth digits in the instance of the elk + and bison, which have them largely expanded where they inhabit + swampy ground; whilst they are nearly obliterated in the camel and + dromedary, which traverse arid deserts.—OWEN <i>on Limbs</i>, + p. 34; see also BELL <i>on the Hand</i>, ch. iii.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Deer</i>.—"Deer," says the truthful old chronicler, + Robert Knox, "are in great abundance in the woods, from the largeness + of a cow to the smallness of a hare, for here is a creature in this + land no bigger than the latter, though every part rightly resembleth + a deer: it is called <i>meminna</i>, of a grey colour, with white + spots and good meat."[1] The little creature which thus dwelt in the + recollection of the old man, as one of the memorials <a name="pg157" + id="pg157"></a> of his long captivity, is the small "musk deer"[2] so + called in India, although neither sex is provided with a musk-bag; + and the Europeans in Ceylon know it by the name of the moose deer. + Its extreme length never reaches two feet; and of those which were + domesticated about my house, few exceeded ten inches in height, their + graceful limbs being of similar delicate proportion. It possesses + long and extremely large tusks, with which it inflicts a severe bite. + The interpreter moodliar of Negombo had a <i>milk white</i> meminna + in 1847, which he designed to send home as an acceptable present to + Her Majesty, but it was unfortunately killed by an accident.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: KNOX'S <i>Relation, &c</i>., book i. c. 6.</p> + + <p>2: Moschus meminna.</p> + + <p>3: When the English took possession of Kandy, in 1803, they + found "five beautiful milk-white deer in the palace, which was + noted as a very extraordinary thing."—<i>Letter</i> in + Appendix to PERCIVAL'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. 428. The writer does not + say of what species they were.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Ceylon Elk</i>.—In the mountains, the Ceylon elk[1], + which reminds one of the red deer of Scotland, attains the height of + four or five feet; it abounds in all places which are intersected by + shady rivers; where, though its hunting affords an endless resource + to the sportsmen, its venison scarcely equals in quality the inferior + beef of the lowland ox. In the glades and park-like openings that + diversify the great forests of the interior, the spotted Axis troops + in herds as numerous as the fallow deer in England; and, in journeys + through the jungle, when often dependent on the guns of our party for + the precarious supply of the table, we found the flesh of the Axis[2] + and the Muntjac[3] a sorry substitute for that of the pea-fowl, the + jungle-cock, and flamingo. The occurrence of albinos is very frequent + <a name="pg158" id="pg158"></a> in troops of the axis. Deer's horns + are an article of export from Ceylon, and considerable quantities are + annually sent to the United Kingdom.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Rusa Aristotelis. Dr. GRAY has lately shown that this is the + great <i>axis</i> of Cuvier.—<i>Oss. Foss.</i> 502, t. 39, f. + 10. The Singhalese, on following the elk, frequently effect their + approaches by so imitating the call of the animal as to induce them + to respond. An instance occurred during my residence in Ceylon, in + which two natives, whose mimicry had mutually deceived them, crept + so close together in the jungle that one shot the other, supposing + the cry to proceed from the game.</p> + + <p>2: Axis maculata, <i>H. Smith</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Stylocerus muntjac, <i>Horsf</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>VII. PACHYDERMATA. <i>The Elephant.</i>—The elephant and the + wild boar, the Singhalese "waloora," are the only representatives of + the <i>pachydermatous</i> order. The latter, which differs in no + respect from the wild boar of India, is found in droves in all parts + of the island where vegetation and water are abundant. The elephant, + the lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be met with in every + district, on the confines of the woods, in whose depths he finds + concealment and shade during the hours when the sun is high, and from + which he emerges only at twilight to wend his way towards the rivers + and tanks, where he luxuriates till dawn, when he again seeks the + retirement of the deep forests. This noble animal fills so dignified + a place both in the zoology and oeconomy of Ceylon, and his habits in + a state of nature have been so much misunderstood, that I shall + devote a separate section to his defence from misrepresentation, and + to an exposition of what, from observation and experience, I believe + to be his genuine character when free in his native domains.</p> + + <p>VIII. CETACEA.—Among the Cetacea the occurrence of the + Dugong[1] on various points of the coast, and especially on the + western side of the island, will be noticed elsewhere; and whales are + so frequently seen that they have been captured within sight of + Colombo, and more than once their carcases, after having been + flinched by the whalers, have floated on shore near the light-house, + tainting the atmosphere within the fort by their rapid + decomposition.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Halicore dugong</i>, F. Cuv.</p> + </div> + + <p>From this sketch of the Mammalia it will be seen that, in its + general features, this branch of the Fauna bears a striking + resemblance to that of Southern India, although many of the larger + animals of the latter are <a name="pg159" id="pg159"></a> unknown in + Ceylon; and, on the other hand, some species discovered there are + altogether peculiar to the island. A deer[1] as large as the Axis, + but differing from it in the number and arrangement of its spots, has + been described by Dr. Kelaart, to whose vigilance the natural history + of Ceylon is indebted, amongst others, for the identification of two + new species of monkeys[2], a number of curious shrews[3], and an + orange-coloured ichneumon[4], before unknown. There are also two + descriptions of squirrels[5] that have not as yet been discovered + elsewhere, one of them belonging to those equipped with a + parachute[6], as well as some local varieties of the palm squirrel + (Sciurus penicillatus, <i>Leach</i>).[7]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Cervus orizus, KELAART, <i>Prod. F. Zeyl</i>., p. 83.</p> + + <p>2: Presbytes ursinus, <i>Blyth</i>, and P. Thersites, + <i>Elliot</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Sorex montanus, S. ferrugineus, and Feroculus macropus.</p> + + <p>4: Herpestes fulvescens, KELAART, <i>Prod. Fann. Zeylan</i>., + App. p. 42.</p> + + <p>5: Sciurus Tennentii, <i>Layard</i>.</p> + + <p>6: Sciuropterus Layardi, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p> + + <p>7: There is a rat found only in the Cinnamon Gardens at Colombo, + Mus Ceylonus, <i>Kelaart</i>; and a mouse which Dr. Kelaart + discovered at Trincomalie, M. fulvidi-ventris, <i>Blyth</i>, both + peculiar to Ceylon. Dr. TEMPLETON has noticed a little shrew + (Corsira purpurascens, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist</i>. 1855, p. 238) at + Neuera-ellia, not as yet observed elsewhere.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number of minor animals + found in the Indian peninsula, cannot boast such a ruminant as the + majestic Gaur[1], which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin + to the Himalaya; and, providentially, the island is equally free of + the formidable tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hindustan.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Bos cavifrons, <i>Hodgs</i>, B. frontalis, <i>Lamb</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Hyena and Cheetah[1], common in Southern India, are unknown in + Ceylon; and though abundant in deer, the island possesses no example + of the Antelope or the Gazelle.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Felis jubata, <i>Schreb</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>List of Ceylon Mammalia.</i></p> + + <p>A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it, as + well as the lists appended to other chapters on the Fauna of the + island, the principal object in view has been to exhibit the extent + to which its natural history had been investigated, <a name="pg160" + id="pg160"></a> and collections made up to the period of my leaving + the colony in 1850. It has been considered expedient to exclude a few + individuals which have not had the advantage of a direct comparison + with authentic specimens, either at Calcutta or in England. This will + account for the omission of a number which have appeared in other + catalogues, but of which many, though ascertained to exist, have not + been submitted to this rigorous process of identification.</p> + + <p>The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds contained + in these lists will be found, with suitable references to the most + accurate descriptions, in the admirable catalogue of the collection + at the India House, now in course of publication under the care of + Dr. Horsfield. This work cannot be too highly extolled, not alone for + the scrupulous fidelity with which the description of each species is + referred to its first discoverer, but also for the pains which have + been taken to elaborate synonymes and to collate from local + periodicals and other sources, little accessible to ordinary + inquirers, such incidents and traits as are calculated to illustrate + characteristics and habits.</p> + + <p><b>Quadrumana.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Presbytes cephalopterus, <i>Zimm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>ursinus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Priamus, <i>Elliot</i> & <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Thersites, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Macacus pileatus, <i>Shaw</i> & <i>Desm</i>.</li> + + <li>Loris gracilis, <i>Geoff</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Cheiroptera.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Pteropus Edwardsii, <i>Geoff</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Leschenaultii, <i>Dum</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cynopterus marginatus, <i>Hamilt</i>.</li> + + <li>Megaderma spasma, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>lyra, <i>Geoff</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhinolophus <i>affinis, Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Hipposideros murinus, <i>Elliot</i>. + + <ul> + <li>speoris, <i>Elliot</i>.</li> + + <li>armiger, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li> + + <li>vulgaris, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Kerivoula picta, <i>Pall</i>.</li> + + <li>Taphozous longimanus, <i>Hardw</i>.</li> + + <li>Scotophilus Coromandelicus, <i>F. Cuv</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>adversus, Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Temminkii, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Tickelli, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Heathii.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Carnivora.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Sorex coerulescens, <i>Shaw</i>. + + <ul> + <li>ferrugincus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>serpentarius, <i>Is. Geoff</i>.</li> + + <li>montanus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Feroculus macropus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>Ursus labiatus, <i>Blainv</i>.</li> + + <li>Lutra nair, <i>F. Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>Canis aureus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Viverra Indica, <i>Geoff., Hodgs</i>.</li> + + <li>Cynictis Maccarthiæ, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Herpestes vitticollis, <i>Benn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>griseus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Smithii, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>fulvescens, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Paradoxurus typus, <i>F. Cuv</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonicus, <i>Pall</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Felis pardus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>chaus, <i>Guldens</i>.</li> + + <li>viverrinus, <i>Benn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Rodentia.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Sciurus macrurus, <i>Forst</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Tennentii, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + + <li>penicillatus, <i>Leach</i>.</li> + + <li>trilineatus, <i>Waterh</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sciuropterus Layardi, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>Pteromys petaurista, <i>Pall</i>.</li> + + <li>Mus bandicota, <i>Bechst</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Kok, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>rufescens, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>nemoralis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Indicus, <i>Geoff</i>.</li> + + <li>fulvidiventris, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nesoki <i>Hardwickii, Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Golunda Neuera, <i>Kelaart</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Ellioti, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gerbillus Indicus, <i>Hardw</i>.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg161" id="pg161"></a></li> + + <li>Lepus nigricollis, <i>F. Cuv.</i></li> + + <li>Hystrix leucurus, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Edentata.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Manis pentadactyla, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Pachydermata.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Elephas Indicus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Sus Indicus, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>Zeylonicus, Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Ruminantia.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Moschus meminna, <i>Erxl</i>.</li> + + <li>Stylocerus muntjac, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Axis maculata, <i>H. Smith</i>.</li> + + <li>Rusa Aristotelis, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Cetacea.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Halicore dugung, <i>F. Cuv</i>.</li> + </ul> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (A.)</h3><i>Parasite of the Bat</i>. + + <p>One of the most curious peculiarities connected with the bats is + their singular parasite, the Nycteribia.[1] On cursory observation, + this creature appears to have neither head, antennæ, eyes, nor mouth; + and the earlier observers of its structure assured themselves that + the place of the latter was supplied by a cylindrical sucker, which, + being placed between the shoulders, the creature had no option but to + turn on its back to feed. This apparent inconvenience was thought to + have been compensated for by another anomaly: its three pairs of + legs, armed with claws, being so arranged that they seemed to be + equally distributed over its upper and under sides, the creature + being thus enabled to use them like hands, and to grasp the strong + hairs above it while extracting its nourishment. It moves by rolling + itself rapidly along, rotating like a wheel on the extremities of its + spokes, or like the clown in a pantomime hurling himself forward on + hands and feet alternately. Its celerity is so great that Colonel + Montague, who was one of the first to describe it minutely[2], says + its speed exceeds that of any known insect, and as its joints are so + flexible as to yield in every direction (like what mechanics call a + "ball and socket"), its motions are exceedingly grotesque as it + tumbles through the fur of the bat.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This extraordinary creature had formerly been discovered only + on a few European bats. Joinville figured one which he found on the + large roussette (the flying-fox), and says he had seen another on a + bat of the same family. Dr. Templeton observed them in Ceylon in + great abundance on the fur of the <i>Scotophilus + Coromandelicus</i>, and they will, no doubt, be found on many + others.</p> + + <p>2: Celeripes vespertilionis, <i>Mont. Lin. Trans</i>, xi. p. + 11.</p> + </div> + + <p>To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is + <a name="pg162" id="pg162"></a> armed with two sharp hooks, with + elastic pads opposed to them, so that the hair can not only be + rapidly seized and firmly held, but as quickly disengaged as the + creature whirls away in its headlong career.</p> + + <p>The insects to which it hears the nearest affinity are the + <i>Hippoboscidæ</i> or "spider flies," that infest birds and horses, + but, unlike them, it is unable to fly.</p> + + <p>Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the belief + that it is headless, is its faculty when at rest of throwing back its + head and pressing it close between its shoulders till the under side + becomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being discernible where we + would naturally look for it, and the whole seeming but a casual + inequality on its back.</p> + + <p>On closer examination this apparent tubercle is found to have a + leathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sudden jerk the + little creature is enabled to project it forward into its normal + position, when it is discovered to be furnished with a mouth, + antennæ, and four eyes, two on each side.</p> + + <p>The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation of + physical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia has to make + its way through fur and hairs, its feet are furnished with prehensile + hooks that almost convert them into hands; and being obliged to + conform to the sudden flights of its patron, and accommodate itself + to inverted positions, all attitudes are rendered alike to it by the + arrangement of its limbs, which enables it, after every possible + gyration, to find itself always on its feet.</p><a name="pg163" id= + "pg163"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. II.</h2> + + <h3>BIRDS.</h3> + + <p>Of the <i>Birds</i> of the island, upwards of three hundred and + twenty species have been indicated, for which we are indebted to the + persevering labours of Dr. Templeton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard; + but many yet remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye of a + stranger, their prodigious numbers, and especially the myriads of + waterfowl which, notwithstanding the presence of the crocodiles, + people the lakes and marshes in the eastern provinces, form one of + the marvels of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the interior are + surpassed by those of South America and Northern India; and the + melody of their song will bear no comparison with that of the + warblers of Europe, but the want of brilliancy is compensated by + their singular grace of form, and the absence of prolonged and + modulated harmony by the rich and melodious tones of their clear and + musical calls. In the elevations of the Kandyan country there are a + few, such as the robin of Neuera-ellia[1] and the long-tailed + thrush[2], whose song rivals that of their European namesakes; but, + far beyond the attraction of their notes, the traveller rejoices in + the flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird[3], and some + others equally charming; when, at the first dawn of day, they wake + the forest with their clear <i>reveille</i>.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pratincola atrata, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Kittacincla macroura, <i>Gm</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Copsychus saularis, <i>Linn</i>. Called by the Europeans in + Ceylon the "Magpie Robin." This is not to be confounded with the + other popular favourite, the "Indian Robin" (Thamnobia fulicata, + <i>Linn</i>.), which is "never seen in the unfrequented jungle, + but, like the coco-nut palm, which the Singhalese assert will only + flourish within the sound of the human voice, it is always found + near the habitations of men."—E.L. LAYARD.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is only on emerging from the dense forests, and <a name="pg164" + id="pg164"></a> coming into the vicinity of the lakes and pasture of + the low country, that birds become visible in great quantities. In + the close jungle one occasionally hears the call of the + copper-smith[1], or the strokes of the great orange-coloured + woodpecker[2] as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects, + whilst clinging to the bark with its finely-pointed claws, and + leaning for support upon the short stiff feathers of its tail. And on + the lofty branches of the higher trees, the hornbill[3] (the toucan + of the East), with its enormous double casque, sits to watch the + motions of the tiny reptiles and smaller birds on which it preys, + tossing them into the air when seized, and catching them in its + gigantic mandibles as they fall.[4] The remarkable excrescence on the + beak of this extraordinary bird may serve to explain the statement of + the Minorite friar Odoric, of Portenau in Friuli, who travelled in + Ceylon in the fourteenth century, and brought suspicion on the + veracity of his narrative by asserting that he had there seen + "<i>birds with two heads</i>."[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The greater red-headed Barbet (Megalaima indica, + <i>Lath</i>.; M. Philippensis, <i>var. A. Lath</i>.), the incessant + din of which resembles the blows of a smith hammering a + cauldron.</p> + + <p>2: Brachypternus aurantius, <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Buceros pica, <i>Scop</i>.; B. coronata, <i>Bodd</i>. The + natives assert that B. pica builds in holes in the trees, and that + when incubation has fairly commenced, the female takes her seat on + the eggs, and the male closes up the orifice by which she entered, + leaving only a small aperture through which he feeds his partner, + whilst she successfully guards their treasures from the monkey + tribes; her formidable bill nearly filling the entire entrance. See + a paper by Edgar L. Layard, Esq. <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> March, + 1853. Dr. Horsfield had previously observed the same habit in a + species of Buceros in Java. (See HORSFIELD and MOORE'S <i>Catal. + Birds</i>, E.I. Comp. Mus. vol. ii.) It is curious that a similar + trait, though necessarily from very different instincts, is + exhibited by the termites, who literally build a cell round the + great progenitrix of the community, and feed her through + apertures.</p> + + <p>4: The hornbill is also frugivorous, and the natives assert that + when endeavouring to detach a fruit, if the stem is too tough to be + severed by his mandibles, he flings himself off the branch so as to + add the weight of his body to the pressure of his beak. The + hornbill abounds in Cuttack, and bears there the name of + "Kuchila-Kai," or Kuchila-eater, from its partiality for the fruit + of the Strychnus nux-vomica. The natives regard its flesh as a + sovereign specific for rheumatic affections.—<i>Asiat. + Res.</i> ch. xv. p. 184.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Itinerarius</i> FRATRIS ODORICI, de Foro Julii de + Portu-vahonis.—HAKLUYT, vol. ii. p. 39.</p> + </div> + + <p>As we emerge from the deep shade and approach the <a name="pg165" + id="pg165"></a> park-like openings on the verge of the low country, + quantities of pea-fowl are to be found either feeding amongst the + seeds and nuts in the long grass or sunning themselves on the + branches of the surrounding trees. Nothing to be met with in demesnes + in England can give an adequate idea either of the size or the + magnificence of this matchless bird when seen in his native + solitudes. Here he generally selects some projecting branch, from + which his plumage may hang free of the foliage, and, if there be a + dead and leafless bough, he is certain to choose it for his + resting-place, whence he droops his wings and suspends his gorgeous + train, or spreads it in the morning sun to drive off the damps and + dews of the night.</p> + + <p>In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern province, to + which Europeans rarely resort, and where the pea-fowl are unmolested + by the natives, their number is so extraordinary that, regarded as + game, it ceases to be a "sport" to destroy them; and their cries at + early morning are so tumultuous and incessant as to banish sleep, and + amount to an actual inconvenience. Their flesh is excellent when + served up hot, though it is said to be indigestible; but, when cold, + it contracts a reddish and disagreeable tinge.</p> + + <p>But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude, as well as + the most interesting from their endless variety, are the myriads of + aquatic birds and waders which frequent the lakes and watercourses; + especially those along the coast near Batticaloa, between the + mainland and the sand formations of the shore, and the innumerable + salt marshes and lagoons to the south of Trincomalie. These, and the + profusion of perching birds, fly-catchers, finches, and thrushes, + which appear in the open country, afford sufficient quarry for the + raptorial and predatory species—eagles, hawks, and + falcons—whose daring sweeps and effortless undulations are + striking objects in the cloudless sky.</p><a name="pg166" id= + "pg166"></a> + + <p>I. ACCIPITRES. <i>Eagles</i>.—The Eagles, however, are + small, and as compared with other countries rare; except, perhaps, + the crested eagle[1], which haunts the mountain provinces and the + lower hills, disquieting the peasantry by its ravages amongst their + poultry; and the gloomy serpent eagle[2], which, descending from its + eyrie in the lofty jungle, and uttering a loud and plaintive cry, + sweeps cautiously around the lonely tanks and marshes, where it feeds + upon the reptiles on their margin. The largest eagle is the great sea + Erne[3], seen on the northern coasts and the salt lakes of the + eastern provinces, particularly when the receding tide leaves bare an + expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in company with the fishing + eagle[4], sacred to Siva. Unlike its companions, however, the sea + eagle rejects garbage for living prey, and especially for the sea + snakes which abound on the northern coasts. These it seizes by + descending with its wings half closed, and, suddenly darting down its + talons, it soars aloft again with its writhing victim.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Spizaëtus limnaëtus, <i>Horsf</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Hæmatornis cheela, <i>Daud</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Pontoaetus leucogaster, <i>Gmel</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Haliastur indus, <i>Bodd</i>.</p> + + <p>5: E.L. Layard. Europeans have given this bird the name of the + "Brahminy Kite," probably from observing the superstitious feeling + of the natives regarding it, who believe that when two armies are + about to engage, its appearance prognosticates victory to the party + over whom it hovers.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Hawks</i>.—The beautiful Peregrine Falcon[1] is rare, but + the Kestrel[2] is found almost universally; and the bold and daring + Goshawk[3] wherever wild crags and precipices afford safe breeding + places. In the district of Anarajapoora, where it is trained for + hawking, it is usual, in lieu of a hood, to darken its eyes by means + of a silken thread passed through holes in the eyelids. The ignoble + birds of prey, the Kites[4], keep close by the <a name="pg167" id= + "pg167"></a> shore, and hover round the returning boats of the + fishermen to feast on the fry rejected from their nets.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Falco peregrinus, <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Tinnunculus alaudarius, <i>Briss</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Astur trivirgatus, <i>Temm</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Milvus govinda, <i>Sykes</i>. Dr. Hamilton Buchanan remarks + that when gorged this bird delights to sit on the entablature of + buildings, exposing its back to the hottest rays of the sun, + placing its breast against the wall, and stretching out its wings + <i>exactly as the Egyptian Hawk is represented on their + monuments</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Owls</i>.—Of the nocturnal accipitres the most remarkable + is the brown owl, which, from its hideous yell, has acquired the name + of the "Devil-Bird."[l] The Singhalese regard it literally with + horror, and its scream by night in the vicinity of a village is + bewailed as the harbinger of approaching calamity.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Syrnium indranee, <i>Sykes</i>. The horror of this nocturnal + scream was equally prevalent in the West as in the East. Ovid + Introduces it in his <i>Fasti</i>, L. vi. 1. 139; and Tibullus in + his Elegies, L.i. El 5. Statius says—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Nocturnæ-que gemunt striges, et feralia bubo</p> + + <p><i>Danna canens</i>." Theb. iii. I. 511.</p> + </div> + + <p>But Pliny, 1. xi. c. 93, doubts as to what bird produced the + sound; and the details of Ovid's description do not apply to an + owl.</p> + + <p>Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, to whom I am indebted + for many valuable notes relative to the birds of the island, + regards the identification of the Singhalese Devil-Bird as open to + similar doubt: he says—"The Devil-Bird is not am owl. I never + heard it until I came to Kornegalle, where it haunts the rocky hill + at the back of Government-House. Its ordinary note is a magnificent + clear shout like that of a human being, and which can be heard at a + great distance, and has a fine effect in the silence of the closing + night. It has another cry like that of a hen just caught, but the + sounds which have earned for it its bad name, and which I have + heard but once to perfection, are indescribable, the most appalling + that can be imagined, and scarcely to be heard without shuddering; + I can only compare it to a boy in torture, whose screams are being + stopped by being strangled. I have offered rewards for a specimen, + but without success. The only European who had seen and fired at + one agreed with the natives that it is of the size of a pigeon, + with a long tail. I believe it is a Podargus or Night Hawk," In a + subsequent note he further says—"I have since seen two birds + by moonlight, one of the size and shape of a cuckoo, the other a + large black bird, which I imagine to be the one which gives these + calls."</p> + </div> + + <p>II. PASSERES. <i>Swallows</i>.—Within thirty-five miles of + Caltura, on the western coast, are inland caves, the resort of the + Esculent Swift[1], which there builds the "edible bird's nest," so + highly prized in China. Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have + established themselves, who rent the royalty from the government, and + make an annual export of their produce. But the Swifts are not + confined to this district, and caves containing them have been found + far in the interior, a fact which complicates the still unexplained + mystery of the composition of their nest; and notwithstanding + <a name="pg168" id="pg168"></a> the power of wing possessed by these + birds, adds something to the difficulty of believing that it consists + of glutinous algæ.[2] In the nests brought to me there was no trace + of organisation; and whatever may be the original material, it is so + elaborated by the swallow as to present somewhat the appearance and + consistency of strings of isinglass. The quantity of these nests + exported from Ceylon is trifling.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Collocalia brevirostris, <i>McClell</i>.; C. nidifica, + <i>Gray</i>.</p> + + <p>2: An epitome of what has been written on this subject will be + found in <i>Dr. Horsfield's Catalogue</i> of the Birds in the E.I. + Comp. Museum, vol. i. p. 101, etc.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Kingfishers</i>.—In solitary places, where no sound + breaks the silence except the gurgle of the river as it sweeps round + the rocks, the lonely Kingfisher sits upon an overhanging branch, his + turquoise plumage hardly less intense in its lustre than the deep + blue of the sky above him; and so intent is his watch upon the + passing fish that intrusion fails to scare him from his post; the + emblem of vigilance and patience.</p> + + <p><i>Sun Birds</i>.—In the gardens the Sun Birds[1] (known as + the Humming Birds of Ceylon) hover all day long, attracted by the + plants over which they hang, poised on their glittering wings, and + inserting their curved beaks to extract the tiny insects that nestle + in the flowers. Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in + form and motions, and the most chaste in colouring, is that which + Europeans call "the Bird of Paradise,"[2] and the natives "the Cotton + Thief," from the circumstance that its tail consists of two long + white feathers, which stream behind it as it flies, Mr. Layard + says:—"I have often watched them, when seeking their insect + prey, turn suddenly on their perch and <i>whisk their long tails with + a jerk</i> over the bough, as if to protect them from injury."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Nectarina Zeylanica, <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Tchitrea paradisi, <i>Linn</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>The Bulbul</i>.—The <i>Condatchee Bulbul</i>[1], which, + from <a name="pg169" id="pg169"></a> the crest on its head, is called + by the Singhalese the "Konda Coorola," or <i>Tuft bird</i>, is + regarded by the natives as the most "<i>game</i>" of all birds; and + the training it to fight was one of the duties entrusted by the Kings + of Kandy to the Kooroowa, or Bird Head-man. For this purpose the + Bulbul is taken from the nest as soon as the sex is distinguishable + by the tufted crown; and being secured by a string, is taught to fly + from hand to hand of its keeper. When pitted against an antagonist, + such is the obstinate courage of this little creature that it will + sink from exhaustion rather than release its hold. This propensity, + and the ordinary character of its notes, render it impossible that + the Bulbul of India can be identical with the Bulbul of Iran, the + "Bird of a Thousand Songs,"[2] of which poets say that its delicate + passion for the rose gives a plaintive character to its note.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pycnonotus hæmorrhous, <i>Gmel</i>.</p> + + <p>2: <i>"Hazardasitaum,"</i> the Persian name for the bulbul. "The + Persians," according to Zakary ben Mohamed al Caswini, "say the + bulbul has a passion for the rose, and laments and cries when he + sees it pulled."—OUSELEY'S <i>Oriental Collections</i>, vol. + i. p. 16. According to Pallas it is the true nightingale of Europe, + Sylvia luscinia, which the Armenians call <i>boulboul</i>, and the + Crim-Tartars <i>byl-byl-i</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Tailor-Bird</i>.—<i>The Weaver-Bird</i>.—The + tailor-bird[1] having completed her nest, sewing together the leaves + by passing through them a cotton thread twisted by the creature + herself, leaps from branch to branch to testify her happiness by a + clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver[2], a still more + ingenious artist, having woven its dwelling with grass something into + the form of a bottle, with a prolonged neck, hangs it from a + projecting branch with its entrance inverted so as to baffle the + approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles. The + natives assert that the male bird carries fire flies to the nest, + fastening them to its sides by a particle of soft mud, and Mr. Layard + assures me that although he has never succeeded in finding the fire + fly, <a name="pg170" id="pg170"></a> the nest of the male bird (for + the female occupies another during incubation) invariably contains a + patch of mud on each side of the perch.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Orthotomus longicauda, <i>Gmel</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Ploceus baya, <i>Blyth</i>; P. Philippinus, <i>Auct</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Crows</i>.—Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the most + familiar and notorious is the small glossy crow, whose shining black + plumage shot with blue has obtained for him the title of <i>Corvus + splendens</i>.[1] They frequent the towns in companies, and + domesticate themselves in the close vicinity of every house; and it + may possibly serve to account for the familiarity and audacity which + they exhibit in their intercourse with men, that the Dutch during + their sovereignty in Ceylon enforced severe penalties against any one + killing a crow, under the belief that they are instrumental in + extending the growth of cinnamon by feeding on the fruit, and thus + disseminating the undigested seed.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is another species, the <i>C. culminatus</i>, so called + from the convexity of its bill; but though seen in the towns, it + lives chiefly in the open country, and may be constantly observed + wherever there are buffaloes, perched on their backs and engaged, + in company with the small Minah (<i>Acridotheres tristis</i>) in + freeing them from ticks.</p> + + <p>2: WOLF'S <i>Life and Adventures</i>, p. 117.</p> + </div> + + <p>So accustomed are the natives to its presence and exploits, that, + like the Greeks and Romans, they have made the movements of the crow + the basis of their auguries; and there is no end to the vicissitudes + of good and evil fortune which may not be predicted from the + direction of their flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of their + croaking, the variety of trees on which they rest, and the numbers in + which they are seen to assemble. All day long they are engaged in + watching either the offal of the offices, or the preparation for + meals in the dining-room; and as doors and windows are necessarily + opened to relieve the heat, nothing is more common than the passage + of crows across the room, lifting on the wing some ill-guarded morsel + from the dinner-table.</p> + + <p>No article, however unpromising its quality, provided only it be + portable, can with safety be left unguarded <a name="pg171" id= + "pg171"></a> in any apartment accessible to them. The contents of + ladies' work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs vanish + instantly if exposed near a window or open door. They open paper + parcels to ascertain the contents; they will undo the knot on a + napkin if it encloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to + extract the peg which fastened the lid of a basket in order to + plunder the provender within.</p> + + <p>On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining a regimental + mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody clasp-knife drop from the + air at her feet; but the mystery was explained on learning that a + crow, which had been watching the cook chopping mince-meat, had + seized the moment when his head was turned to carry off the + knife.</p> + + <p>One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudinising in + front of a chained watch-dog, which was lazily gnawing a bone, and + after fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing + before him, with head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for a + moment, and returned bringing with it a companion who perched itself + on a branch a few yards in the rear. The crow's grimaces were now + actively renewed, but with no better result, till its confederate, + poising himself on his wings, descended with the utmost velocity, + striking the dog upon the spine with all the force of his beak. The + <i>ruse</i> was successful; the dog started with surprise and pain, + but not quickly enough to seize his assailant, whilst the bone he had + been gnawing disappeared the instant his head was turned. Two + well-authenticated instances of the recurrence of this device came + within my knowledge at Colombo, and attest the sagacity and powers of + communication and combination possessed by these astute and + courageous birds.</p> + + <p>On the approach of evening the crows assemble in noisy groups + along the margin of the fresh-water lake which surrounds Colombo on + the eastern side; here for an hour or two they enjoy the luxury of + the bath, tossing <a name="pg172" id="pg172"></a> the water over + their shining backs, and arranging their plumage decorously, after + which they disperse, each taking the direction of his accustomed + quarters for the night.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A similar habit has been noticed in the damask Parrots of + Africa (<i>Palæornis fuscus</i>), which daily resort at the same + hour to their accustomed water to bathe.</p> + </div> + + <p>During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has been + observed, that when coco-nut palms are struck by lightning, the + destruction frequently extends beyond a single tree, and from the + contiguity and conduction of the spreading leaves, or some other + peculiar cause, large groups will be affected by a single flash, a + few killed instantly, and the rest doomed to rapid decay. In Belligam + Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Galle, a small island, which is + covered with coco-nuts, has acquired the name of "Crow Island," from + being the resort of those birds, which are seen hastening towards it + in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago, during a violent storm + of thunder, such was the destruction of the crows that the beach for + some distance was covered with a black line of their remains, and the + grove on which they had been resting was to a great extent destroyed + by the same flash.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Similar instances are recorded in other countries of sudden + mortality amongst crows to a prodigious extent, but whether + occasioned by lightning seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty-three + thousand dead crows were found on the shores of a lake in the + county Westmeath in Ireland after a storm.—THOMPSON'S <i>Nat. + Hist. Ireland</i>, vol. i. p. 319, and Patterson in his Zoology, p. + 356, mentions other cases.</p> + </div> + + <p>III. SCANSORES. <i>Parroquets</i>.—Of the Psittacidæ the + only examples are the parroquets, of which the most renowned is the + <i>Palæornis Alexandri</i>, which has the historic distinction of + bearing the name of the great conquerer of India, having been the + first of its race introduced to the knowledge of Europe on the return + of his expedition. An idea of their number may be formed from the + following statement of Mr. Layard, as to the multitudes which are + found on the western coast. "At Chilaw I have seen such vast flights + of parroquets coming to roost <a name="pg173" id="pg173"></a> in the + coco-nut trees which overhang the bazaar, that their noise drowned + the Babel of tongues bargaining for the evening provisions. Hearing + of the swarms which resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a + bridge some half mile distant, and attempted to count the flocks + which came from a single direction to the eastward. About four + o'clock in the afternoon, straggling parties began to wend towards + home, and in the course of half an hour the current fairly set in. + But I soon found that I had no longer distinct flocks to count, it + became one living screaming stream. Some flew high in the air till + right above their homes, and dived abruptly downward with many + evolutions till on a level with the trees; others kept along the + ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity of thought, + their brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in the + sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed, when I could + hear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting for their + perches, and on firing a shot they rose with a noise like the + 'rushing of a mighty wind,' but soon settled again, and such a din + commenced as I shall never forget; the shrill screams of the birds, + the fluttering of their innumerable wings, and the rustling of the + leaves of the palm trees, was almost deafening, and I was glad at + last to escape to the Government Rest House."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Annals of Nat. Hist</i>. vol xiii. p.263.</p> + </div> + + <p>IV. COLUMBIDÆ. <i>Pigeons</i>.—Of pigeons and doves there + are at least a dozen species; some living entirely on trees[1] and + never alighting on the ground; others, notwithstanding the abundance + of food and warmth, are migratory[2], allured, as the Singhalese + allege, by the ripening of the cinnamon berries, and hence one + species is known in the southern provinces as the "Cinnamon Dove." + Others feed on the fruits of the banyan: and it is probably to their + instrumentality that this marvellous <a name="pg174" id="pg174"></a> + tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being carried by them to + remote localities. A very beautiful pigeon, peculiar to the mountain + range, discovered in the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has, in + compliment to the Vicountess Torrington, been named <i>Carpophaga + Torringtoniæ.</i></p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Treron bicenta, <i>Jerd</i>.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Alsocomus puniceus</i>, the "Season Pigeon" of Ceylon, so + called from its periodical arrival and departure.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another, called by the natives <i>neela-cobeya</i>[1], although + strikingly elegant both in shape and colour, is still more remarkable + far the singularly soothing effect of its low and harmonious voice. A + gentleman who has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to me of + this bird and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that "its + soft and melancholy notes, as they came from some solitary place in + the forest, were the most gentle sounds I ever listened to. Some + sentimental smokers assert that the influence of the propensity is to + make them feel <i>as if they could freely forgive all who had ever + offended them</i>, and I can say with truth such has been the effect + on my own nerves of the plaintive murmurs of the neela-cobeya, that + sometimes, when irritated, and not without reason, by the + perverseness of some of my native followers, the feeling has almost + instantly subsided into placidity on suddenly hearing the loving + tones of these beautiful birds."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Chalcophaps Indicus, <i>Linn</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>V. GALLINÆ. <i>The Ceylon Jungle-fowl</i>.—The jungle-fowl + of Ceylon[1] is shown by the peculiarity of its plumage to be + distinct from the Indian species. It has never yet bred or survived + long in captivity, and no living specimens have been successfully + transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all parts of the island, but + chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains; and one of the vivid + memorials which are associated with our journeys through the hills, + is its clear cry, which sounds like a person calling "George Joyce." + At early morning it rises amidst mist and dew, giving <a name="pg175" + id="pg175"></a> life to the scenery that has scarcely yet been + touched by the sunlight.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Gallus Lafayetti, <i>Lesson</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>VI. GRALLÆ.—On reaching the marshy plains and shallow + lagoons on either side of the island, the astonishment of the + stranger is excited by the endless multitudes of stilt-birds and + waders which stand in long array within the wash of the water, or + sweep in vast clouds above it. Ibises[1], storks[2], egrets, + spoonbills[3], herons[4], and the smaller races of sand larks and + plovers, are seen busily traversing the wet sand, in search of the + red worm which burrows there, or peering with steady eye to watch the + motions of the small fry and aquatic insects in the ripple on the + shore.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Tantalus leucocephalus, and Ibis falcinellus.</p> + + <p>2: The violet-headed Stork (Ciconia leucocephala).</p> + + <p>3: Platalea leucorodia, <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Ardea cinerea. A. purpurea.</p> + </div> + + <p>VII. ANSERES.—Preeminent in size and beauty, the tall + <i>flamingoes</i>[1], with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in + long files. The Singhalese have been led, from their colour and their + military order, to designate them the "<i>English Soldier birds</i>." + Nothing can be more startling than the sudden flight of these + splendid creatures when alarmed; their strong wings beating the air + sound like distant thunder; and as they soar over head, the flock + which appeared almost white but a moment before, is converted into + crimson by the sudden display of the red lining of their wings. A + peculiarity in the beak of the flamingo has scarcely attracted due + attention, as a striking illustration of creative wisdom in adapting + the organs of animals to their local necessities. The upper mandible, + which is convex in other birds, is in them flattened, whilst the + lower, instead of being flat, is convex. To those who have had an + opportunity of witnessing the action of the bird in its native + haunts, the expediency of this arrangement is at once apparent. The + flamingo, to counteract the extraordinary length of its legs, is + provided <a name="pg176" id="pg176"></a> with a proportionately long + neck, so that in feeding in shallow water the crown of the head + becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought into contact with the + bottom; where its flattened surface qualifies it for performing the + functions of the lower one in birds of the same class; and the edges + of both being laminated, it is thus enabled, like the duck, by the + aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift its food before swallowing.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Phoenicopterus roseus, <i>Pallas</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of the + Anatidæ, the Coromandel teal[1], the Indian hooded gull[2], the + Caspian tern, and a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl. + Pelicans[3] in great numbers resort to the mouths of the rivers, + taking up their position at sunrise on some projecting rock, from + which to dart on the passing fish, and returning far inland at night + to their retreats among the trees which overshadow some ruined + watercourse or deserted tank.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Nettapus Coromandelianus, <i>Gmel.</i></p> + + <p>2: Larus brunnicephalus, <i>Jerd.</i></p> + + <p>3: Pelicanus Philippensis, <i>Gmel.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges and quails + are to be had at all times; the woodcock has occasionally been shot + in the hills, and the ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in September + from Southern India, is identified not alone by the eccentricity of + its flight, but by retaining in high perfection the qualities which + have endeared it to the gastronome at home. But the magnificent + pheasants which inhabit the Himalayan range and the woody hills of + the Chin-Indian peninsula, have no representative amongst the tribes + that people the woods of Ceylon; although a bird believed to be a + pheasant has more than once been seen in the jungle, close to + Rambodde, on the road to Neuera-ellía.<a name="pg177" id= + "pg177"></a></p> + + <h3><i>List of Ceylon Birds</i>.</h3> + + <p>In submitting this catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am anxious + to state that the copious mass of its contents is mainly due to the + untiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr. E.L. Layard. Nearly + every bird in the list has fallen by his gun; so that the most ample + facilities have been thus provided, not only for extending the + limited amount of knowledge which formerly existed on this branch of + the zoology of the island; but for correcting, by actual comparison + with recent specimens, the errors which had previously prevailed as + to imperfectly described species. The whole of Mr. Layard's fine + collection is at present in England.</p> + + <p><b>Accipitres.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Aquila Bonelli, <i>Temm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>pennata, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spizaëtus Nipalensis, <i>Hodgs</i>. + + <ul> + <li>limnæëtus, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ictinaëtus Malayensis, <i>Reinw</i>.</li> + + <li>Hæmatornis cheela, <i>Daud</i>. + + <ul> + <li>spilogaster, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pontoaëtus leucogaster, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>ichthyaëtus, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Haliastur Indus, <i>Bodd</i>.</li> + + <li>Falco peregrinus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>peregrinator, Sund</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tinnunculus alaudarius, <i>Briss</i>.</li> + + <li>Hypotriorchis chicquera, <i>Daud</i>.</li> + + <li>Baza lophotes, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>Milvus govinda, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>Elanus melanopterus, <i>Daud</i>.</li> + + <li>Astur trivirgatus, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>Accipiter badius, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Circus Swainsonii, <i>A. Smith</i>. + + <ul> + <li>cincrascens, <i>Mont</i>.</li> + + <li>melanoleucos, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li><i>æruginosus, Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Athene castonatus, <i>Blyth</i>. + + <ul> + <li>scutulata, <i>Raffles</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ephialtes scops, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>lempijii, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>sunia, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ketupa Ceylonensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Syrnium Indranee, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>Strix Javanica, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Passeres.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Batrachostomus moniliger, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + + <li>Caprimulgus Mahrattensis, <i>Sykes</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Kelaarti, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Asiaticus, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cypselus batassiensis, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>melba, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>affinis, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Macropteryx coronatus, <i>Tickell</i>.</li> + + <li>Collocalia brevirostris, <i>McClel</i>.</li> + + <li>Acanthylis caudacuta, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Hirundo panayana, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>daurica, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>hyperythra, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + + <li>domicola, <i>Jerdon</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coracias Indica, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Harpactes fasciatus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Eurystomus orientalis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Halcyon Capensis, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>atricapillus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Smyrnensis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ceyx tridactyla, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Alcedo Bengalensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Ceryle rudis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Merops Philippinus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>viridis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>quincticolor, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Upupa nigripennis, <i>Gould</i>.</li> + + <li>Nectarina Zeylanica, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>minima, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>Asiatica, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Lotenia, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dicæum minimum, <i>Tickell</i>.</li> + + <li>Phyllornis Malabarica, <i>Lath</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Jerdoni, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dendrophila frontalis, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Piprisoma agile, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Orthotomus longicauda, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Cisticola cursitans, <i>Frankl</i>. + + <ul> + <li>omalura, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Drymoica valida, <i>Blyth</i>. + + <ul> + <li>inornata, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Prinia socialis, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>Acrocephalus dumetorum, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg178" id="pg178"></a></li> + + <li>Phyllopneuste nitidus, <i>Blyth</i>. + + <ul> + <li>montanus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>viridanus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Copsychus saularus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Kittacincla macrura, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Pratincola caprata, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>atrata, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Calliope cyanea, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li> + + <li>Thamnobia fulicata, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Cyanecula Suevica, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Sylvia affinis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Parus cinereus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + + <li>Zosterops palpebrosus, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>Iöra Zeylanica, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>typhia, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Motacilla sulphurea, <i>Bechs</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Indica, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Madraspatana, <i>Briss</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Budytes viridis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Anthus rufulus, <i>Vieill</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Richardii, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + + <li>striolatus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Brachypteryx Palliseri, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>Alcippe nigrifrons, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Pitta brachyura, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + + <li>Oreocincla spiloptera, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Merula Wardii, <i>Jerd</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Kinnisii, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Zoothera imbricata, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + + <li>Garrulax cinereifrons, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Pormatorhinus melanurus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Malacocercus rufescens, <i>Blyth</i>. + + <ul> + <li>griseus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>striatus, <i>Swains</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pellorneum fuscocapillum, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Dumetia albogularis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Chrysomma Sinense, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Oriolus melanocephalus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Indicus, <i>Briss</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Criniger ictericus, <i>Stickl</i>.</li> + + <li>Pycnonotus penicillatus, <i>Kelaart</i>. + + <ul> + <li>flavirictus, <i>Strickl</i>.</li> + + <li>hæmorrhous, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>atricapillus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemipus picatus, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>Hypsipetes Nilgherriensis, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + + <li>Cyornis rubeculoïdes, <i>Vig</i>.</li> + + <li>Myiagra azurea, <i>Bodd</i>.</li> + + <li>Cryptolopha cinereocapilla, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + + <li>Leucocerca compressirostris, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Tchitrea paradisi, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Butalis latirostris, <i>Raffles</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Muttui, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stoparola melanops, <i>Vig</i>.</li> + + <li>Pericrocotus flammeus, <i>Forst</i>. + + <ul> + <li>peregrinus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Campephaga Macei, <i>Less</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Sykesii, <i>Strickl</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Artamus fuscus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + + <li>Edolius paradiseus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Dicrurus macrocereus, <i>Vieill</i>. + + <ul> + <li>edoliformis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>longicaudatus, <i>A. Hay</i>.</li> + + <li>leucopygialis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>coerulescens, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Irena puella, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Lanius superciliosus, <i>Lath</i>. + + <ul> + <li>erythronotus, <i>Vig</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tephrodornis affinis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Cissa puella, <i>Blyth & Layard</i>.</li> + + <li>Corvus splendens, <i>Vieille</i>. + + <ul> + <li>culminatus, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eulabes religiosa, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>ptilogenys, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pastor roseus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Hetærornis pagodarum, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>albifrontata, Layard</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acridotheres tristis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Ploceus manyar, <i>Horsf</i>. + + <ul> + <li>baya, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Munia undulata, <i>Latr</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>Malabarica, Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Malacca, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>rubronigra, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li> + + <li>striata, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>pectoralis, <i>Jerd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Passer Indicus, <i>Jard. & Selb.</i></li> + + <li>Alauda gulgula, <i>Frank</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Malabarica, <i>Scop</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pyrrhulauda grisea, <i>Scop</i>.</li> + + <li>Mirafra affinis, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + + <li>Buceros gingalensis, <i>Shaw</i>. + + <ul> + <li>coronata, <i>Bodd</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Scansores.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Loriculus Asiaticus, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Palæornis Alexandri, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>torquatus, <i>Briss</i>.</li> + + <li>cyanocephalus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Calthropæ, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Megalaima Indica, <i>Latr</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Zeylanica, <i>Gmel</i>.</li> + + <li>flavifrons, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>rubicapilla, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Picus gymnophthalmus, <i>Blyth.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mahrattensis, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Macei, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gecinus chlorophanes, <i>Vieill</i>.</li> + + <li>Brachypternus aurantius, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonus, <i>Forst</i>.</li> + + <li><i>rubescens, Vieill</i>.</li> + + <li>Stricklandi, <i>Layard</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Micropterus gularis, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + + <li>Centropus rufipennis, <i>Illiger</i>. + + <ul> + <li>chlororhynchos, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Oxylophus melanoleucos, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Coramandus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Endynamys orientalis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Cuculus Bartletti, <i>Layard</i>. + + <ul> + <li>striatus, <i>Drapiez</i>.</li> + + <li>canorus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polyphasia tenuirostris, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Sonneratii, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg179" id= + "pg179"></a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hierococcyx varius, <i>Vahl</i>.</li> + + <li>Surniculus dicruroïdes, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li> + + <li>Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus, <i>Forst</i>.</li> + + <li>Zanclostomus viridirostris, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Columbæ.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Treron bicincta, <i>Jerd</i>. + + <ul> + <li>flavogularis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Pompadoura, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>chlorogaster, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Carpophaga pusilla, <i>Blyth</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Torringtoniæ, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Alsocomus puniceus, <i>Tickel</i>.</li> + + <li>Columba intermedia, <i>Strickl</i>.</li> + + <li>Turtur risorius, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Suratensis, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>humilis, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>orientalis, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chalcophaps Indicus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Gallinæ.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Pavo cristatus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Gallus Lafayetti, <i>Lesson</i>.</li> + + <li>Galloperdix bicalcaratus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Francolinus Ponticerianus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Perdicula agoondah, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>Coturnix Chinensis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Turnix ocellatus <i>var.</i> Bengalensis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>Turnix ocellatus <i>var.</i> taigoor, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Gralliæ.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Esacus recurvirostris, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>Oedienemus crepitans, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>Cursorius Coromandelicus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Lobivanellus bilobus, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Goensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Charadrius virginicus, <i>Bechs</i>.</li> + + <li>Hiaticula Philippensis, <i>Scop</i>. + + <ul> + <li>cantiana, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Leschenaultii, <i>Less</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Strepsilas interpres, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Ardea purpurea, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>cinerea, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>asha, <i>Sykes</i>.</li> + + <li>intermedia, <i>Wagler</i>.</li> + + <li>garzetta, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>alba, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>bubulcus, <i>Savig</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ardeola leucoptera, <i>Bodd</i>.</li> + + <li>Ardetta cinnamomea, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>flavicollis, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Sinensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Butoroides Javanica, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Platalea leucorodia, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Nycticorax griseus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Tigrisoma melanolopha, <i>Raffl</i>.</li> + + <li>Mycteria australis, <i>Shaw</i>.</li> + + <li>Leptophilus Javanica, <i>Horsf</i>.</li> + + <li>Ciconia leucocephala, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Anastomus oscitans, <i>Bodd</i>.</li> + + <li>Tantalus leucocephalus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Geronticus melanocephalus, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Ibis falcinellus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Numenius arquatus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>phoeopus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Totanus fuscus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>ochropus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>calidris, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>hypoleucos, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>glottoides, <i>Vigors</i>.</li> + + <li>stagnalis, <i>Bechst</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Actitis glareola, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Tringa minuta, <i>Leist</i>. + + <ul> + <li>subarquata, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Limicola platyrhyncha, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>Limosa ægocephala, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Himantopus candidus, <i>Bon</i>.</li> + + <li>Recurvirostra avocetta, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Hæmatopus ostralegus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Rhynchoea Bengalensis, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Scolopax rusticola, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Gallinago stenura, <i>Temm</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>scolopacina, Bon</i>.</li> + + <li><i>gallinula, Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hydrophasianus Sinensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Ortygometra rubiginosa, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>Corethura Zeylanica, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Porzana pygmæa, <i>Nan</i>.</li> + + <li>Rallus striatus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Indicus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Porphyrio poliocephalus, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Gallinula phoenicura, <i>Penn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>chloropus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>cristata, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Anseres.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Phoenicopterus ruber, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Sarkidiornis melanonotos, <i>Penn</i>.</li> + + <li>Nettapus Coromandelianus, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Anas poecilorhyncha, <i>Penn</i>.</li> + + <li>Dendrocygnus arcuatus, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>Dafila acuta, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Querquedula crecca, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>circia, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Fuligula rufina, Pall</i>.</li> + + <li>Spatula clypeata, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Podiceps Philippensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Larus brunnicephalus, <i>Jerd</i>. + + <ul> + <li>ichthyaëtus, <i>Pall</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sylochelidon Caspius, <i>Lath</i>.</li> + + <li>Hydrochelidon Indicus, <i>Steph</i>.</li> + + <li>Gelochelidon Anglicus, <i>Mont</i>.</li> + + <li>Onychoprion anasthætus, <i>Scop</i>.</li> + + <li>Sterna Javanica, <i>Horsf</i>. + + <ul> + <li>melanogaster, <i>Temm</i>.</li> + + <li>minuta, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Seena aurantia, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Thalasseus Bengalensis, <i>Less</i>. + + <ul> + <li>cristata, <i>Steph</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dromas ardeola, <i>Payk</i>.</li> + + <li>Atagen ariel, <i>Gould</i>.</li> + + <li>Thalassidroma <i>melanogaster, Gould</i>.</li> + + <li>Plotus melanogaster, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Pelicanus Philippensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li> + + <li>Graculus Sinensis, <i>Shaw</i>. + + <ul> + <li>pygmæus, <i>Pallas</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg180" id="pg180"></a> + + <h3>NOTE.</h3> + + <p>The following is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at + present known, peculiar to the island; it will probably at some + future day be determined that some included in it have a wider + geographical range.</p> + + <p>Hæmatornis spilogaster. The "Ceylon eagle;" was discovered by Mr. + Layard in the Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at Trincomalie.</p> + + <p>Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged hawk owl. This pretty + little owl was added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. + Templeton.</p> + + <p>Batrachostomus monoliger. The oil bird; was discovered amongst the + precipitous rocks of the Adam's Peak range by Mr. Layrard. Another + specimen was sent about the same time to Sir James Emerson Tennent + from Avisavelle. Mr. Mitford has met with it at Ratnapoora.</p> + + <p>Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's night-jar; swarms on the marshy + plains of Neuera-ellia at dusk.</p> + + <p>Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied swallow; was discovered in + 1849 by Mr. Layard at Ambepusse. They build a globular nest with a + round hole at top. A pair built in the ring for a hanging lamp in Dr. + Gardner's study at Peradinia, and hatched their young, undisturbed by + the daily trimming and lighting of the lamp.</p> + + <p>Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain grass warbler; is found in + abundance on Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among the long Patena + grass.</p> + + <p>Drymoica valida. Layard's wren-warbler; frequents tufts of grass + and low bushes, feeding on insects.</p> + + <p>Pratincola atrata. The Neuera-ellia robin; a melodious songster; + added to our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart.</p> + + <p>Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A rare bird, added by Dr. + Kelaart from Dimboola and Neuera-ellia.</p> + + <p>Pellorneum fuscocapillum. Mr. Layard found two specimens of this + rare thrush creeping about shrubs and bushes, feeding on insects.</p> + + <p>Alcippe nigrifrons. This thrush frequents low impenetrable + thickets, and seems to be widely distributed.</p> + + <p>Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush is only found in the + mountain zone about lofty trees.</p> + + <p>Merula Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia blackbird; was added by Dr. + Kelaart.</p> + + <p>Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashy-headed babbler; was found by Mr. + Layard near Ratnapoora.</p> + + <p>Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard states that the mountain + babbler frequents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, along the margins + of deserted cheena land.</p> + + <p>Malacocercus rufescens. The red-dung thrush added by Dr. Templeton + to the Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick jungle in the southern and + midland districts.</p> + + <p>Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow-eared bulbul; was found by Dr. + Kelaart at Neuera-ellia.</p> + + <p>Butalis Muttui. This very handsome flycatcher was procured at + Point Pedro, by Mr. Layard.</p> + + <p>Dicrurus edoliformis. Dr. Templeton found this kingcrow at the + Bibloo Oya. Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambogammoa.</p> + + <p>Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon kingcrow was sent to Mr. Blyth + from the vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Templeton.</p> + + <p>Tephrodornis affinis. The Ceylon butcher-bird. A migratory species + found in the wooded grass lands in October.</p> + + <p>Cissa puella. Layard's mountain jay. A most lovely bird, found + along mountain streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere.</p> + + <p>Enlabes ptilogenys. Templeton's mynah. The largest and most + beautiful of the species. It is found in flocks perching on the + highest trees, feeding on berries.</p> + + <p>Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, abundant in various + districts.</p> + + <p>Palæornis Calthropæ. Layard's purple-headed parroquet, found at + Kandy, is a very handsome bird, flying in flocks, and resting on the + summits of the very highest trees. Dr. Kelaart states that it is the + only parroquet of the Neuera-ellia range.</p><a name="pg181" id= + "pg181"></a> + + <p>Palæornis Layardi. The Jaffna parroquet was discovered by Mr. + Layard at Point Pedro.</p> + + <p>Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed barbet, is not + uncommon.</p> + + <p>Megalaima rubricapilla, is found in most parts of the island.</p> + + <p>Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard's woodpecker. The smallest of the + species, was discovered near Colombo, amongst jak trees.</p> + + <p>Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon woodpecker, is found in + abundance near Neuera-ellia.</p> + + <p>Brachypternus rubescens. The red woodpecker.</p> + + <p>Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow-billed cuckoo, was detected + by Mr. Layard in dense jungle near Colombo and Avisavelle.</p> + + <p>Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The malkoha, is confined to the + southern highlands.</p> + + <p>Treron flavogularis. The common green pigeon, is found in + abundance at the top of Balacaddua Pass and at Ratnapoora. It feeds + on berries and flies in large flocks. It was believed to be identical + with the following.—<i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> p. 58: 1854.</p> + + <p>Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour pigeon. "The Prince of Canino has + shown that this is a totally distinct bird, much smaller, with the + quantity of maroon colour on the mantle greatly reduced."—Paper + by Mr. BLYTH, <i>Mag. Nat Hist.</i> p. 514: 1857.</p> + + <p>Carpophaga Torringtoniæ. Lady Torrington's pigeon; a very handsome + pigeon discovered in the highlands by Dr. Kelaart. It flies high in + long sweeps, and makes its nest on the loftiest trees.</p> + + <p>Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove, a migratory species + found by Mr. Layard in the mountain zone, only appearing with the + ripened fruit of the teak, banyan, &c., on which they feed.</p> + + <p>Gallus Lafayetti. The Ceylon jungle fowl. The female of this + handsome bird was figured by Mr. GRAY (<i>Ill. Ind. Zool.</i>) under + the name of G. Stanleyi. The cock bird had long been lost to + naturalists, until a specimen was forwarded to Mr. Blyth, who at once + recognised it as the long-looked for male of Mr. Gray's recently + described female. It is abundant in all the uncultivated portions of + Ceylon; coming out into the open spaces to feed in the mornings and + evenings.</p><a name="pg182" id="pg182"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. III.</h2> + + <h3>REPTILES.</h3> + + <p>LIZARDS. <i>Iguana</i>.—One of the earliest if not the first + remarkable animal to startle a stranger on arriving in Ceylon, whilst + wending his way from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, is a huge lizard of + from four to five feet in length, the Talla-goya of the Singhalese, + and Iguana[1] of the Europeans. It may be seen at noonday searching + for ants and insects in the middle of the highway and along the + fences; when disturbed, but by no means alarmed, by the approach of + man, it moves off to a safe distance; and, the intrusion being over, + returns again to the occupation in which it had been interrupted. + Repulsive as it is in appearance, it is perfectly harmless, and is + hunted down by dogs in the maritime provinces, where its delicate + flesh is converted into curry, and its skin into shoes. When seized, + it has the power of inflicting a smart blow with its tail. The + Talla-goya lives in almost any convenient hollow, such as a hole in + the ground, or the deserted nest of the termites; and home small ones + which frequented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in the + heart of a decayed tree. A still larger species, the Kabragoya[2], + which is partial to marshy ground, when disturbed upon land, will + take refuge in the nearest water. From the somewhat eruptive + appearance of the yellow blotches on its scales, a closely allied + species, similarly <a name="pg183" id="pg183"></a> spotted, formerly + obtained amongst naturalists the name of <i>Monitor exanthemata</i>, + and it is curious that the native appellation of this one, Kabra[3], + is suggestive of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly + homoeopathic principle, believe that its fat, externally applied, is + a cure for cutaneous disorders, but that inwardly taken it is + poisonous.[4] It is one of the incidents which seem to indicate that + Ceylon belongs to a separate circle of physical geography, this + lizard has not hitherto been discovered on the continent of + Hindustan, though it is found to the eastward in Burmah.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Monitor dracæna, <i>Linn</i>. Among the barbarous nostrums of + the uneducated natives both Singhalese and Tamil, is the tongue of + the iguana, which they regard as a specific for consumption, if + plucked from the living animal and swallowed whole.</p> + + <p>2: Hydrosaurus salvator, <i>Wagler</i>.</p> + + <p>3: In the <i>Mahawanso</i> the hero, Tisso, is said to have been + "afflicted with a cutaneous complaint which, made his skin scaly + like that of the <i>godho</i>."—Ch. xxiv. p. 148. "Godho" is + the Pali name for the Kabra-goya.</p> + + <p>4: In the preparation of the mysterious poison, the + <i>Cobra-tel</i>, which is regarded with so much horror by the + Singhalese; the unfortunate Kabra-goya is forced to take a + painfully prominent part. The receipt, as written down by a + Kandyan, was sent to me from Kornegalle, by Mr. Morris, in 1840; + and in dramatic arrangement it far outdoes the cauldron of + <i>Macbeth's</i> witches. The ingredients are extracted from + venomous snakes, the Cobra de Capello (from which it takes its + name), the Carawella, and the Tic prolonga, by making an incision + in the head and suspending the reptiles over a chattie to collect + the poison. To this, arsenic and other drugs are added, and the + whole is to be "boiled in a human skull, with the aid of the three + Kabra-goyas, which are tied on three sides of the fire, with their + heads directed towards it, and tormented by whips to make them + hiss, so that the fire may blaze. The froth from their lips is then + to be added to the boiling mixture, and so soon as an oily scum + rises to the surface, the <i>cobra-tel</i> is complete."</p> + + <p>Although it is obvious that the arsenic is the main ingredient + in the poison, Mr. Morris reported to me that this mode of + preparing it was actually practised in his district; and the above + account was transmitted by him apropos to the murder of a Mohatal + and his wife, which was then under investigation, and which had + been committed with the <i>cobra-tel</i>. Before commencing the + operation of preparing the poison, a cock is first sacrificed to + the yakkos or demons.</p> + + <p>5: In corroboration of the view propounded elsewhere (see pp. + <a href="#pg007">7,</a> <a href="#pg084">84,</a> &c.), and + opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon, at some remote period, + was detached from the continent of India by the interposition of + the sea, a list of reptiles will be found at p. 203, including, not + only individual species, but whole genera peculiar to the island, + and not to be found on the mainland. See a paper by DR. A. GÜNTHER + on <i>The Geog. Distribution of Reptiles</i>, Magaz. Nat. Hist. for + March, 1859, p. 230.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Blood-suckers</i>.—These, however, are but the stranger's + introduction to innumerable varieties of lizards, all most attractive + in their sudden movements, and some unsurpassed in the brilliancy of + their colouring, which bask on banks, dart over rocks, and peer + curiously out of the <a name="pg184" id="pg184"></a> decaying chinks + of every ruined wall. In all their motion there is that vivid and + brief energy, the rapid but restrained action which is associated + with their limited power of respiration, and which justifies the + accurate picture of—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"The green lizard, rustling thro' the grass,</p> + + <p>And up the fluted shaft, <i>with short, quick, spring</i></p> + + <p>To vanish in the chinks which time has made."[1]</p> + </div> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: ROGERS' <i>Pæstum</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>One of the most beautiful of this race is the <i>green + calotes</i>[1], in length about twelve inches, which, with the + exception of a few dark streaks about the head, is as brilliant as + the purest emerald or malachite. Unlike its congeners of the same + family, it never alters this dazzling hue, whilst many of them + possess the power, like the chameleon, but in a less degree, of + exchanging their ordinary colours for others less conspicuous. The + <i>C. ophiomachus</i>, and another, the <i>C. versicolor</i>, exhibit + this faculty in a remarkable manner. The head and neck, when the + animal is irritated or hastily swallowing its food, becomes of a + brilliant red (whence the latter has acquired the name of the + "blood-sucker"), whilst the usual tint of the rest of the body is + converted into pale yellow. The <i>sitana</i>[2], and a number of + others, exhibit similar phenomena.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Calotes viridis, <i>Gray</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Sitana Ponticereana, <i>Cuv</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Chameleon</i>.—The true chameleon[1] is found, but not in + great numbers, in the dry districts in the north of Ceylon, where it + frequents the trees, in slow pursuit of its insect prey. Whilst the + faculty of this creature to blush all the colours of the rainbow has + attracted the wonder of all ages, sufficient attention has hardly + been given to the imperfect sympathy which subsists between the two + lobes of the brain, and the two sets of nerves which permeate the + opposite sides of its frame. Hence, not only have each of the eyes an + action quite independent of the other, but one side of its body would + appear <a name="pg185" id="pg185"></a> to be sometimes asleep whilst + the other is vigilant and active: one will assume a green tinge + whilst the opposite one is red; and it is said that the chameleon is + utterly unable to swim, from the incapacity of the muscles of the two + sides to act in concert.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Chamælio vulgaris, <i>Daud</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Ceratophora</i>.—A unique lizard, and hitherto known only + by two specimens, one in the British Museum, and another in that of + Leyden, is the <i>Ceratophora Stoddartii</i>, distinguished by the + peculiarity of its having no external ear, whilst its muzzle bears on + its extremity the horn-like process from which it takes its name. It + has recently been discovered by Dr. Kelaart to be a native of the + higher Kandyan hills, where it is sometimes seen in the older trees + in pursuit of sect larvæ.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. Kelaart has likewise discovered at Neuera-ellia a + <i>Salea</i>, distinct from the S. Jerdoni.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Geckoes</i>.—But the most familiar and attractive of the + class are the <i>Geckoes</i>[1], which frequent the sitting-rooms, + and being furnished with pads to each toe, are enabled to ascend + perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and ceilings. Being nocturnal + in their habits, the pupil of the eye, instead of being circular as + in the diurnal species, is linear and vertical like those of the cat. + As soon as evening arrives, they emerge from the chinks and recesses + where they conceal themselves during the day, in search of insects + which retire to settle for the night, and are to be seen in every + house in keen and crafty pursuit of their prey. In a boudoir where + the ladies of my family spent their evenings, one of these familiar + and amusing little creatures had its hiding-place behind a gilt + picture frame, and punctually as the candles were lighted, it made + its appearance on the wall to be fed with its accustomed crumb; and, + if neglected, it reiterated its sharp quick call of <i>chic, chic, + chit</i>, till attended to. It was of a delicate grey colour, tinged + with pink; and having by accident fallen on a work-table, it fled, + leaving its tail behind it, which, however, it reproduced <a name= + "pg186" id="pg186"></a> within less than a month. This faculty of + reproduction is doubtless designed to enable the creature to escape + from its assailants: the detaching of the limb is evidently its own + act; and it is observable, that when reproduced, the tail generally + exhibits some variation from its previous form, the diverging spines + being absent, the new portion covered with small square uniform + scales placed in a cross series, and the scuta below being seldom so + distinct as in the original member.[2] In an officer's quarters in + the fort of Colombo, a Geckoe had been taught to come daily to the + dinner-table, and always made its appearance along with the dessert. + The family were absent for some months, during which the house + underwent extensive repairs, the roof having been raised, the walls + stuccoed, and ceilings whitened. It was naturally surmised that so + long a suspension of its accustomed habits would have led to the + disappearance of the little lizard; but on the return of its old + friends, at their first dinner it made its entrance as usual the + instant the cloth had been removed.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Hemidactylus maculatus, <i>Dum</i>. et <i>Bib., Gray</i>; H. + Leschenaultii, <i>Dum</i>. et <i>Bib</i>.; H. frenatus, + <i>Schlegel</i>.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Brit. Mus. Cat</i>. p. 143; KELAART'S Prod. Faun. Zeylan. + p. 183.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Crocodile</i>.—The Portuguese in India, like the + Spaniards in South America, affixed the name of <i>lagarto</i> to the + huge reptiles which infest the rivers and estuaries of both + continents; and to the present day the Europeans in Ceylon apply the + term <i>alligator</i> to what are in reality <i>crocodiles</i>, which + literally swarm in the still waters and tanks throughout the northern + provinces, but rarely frequent rapid streams, and have never been + found in the marshy elevations among the hills. Their instincts in + Ceylon present no variation from their habits in other countries. + There would appear to be two well-distinguished species in the + island, the <i>Allie Kimboola</i>[1], the Indian crocodile, which + inhabits the rivers and estuaries throughout the low countries of the + coasts, attaining the length of sixteen or eighteen <a name="pg187" + id="pg187"></a> feet, and which will assail man when pressed by + hunger; and the Marsh crocodile[2], which lives exclusively in fresh + water, frequenting the tanks in the northern and central provinces, + and confining its attacks to the smaller animals: in length it seldom + exceeds twelve or thirteen feet. Sportsmen complain that their dogs + are constantly seized by both species; and water-fowl, when shot, + frequently disappear before they can be secured by the fowler.[3] The + Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only move swiftly on sand + or smooth clay, its feet being too tender to tread firmly on hard or + stony ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses begin to fail + and the tanks become exhausted, the Marsh crocodiles are sometimes + encountered wandering in search of water in the jungle; but + generally, during the extreme drought, when unable to procure their + ordinary food from the drying up of the watercourses, they bury + themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor till released + by the recurrence of the rains.[4] At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern + province, whilst riding across the parched bed of the tank, I was + shown the recess, still bearing the form and impress of the + crocodile, out of which the animal had been seen to emerge the day + before. A story was also related to me of an officer attached to the + department of the Surveyor-General, who, having pitched his tent in a + similar position, had been disturbed during the night by feeling a + movement of the earth below his bed, from which on the following day + a crocodile emerged, making its appearance from beneath the + matting.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Crocodilus biporcatus. <i>Cuvier.</i></p> + + <p>2: Crocodilus palustris, <i>Less</i>.</p> + + <p>3: In Siam the flesh of the crocodile is sold for food in the + markets and bazaars. "Un jour je vis plus de cinquante crocodiles, + petits et grands, attachés aux colonnes de leurs maisons. Ils les + vendent la chair comme on vendrait de la chair de porc, mais à bien + meilleur marché."—PALLEGOIX, <i>Siam</i>, vol. i. p. 174.</p> + + <p>4: HERODOTUS records the observations of the Egyptians that the + crocodile of the Nile abstains from food during the four winter + months.—<i>Euterpe</i>, lviii.</p> + + <p>5: HUMBOLDT relates a similar story as occurring at Calabazo, in + Venezuela.—<i>Personal Narrative</i>, c. xvi.</p> + </div><a name="pg188" id="pg188"></a> + + <p>The species which inhabits the fresh water is essentially cowardly + in its instincts, and hastens to conceal itself on the appearance of + man. A gentleman (who told me the circumstance), when riding in the + jungle, overtook a crocodile, evidently roaming in search of water. + It fled to a shallow pool almost dried by the sun, and, thrusting its + head into the mud till it covered up its eyes, it remained unmoved in + profound confidence of perfect concealment. In 1833, during the + progress of the Pearl Fishery, Sir Robert Wilmot Horton employed men + to drag for crocodiles in a pond which was infested with them in the + immediate vicinity of Aripo. The pool was about fifty yards in + length, by ten or twelve wide, shallowing gradually to the edge, and + not exceeding four or five feet in the deepest part. As the party + approached the bund, from twenty to thirty reptiles, which had been + basking in the sun, rose and fled to the water. A net, specially + weighted so as to sink its lower edge to the bottom, was then + stretched from bank to bank and swept to the further end of the pond, + followed by a line of men with poles to drive the crocodiles forward: + so complete was the arrangement, that no individual could evade the + net, yet, to the astonishment of the Governor's party, not one was to + be found when it was drawn on shore, and no means of escape was + apparent or possible except descending into the mud at the bottom of + the pond.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A remarkable instance of the vitality of the common + crocodile, <i>C. biporcatus</i>, was related to me by a gentleman + at Galle: he had caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, + which his coolies disembowelled, the aperture in the stomach being + left expanded by a stick placed across it. On returning in the + afternoon with a view to secure the head, they found that the + creature had crawled for some distance, and made its escape into + the water.</p> + </div> + + <p>TESTUDINATA. <i>Tortoise</i>,—Of the <i>testudinata</i> the + land tortoises are numerous, but present no remarkable features + beyond the beautiful marking of the starred variety[1], which is + common, in the north-western province <a name="pg189" id="pg189"></a> + around Putlam and Chilaw, and is distinguished by the bright yellow + rays which diversify the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of + these which was kept in my garden I took a number of flat ticks + (<i>Ixodes</i>), which adhered to its fleshy neck in such a position + as to baffle any attempt of the animal itself to remove them; but as + they were exposed to constant danger of being crushed against the + plastron during the protrusion and retraction of the head, each was + covered with a horny case almost as resistant as the carapace of the + tortoise itself. Such an adaptation of structure is scarcely less + striking than that of the parasites found on the spotted lizard of + Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presented the distinct colour of + the scale to which it adhered.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Testudo stellata, <i>Schweig</i>.</p> + + <p>2: HOOKER'S <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, vol. i. p. 37.</p> + </div> + + <p>The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented by the + terrapins[1], which the natives are in the habit of keeping alive in + wells under the conviction that they clear them of impurities. The + edible turtle[2] is found on all the coasts of the island, and sells + for a few shillings or a few pence, according to its size and + abundance at the moment. At certain seasons the turtle on the + south-western coast of Ceylon is avoided as poisonous, and some + lamentable instances are recorded of death which was ascribed to + their use. At Pantura, to the south of Colombo, twenty-eight persons + who had partaken of turtle in October, 1840, were seized with + sickness immediately, after which coma succeeded, and eighteen died + during the night. Those who survived said there was nothing unusual + in the appearance of the flesh except that it was fatter than + ordinary. Other similarly fatal occurrences have been attributed to + turtle curry; but as they have never been proved to proceed <a name= + "pg190" id="pg190"></a> exclusively from that source, there is room + for believing that the poison may have been contained in some other + ingredient. In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found of such + a size as to measure between four and five feet in length; and on one + occasion, in riding along the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a man + in charge of some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle shell, + which he had erected on sticks to protect him from the + sun—almost verifying the statement of Ælian, that in the seas + off Ceylon there are tortoises so large that several persons may find + ample shelter beneath a single shell.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Emyda Ceylonensis</i>, GRAY, <i>Catalogue</i>, p. 64, tab. + 29 a.; <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> p. 265: 1856. Dr. KELAART, in his + <i>Prodromus</i> (p. 179), refers this to the common Indian + species, <i>E. punctata</i>; but Dr. Gray has shown it to be a + distinct one. It is generally distributed in the lower parts of + Ceylon, in lakes and tanks. It is put into wells to act the part of + a scavenger. By the Singhalese it is named <i>Kiri-ibba</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Chelonia virgata, <i>Schweig</i>.</p> + + <p>3: "Tiktontai de ara en tautê tê thalattê, kai chelônai + megintai, ônper oun ta elytra orophoi ginontai kai gar esti kai + mentekaideka pêchôn en chelôneion, hôs hypoikein ouk oligous, kai + tous hêlious pyrôiestatous apostegei, kai skian asmetois + parechei."—Lib. xvi. c. 17. Ælian copied this statement + literatim from MEGASTHENES, <i>Indica Frag</i>. lix. 31; and may + not Megasthenes have referred to some tradition connected with the + gigantic fossilised species discovered on the Sewalik Hills, the + remains of which are now in the Museum at the East India House?</p> + </div> + + <p>The hawksbill turtle[1], which supplies the tortoise-shell of + commerce, was at former times taken in great numbers in the vicinity + of Hambangtotte during the season when they came to deposit their + eggs, and there is still a considerable trade in this article, which + is manufactured into ornaments, boxes, and combs by the Moormen + resident at Galle. If taken from the animal after death and + decomposition, the colour of the shell becomes clouded and milky, and + hence the cruel expedient is resorted to of seizing the turtles as + they repair to the shore to deposit their eggs, and suspending them + over fires till heat makes the plates on the dorsal shields start + from the bone of the carapace, after which the creature is permitted + to escape to the water.[2] In illustration of the resistless + influence of instinct at the <a name="pg191" id="pg191"></a> period + of breeding, it may be mentioned that the same tortoise is believed + to return again and again to the same spot, notwithstanding that at + each visit she had to undergo a repetition of this torture. In the + year 1826, a hawksbill turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which bore + a ring attached to one of its fins that had been placed there by a + Dutch officer thirty years before, with a view to establish the fact + of these recurring visits to the same beach.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Chelonia imbricata; <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>2: At Celebes, whence the finest tortoise-shell is exported to + China, the natives kill the turtle by blows on the head, and + immerse the shell in boiling water to detach the plates. Dry heat + is only resorted to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the + tortoise-shell in the operation.—<i>Journ. Indian + Archipel.</i> vol. iii. p. 227, 1849.</p> + + <p>3: BENNETT'S <i>Ceylon</i>, ch. xxxiv.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Snakes</i>.—It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited + by the ferocious expression and unusual action of serpents, combined + with an instinctive dread of attack, that exaggerated ideas prevail + both as to their numbers in Ceylon, and the danger to be apprehended + from encountering them. The Singhalese profess to distinguish a great + many kinds, of which not more than one half have as yet been + scientifically identified; but so cautiously do serpents make their + appearance, that the surprise of long residents is invariably + expressed at the rarity with which they are to be seen; and from my + own journeys, through the jungle, often of two to five hundred miles, + I have frequently returned without seeing a single snake.[1] Davy, + whose attention was carefully directed to the poisonous serpents of + Ceylon[2], came to the conclusion that but <i>four</i>, out of twenty + species examined by him, were venomous, and that of these only two + (the <i>tic-polonga[3]</i> and <i>cobra de capello</i>[4]) were + capable of inflicting a wound likely to be fatal to man. The third is + the <i>caraicilla</i>[5], a brown snake of about twelve inches in + length; and for the fourth, of which only a few specimens have been, + procured, the Singhalese have no name in their <a name="pg192" id= + "pg192"></a> vernacular,—a proof that it is neither deadly nor + abundant.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Bennett, who resided much in the south-east of the + island, ascribes the rarity of serpents in the jungle to the + abundance of the wild peafowl, whose partiality to snakes renders + them the chief destroyers of these reptiles.</p> + + <p>2: See DAVY'S <i>Ceylon</i>, ch. xiv.</p> + + <p>3: Dabois elegans, <i>Grey</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Naja tripadians, <i>Gunther</i>.</p> + + <p>5: Trigonocephalus hypnale, <i>Wegl</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Cobra de Capello</i>.—The cobra de capello is the only + one exhibited by the itinerant snake-charmers: and the accuracy of + Davy's conjecture, that they control it, not by extracting its fangs, + but by courageously availing themselves of its accustomed timidity + and extreme reluctance to use its fatal weapons, received a painful + confirmation during my residence in Ceylon, by the death of one of + these performers, whom his audience had provoked to attempt some + unaccustomed familiarity with the cobra; it bit him on the wrist, and + he expired the same evening. The hill near Kandy, on which the + official residences of the Governor and Colonial Secretary had been + built, is covered in many places with the deserted nests of the white + ants (<i>termites</i>), and these are the favourite retreats of the + sluggish and spiritless cobra, which watches from their apertures the + toads and lizards on which it preys. Here, when I have repeatedly + come upon them, their only impulse was concealment; and on one + occasion, when a cobra of considerable length could not escape + sufficiently quickly, owing to the bank being nearly precipitous on + both sides of the road, a few blows from my whip were sufficient to + deprive it of life. There is a rare variety which the natives + fancifully designate the "king of the cobras;" it has the head and + the anterior half of the body of so light a colour, that at a + distance it seems like a silvery white.[1] A gentleman who held a + civil appointment at Kornegalle, had a servant who was bitten by a + snake, and he informed me that on enlarging a hole near the foot of + the tree under which the accident occurred, he unearthed a cobra of + upwards of <a name="pg193" id="pg193"></a> three feet long, and so + purely white as to induce him to believe that it was an albino. With + the exception of the rat-snake[2], the cobra de capello is the only + serpent which seems from choice to frequent the vicinity of human + dwellings, but it is doubtless attracted by the young of the domestic + fowl and by the moisture of the wells and drainage. The Singhalese + remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a house, its companion is + almost certain to be discovered immediately after,—a popular + belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than one + occasion. Once, when a snake of this description was killed in a bath + of Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot + the day after; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet + long, having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its + escape, its companion of the same size was found the same morning in + an adjoining drain.[3] On this occasion the snake, which had been + several hours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood + above water; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de + capello voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea. When the + "Wellington," a government <a name="pg194" id="pg194"></a> vessel + employed in the conservancy of the pearl banks, was anchored about a + quarter of a mile from land, in the bay of Koodremalé, a cobra was + seen, about an hour before sunset, swimming vigorously towards the + ship. It came within twelve yards, when the sailors assailed it with + billets of wood and other missiles, and forced it to return to land. + The following morning they discovered the track which it had left on + the shore, and traced it along the sand till it disappeared in the + jungle.[4] On a later occasion, in the vicinity of the same spot, + when the "Wellington" was lying at some distance from the shore, a + cobra was found and killed on board, where it could only have gained + access by climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by a sailor, + who felt the chill as it glided over his foot.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A Singhalese work, the <i>Sarpa Doata</i>, quoted in the + <i>Ceylon Times</i>, January, 1857, enumerates four species of the + cobra;—the <i>raja</i>, or king; the <i>velyander</i>, or + trader; the <i>baboona</i>, or hermit; and the <i>goore</i>, or + agriculturist. The young cobras, it says, are not venomous till + after the thirteenth day, when they shed their coat for the first + time.</p> + + <p>2: Coryphodon Blumenbachii. WOLF, in his interesting story of + his <i>Life and Adventures in Ceylon</i>, mentions that rat-snakes + were often so domesticated by the natives as to feed at their + table. He says: "I once saw an example of this in the house of a + native. It being meal time, he called his snake, which immediately + came forth from the roof under which he and I were sitting. He gave + it victuals from his own dish, which the snake took of itself from + off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and ate along with its host. + When it had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss and bade it go to its + hole."</p> + + <p>Since the above was written, Major Skinner, writing to me 12th + Dec. 1858, mentions the still more remarkable case of the + domestication of the cobra de capello in Ceylon. "Did you ever + hear," he says, "of tame cobras being kept and domesticated about a + house, going in and out at pleasure, and in common with the rest of + the inmates? In one family, near Negombo, cobras are kept as + protectors, in the place of dogs, by a wealthy man who has always + large sums of money in his house. But this is not a solitary case + of the kind. I heard of it only the other day, but from undoubtedly + good authority. The snakes glide about the house, a terror to + thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates."</p> + + <p>3: PLINY notices the affection that subsists between the male + and female asp; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the + other seeks to avenge its death.—Lib. viii. c. 37.</p> + + <p>4: STEWART'S <i>Account of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon</i>, p. + 9: Colombo, 1843.</p> + + <p>The Python reticulatus (the "rock-snake") has been known like + the cobra de capello, to make short voyages at sea. One was taken + on board H.M.S. "Hastings," when off the coast of Burmah, in 1853; + it is now in the possession of the surgeon, Dr. Scott.</p> + + <p>5: SWAINSON, in his <i>Habits and Instincts of Animals</i>, c. + iv. p. 187, says that instances are well attested of the common + English snake having been met with in the open channel; between the + coast of Wales and the island of Anglesea, as if they had taken + their departure from the one and were bound for the other.</p> + </div> + + <p>In BENNETT'S account of "<i>Ceylon and its Capabilities</i>" there + is a curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the effect, that the + cobra de capello every time it expends its poison <i>loses a joint of + its tail</i>, and eventually acquires a head which resembles that of + a toad. A recent discovery of Dr. Kelaart has thrown light on the + origin of this popular fallacy. The family of "false snakes" + (<i>pseudo-typhlops</i>), as Schlegel names the group, have till + lately consisted of but three species, one only of which was known to + inhabit Ceylon. They belong to a family intermediate between the + lizards and serpents with the body of the latter, and the head of the + former, with which they are moreover identified by having the + <a name="pg195" id="pg195"></a> upper jaw fixed to the skull as in + mammals and birds, instead of movable as amongst the true ophidians. + In this they resemble the amphisbænidæ; but the tribe of + <i>Uropeltidæ</i>, or "rough tails," has the further peculiarity, + that the tail is truncated, instead of ending, like that of the + typhlops, in a point more or less acute; and the reptile assists its + own movements by pressing the flat end to the ground. Within a very + recent period an important addition has been made to this genus, by + the discovery of five new species in Ceylon; in some of which the + singular construction of the tail is developed to an extent much more + marked than in any previously existing specimen. One of these, the + <i>Uropeltis grandis</i> of Kelaart, is distinguished by its dark + brown colour, shot with a bluish metallic lustre, closely approaching + the ordinary shade of the cobra; and the tail is abruptly and flatly + compressed as though it had been severed by a knife. The form of this + singular reptile will be best understood by a reference to the + accompanying figure; and there can be, I think, little doubt that to + its strange and anomalous structure is to be traced the fable of the + transformation of the cobra de capello. The colour alone would seem + to identify the two reptiles, but the head and mouth are no longer + those of a serpent, and the disappearance of the tail might readily + suggest the mutilation which the tradition asserts.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/195.jpg"><img src="images/195.jpg" alt= + "UROPELTIS GRANDIS" /></a> + + <p>UROPELTIS GRANDIS</p> + </div> + + <p>The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence from + inflicting death on any creature, are accustomed, after securing a + venomous snake, to enclose it in a basket of woven palm leaves, and + to set it afloat on a <a name="pg196" id="pg196"></a> river. During + my residence in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a European + which was caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of + coroners' inquests which were made officially to my department, such + accidents to the natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, + when the animal having been surprised or trodden on, had inflicted + the wound in self-defence.[1] For these reasons the Singhalese, when + obliged to leave their houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose + ring, the noise[2] of which as they strike it on the ground is + sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their path.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In a return of 112 coroners' inquests, in cases of death from + wild animals, held in Ceylon in five years, from 1851 to 1855 + inclusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites of serpents; and in almost + every instance the assault is set down as having taken place <i>at + night</i>. The majority of the sufferers were children and + women.</p> + + <p>2: PLINY notices that the serpent has the sense of hearing more + acute than that of sight; and that it is more frequently put in + motion by the sound of footsteps than by the appearance of the + intruder, "excitatur pede sæpius."—Lib. viii. c. 36.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>The Python</i>.—The great python[1] (the "boa," as it is + commonly designated by Europeans, the "anaconda" of Eastern story), + which is supposed to crush the bones of an elephant, and to swallow + the tiger, is found, though not of so portentous dimensions, in the + cinnamon gardens within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it feeds + on hog-deer and other smaller animals.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Python reticulatus, <i>Gray</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it to a pole + expose it for sale as a curiosity. One which was brought to me in + this way measured seventeen feet with a proportionate thickness: but + another which crossed my path on a coffee estate on the Peacock + Mountain at Pusilawa, considerably exceeded these dimensions. Another + which I watched in the garden at Elie House, near Colombo, surprised + me by the ease with which it erected itself almost perpendicularly in + order to scale a wall upwards of ten feet high.</p> + + <p>Of ten species which ascend the trees to search for <a name= + "pg197" id="pg197"></a> squirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests + of birds, one half, including the green <i>carawilla</i>, and the + deadly <i>tic polonga</i>, are believed by the natives to be + venomous; but the fact is very dubious. I have heard of the cobra + being found on the crown of a coco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, + by the toddy which was flowing at the time, as it was the season for + drawing it.</p> + + <p><i>Water-Snakes</i>.—The fresh-water snakes, of which four + species have been described as inhabiting the still water and pools, + are all harmless in Ceylon. A gentleman, who found near a river an + agglutinated cluster of the eggs of one variety <i>(Tropidonotus + umbratus)</i>, placed them under a glass shade on his drawing-room + table, where one by one the young serpents emerged from the shell to + the number of twenty.</p> + + <p>The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a remedy in cases + of wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been communicated to the + Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island + from the coast of Coromandel; and more than one well-authenticated + instance of its successful application has been told to me by persons + who had been eye-witnesses to what they described. On one occasion, + in March, 1854, a friend of mine was riding, with some other civil + officers of the government, along a jungle path in the vicinity of + Bintenne, when they saw one of two Tamils, who were approaching them, + suddenly dart into the forest and return, holding in both hands a + cobra de capello which he had seized by the head and tail. He called + to his companion for assistance to place it in their covered basket, + but, in doing this, he handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by + the finger, and retained its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to + retract its fangs. The blood flowed, and intense pain appeared to + follow almost immediately; but, with all expedition, the friend of + the sufferer undid his waistcloth, and took from it two snake-stones, + each of the size of a small almond, intensely black and highly + <a name="pg198" id="pg198"></a> polished, though of an extremely + light substance. These he applied one to each wound inflicted by the + teeth of the serpent, to which the stones attached themselves + closely, the blood that oozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by + the porous texture of the article applied. The stones adhered + tenaciously for three or four minutes, the wounded man's companion in + the meanwhile rubbing his arm downwards from the shoulder towards the + fingers. At length the snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; + the suffering of the man appeared to have subsided; he twisted his + fingers till the joints cracked, and went on his way without concern. + Whilst this had been going on, another Indian of the party who had + come up took from his bag a small piece of white wood, which + resembled a root, and passed it gently near the head of the cobra, + which the latter immediately inclined close to the ground; he then + lifted the snake without hesitation, and coiled it into a circle at + the bottom of his basket. The root by which he professed to be + enabled to perform this operation with safety he called the + <i>Naya-thalee Kalinga</i> (the root of the snake-plant), protected + by which he professed his ability to approach any reptile with + impunity.</p> + + <p>In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, the District Judge + of Kandy, informed me that he saw a snake-charmer in the jungle, + close by the town, search for a cobra de capello, and, after + disturbing it in its retreat, the man tried to secure it, but, in the + attempt, he was bitten in the thigh till blood trickled from the + wound. He instantly applied the <i>Pamboo-Kaloo</i>, which adhered + closely for about ten minutes, during which time he passed the root + which he held in his hand backwards and forwards above the stone, + till the latter dropped to the ground. He assured Mr. Lavalliere that + all danger was then past. That gentleman obtained from him the + snake-stone he had relied on, and saw him repeatedly afterwards in + perfect health.</p> + + <p>The substances which were used on both these occasions <a name= + "pg199" id="pg199"></a> are now in my possession. The roots employed + by the several parties are not identical. One appears to be a bit of + the stem of an Aristolochia; the other is so dried as to render it + difficult to identify it, but it resembles the quadrangular stem of a + jungle vine. Some species of Aristolochia, such as the <i>A. + serpentaria</i> of North America, are supposed to act as a specific + in the cure of snake-bites; and the <i>A. indica</i> is the plant to + which the ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote + when bitten[1]; but it is probable that the use of any particular + plant by the snake-charmers is a pretence, or rather a delusion, the + reptile being overpowered by the resolute action of the operator, and + not by the influence of any secondary appliance, the confidence + inspired by the supposed talisman enabling its possessor to address + himself fearlessly to his task, and thus to effect, by determination + and will, what is popularly believed to be the result of charms and + stupefaction. Still it is curious that, amongst the natives of + Northern Africa, who lay hold of the <i>Cerastes</i> without fear or + hesitation, their impunity is ascribed to the use of a plant with + which they anoint themselves before touching the reptile[2]; and + Bruce says of the people of Sennar that they acquire exemption from + the fatal consequences of the bite by chewing a particular root and + washing themselves with an infusion of certain plants. He adds that a + portion of this root was given him, with a view to test its efficacy + in his own person, but that he had not sufficient resolution to + undergo the experiment.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of the encounter between the ichneumon and the + venomous snakes of Ceylon, see <a href="#pg149">Pt. II. ch. i. p. + 149.</a></p> + + <p>2: Hassellquist.</p> + </div> + + <p>As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the application of + which I have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, and he has communicated + to me, as the result of his analysis, his belief that it is "a piece + of charred bone which has been filled with blood perhaps several + times, and then carefully charred again. Evidence of <a name="pg200" + id="pg200"></a> this is afforded, as well by the apertures of cells + or tubes on its surface as by the fact that it yields and breaks + under pressure, and exhibits an organic structure within. When heated + slightly, water rises from it, and also a little ammonia; and, if + heated still more highly in the air, carbon burns away, and a bulky + white ash is left, retaining the shape and size of the stone." This + ash, as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged to any + vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely composed of phosphate + of lime. Mr. Faraday adds that "if the piece of matter has ever been + employed as a spongy absorbent, it seems hardly fit for that purpose + in its present state; but who can say to what treatment it has been + subjected since it was fit for use, or to what treatment the natives + may submit it when expecting to have occasion to use it?"</p> + + <p>The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when instantaneously + applied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent to extract the + venom from the recent wound, together with a portion of the blood, + before it has had time to be carried into the system; and that the + blood which Mr. Faraday detected in the specimen submitted to him was + that of the Indian on whose person the effect was exhibited on the + occasion to which my informant was an eye-witness. The snake-charmers + from the coast who visit Ceylon profess to prepare the snake-stones + for themselves, and preserve the composition as a secret. Dr. + Davy[1], on the authority of Sir Alexander Johnston, says the + manufacture of them is a lucrative trade, carried on by the monks of + Manilla, who supply the merchants of India—and his analysis + confirms that of Mr. Faraday. Of the three different kinds which he + examined—one being of partially burnt bone, and another of + chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter, resembled a + bezoar,—all of them (except <a name="pg201" id="pg201"></a> the + first, which possessed a slight absorbent power) were quite inert, + and incapable of having any effect exclusive of that on the + imagination of the patient. Thunberg was shown the snake-stone used + by the boers at the Cape in 1772, which was imported for them "from + the Indies, especially from Malabar," at so high a price that few of + the farmers could afford to possess themselves of it; he describes it + as convex on one side black, and so porous that "when thrown into + water, it caused bubbles to rise;" and hence, by its absorption, it + served, if speedily applied, to extract the poison from the + wound.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Account of the Interior of Ceylon</i>, ch. iii. p. + 101.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Thunberg</i>, vol. 1. p. 155.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Cæcilia</i>.—The rocky jungle, bordering the higher + coffee estates, provides a safe retreat for a very singular animal, + first introduced to the notice of European naturalists about a + century ago by Linnæus, who gave it the name <i>Cæcilia + glutinosa</i>, to indicate two peculiarities manifest to the ordinary + observer—an apparent defect of vision, from the eyes being so + small and imbedded as to be scarcely distinguishable; and a power of + secreting from minute pores in the skin a viscous fluid, resembling + that of snails, eels, and some salamanders. Specimens are rare in + Europe from the readiness with which it decomposes, breaking down + into a flaky mass in the spirits in which it is attempted to be + preserved.</p> + + <p>The creature is about the length and thickness of an ordinary + round desk ruler, a little flattened before and rounded behind. It is + brownish, with a pale stripe along either side. The skin is furrowed + into 350 circular folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The + head is tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine curved teeth + for seizing the insects and worms on which it is supposed to + live.</p> + + <p>Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and metamorphoses of + this creature should be carefully <a name="pg202" id="pg202"></a> + ascertained, for great doubts have been entertained as to the + position it is entitled to occupy in the chain of creation.</p> + + <p><i>Frogs</i>.—In the numerous marshes formed by the + overflowing of the rivers in the vast plains of the low country, + there are many varieties of frogs, which, both by their colours and + by their extraordinary size, are calculated to excite the surprise of + strangers.[1] In the lakes around Colombo and the still water near + Trincomalie, there are huge creatures of this family, from six to + eight inches in length[2], of an olive hue, deepening into brown on + the back and yellow on the under side. The Kandian species, recently + described, is much less in dimensions, but distinguished by its + brilliant colouring, a beautiful grass green above and deep orange + underneath.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Indian toad (Bufo melanostictus, <i>Schneid</i>) is found + In Ceylon, and the belief in its venomous nature is as old as the + third century B.C., when the <i>Mahawanso</i> mentions that the + wife of "King Asoca attempted to destroy the great bo-tree (at + Magadha) <i>with the poisoned fang of a toad</i>."—Ch. xx. p. + 122.</p> + + <p>2: Rana eutipora, and the Malabar bull-frog, R. Malabarica.</p> + + <p>3: R. Kandiana, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the graceful little + hylas[1] were to be found in great numbers, crouching under broad + leaves to protect them from the scorching sun; some of them utter a + sharp metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking + the lips. They possess in a high degree the power of changing their + colour; and one which had seated itself on the gilt pillar of a + dinner lamp was scarcely to be distinguished from the or-molu to + which it clung. They are enabled to ascend glass by means of the + suckers at the extremity of their toes. Their food consists of flies + and minute coleoptera.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The tree-frog, Hyla leucomystax, <i>Gracer</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg203" id="pg203"></a> + + <p><i>List of Ceylon Reptiles</i>.</p> + + <p>I am indebted to Dr. Gray of the British Museum for a more + complete enumeration of the reptiles of Ceylon than is to be found in + Dr. Kelaart's published lists; but many of those new to Europeans + have been carefully described by the latter gentleman in his + <i>Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ</i> and its appendices, as well as in + the 13th vol. <i>Magaz. Nat. Hist.</i> (1854).</p> + + <p><b>Saura.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Monitor dracæna, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Hydrosaurus salvator, Wagl</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Mabouya elegans, Gray</i>.</li> + + <li> + <i>Riopa punctata, Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>Hardwichii, Gray</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Tiliqua rufescens, Shaw</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Eumeces</i> Taprobanius, <i>Kel</i>.</li> + + <li>Nessia Burtoni, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>Acontias</i> Layardi, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Argyrophis bramieus, <i>Daud</i>.</li> + + <li>Rhinophis Blythii, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>Mytilia Gerrardii, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Templetonii, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>animaculata, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>melanogaster, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Siluboura Ceylonica, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>Uropeltis Saffragamus, <i>Kelaart</i>. + + <ul> + <li>grandis, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>pardalis, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dapatnaya Laukadivana, <i>Kel</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Trevelyanii, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemidactylus frenatus, <i>Schleg</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Leschenaultii, <i>Dum & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li><i>trihedrus, Less</i>.</li> + + <li>maculatus, <i>Dum & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>Piresii, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>Coctoei, <i>Dum & Bib</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Peripia Peronii, <i>Dum & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>Gymnodactylus Kandianus, <i>Kel</i>.</li> + + <li>Sitana Ponticercana, <i>Cuv</i>.</li> + + <li>Lyriocephalus scutatus, <i>Wagl</i>.</li> + + <li>Ceratophora Stoddartii, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Salea Jerdoni, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Calotes ophiomachus, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>versicolor, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>Rouxii, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>mystaceus, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chamelo vuelgaris, <i>Daud</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Ophidia.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Trimesuras viridis, <i>Lucep</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonensis, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>nigro-marginatus, <i>Gthr</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Megæra trigonoerphalux, <i>Latr</i>.</li> + + <li>Trigonocephalus hypnalis, <i>Wagl</i>.</li> + + <li>Dabois elegans, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Pelamys bicolor, <i>Doud</i>.</li> + + <li>Aturia lapemoides, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Hydrophis sublævis, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Chersydrus granulatus, <i>Merr</i>.</li> + + <li>Cerberus cinereus, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Tropidophis schistosus, <i>Daud</i>.</li> + + <li>Python reticulatus, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Cylindrophis rufa, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>maculata, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aspidura brachyorrhos, <i>Boie</i>.</li> + + <li>Haplocercus Ceylonensis, <i>Gthr</i>.</li> + + <li>Ohgodon subquadratus, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>. + + <ul> + <li>subgriseus, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>sublineatus, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Simotes Russellii, <i>Daud</i>. + + <ul> + <li>purpurascens, <i>Schleg</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ablabes collaris, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Tropidonotus quincunciatus, <i>Schleg</i>. + + <ul> + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>var. funebris.</li> + + <li>var. carinatus.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>stolatus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>chrysargus, <i>Boie</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cynophis Helena, <i>Daud</i>.</li> + + <li>Coryphodon Blumenbachii, <i>Merr</i>.</li> + + <li>Cyclophis calamaria, <i>Günther</i>.</li> + + <li>Chrysopelea ornata, <i>Shaw</i>.</li> + + <li>Dendrophis picta, <i>Gm</i>. + + <ul> + <li>punctulata, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dryiophis <i>prasina, Reinw</i>.</li> + + <li>Passerita, myeterizans, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>var. fusca.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dipsas <i>multimaculata Reinw</i>.</li> + + <li>Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Lycodon aulicus, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>Cercaspis carinata, <i>Kuhl</i>.</li> + + <li>Bungarus fascinatus, <i>Schneid</i>.</li> + + <li>Naja tripudians, <i>Merr</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Chelonia.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Testudo stellata, <i>Schweig</i>.</li> + + <li>Emys Sebæ, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Emyda Ceylonensis, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Caretta imbrieuta, Limm</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Chelonia virgata, Schweig</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Emydosauri.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Crocodyius biporderes, <i>Cuv</i>. + + <ul> + <li>palastris, <i>Less</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg204" id="pg204"></a> + + <p><b>Batrachia.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Rana cutipora, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Kuhlii, <i>Schleg</i>.</li> + + <li>vittigera, <i>Wiegm</i>.</li> + + <li>robusta, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>tigrina, <i>Daud</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>Leschenaultii, Dum & Bib</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Kandiana, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>Neuera-elliana, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rana Malabarica, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + + <li>Ixalus variabilis, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>leucorhinus, <i>Martens</i>.</li> + + <li>poecilopleurus, <i>Martens</i>.</li> + + <li>aurifasciatus, <i>Dum. & Bib</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pyxicephalus fodiens, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + + <li>Polypedates leucomystax, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li>Polypedates microtympanum, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>eques, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + + <li><i>stellata, Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li><i>schmardana, Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Limnodytes lividus, <i>Blyth</i>. + + <ul> + <li>macularis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li> + + <li>mutabilis, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + + <li>maculatus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bufo melanostictus, <i>Schneid</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Kelaartii, <i>Gray</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Engystoma marmoratum, <i>Cuv</i>. + + <ul> + <li>rubrum, <i>Jerd</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Kaloula pulchra, <i>Gray</i>. + + <ul> + <li>balteata, <i>Günther</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Pseudophidia.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Cæcilia glutinosa, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p>NOTE.—The following species are peculiar to Ceylon; and the + genera Aspidura, Cercaspis, and Haplocercus would appear to be + similarly restricted. Trimesurus Ceylonensis, T. nigro-marginatus; + Megæra Trigonocephala; Trigonocephalus hypnalis; Daboia elegans; + Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura brachyorrhos; Haplocercus + Ceylonensis; Oligodon sublineatus; Cynophis Helena; Cyclophis + calamaria; Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis; Cercaspis carinata; Ixalus + variabilis, I. Leucorhinus, I. poecilopleurus; Polypedates + microtympanum, P. eques.</p><a name="pg205" id="pg205"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. IV.</h2> + + <h3>FISHES.</h3> + + <p>Little has been yet done to examine and describe the fishes of + Ceylon, especially those which frequent the rivers and inland waters. + Mr. Bennett, who was for some years employed in the Civil Service, + directed his attention to the subject, and published in 1830 some + portions of a projected work on the marine ichthyology of the + island[1], but it never proceeded beyond the description of about + thirty individuals. The great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes[2] + particularises about one hundred species, specimens of which were + procured from Ceylon by Reynard Leschenault and other correspondents, + but of these not more than half a dozen belong to fresh water.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>A Selection of the most Remarkable and Interesting Fishes + found on the Coast of Ceylon</i>. By J.W. BENNETT, Esq. London, + 1830.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Historie Naturelle des Poissons</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>The fishes of the coast, so far as they have been examined, + present few which are not common to the seas of Ceylon and India. A + series of drawings, including upwards of six hundred species and + varieties, of Ceylon fish, all made from recently-captured specimens, + has been submitted to Professor Huxley, and a notice of their general + characteristics forms an interesting article in the appendix to the + present chapter.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg229">note C</a> to this chapter.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is the + Seir-fish[1], a species of scomber, which is called <i>Tora-malu</i> + by the natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to + which the flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white colour, + bears a very close resemblance both in firmness and flavour.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Cybium (Scomber, <i>Linn</i>.) guttatum.</p> + </div><a name="pg206" id="pg206"></a> + + <p>Mackerel, dories, carp, whitings, mullet, red and striped, perches + and soles, are abundant, and a sardine (<i>Sardinella Neohowii</i>, + Val.) frequents the southern and eastern coast in such profusion that + on one instance in 1839 a gentleman, who was present, saw upwards of + four hundred thousand taken in a haul of the nets in the little bay + of Goyapanna, east of Point-de-Galle. As this vast shoal approached + the shore the broken water became as smooth as if a sheet of ice had + been floating below the surface.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: These facts serve to explain the story told by the friar + ODORIC of Friule, who visited India about the year 1320 A.D., and + says there are "fishes in those seas that come swimming towards the + said country in such abundance that for a great distance into the + sea nothing can be seen but the backs of fishes, which casting + themselves on the shore, do suffer men for the space of three daies + to come and to take as many of them as they please, and then they + return again into the sea."—<i>Hakluyt</i>, vol. ii. p. + 57.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Poisonous Fishes</i>.—The sardine has the reputation of + being poisonous at certain seasons, and accidents ascribed to its use + are recorded in all parts of the island. Whole families of fishermen + who have partaken of it have died. Twelve persons in the jail of + Chilaw were thus poisoned about the year 1829; and the deaths of + soldiers have repeatedly been ascribed to the same cause. It is + difficult in such instances to say with certainty whether the fish + were in fault; whether there may not have been a peculiar + susceptibility in the condition of the recipients; or whether the + mischief may not have been occasioned by the wilful administration of + poison, or its accidental occurrence in the brass cooking vessels + used by the natives. The popular belief was, however, deferred to by + an order passed by the Governor in Council in February, 1824, which, + after reciting that "Whereas it appears by information conveyed to + the Government that at three several periods at Trincomalie death has + been the consequence to several persons from eating the fish called + Sardinia during the months of January and December," enacts that it + shall not be lawful in that district to catch sardines during + <a name="pg207" id="pg207"></a> these months, under pain of fine and + imprisonment. This order is still in force, but the fishing continues + notwithstanding.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There are two species of Sardine at Ceylon; the <i>S. + neohowii</i>, Val., alluded to above, and the <i>S. leiogaster</i>, + Val. and Cuv. xx. 270, which was found by Mr. Reynaud at + Trincomalie. It occurs also off the coast of Java. Another Ceylon + fish of the same group, a Clupea, is known as the "poisonous + sprat," the bonito (<i>Scomber pelamys?</i>), the kangewena, or + unicorn fish (<i>Balistes?</i>), and a number of others, are more + or less in bad repute from the same imputation.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Sharks</i>.—Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and + instances continually occur of persons being seized by them whilst + bathing even in the harbours of Trincomalie and Colombo. In the Gulf + of Manaar they are taken for the sake of their oil, of which they + yield such a quantity that "shark's oil" is now a recognised export. + A trade also exists in drying their fins, and from the gelatine + contained in them, they find a ready market in China, to which the + skin of the basking shark is also sent;—it is said to be there + converted into shagreen.</p> + + <p><i>Saw Fish.</i>—The huge saw fish, the <i>Pristis + antiquorum</i>[1], infests the eastern coast of the island[2], where + it attains a length of from twelve to fifteen feet, including the + powerful weapon from which its name is derived.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Two other species are found in the Ceylon waters, <i>P. + cuspidatus</i> and <i>P. pectinatus</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/207.jpg"><img src="images/207.jpg" alt= + "CHIRONECTES" /></a> + + <p>CHIRONECTES</p> + </div> + + <p>2: ELIAN mentions, amongst the extraordinary marine animals + found in the seas around Ceylon, a fish <i>with feet instead of + fins; [Greek: poias ge mên chêlas ê pteri gia.]</i>—Lib xvi. + c. 18. Does not this drawing of a species of Chironectes, captured + near Colombo, justify his description?</p> + </div> + + <p>But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are those fishes + whose brilliancy of colouring has won for them the wonder even of the + listless Singhalese. Some, <a name="pg208" id="pg208"></a> like the + Red Sea Perch (<i>Helocentrus ruber</i>, Bennett) and the Great Fire + Fish[1], are of the deepest scarlet and flame colour; in others + purple predominates, as in the <i>Serranus flavo-cæruleus</i>; in + others yellow, as in the <i>Chæetodon Brownriggii</i>[2], and + <i>Acanthurus vittatus</i>, Bennett[3], and numbers, from the + lustrous green of their scales, have obtained from the natives the + appropriate name of <i>Giraway</i>, or <i>parrots</i>, of which one, + the <i>Sparus Hardwickii</i> of Bennett, is called the "Flower + Parrot," from its exquisite colouring, being barred with irregular + bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green, yellow, and grey, and + crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Pterois muricata</i>, Cuv. and Val. iv. 363. <i>Scorpæna + miles</i>, Bennett; named, by the Singhalese, + "<i>Maha-rata-gini</i>," the Great Red Fire, a very brilliant red + species spotted with black. It is very voracious, and is regarded + on some parts of the coast as edible, while on others it is + rejected. Mr. Bennett has given a drawing of this species, (pl. 9), + so well marked by the armature of the head. The French naturalists + regard this figure as being only a highly-coloured variety of their + species "dont l'éclat est occasionné par la saison de l'amour." It + is found in the Red Sea and Bourbon and Penang. Dr. CANTOR calls it + <i>Pterois miles</i>, and reports that it preys upon small + crustaceæ.—<i>Cat. Malayan Fishes</i>, p. 44.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Glyphisodon Brownriggii</i>, Cuv. and Val. v. 484; + <i>Chætodon Brownriggii</i>, Bennett. A very small fish about two + inches long, called <i>Kaha bartikyha</i> by the natives. It is + distinct from Chætodon, in which Mr. Bennett placed it. Numerous + species of this genus are scattered throughout the Indian Ocean. It + derives its name from the fine hair-like character of its teeth. + They are found chiefly among coral reefs, and, though eaten, are + not much esteemed. In the French colonies they are called + "Chauffe-soleil." One species is found on the shores of the New + World (<i>G. saxatilis</i>), and it is curious that Messrs. Quoy + and Gaimard found this fish at the Cape de Verde Islands in + 1827.</p> + + <p>3: This fish has a sharp round spine on the side of the body + near the tail; a formidable weapon, which is generally partially + concealed within a scabbard-like incision. The fish raises or + depresses this spine at pleasure. It is yellow, with several nearly + parallel blue stripes on the back and sides; the belly is white, + the tail and fins brownish green, edged with blue.</p> + + <p>It is found in rocky places; and according to Mr. Bennett, who + has figured it in his second plate, it is named <i>Seweya</i>. It + is scarce on the southern coast of Ceylon.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Fresh-water Fishes.</i>—Of the fresh-water fish, which + inhabit the rivers and tanks, so very little has hitherto been known + to naturalists[1], that of nineteen drawings <a name="pg209" id= + "pg209"></a> sent home by Major Skinner in 1852, although specimens + of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton Smith pronounced nearly the + whole to be new and undescribed species.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In extenuation of the little that is known of the fresh-water + fishes of Ceylon, it may be observed that very few of them are used + at table by Europeans, and there is therefore no stimulus on the + part of the natives to catch them. The burbot and grey mullet are + occasionally eaten, but they taste of mud, and are not in + request.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelli-ganga, and caught + in the vicinity of Kandy, five were carps[1], of which two were + <i>Leucisci</i>, and one a <i>Mastacemblus</i>, to which Col. H. + Smith has given the name of its discoverer, <i>M. Skinneri</i>[2], + one was an <i>Ophicephalus</i>, and one a <i>Polyacanthus</i>, with + no serræ on the gills. Six were from the Kalany-ganga, close to + Colombo, of which two were <i>Helastoma</i>, in shape approaching the + Choetodon; two <i>Ophicephali</i>, one a <i>Silurus</i>, and one an + <i>Anabas</i>, but the gills were without denticulation. From the + still water of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there were + two species of <i>Eleotris</i>, one <i>Silurus</i> with barbels, and + two <i>Malacopterygians</i>, which appear to be <i>Bagri</i>.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Of the fresh-water fishes belonging to the family Cyprinidæ, + there are about eighteen species from Ceylon in the collection of + the British Museum.</p> + + <p>2: This fish bears the native name of <i>Theliya</i> in Major + Skinner's list; and is described by Colonel Hamilton Smith as being + "of the proportions of an eel; beautifully mottled, with eyes and + spots of a lighter olive upon a dark green." This so nearly + corresponds with a fish of the same name, <i>Theliya</i>, which was + brought to Gronovius from Ceylon, and proved to be identical with + the <i>Aral</i> of the Coromandel coast, that it may be doubtful + whether it be not the individual already noted by Cuvier as + <i>Rhyncobdella ocellata</i>, Cuv. and Val. viii. 445.</p> + </div> + + <p>In this collection, brought together without premeditation, the + naturalist will be struck by the preponderance of those genera which + are adapted by nature to endure a temporary privation of moisture; + and this, taken in connection with the vicissitudes affecting the + waters they inhabit, exhibits a surprising illustration of the wisdom + of the Creator in adapting the organisation of His creatures to the + peculiar circumstances under which they are destined to exist.</p> + + <p>So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that Knox says, + not the running streams alone, but the reservoirs and ponds, "nay, + every ditch and little plash of water but ankle deep hath fish in + it."[1] But many of <a name="pg210" id="pg210"></a> these reservoirs + and tanks are, twice in each year, liable to be evaporated to dryness + till the mud of the bottom is converted into dust, and the clay cleft + by the heat into gaping apertures. Yet within a very few days after + the change of the monsoon, the natives are busily engaged in fishing + in those very spots and in the hollows contiguous to them, although + entirely unconnected with any pool or running streams; in the way in + which Knox described nearly 200 years ago, with a funnel-shaped + basket, open at bottom and top, which, as he says, they "jibb down, + and the end sticks in the mud, which often happens upon a fish; + which, when they feel beating itself against the sides, they put in + their hands and take it out, and reive a ratan through their gills, + and so let them drag after them."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: KNOX'S <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, Part 1. ch. vii. + The occurrence of fish in the most unlooked-for situations, is one + of the mysteries of other eastern countries as well as Ceylon and + India. In Persia irrigation is carried on to a great extent by + means of wells sunk in line in the direction in which it is desired + to lead a supply of water, and these are connected by channels, + which are carefully arched over to protect them from evaporation. + These <i>kanats</i>, as they are called, are full of fish, although + neither they nor the wells they unite have any connection with + streams or lakes.</p> + + <p>2: KNOX, <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, Part I. ch. + vii.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/210.jpg"><img src="images/210.jpg" alt= + "FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A.D. 1681" /></a> + + <p>FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A.D. 1681</p> + </div> + + <p>This operation may be seen in the lowlands, which are traversed by + the high road leading from Colombo to Kandy, the hollows on either + side of which, before the <a name="pg211" id="pg211"></a> change of + the monsoon, are covered with dust or stunted grass; but when flooded + by the rains, they are immediately resorted to by the peasants with + baskets, constructed precisely as Knox has stated, in which the fish + are encircled and taken out by the hand.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <div class="figrt"> + <a href="images/211.jpg"><img src="images/211.jpg" alt= + "FISH CORRAL" /></a> + + <p>FISH CORRAL</p> + </div> + + <p>1: As anglers, the native Singhalese exhibit little expertness; + but for fishing the rivers, they construct with singular ingenuity + fences formed of strong stakes, protected by screens of ratan, + which stretch diagonally across the current; and along these the + fish are conducted into a series of enclosures from which retreat + is impracticable. Mr. LAYARD, in the <i>Magazine of Natural + History</i> for May, 1853, has given a diagram of one of these fish + "corrals," as they are called.</p> + </div> + + <p>So singular a phenomenon as the sudden reappearance of full-grown + fishes in places which a few days before had been encrusted with + hardened clay, has not failed to attract attention; but the European + residents have been contented to explain it by hazarding the + conjecture, either that the spawn had lain imbedded in the dried + earth till released by the rains, or that the fish, so unexpectedly + discovered, fall from the clouds during the deluge of the + monsoon.</p> + + <p>As to the latter conjecture; the fall of fish during showers, even + were it not so problematical in theory, is too rare an event to + account for the punctual appearance of those found in the + rice-fields, at stated periods of the year. Both at Galle and Colombo + in the south-west monsoon, fish are popularly thought to have fallen + from the clouds during violent showers, but those found on the + occasions that give rise to this belief, consist of the smallest fry, + such as could be caught up by waterspouts, and vortices analogous to + them, or otherwise blown on shore from the surf; whereas those which + suddenly appear in the replenished tanks and in the hollows which + they overflow, are mature and well-grown fish.[1] Besides, the + <a name="pg212" id="pg212"></a> latter are found, under the + circumstances I have described, in all parts of the interior, whilst + the prodigy of a supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed, + I apprehend, only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some inland + water.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I had an opportunity, on one occasion only, of witnessing the + phenomenon which gives rise to this popular belief. I was driving + in the cinnamon gardens near the fort of Colombo, and saw a violent + but partial shower descend at no great distance before me. On + coming to the spot I found a multitude of small silvery fish from + one and a half to two inches in length, leaping on the gravel of + the high road, numbers of which I collected and brought away in my + palankin. The spot was about half a mile from the sea, and entirely + unconnected with any watercourse or pool.</p> + + <p>Mr. WHITING, who was many years resident at Trincomalie, writes + me that he "had often been told by the natives on that side of the + island that it sometimes rained fishes; and on one occasion (he + adds) I was taken by them, in 1849, to a field at the village of + Karran-cotta-tivo, near Batticaloa, which was dry when I passed + over it in the morning, but had been covered in two hours by sudden + rain to the depth of three inches in which there was then a + quantity of small fish. The water had no connection with any pond + or stream whatsoever." Mr. CRIPPS, in like manner, in speaking of + Galle, says: "I have seen in the vicinity of the fort, fish taken + from rain-water that had accumulated in the hollow parts of land + that in the hot season are perfectly dry and parched. The place is + accessible to no running stream or tank; and either the fish, or + the spawn from which they were produced, must of necessity have + fallen with the rain."</p> + + <p>Mr. J. PRINSEP, the eminent secretary to the Asiatic Society of + Bengal, found a fish in the pluviometer at Calcutta, in + 1838.—<i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. vi p. 465.</p> + + <p>A series of instances in which fishes have been found on the + continent of India under circumstances which lead to the conclusion + that they must have fallen from the clouds, have been collected by + Dr. BUIST of Bombay, and will be found in the appendix to this + chapter.</p> + </div> + + <p>The surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by the very + highest authority. Mr. YARRELL in his "<i>History of British + Fishes</i>," adverting to the fact that ponds which had been + previously converted into hardened mud, are replenished with small + fish in a very few days after the commencement of each rainy season, + offers this solution of the problem as probably the true one: "The + impregnated ova of the fish of one rainy season, are left unhatched + in the mud through the dry season, and from their low state of + organisation as ova, the vitality is preserved till the recurrence, + and contact of the rain and oxygen in the next wet season, when + vivification takes place from their joint influence."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: YARRELL, <i>History of British Fishes</i>, introd. vol. i. p. + xxvi.</p> + </div> + + <p>This hypothesis, however, appears to have been offered upon + imperfect data; for although some fish <a name="pg213" id= + "pg213"></a> like the salmon scrape grooves in the sand and place + their spawn in inequalities and fissures; yet as a general rule spawn + is deposited not beneath but on the surface of the ground or sand + over which the water flows, the adhesive nature of each egg supplying + the means of attachment. But in the Ceylon tanks not only is the + surface of the soil dried to dust after the evaporation of the water, + but the earth itself, twelve or eighteen inches deep, is converted + into sun-burnt clay, in which, although the eggs of mollusca, in + their calcareous covering, are in some instances preserved, it would + appear to be as impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from + decomposition as for the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, + moisture in such situations is only to be found at a depth to which + spawn could not be conveyed by the parent fish, by any means with + which we are yet acquainted.</p> + + <p>But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently deep, + and to deposit it safely in the mud below, which is still damp, + whence it could be liberated on the return of the rains, a + considerable interval would still be necessary after the replenishing + of the ponds with water to admit of vivification and growth. But so + far from this interval being allowed to elapse, the rains have no + sooner ceased than the fishing of the natives commences, and those + captured in wicker cages are mature and full grown instead of being + "small fish" or fry, as affirmed by Mr. Yarrell.</p> + + <p>Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the probability + that, under favourable circumstances, the spawn in the tanks might be + preserved during the dry season so as to contribute to the + perpetuation of their inhabitants, the fact is no longer doubtful, + that adult fish in Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar + waters both in the New and Old World, have been endowed by the + Creator with the singular faculty of providing against the periodical + droughts either by journeying overland in search of still unexhausted + water, or, on its utter disappearance, <a name="pg214" id= + "pg214"></a> by burying themselves in the mud to await the return of + the rains.</p> + + <p><i>Travelling Fishes.</i>—It was well known to the Greeks + that certain fishes of India possessed the power of leaving the + rivers and returning to them again after long migrations[1] on dry + land, and modern observation has fully confirmed their statements. + The fish leave the pools and nullahs in the dry season, and led by an + instinct as yet unexplained, shape their course through the grass + towards the nearest pool of water. A similar phenomenon is observable + in countries similarly circumstanced. The Doras of Guiana[2] have + been seen travelling over land during the dry season in search of + their natural element[3], in such droves that the negroes have filled + baskets with them during these terrestrial excursions.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I have collected into a note, which will be found in the + appendix to this chapter, the opinions entertained by the Greeks + and Romans upon this habit of the fresh-water fishes of India. See + <a href="#pg227">note B.</a></p> + + <p>2: <i>D. Hancockii</i>, Cuv. et Val.</p> + + <p>3: Sir R. Schomburgk's <i>Fishes of Guiana</i>, vol. i. pp. 113, + 151, 160. Another migratory fish was found by Bose very numerous in + the fresh waters of Carolina and in ponds liable to become dry in + summer. When captured and placed on the ground, "they <i>always + directed themselves towards the nearest water, which they could not + possibly see</i>, and which they must have discovered by some + internal index." They belong to the genus <i>Hydrargyra</i>, and are + called Swampines.— KIBBY, <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol i. + p. 143.</p> + + <p>Eels kept in a garden, when August arrived (the period at which + instinct impels them to go to the sea to spawn) were in the habit + of leaving the pond and were invariably found moving eastward <i>in + the direction of the sea</i>.—YARRELL, vol. ii. p. 384. + Anglers observe that fish newly caught, when placed out of sight of + water, always struggle towards it to escape.</p> + </div> + + <p>Pallegoix in his account of Siam, enumerates three species of + fishes which leave the tanks and channels and traverse the damp + grass[1]; and Sir John Bowring, in his account of the embassy to the + Siamese kings in 1855, states, that in ascending and descending the + river Meinam to Bankok, he was amused with the novel sight of fish + leaving the river, gliding over the wet banks, and losing themselves + amongst the trees of the jungle.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PALLEGOIX, vol. i. p. 144.</p> + + <p>2: Sir J. BOWRING'S <i>Siam</i>, vol. i. p. 10.</p> + </div> + + <p>The class of fishes which possess this power are chiefly <a name= + "pg215" id="pg215"></a> those with labyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, + so disposed in plates and cells as to retain a supply of moisture, + which, whilst crawling on land, gradually exudes so as to keep the + gills damp.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: CUVIER and VALENCIENNES, <i>Hist. Nat. des Poissons,</i> tom. + vii. p. 246.</p> + </div> + + <p>The individual which is most frequently seen in these excursions + in Ceylon is a perch called by the Singhalese <i>Kavaya</i> or + <i>Kawhy-ya</i>, and by the Tamils <i>Pannei-eri</i>, or + <i>Sennal</i>. It is closely allied to, if not identical with, the + <i>Anabas scandens</i> of Cuvier, the <i>Perca scandens</i> of + Daldorf. It grows to about six inches in length, the head round and + covered with scales, and the edges of the gill-covers strongly + denticulated. Aided by the apparatus already adverted to in its head, + this little creature issues boldly from its native pools and + addresses itself to its toilsome march generally at night or in the + early morning, whilst the grass is still damp with the dew; but in + its distress it is sometimes compelled to travel by day, and Mr. E.L. + Layard on one occasion encountered a number of them travelling along + a hot and dusty gravel road under the midday sun.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist</i>., May, 1853, p. 390. Mr. + Morris, the government-agent of Trincomalie, writing to me on this + subject in 1856, says—"I was lately on duty inspecting the + bund of a large tank at Nade-cadua, which, being out of repair, the + remaining water was confined in a small hollow in the otherwise dry + bed. Whilst there heavy rain came on, and, as we stood on the high + ground, we observed a pelican on the margin of the shallow pool + gorging himself; our people went towards him and raised a cry of + fish! fish! We hurried down, and found numbers of fish struggling + upwards through the grass in the rills formed by the trickling of + the rain. There was scarcely water enough to cover them, but + nevertheless they made rapid progress up the bank, on which our + followers collected about two bushels of them at a distance of + forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way up the + knoll, and, had they not been intercepted first by the pelican and + afterwards by ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained + the highest point and descended on the other side into a pool which + formed another portion of the tank. They were chub, the same as are + found in the mud after the tanks dry up." In a subsequent + communication in July, 1857, the same gentleman says—"As the + tanks dry up the fish congregate in the little pools till at last + you find them in thousands in the moistest parts of the beds, + rolling in the blue mud which is at that time about the consistence + of thick gruel."</p> + + <p>"As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left + uncovered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one + place I saw hundreds diverging in every direction, from the tank + they had just abandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and + still travelling onwards. In going this distance, however, they + must have used muscular exertion sufficient to have taken them half + a mile on level ground, for at these places all the cattle and wild + animals of the neighbourhood had latterly come to drink; so that + the surface was everywhere indented with footmarks in addition to + the cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into which the fish + tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep and the + sides perpendicular they remained to die, and were carried off by + kites and crows."</p> + + <p>"My impression is that this migration takes place at night or + before sunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have + seen them progressing, and I found that those I brought away with + me in chatties appeared quiet by day, but a large proportion + managed to get out of the chatties at night—some escaped + altogether, others were trodden on and killed."</p> + + <p>"One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column, + quite disproportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly + noticed that all in the act of migrating had their gills + expanded."</p> + </div><a name="pg216" id="pg216"></a> + + <p>Referring to the <i>Anabas scandens</i>, Mr. Hamilton Buchanan + says, that of all the fish with which he was acquainted it is the + most tenacious of life; and he has known boatmen on the Ganges to + keep them for five or six days in an earthen pot without water, and + daily to use what they wanted, finding them as lively and fresh as + when caught.[1] Two Danish naturalists residing at Tranquebar, have + contributed their authority to the fact of this fish ascending trees + on the coast of Coromandel, an exploit from which it acquired its + epithet of <i>Perca scandens</i>. Daldorf, who was a lieutenant in + the Danish East India Company's service, communicated to Sir Joseph + Banks, that in the year 1791 he had taken this fish from a moist + cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, which grew near a lake. He saw + it when already five feet above the ground struggling to ascend still + higher;—suspending itself by its gill-covers, and bending its + tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin in the cavity of the bark, + and sought by expanding its body to urge its way upwards, and its + march was only arrested by the hand with which he seized it.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Fishes of the Ganges</i>, 4to. 1822.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Transactions Linn. Soc.</i> vol. iii. p. 63. It is + remarkable, however, that this discovery of Daldorf, which excited + so great an interest in 1791, had been anticipated by an Arabian + voyager a thousand years before. Abou-zeyd, the compiler of the + remarkable MS. known since Renandot's translation by the title of + the <i>Travels of Two Mahometans</i>, states that Suleyman, one of + his informants, who visited India at the close of the ninth + century, was told there of a fish which, issuing from the waters, + ascended the coco-nut palms to drink their sap, and returned to the + sea. "On parle d'un poisson de mer que sortant de l'eau, monte sur + la cocotier et boit le suc de la plante; ensuite il retourne à la + mer." See REINAUD, <i>Relations des Voyages faits par les Arabes et + Persans dans le neuvième siècle</i>, tom. i. p. 21, tom ii. p. + 93.</p> + </div><a name="pg217" id="pg217"></a> + + <p>There is considerable obscurity about the story of this ascent, + although corroborated by M. John. Its motive for climbing is not + apparent, since water being close at hand it could not have gone for + sake of the moisture contained in the fissures of the palm; nor could + it be in search of food, as it lives not on fruit but on aquatic + insects.[1] The descent, too, is a question of difficulty. The + position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers, might assist + its journey upwards, but the same apparatus would prove anything but + a facility in steadying its journey down. The probability is, as + suggested by Buchanan, that the ascent which was witnessed by Daldorf + was accidental, and ought not to be regarded as the habit of the + animal. In Ceylon I heard of no instance of the perch ascending + trees[2], but the fact is well established that both it, the + <i>pullata</i> (a species of polyacanthus), and others, are capable + of long journeys on the level ground.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Kirby says that it is "in pursuit of certain crustaceans that + form its food" (<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol. i. p. 144); but I + am not aware of any crustaceans in the island which ascend the + palmyra or feed upon its fruit. Birgus latro, which inhabits + Mauritius and is said to climb the coco-nut for this purpose, has + not been observed in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>2: This assertion must be qualified by a fact stated by Mr. E.A. + Layard, who mentions that on visiting one of the fishing stations + on a Singhalese river, where the fish are caught in staked + enclosures, as described at p. 212, and observing that the chambers + were covered with netting, he asked the reason, and was told + "<i>that some of the fish climbed up the sticks and got + over</i>."—<i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> for May 1828, p. 390-1.</p> + + <p>3: Strange accidents have more than once occurred in Ceylon + arising from the habit of the native anglers; who, having neither + baskets nor pockets in which to place what they catch, will seize a + fish in their teeth whilst putting fresh bait on their hook. In + August 1853, a man carried into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, + having a climbing perch, which he thus attempted to hold, firmly + imbedded in his throat. The spines of its dorsal fin prevented its + descent, whilst those of the gill-covers equally forbade its + return. It was eventually extracted by the forceps through an + incision in the oesophagus, and the patient recovered. Other + similar cases have proved fatal.</p> + </div><a name="pg218" id="pg218"></a> + + <p><i>Burying Fishes.</i>—But a still more remarkable power + possessed by some of the Ceylon fishes, is that of secreting + themselves in the earth in the dry season, at the bottom of the + exhausted ponds, and there awaiting the renewal of the water at the + change of the monsoon.</p> + + <p>The instinct of the crocodile to resort to the same expedient has + been already referred to[1], and in like manner the fish, when + distressed by the evaporation of the tanks, seek relief by immersing + first their heads, and by degrees their whole bodies, in the mud; and + sinking to a depth at which they find sufficient moisture to preserve + life in a state of lethargy long after the bed of the tank has been + consolidated by the intense heat of the sun. It is possible, too, + that the cracks which reticulate the surface may admit air to some + extent to sustain their faint respiration.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg189">P. II. ch. iii. p. + 189.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, subject to + vicissitudes of draught and moisture. The Protopterus[1] which + inhabits the Gambia (and which, though demonstrated by Professor Owen + to possess all the essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless + provided with true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, when the + river retires into its channel, to bury itself to the depth of twelve + or sixteen inches in the indurated mud of the banks, and to remain in + a state of torpor till the rising of the stream after the rains + enables it to resume its active habits. At this period the natives of + the Gambia, like those of Ceylon, resort to the river, and secure the + fish in considerable numbers as they flounder in the still shallow + water. A parallel instance occurs in Abyssinia in relation to the + fish of the Mareb, one of the sources of the Nile, the waters of + which are partially absorbed in traversing the plains of Taka. During + the summer its bed is dry, and in the slime at the depth of more than + six feet is found a species <a name="pg219" id="pg219"></a> of fish + without scales, different from any known to inhabit the Nile.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Lepidosiren annectans</i>, Owen. See <i>Linn. Trans.</i> + 1839.</p> + + <p>2: This statement will be found in QUATREMERE'S <i>Memoires sur + l'Egypte</i>, tom. i. p. 17, on the authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed + ben Solaim Assouany, in his <i>History of Nubia</i>, "Simon, + héritier présomptif du royanme d'Alouah, m'a assuré que l'on + trouve, dans la vase qui couvre le fond de cette rivière, un grand + poisson sans écailles, qui ne ressemble en rien aux poissons du + Nil, et que, pour l'avoir, il faut creuser à une toise et plus de + profondeur." To this passage there is appended this note:—"Le + patriarche Mendes, cité par Legrand (<i>Relation Hist. + d'Abyssinie</i>, du P. LOBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le fleuve + Mareb, après avoir arrosé une étendue de pays considérable, se perd + sous terre; et que quand les Portugais faisaient la guerre dans ce + pays, ils fouilloient dans le sable, et y trouvoient de la bonne + eau et du bon poison. Au rapport de l'auteur de <i>l'Ayin + Akbery</i> (tom. ii. p. 146, ed. 1800), dans le Soubah de Caschmir, + près du lieu nommé Tilahmoulah, est une grande pièce de terre qui + est inondée pendant la saison des pluies. Lorsque les eaux se sont + évaporées, et que la vase est presque sèche, les habitans prennent + des bâtons d'environ une aune de long, qu'ils enfoncent dans la + vase, et ils y trouvent quantité de grands et petits poissons." In + the library of the British Museum there is an unique MS. of MANOEL + DE ALMEIDA, written in the sixteenth century, from which Balthasar + Tellez compiled his <i>Historia General de Ethiopia alta</i>, + printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in it the above statement of Mendes + is corroborated by Almeida, who says that he was told by João + Gabriel, a Creole Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who had visited + the Merab, and who said that the "fish were to be found everywhere + eight or ten palms down, and that he had eaten of them."</p> + </div> + + <p>In South America the "round-headed hassar" of Guiana, + <i>Callicthys littoralis</i>, and the "yarrow," a species of the + family Esocidæ, although they possess no specially modified + respiratory organs, are accustomed to bury themselves in the mud on + the subsidence of water in the pools during the dry season.[1] The + <i>Loricaria</i> of Surinam, another Siluridan, exhibits a similar + instinct, and resorts to the same expedient. Sir R. Schomburgk, in + his account of the fishes of Guiana, confirms this account of the + Callicthys, and says "they can exist in muddy lakes without any water + whatever, and great numbers of them are sometimes dug up from such + situations."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See Paper "<i>on some Species of Fishes and Reptiles in + Demerara</i>," by J. HANDCOOK, Esq., M.D., <i>Zoological + Journal</i>, vol. iv. p. 243.</p> + </div> + + <p>In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, and small + tanks are extremely numerous, the natives in the hot season are + accustomed to dig in the mud for fish. Mr. Whiting, the chief civil + officer of the eastern <a name="pg220" id="pg220"></a> province, + informs me that, on two occasions, he was present accidentally when + the villagers were so engaged, once at the tank of Moeletivoe, within + a few miles of Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie, and again at a + tank between Ellendetorre and Arnetivoe, on the bank of the Vergel + river. The clay was firm, but moist, and as the men flung out lumps + of it with a spade, it fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine to + twelve inches long, which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on + the bank when exposed to the sun light.</p> + + <p>Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of the fish so exhumed, I + received from the Moodliar of Matura, A.B. Wickremeratne, a fish + taken along with others of the same kind from a tank in which the + water had dried up; it was found at a depth of a foot and a half + where the mud was still moist, whilst the surface was dry and hard. + The fish which the moodliar sent to me proved to be an Anabas, and + closely resembles the <i>Perca scandens</i> of Daldorf.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/220.jpg"><img src="images/220.jpg" alt= + "THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS" /></a> + + <p>THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS</p> + </div> + + <p>But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is not confined + in Ceylon to the crocodiles and fishes, it is equally possessed by + some of the fresh-water mollusca and aquatic coleoptera. The largest + of the former, the <i>Ampullaria glauca</i>, is found in still water + in all parts of the island, not alone in the tanks, but in + rice-fields and the watercourses by which they are irrigated. There + it deposits a bundle of eggs with a white calcareous shell, to the + number of one hundred and more <a name="pg221" id="pg221"></a> in + each group, at a considerable depth in the soft mud, under which, + when the water is about to evaporate during the dry season, it + burrows and conceals itself[1] till the returning rains restore it to + liberty, and reproduce its accustomed food. The <i>Melania + Paludina</i> in the same way retires during the droughts into the + muddy soil of the rice lands; and it can only be by such an instinct + that this and other mollusca are preserved when the tanks evaporate, + to re-appear in full growth and vigour immediately on the return of + the rains.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A knowledge of this fact was turned to prompt account by Mr. + Edgar S. Layard, when holding a judicial office at Point Pedro in + 1849. A native who had been defrauded of his land complained before + him of his neighbour, who, during his absence, had removed their + common landmark by diverting the original watercourse and + obliterated its traces by filling it to a level with the rest of + the field. Mr. Layard directed a trench to be sunk at the contested + spot, and discovering numbers of the Ampullaria, the remains of the + eggs, and the living animal which had been buried for months, the + evidence was so resistless as to confound the wrongdoer, and + terminate the suit.</p> + + <p>2: For a similar fact relative to the shells and water beetles + in the pools near Rio Janeiro, see DARWIN'S <i>Nat. Journal</i>, + ch. v. p. 90. BENSON, in the first vol. of <i>Gleanings of + Science</i>, published at Calcutta in 1829, describes a species of + <i>Paludina</i> found in pools, which are periodically dried up in + the hot season but reappear with the rains, p. 363. And in the + <i>Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal</i> for Sept. 1832, Lieut. + HUTTON, in a singularly interesting paper, has followed up the same + subject by a narrative of his own observations at Mirzapore, where + in June, 1832, after a few heavy showers of rain, which formed + pools on the surface of the ground near a mango grove, he saw the + <i>Paludinæ</i> issuing from the ground, "pushing aside the + moistened earth and coming forth from their retreats; but on the + disappearance of the water not one of them was to be seen above + ground. Wishing to ascertain what had become of them, he turned up + the earth at the base of several trees, and invariably found the + shells buried from an inch to two inches below the surface." Lieut. + Hutton adds that the <i>Ampullariæ</i> and <i>Planorbes</i>, as + well as the <i>Paludinæ</i>, are found in similar situations during + the heats of the dry season. The British <i>Pisidea</i> exhibit the + same faculty (see a monograph in the <i>Camb. Phil. Trans.</i> vol. + iv.). The fact is elsewhere alluded to in the present work of the + power possessed by the land leech of Ceylon of retaining vitality + even after being parched to hardness during the heat of the + rainless season. Vol. I. ch. vii. p. 312.</p> + </div> + + <p>Dr. John Hunter[1] has advanced the opinion that hybernation, + although a result of cold, is not its immediate consequence, but is + attributable to that deprivation of food and other essentials which + extreme cold occasions, and against the recurrence of which nature + makes a timely provision by a suspension of her functions. Excessive + <a name="pg222" id="pg222"></a> heat in the tropics produces an + effect upon animals and vegetables analogous to that of excessive + cold in northern regions, and hence it is reasonable to suppose that + the torpor induced by the one may be but the counterpart of the + hybernation which results from the other. The frost which imprisons + the alligator in the Mississippi as effectually cuts him off from + food and action as the drought which incarcerates the crocodile in + the sun-burnt clay of a Ceylon tank. The hedgehog of Europe enters on + a period of absolute torpidity as soon as the inclemency of winter + deprives it of its ordinary supply of slugs and insects; and the + <i>Tenrec</i>[2] of Madagascar, its tropical representative, exhibits + the same tendency during the period when excessive heat produces in + that climate a like result.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HUNTER'S <i>Observations on parts of the Animal Oeconomy</i>, + p. 88.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>, Illiger.</p> + </div> + + <p>The descent of the <i>Ampullaria</i>, and other fresh-water + molluscs, into the mud of the tank, has its parallel in the conduct + of the <i>Bulimi</i> and <i>Helices</i> on land. The European snail, + in the beginning of winter, either buries itself in the earth or + withdraws to some crevice or overarching stone to await the returning + vegetation of spring. So, in the season of intense heat, the <i>Helix + Waltoni</i> of Ceylon, and others of the same family, before retiring + under cover, close the aperture of their shells with an impervious + epiphragm, which effectually protects their moisture and juices from + evaporation during the period of their æstivation. The Bulimi of + Chili have been found alive in England in a box packed in cotton + after an interval of two years, and the animal inhabiting a + land-shell from Suez, which was attached to a tablet and deposited in + the British Museum in 1846, was found in 1850 to have formed a fresh + epiphragm, and on being immersed in tepid water, it emerged from its + shell. It became torpid again on the 15th November, 1851, and was + found dead and dried up in March, 1852.[1] But the exceptions serve + to prove <a name="pg223" id="pg223"></a> the accuracy of Hunter's + opinion almost as strikingly as accordances, since the same genera of + animals which hybernate in Europe, where extreme cold disarranges + their oeconomy, evince no symptoms of lethargy in the tropics, + provided their food be not diminished by the heat. Ants, which are + torpid in Europe during winter, work all the year round in India, + where sustenance is uniform.[2] The Shrews of Ceylon (<i>Sorex + montanus</i> and <i>S. ferrugineus</i> of Kelaart) which, like those + at home, subsist upon insects, inhabit a region where the equable + temperature admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons of the + year; and hence, unlike those of Europe, they never hybernate. A + similar observation applies to the bats, which are dormant during a + northern winter when insects are rare, but never become torpid in any + part of the tropics.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, 1850. See Dr. BAIRD's + <i>Account of Helix desertorum; Excelsior, &c.</i>, ch. i. p. + 345.</p> + + <p>2: Colonel SYKES has described in the <i>Entomological + Trans.</i> the operations of an ant which laid up a store of hay + against the rainy season.</p> + </div> + + <p>The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of its activity + except when the rigour of severe frost cuts off its access to its + accustomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise, which immerses + itself in indurated mud during the hot months in Venezuela, shows no + tendency to torpor in Ceylon, where its food is permanent; and yet is + subject to hybernation when carried to the colder regions of + Europe.</p> + + <p>To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the heat, by + exhausting the water, deprives them at once of motion and sustenance, + the practical effect must be the same as when the frost of a northern + winter encases them in ice. Nor is it difficult to believe that they + can successfully undergo the one crisis when we know beyond question + that they may survive the other.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: YARRELL, vol. i. p. 364, quotes the authority of Dr. J. + Hunter in his <i>Animal OEconomy</i>, that fish, "after being + frozen still retain so much of life as when thawed to resume their + vital actions;" and in the same volume (<i>Introd.</i> vol. i. p. + xvii.) he relates from JESSE'S <i>Gleanings in Natural History</i>, + the story of a gold fish (<i>Cyprinus auratus</i>) which, together + with the water in a marble basin, was frozen into one solid lump of + ice, yet, on the water being thawed, the fish became as lively as + usual Dr. RICHARDSON, in the third vol. of his <i>Fauna Borealis + Americana</i>, says the grey sucking carp found in the fur + countries of North America, may be frozen and thawed again without + being killed in the process.</p> + </div><a name="pg224" id="pg224"></a> + + <p><i>Hot-water Fishes</i>.—Another incident is striking in + connection with the fresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have mentioned + elsewhere the hot springs of Kannea, in the vicinity of Trincomalie, + the water in which flows at a temperature varying at different + seasons from 85° to 115°. In the stream formed by these wells M. + Reynaud found and forwarded to Cuvier two fishes which he took from + the water at a time when his thermometer indicated a temperature of + 37° Reaumur, equal to 115° of Fahrenheit. The one was an Apogon, the + other an Ambassis, and to each, from the heat of its habitat, he + assigned the specific name of "Thermalis."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: CUV. and VAL., vol. iii. p. 363. In addition to the two + fishes above named, a loche <i>Cobitis thermalis</i>, and a carp, + <i>Nuria thermoicos</i>, were found in the hot-springs of Kannea at + a heat 40° Cent., 114° Fahr., and a roach, <i>Leuciscus + thermalis</i>, when the thermometer indicated 50° Cent., 122° + Fahr.—<i>Ib</i>. xviii. p. 59, xvi. p. 182, xvii. p. 94. Fish + have been taken from a hot spring at Pooree when the thermometer + stood at 112° Fahr., and as they belonged to a carnivorous genus, + they must have found prey living in the same high + temperature.—<i>Journ. Asiatic Soc. Beng</i>. vol. vi. p. + 465. Fishes have been observed in a hot spring at Manilla which + raises the thermometer to 187°, and in another in Barbary, the + usual temperature of which is 172°; and Humboidt and Bonpland, when + travelling in South America, saw fishes thrown up alive from a + volcano, in water that raised the temperature to 210°, being two + degrees below the boiling point. PATTERSON'S <i>Zoology</i>. Pt. ii + p. 211; YARRELL'S <i>History of British Fishes</i>, vol. i. In. p. + xvi.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>List of Ceylon Fishes.</i></p> + + <p>I. OSSEOUS.</p> + + <p><b>Acanthopterygii.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Perca</i> argentea, <i>Bennett.</i></li> + + <li>Apogon roseipinnis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Zeylonicus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>thermalis, <i>Cuv. &Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ambassis thermalis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Serranus biguttatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Tankervillæ, <i>Benn.</i></li> + + <li>lemniscatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Sonneratii, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>flavo-ceruleus, <i>Lacep.</i></li> + + <li>marginalis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Boelang, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Serranus faveatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>angularis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>punctulatas, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diacope decem-lineatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>spilura, <i>Benn.</i></li> + + <li>xanthopus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mesoprion annularis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Holocentrus orientale, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>spinifera, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>argenteus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Upeneus tæniopterus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Zeylonicus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Russeli, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>cinnabarinus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Platycephalus punctatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <a name="pg225" id="pg225"></a> + + <ul> + <li>scaber, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>tuberculatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>serratus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pterois volitans, <i>Gm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>muricata, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diagramma cinerascens, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Blochii, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>poeciloptera, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Cuvieri, <i>Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Sibbaldi, <i>E. Benn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lobotes crate, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Scolopsides bimaculatus, <i>Rupp.</i></li> + + <li>Amphiprion Clarkii, <i>J. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Dascyllus aruanus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Glyphisodon Rahti, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Brownrigii, <i>Benn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Sparus</i> Hardwickii, <i>J. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Pagrus longifilis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Lethrinus opercularis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fasciatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>frænatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>cythrurus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>cinereus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Smaris balteatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Cæsio coerulaureus, <i>Lacep.</i></li> + + <li>Gerres oblongus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Chætodon vagabundus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sebanus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Blyth.</i></li> + + <li>xanthocephalus, <i>E. Bennett.</i></li> + + <li>guttatissimus, <i>E. Benn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hæniochus macrolepidotus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Scatophagus argus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Holacanthus xanthurus, <i>E. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Platax Raynaldi, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ocellatus <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Ehrenbergii, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anabas <i>scandens</i>, <i>Dald.</i></li> + + <li><i>Helostoma.</i></li> + + <li><i>Polyacanthus.</i></li> + + <li><i>Ophicephalus.</i></li> + + <li>Cybium guttatum, <i>Bloeh.</i></li> + + <li>Chorinemus moadetta, <i>Ehren.</i></li> + + <li>Rhynchobdella ocellata, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Mastocemblus Skinneri, <i>H. Smith.</i></li> + + <li>Caranx Heberi, <i>J. Benn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>speciosus, <i>Forsk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhombus triocellatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Equula dacer, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>filigera, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amphacanthus javus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sutor, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acanthurus xanthurus, <i>Blyth.</i> + + <ul> + <li>triostegus, <i>Bloch.</i></li> + + <li>Delisiani, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>lineatus, <i>Lacep.</i></li> + + <li>melas, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Atherina duodecimalis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li><i>Blennius.</i></li> + + <li>Salarias marmoratus, <i>Benn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>alticus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eleotris sexguttata, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Cheironectes hispidus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Tautoga fasciata, <i>Bloch.</i></li> + + <li>Julis lunaris, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>decussatus, <i>W. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>formosus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>quadricolor, <i>Lesson.</i></li> + + <li>dorsalis, <i>Quoy & Gaim.</i></li> + + <li>aureomaculatus, <i>W. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Ceilanicus, <i>E. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Finlaysoni, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>purpureo-lineatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gomphosus fuscus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>viridis, <i>W. Benn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Scarus pepo, <i>W. Benn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>harid, <i>Forsk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Malacopterygrii (abdominales).</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Silurus.</i></li> + + <li>Bagrus albilabris, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Plotosus lineatus, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li><i>Cyprinus.</i></li> + + <li>Barbus tor, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Nuria thermoicos, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Leuciscus Zeylonicus, <i>E. Benn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>thermalis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cobitis thermalis, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + + <li>Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Georgii, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Exocoetus evolans, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Sardinella leiogaster, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lineolata, <i>Cuv. & Val.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Saurus myops, <i>Val.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Malacopterygii (Sub-brachiati).</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Pleuronectes, L.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Malacopterygii (Apoda).</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Muræna.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Lophobranchi.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Syngnathus, L.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Plectognathii.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Tetraodon ocellatus, <i>W. Benn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>argyropleura, <i>E. Bennett.</i></li> + + <li>argentatus, <i>Blyth.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Balistes biaculeatus, <i>W. Benn.</i></li> + + <li>Triacanthus biaculeatus, <i>W. Benn.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p>II. CARTILAGINOUS.</p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Squabus, L.</i></li> + + <li>Pristis antiquorum, <i>Lath.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cuspidatus, <i>Lath.</i></li> + + <li>pectinatus, <i>Lath.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Raia, L.</i></li> + </ul><a name="pg226" id="pg226"></a> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (A.)</h3> + + <h4>INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA.</h4> + + <p><i>From the Bombay Times</i>, 1856.</p> + + <p>Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes were said to + have been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and precipitated + from clouds in various parts of the world, adduces the following + instances of similar occurrences in India. "In 1824," he says, + "fishes fell at Meerut, on the men of Her Majesty's 14th Regiment, + then out at drill, and were caught in numbers. In July, 1826, live + fish were seen to fall on the grass at Moradabad during a storm. They + were the common cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian waters. On the + 19th of February, 1830, at noon, a heavy fall of fish occurred at the + Nokulhatty factory, in the Daccah zillah; depositions on the subject + were obtained from nine different parties. The fish were all dead; + most of them were large: some were fresh, others were rotten and + mutilated. They were seen at first in the sky, like a flock of birds, + descending rapidly to the ground; there was rain drizzling, but no + storm. On the 16th and 17th of May, 1833, a fall of fish occurred in + the zillah of Futtehpoor, about three miles north of the Jumna, after + a violent storm of wind and rain. The fish were from a pound and a + half to three pounds in weight, and of the same species as those + found in the tanks in the neighbourhood. They were all dead and dry. + A fall of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm in May, 1835; + they were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dry after + the storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of September, + 1839, after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about + three inches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the + Sunderbunds, about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this occasion + it was remarked that the fish did not fall here and there irregularly + over the ground, but in a continuous straight line, not more than a + span in breadth. The vast multitudes of fish, with which the low + grounds round Bombay are covered, about a week or ten days after the + first burst of the monsoon, appear to be derived from the adjoining + pools or rivulets and not to descend from the sky. They are not, so + far as I know, found in the higher parts of the island. I have never + seen them, though I have watched carefully, in casks <a name="pg227" + id="pg227"></a> collecting water from the roofs of buildings, or + heard of them on the decks or awnings of vessels in the harbour, + where they must have appeared had they descended from the sky. One of + the most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred during a + tremendous deluge of rain at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850, + when the ground around Rajkote was found literally covered with fish; + some of them were found on the tops of haystacks, where probably they + had been drifted by the storm. In the course of twenty-four + successive hours twenty-seven inches of rain fell, thirty-five fell + in twenty-six hours, seven inches within one hour and a half, being + the heaviest fall on record. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August, 1852, + after a very heavy fall of rain, multitudes of fish were caught on + the ground in the cantonments, full half a mile from the nearest + stream. If showers of fish are to be explained on the assumption that + they are carried up by squalls or violent winds, from rivers or + spaces of water not far away from where they fall, it would be + nothing wonderful were they seen to descend from the air during the + furious squalls which occasionally occur in June."</p> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (B.)</h3> + + <h4>MIGRATION OF FISHES OVER LAND.</h4> + + <p><i>Opinions of the Greeks and Romans</i>.</p> + + <p>It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the + expedition of Alexander the Great, particulars connected with the + natural history of India were sought for and arranged by the Greeks, + that in the works both of ARISTOTLE and THEOPHRASTUS the facts are + recorded of the fishes in the Indian rivers migrating in search of + water, of their burying themselves in the mud on its failure, of + their being dug out thence alive during the dry season, and of their + spontaneous reappearance on the return of the rains. The earliest + notice is in the treatise of ARISTOTLE <i>De Respiratione</i>, chap. + ix., who mentions the strange discovery of living fish found beneath + the surface of the soil, [Greek: tôn ichthuôn oi polloi zôsin en tê + gê, akinêtizontes mentoi, kai euriskontai oruttomenoi]; and in his + History of Animals he conjectures that in ponds periodically dried + the ova of the fish so buried <a name="pg228" id="pg228"></a> become + vivified at the change of the season.[1] HERODOTUS had previously + hazarded a similar theory to account for the sudden appearance of fry + in the Egyptian marshes on the rising of the Nile; but the cases are + not parallel. THEOPHRASTUS, the friend and pupil of Aristotle, gave + importance to the subject by devoting to it his essay [Greek: Peri + tês tôn ichthyôn en zêrô diamonês], <i>De Piscibus in sicco + degentibus</i>. In this, after adverting to the fish called + <i>exocoetus</i>, from its habit of going on shore to sleep, [Greek: + apo tês koitês], he instances the small fish ([Greek: ichthydia]), + which leave the rivers of India to wander like frogs on the land; and + likewise a species found near Babylon, which, when the Euphrates runs + low, leave the dry channels in search of food, "moving themselves + along by means of their fins and tail." He proceeds to state that at + Heraclea Pontica there are places in which fish are dug out of the + earth, ([Greek: oryktoi tôn ichthyôn]), and he accounts for their + being found under such circumstances by the subsidence of the rivers, + "when the water being evaporated the fish gradually descend beneath + the soil in search of moisture; and the surface becoming hard they + are preserved in the damp clay below it, in a state of torpor, but + are capable of vigorous movements when disturbed. In this manner, + too," Theophrastus adds, "the buried fish propagate, leaving behind + them their spawn, which becomes vivified on the return of the waters + to their accustomed bed." This work of Theophrastus became the great + authority for all subsequent writers on this question. ATHENÆUS + quotes it[2], and adds the further testimony of POLYBIUS, that in + Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out of the ground.[3] + STRABO repeats the story[4], and one and all the Greek naturalists + received the statement as founded on reliable authority.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Lib. vi. ch, 15, 16, 17.</p> + + <p>2: Lib. viii. ch. 2.</p> + + <p>3: Ib. ch. 4.</p> + + <p>4: Lib. iv. and xii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Not so the Romans. LIVY mentions it as one of the prodigies which + were to be "expiated," on the approach of a rupture with Macedon, + that "in Gallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub glebis pisces + emersisse,"[1] thus taking it out of the category of natural + occurrences. POMPONIUS MELA, obliged to notice the matter in his + account of Narbon Gaul, accompanies it with the intimation that + although asserted by both Greek and Roman <a name="pg229" id= + "pg229"></a> authorities, the story was either a delusion or a + fraud.[2] JUVENAL has a sneer for the rustic—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p class="i6">"miranti sub aratro</p> + + <p>Piscibus inventis."—<i>Sat</i>. xiii. 63.</p> + </div> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Lib. xlii. ch. 2.</p> + + <p>2: Lib. ii ch, 5.</p> + </div> + + <p>And SENECA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that + now we must go to fish with a <i>hatchet</i> instead of a hook; "non + cum hamis, sed cum dolabra ire piscatum."[1] PLINY, who devotes the + 35th chapter of his 9th book to this subject, uses the narrative of + Theophrastus, but with obvious caution, and universally the Latin + writers treated the story as a fable.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Nat. Quæst.</i> vii 16.</p> + </div> + + <p>In later times the subject received more enlightened attention, + and Beckmann, who in 1736 published his commentary on the collection + [Greek: Peri Thaumasiôn akousmátôn], ascribed to Aristotle, has given + a list of the authorities about his own times,—Georgius + Agricola, Gesner, Rondelet, Dalechamp, Bomare, and Gronovius, who not + only gave credence to the assertions of Theophrastus, but adduced + modern instances in corroboration of his Indian authorities.</p> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (C.)</h3> + + <h4>CEYLON FISHES.</h4> + + <p>(<i>Memorandum, by Professor Huxley.</i>)</p> + + <p>See <a href="#pg205">p. 205.</a></p> + + <p>The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes of + Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses an + unusual value for several reasons.</p> + + <p>The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and even had + those from other parts of Ceylon been added, the geographical area + would not have been very extended. Nevertheless there are more than + 600 drawings, and though it is possible that some of these represent + varieties in different stages of growth of the same species, I have + not been able to find definite evidence of the fact in any of those + groups which I have particularly tested. If, however, these drawings + represent <i>six hundred</i> distinct species of fish, they + constitute, so far as I know, the largest collection of fish from one + locality in existence.</p><a name="pg230" id="pg230"></a> + + <p>The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed to be + less than 250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. Cantor's + valuable work on Malayan fishes enumerates not more than 238, while + Dr. Russell has figured only 200 from Coromandel. Even the enormous + area of the Chinese and Japanese seas has as yet not yielded 800 + species of fishes.</p> + + <p>The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of + great importance; but its value is immeasurably enhanced by two + circumstances,—the <i>first</i>, that every drawing was made + while the fish retained all that vividness of colouring which becomes + lost so soon after its removal from its native element; + <i>second</i>, that when the sketch was finished its subject was + carefully labelled, preserved in spirits, and forwarded to England, + so that at the present moment the original of every drawing can be + subjected to anatomical examination, and compared with already named + species.</p> + + <p>Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the + collection is one of the most valuable in existence, and might, if + properly worked out, become a large and secure foundation for all + future investigation into the ichthyology of the Indian Ocean.</p> + + <p>It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the novelty + or otherwise of the species and genera figured without the study of + the specimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of fish are + for the most part based upon character; the fin-rays, teeth, the + operculum, &c., which can only be made out by close and careful + examination of the object, and cannot be represented in ordinary + drawings however accurate.</p> + + <p>There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits are + so marked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even their + portraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being far wrong, + upon a few remarks as to the general features of the ichthyological + fauna of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of fishes + belong to the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in these + drawings, nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any in the + surrounding seas, and the result is in general harmony with the known + laws of distribution of these most useful of fishes.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tunnies, the + bonitos, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c., which form not + more than one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but which are <a name= + "pg231" id="pg231"></a> known to increase their proportion in hot + climates, appear in wonderful variety of form and colour, and + constitute not less than one fifth of the whole of the species of + Ceylon fish. In Russell's catalogue they form less than one fifth, in + Cantor's less than one sixth.</p> + + <p>Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the + continent of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country, + constitute one twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and + Cantor's lists they form about one thirtieth of the whole.</p> + + <p>The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish fauna. + They constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of Russell and + Cantor's lists, while among these Ceylon drawings I find not more + than twenty, or about one thirtieth of the whole, which can be + referred to this group of fishes. It must be extremely interesting to + know whether this circumstance is owing to accident, or to the local + peculiarities of Colombo, or whether the fauna of Ceylon really is + deficient in such fishes.</p> + + <p>The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the proportion + of the tribe of flat fishes, or <i>Pleuronectidæ</i>. Soles, turbots, + and the like, form nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both Cantor + and Russell give the flat fishes as making one twenty-second part of + their collection, while in the whole 600 Ceylon drawings I can find + but five <i>Pleuronectidæ</i>.</p> + + <p>When this great collection has been carefully studied, I doubt not + that many more interesting distributional facts will be evolved.</p> + <hr /> + + <p>Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings in + question have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British Museum, and + that eminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has favoured me + with the following memorandum of the fishes they exhibit, numerically + contrasting them with those of China and Japan, so far as we are + acquainted with the ichthyology of those seas:—</p><a name= + "pg232" id="pg232"></a> + + <table width="100%" summary= + "contrast of groups of fishes known to Ceylon and China and Japan"> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Cartilaginea.</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <th> </th> + + <th>Ceylon</th> + + <th>China and Japan.</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td width="80%">Squali</td> + + <td align="right" width="10%">12</td> + + <td align="right" width="10%">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Raiæ</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + + <td align="right">20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sturiones</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"><b>Ostinopterygii.</b></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Plectognathi.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> tetraodontidæ</td> + + <td align="right">10</td> + + <td align="right">21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> balistidæ</td> + + <td align="right">9</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Lophobranchii</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> syngnathidæ</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> pegasidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Ctenobranchii</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> lophidæ</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Cyclopodii.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> echeneidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> cyclopteridæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> gobidæ</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + + <td align="right">35</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Percini.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> callionymidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> uranoscopidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> cottidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> triglidæ</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + + <td align="right">37</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> polynemidæ</td> + + <td align="right">12</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> mullidæ</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> percidæ</td> + + <td align="right">26</td> + + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> berycidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> sillaginidæ</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> sciænidæ</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + + <td align="right">13</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> hæmulinidæ</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> serranidæ</td> + + <td align="right">31</td> + + <td align="right">38</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> theraponidæ</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">20</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> cirrhitidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> mænidiæ</td> + + <td align="right">37</td> + + <td align="right">25</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> sparidæ</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + + <td align="right">17</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> acanthuridæ</td> + + <td align="right">14</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> chætodontidæ</td> + + <td align="right">25</td> + + <td align="right">21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> fistularidæ</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Periodopharyngi.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> mugilidæ</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> anabantidæ</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + + <td align="right">15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> pomacentridæ</td> + + <td align="right">10</td> + + <td align="right">11</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Pharyngognathi.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> labridæ</td> + + <td align="right">16</td> + + <td align="right">35</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> scomberesocidæ</td> + + <td align="right">13</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> blenniidæ</td> + + <td align="right">3</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Scomberina.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> zeidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> sphyrænidæ</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + + <td align="right">4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> scomberidæ</td> + + <td align="right">118</td> + + <td align="right">62</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> xiphiidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> cepolidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Heterosomata.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> platessoideæ</td> + + <td align="right">5</td> + + <td align="right">22</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> siluridæ</td> + + <td align="right">31</td> + + <td align="right">24</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> cyprinidæ</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + + <td align="right">52</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> scopelinidæ</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + + <td align="right">7</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> salmonidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> clupeidæ</td> + + <td align="right">43</td> + + <td align="right">22</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> gadidæ</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + + <td align="right">2</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> macruridæ</td> + + <td align="right">1</td> + + <td align="right">0</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3">Apodes.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> anguillidæ</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> murænidæ</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">6</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td> sphagebranchidæ</td> + + <td align="right">8</td> + + <td align="right">10</td> + </tr> + </table><a name="pg233" id="pg233"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. V.</h2> + + <h3>CONCHOLOGY, ETC.</h3> + + <h3>I. THE SHELLS OF CEYLON.</h3> + + <p>Allusion has been made elsewhere to the profusion and variety of + shells which abound in the seas and inland waters of Ceylon[1], and + to the habits of the Moormen, who monopolise the trade of collecting + and arranging them in satin-wood cabinets for transmission to Europe. + But, although naturalists have long been familiar with the marine + testacea of this island, no successful attempt has yet been made to + form a classified catalogue of the species; and I am indebted to the + eminent conchologist, Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which + accompanies this notice of those found in the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See Vol. II. P. ix. ch. v.</p> + </div> + + <p>In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it a task of + more difficulty than would at first be surmised, owing to the almost + total absence of reliable data from which to construct it. Three + sources were available: collections formed by resident naturalists, + the contents of the well-known satin-wood boxes prepared at + Trincomalie, and the laborious elimination of locality from the + habitats ascribed to all the known species in the multitude of works + on conchology in general.</p> + + <p>But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. There is + no large collection in this country composed exclusively of Ceylon + shells. And the very few cabinets rich in the marine treasures of the + island having been filled as much by purchase as by personal + exertion, there is an absence of the requisite confidence that all + professing <a name="pg234" id="pg234"></a> to be Singhalese have been + actually captured in the island and its waters.</p> + + <p>The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though professing to + contain the productions of Ceylon, include shells which have been + obtained from other islands in the Indian seas; and books, probably + from these very facts, are either obscure or deceptive. The old + writers content themselves with assigning to any particular shell the + too-comprehensive habitat of "the Indian Ocean," and seldom + discriminate between a specimen from Ceylon and one from the Eastern + Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few instances, Ceylon has been + indicated with precision as the habitat of particular shells, but + even here the views of specific essentials adopted by modern + conchologists, and the subdivisions established in consequence, leave + us in doubt for which of the described forms the collective locality + should be retained.</p> + + <p>Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in detached + papers, in periodicals, and in the scientific surveys of exploring + voyages. The authentic facts embodied in the monographs of Reeve, + Kuster, Sowerby, and Kienn, have greatly enlarged the knowledge of + the marine testacea; and the land and fresh-water mollusca have been + similarly illustrated by the contributions of Benson and Layard in + the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>.</p> + + <p>The dredge has been used but only in a few insulated spots along + the coasts of Ceylon; European explorers have been rare; and the + natives, anxious only to secure the showy and saleable shells of the + sea, have neglected the less attractive ones of the land and the + lakes. Hence Mr. Hanley finds it necessary to premise that the list + appended, although the result of infinite labour and research, is + less satisfactory than could have been wished. "It is offered," he + says, "with diffidence, not pretending to the merit of completeness + as a shell-fauna of the island, but rather as a form, which the zeal + of other collectors may hereafter elaborate and fill up."</p><a name= + "pg235" id="pg235"></a> + + <p>Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared with the + vast and almost untried field which invites explorers, an assiduous + collector may quadruple the species hitherto described. The minute + shells especially may be said to be unknown; a vigilant examination + of the corals and excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-oysters + would signally increase our knowledge of the Rissoæ, Chemnitziæ, and + other perforating testacea, whilst the dredge from the deep water + will astonish the amateur by the wholly new forms it can scarcely + fail to display.</p> + + <p>Dr. Kelaart, an indefatigable observer, has recently undertaken to + investigate the Nudibranchiata, Inferobranchiata, and + Tectibranchiata; and a recently-received report from him, in the + Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which + he has described fifty-six species,—thirty-three belonging to + the genus Doris alone—gives ample evidence of what may be + expected from the researches of a naturalist of his acquirements and + industry.</p> + + <p><i>List of Ceylon Shells.</i></p> + + <p>The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarckian one, very + similar to that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by MR. HANLEY, in his + <i>Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells</i>.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Below will be found a general reference to the Works or + Papers in which are given descriptive notices of the shells + contained in the following list; the names of the authors (in full + or abbreviated) being, as usual, annexed to each species.</p> + + <p>ADAMS, <i>Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1853, 54, 56; <i>Thesaur. + Conch.</i> ALBERS, <i>Zeitsch. Malakoz.</i> 1853. ANTON, <i>Wiegm. + Arch. Nat.</i> 1837; <i>Verzeichn. Conch.</i> BECK in <i>Pfeiffer, + Symbol. Helic.</i> BENSON, <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i> vii. 1851; xii. + 1853; xviii. 1856. BLAINVILLE, <i>Dict. Sc. Nat.; Nouv. Ann. Mus. + Hist. Nat.</i> i. BOLTEN, <i>Mus.</i> BORN, <i>Test. Mus. Cæs. + Vind.</i> BRODERIP, <i>Zool. Journ.</i> i. iii. BRUGUIDRE, <i>Ency. + Méthod. Vers.</i> CARPENTER, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1856. + CHEMNITZ, <i>Conch. Cab.</i> CHENU, <i>Illus. Conch.</i> DESHAYES, + <i>Encyc. Méth. Vers.; Mag. Zool.</i> 1831; <i>Voy. Belanger; Edit. + Lam. An. s. Vert.; Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1853, 54, 55. DILLWYN, + <i>Descr. Cat. Shells.</i> DOHRN, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1857, 58; + <i>Malak. Blatter; Land and Fluviatile Shells of Ceylon.</i> + DUCLOS, <i>Monog. of Oliva</i>. FABRICIUS, <i>in Pfeiffer Monog. + Helic.; in Dohrn's MSS.</i> FÉRUSSAC, <i>Hist. Mollusques.</i> + FORSKÄL, <i>Anim. Orient.</i> GMELIN, <i>Syst. Nat</i>. GRAY, + <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1834, 52; <i>Index Testaceologicus Suppl.; + Spicilegia Zool.; Zool. Journ.</i> i.; <i>Zool. Beechey Voy</i>. + GRATELOUP, <i>Act. Linn. Bourdeaux</i>, xi. GUERIN, <i>Rev. + Zool</i>. 1847. HANLEY, <i>Thesaur. Conch</i>. i.; <i>Recent + Bivalves; Proc. Zool. Soc</i>. 1858. HINDS, <i>Zool. Voy. Sulphur; + Proc. Zool. Soc</i>. HUTTON, <i>Journ. As. Soc</i>. KARSTEN, + <i>Mus. Lesk</i>. KIENER, <i>Coquilles Vivantes</i>. KRAUSS, + <i>Sud-Afrik Mollusk</i>. LAMARCK, <i>An. sans Vertéb</i>. LAYARD, + <i>Proc. Zool. Soc</i>. 1854. LEA, <i>Proceed. Zool. Soc</i>. 1850, + LINNÆUS, <i>Syst. Nat</i>. MARTINI, <i>Conch. Cab</i>. MAWE, + <i>Introd. Linn. Conch.; Index. Test. Suppl</i>. MEUSCHEN, in + <i>Gronov. Zoophylac</i>. MENKE, <i>Synop. Mollus</i>. MULLER, + <i>Hist. Verm. Terrest</i>. PETIT, <i>Pro. Zool. Soc</i>. 1842. + PFEIFFER, <i>Monog. Helic.; Monog. Pneumon.; Proceed. Zool. + Soc</i>. 1852, 53, 54, 55, 56 <i>Zeitschr. Malacoz</i>. 1853. + PHILIPPI, <i>Zeitsch. Mal</i>. 1846, 47; <i>Abbild. Neuer + Conch</i>. POTIEZ et MICHAUD, <i>Galerie Douai</i>. RANG, <i>Mag. + Zool</i>. ser. i. p. 100. RÉCLUZ, <i>Proceed. Zool. Soc</i>. 1845; + <i>Revue Zool. Cuv</i>.1841; <i>Mag. Conch</i>. REEVE, <i>Conch. + Icon.; Proc. Zool. Soc</i>. 1842, 52. SCHUMACHER, <i>Syst</i>. + SHUTTLEWORTH. SOLANDER, in <i>Dillwyn's Desc. Cat. Shells</i>. + SOWERBY, <i>Genera Shells; Species Conch.; Conch. Misc.; Thesaur. + Conch.; Conch. Illus.; Proc. Zool. Soc.; App. to Tankerville + Cat</i>. SPENGLER, <i>Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav</i>. 1792. + SWAINSON, <i>Zool. Illust</i>. ser. ii. TEMPLETON, <i>Ann. Nat. + Hist</i>. 1858. TROSCHEL, in <i>Pfeiffer, Mon. Pneum; Zeitschr. + Malak</i>. 1847; <i>Weigm. Arch. Nat</i>. 1837. WOOD, <i>General + Conch</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg236" id="pg236"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Aspergillum Javanum, <i>Brug.</i> Enc. Mét. + + <ul> + <li>sparsum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Gen. Shells.[1]</li> + + <li>clavatum, <i>Chenu</i>, Illust. Conch.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Teredo nucivorus, <i>Spengl</i>. Skr. Nat. Sels.[2]</li> + + <li>Solen truncatus, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Conch. + + <ul> + <li>linearis, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Conch.</li> + + <li>cultellus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>radiatus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anatina subrostrata, <i>Lamarck</i>, Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Anatinella Nicobarica, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Lutraria Egyptiaca, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>Blainvillea vitrea, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[3]</li> + + <li>Scrobicularia angulata, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[4]</li> + + <li>Mactra complanata, <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc.[5] + + <ul> + <li>tumida, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>antiquata, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Spengler</i>), Conch. + Icon.</li> + + <li>cygnea, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>Corbiculoides, <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mesodesma Layardi, <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. + + <ul> + <li>striata, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[6]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crassatella rostrata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>sulcata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amphidesma duplicatum, <i>Sowerby</i>. Species Conch.</li> + + <li>Pandora Ceylonica, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Mis.</li> + + <li>Galeomma Layardi. <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li> + + <li>Kellia peculiaris, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li> + + <li>Petricola cultellus, <i>Deshayes</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. + 1853.</li> + + <li>Sanguinolaria rosea, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Psammobia rostrata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>occidens, <i>Gm</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>Skinneri, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.[7]</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Desh</i>. P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>lunulata, <i>Desh</i>. P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>amethystus, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Conch.[8]</li> + + <li>rugosa, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.[9]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tellina virgata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[10] + + <ul> + <li>rugosa, <i>Born</i>. Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>ostracea, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>ala, <i>Hanley</i>, Thesaur. Conch. i.</li> + + <li>inæqualis, <i>Hanley</i>, Thesaur. Conch. i.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg237" id= + "pg237"></a></li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>callosa, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>rubra, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>abbreviata, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>foliacea, <i>Linn</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>lingua-felis, <i>Linn</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>vulsella, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[11]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lucina interrupta, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.[12] + + <ul> + <li>Layardi, <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Donax scortum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>cuneata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst, Nat.</li> + + <li>faba, <i>Chem</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>spinosa, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>paxillus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cyrena Ceylanica, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab. + + <ul> + <li>Tennentii, <i>Hanley</i>, P. Z. Soc. 1858.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cytherea Erycina, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[13] + + <ul> + <li>meretrix, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[14]</li> + + <li>castanea, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>castrensis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>casta, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>costata, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>læta, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>trimaculata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Hebræa, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>rugifera, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>scripta, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat</li> + + <li>gibbia, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Meroe, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>testudinalis, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>seminuda, <i>Anton</i>. Wiegm. Arch. Nat. 1837.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cytherea seminuda, <i>Anton.</i>[15]</li> + + <li>Venus reticulata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[16] + + <ul> + <li>pinguis, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>recens, <i>Philippi</i>, Abbild. Neuer Conch.</li> + + <li>thiara, <i>Dillw</i>. Descriptive Cat. Shells.</li> + + <li>Malabarica, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>Bruguieri, <i>Hanley</i>, Recent Bivalves.</li> + + <li>papilionacea, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Indica, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch. ii.</li> + + <li>inflata, <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.[17]</li> + + <li>Ceylonensis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch. ii.</li> + + <li>literata, <i>Linn</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>textrix, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[18]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cardium unedo, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>maculosum, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Con.</li> + + <li>leucostomum, <i>Born</i>. Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>rugosum, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>biradiatum, <i>Bruguiere</i>, Encyc. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>attenuatum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li> + + <li>enode, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch Illust.</li> + + <li>papyraceum, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>ringiculum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li> + + <li>subrugosum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li> + + <li>latum, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>Asiaticum, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cardita variegata, <i>Bruguiere</i>, Encyc. Méthod. Vers. + + <ul> + <li>bicolor, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Arca rhombea, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. + + <ul> + <li>vellicata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>cruciata, <i>Philippi</i>, Ab. Neuer Conch.</li> + + <li>decussata, <i>Reeve</i> (as of Sowerby), Conch. + Icon.[19]</li> + + <li>scapha, <i>Meuschen</i>, in Gronov. Zoo.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pectunculus nodosus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. + + <ul> + <li>pectiniformis, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Nucula mitralis, <i>Hinds</i>, Zool. voy. Sul.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nucula Mauritii (<i>Hanley</i> as of <i>Hinds</i>), Recent + Bivalves.</li> + + <li>Unio corrugatus, <i>Müller</i>, Hist. Verm Ter.[20] + + <ul> + <li>marginalis, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lithodomus cinnamoneus, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Mytilus viridis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[21] + + <ul> + <li>bilocularis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pinna inflata, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab. + + <ul> + <li>cancellata, <i>Mawe</i>, Intr. Lin. Conch.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Malleus vulgaris, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>albus, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Meleagrina margaritifera, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>vexillum, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.[22]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Avicula macroptera, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Lima squamosa, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Pecten plica, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>radula, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>pleuronectes, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>pallium, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>senator, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>histrionicus, <i>Gm</i>, Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Indicus, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voyage Belanger.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spondylus Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>candidus, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Lam</i>.) Conch. + Icon.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg238" id= + "pg238"></a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ostrea hyotis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>glaucina, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Mytiloides, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>cucullata? var. <i>Born</i>. Test. Mus Vind.[23]</li> + + <li>Vulsella Pholadiformis, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. + (immature).</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Placuna placenta, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Lingula anatina, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Hyalæa tridentata, <i>For</i>. Anim. Orient.[24]</li> + + <li>Chiton, 2 species (<i>Layard</i>).</li> + + <li>Patella Reynaudii, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Be. + + <ul> + <li>testudinaria, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Emarginula fissurata, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[25] + <i>Lam</i>.</li> + + <li>Calyptræa (Crucibulum) violascens.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><i>Carpenter</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. + 1856.</li> + + <li>Dentalium octogonum, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert + + <ul> + <li>aprinum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bulla soluta, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[26] + + <ul> + <li>vexillum, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>Bruguieri, <i>Adams</i>, Thes. Conch.</li> + + <li>elongata, <i>Adams</i>, Thes. Conch.</li> + + <li>ampulla, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, <i>Leach</i>. in Brit. Mus.) + allied to + + <ul> + <li>L. Mauritiana, if not it.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Vaginula maculata, <i>Templ</i>. An. 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Hist. 1853 (xii.)</li> + + <li>galerus, <i>Benson</i>, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)</li> + + <li>albizonata, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg239" id= + "pg239"></a></li> + + <li>Nietneri, <i>Dohrn</i>, MS.[28]</li> + + <li>Grevillei, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Streptaxis Layardi, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Mon. Helic. + + <ul> + <li>Cingalensis, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Helic.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pupa muscerda, <i>Benson</i>, Annals Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.) + + <ul> + <li>mimula, <i>Benson</i>, Ann. Nat Hist. 1856 (xviii.)</li> + + <li>Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bulimus + + <ul> + <li>trifasciatus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>pullus, <i>Gray.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.</li> + + <li>gracilis, <i>Hutton</i>, Journ. Asiat. Soc. iii.</li> + + <li>punctatus, <i>Anton</i>, Verzeichn. Conch.</li> + + <li>Ceylanicus, <i>Pfeiff</i>. 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Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>aureus, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Gray</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>Austenianus <i>Bens.</i> Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thwaitesii, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. + + <ul> + <li>Cumingii, <i>Pfeiff</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li> + + <li>decorus, <i>Bens</i>. Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853.</li> + + <li>hæmastoma, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Planorbis Coromandelianus, <i>Fabric</i>, in <i>Dorhrn's</i> + MS. <a name="pg240" id="pg240"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Stelzeneri, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li>elegantulus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Limnæa tigrina, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. + + <ul> + <li>pinguis, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Melania tuberculata, <i>Müller</i>, Verm. Ter.[32] + + <ul> + <li>spinulosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>corrugata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>rudis, <i>Lea</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.</li> + + <li>acanthica, <i>Lea</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.</li> + + <li>Zeylanica, <i>Lea</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.</li> + + <li>confusa, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li>datura, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Paludomus abbreviatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. + + <ul> + <li>clavatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>dilatatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>globulosus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>decussatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>nigricans, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>constrictus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>bicinctus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>phasianinus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>lævis, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>palustris, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1854.</li> + + <li>fulguratus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1857.</li> + + <li>nasutus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + + <li>sphæricus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1857.</li> + + <li>solidus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + + <li>distinguendus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + + <li>Cumingianus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + + <li>dromedarius, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + + <li>Skinneri, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + + <li>Swainsoni, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1857.</li> + + <li>nodulosus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1857.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Paludomus (<i>Tanalia</i>). + + <ul> + <li>loricatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>erinaceus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>æreus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li> + + <li>undatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Gardneri, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Tennentii, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Reevei, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>violaceus, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1854.</li> + + <li>similis, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>funiculatus, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Paludomus (<i>Philopotamis</i>). + + <ul> + <li>sulcatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>regalis, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>Thwaitesii, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pirena atra, <i>Linn</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>Paludina melanostoma, <i>Bens</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Ceylanica, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1857.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bythinia stenothyroides, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. + + <ul> + <li>modesta, <i>Dohrn</i>, MS.</li> + + <li>inconspicua, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ampullaria Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. + + <ul> + <li>moesta, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>cinerea, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Woodwardi, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li>Tischbeini, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li>carinata, <i>Swainson</i>, Zool. Illus ser. 2</li> + + <li>paludinoides, Cat. <i>Cristofori & Jan.</i>[33]</li> + + <li>Malabarica, <i>Philippi</i>, in Kust. ed. Chem.[33]</li> + + <li>Luzonica, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.[33]</li> + + <li>Sumatrensis, <i>Philippi</i>, in Kust. ed. Chem.[33]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Navicella eximia, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. + + <ul> + <li>reticulata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Livesayi, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li> + + <li>squamata, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1858.</li> + + <li>depressa, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Neritina crepidularia, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>melanostoma, <i>Troschel</i>, Wiegm. Arch. Nat. 1837.</li> + + <li>triserialis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illustr.</li> + + <li>Colombaria, <i>Recluz</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1845.</li> + + <li>Perottetiana, <i>Recluz</i>, Revue Zool. Cuvier, 1841.</li> + + <li>Ceylanensis, <i>Recluz</i>, Mag. Conch. 1851.</li> + + <li>Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>rostrata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>reticulata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illustr.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nerita plicata, <i>Linn</i>. Systema Naturæ. + + <ul> + <li>costata, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>plexa, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.[34]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Natica aurantia, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>mammilla, <i>Linn</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>picta, <i>Reeve (as of Recluz)</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>arachnoidea, <i>Gm</i>. Systema Naturæ.</li> + + <li>lineata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>adusta, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab f. 1926-7, and + <i>Karsten</i>.[35]</li> + + <li>pellis-tigrina, <i>Karsten</i>, Mus. Lesk.[36]</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg241" id= + "pg241"></a></li> + + <li>didyma, <i>Bolten</i>, Mus.[37]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ianthina prolongata, <i>Blainv.</i>, Diction. Sciences Nat. + xxiv. + + <ul> + <li>communis, <i>Krauss</i>, (as of <i>Lamarck</i> in part) + Sud-Afrik. Mollusk.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sigaretus. A species (possibly Javanicus) is known to have been + collected. I have not seen it.</li> + + <li>Stomatella calliostoma, <i>Adams</i>, Thesaur. Conch</li> + + <li>Holiotis varia, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Naturæ. + + <ul> + <li>striata, <i>Martini</i> (as of <i>Linn.</i>), Conch. Cab. + i.</li> + + <li>semistriata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tornatella solidula, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Nat.</li> + + <li>Pyramidella maculosa, <i>Lam.</i>, Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Eulima Martini, <i>Adams</i>, Thes. Conch. ii.</li> + + <li>Siliquaria muricata, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>Scalaria raricostata, <i>Lam.</i>, Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Delphinula laciniata, <i>Lam.</i>, Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>distorta, <i>Linn.</i>, Syst. Nat.[38]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Solarium perdix, <i>Hinds.</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. + + <ul> + <li>Layardi, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[39]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rotella vestiaria, <i>Linn.</i>, Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Phorus pallidulus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. i.</li> + + <li>Trochus elegantulus, <i>Gray</i>, Index Tes. Suppl. + + <ul> + <li>Niloticus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Monodonta labio, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>canaliculata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Turbo versicolor, <i>Gm.</i> Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>princeps, <i>Philippi</i>.[40]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Planaxis undulatus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.[41]</li> + + <li>Littorina angulifera, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>melanostoma, <i>Gray</i>, Zool., Beech.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chemnitzia trilineata, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool Soc. 1853.. + + <ul> + <li>lirata, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phasianella lineolata, <i>Gray</i>, Index Test. Suppl.</li> + + <li>Turritella bacillum, <i>Kiener</i>, Coquilles Vivantes. + + <ul> + <li>columnaris, <i>Kiener</i>, Coquilles Vivantes.</li> + + <li>duplicata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>attenuata, <i>Reeve</i>, Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cerithium fluviatile, <i>Potiez & Michaud</i>, Galerie + Douai. + + <ul> + <li>Layardi (Cerithidea), <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. + 1854.</li> + + <li>aluco, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>asperum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>telescopium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>palustre obeliscus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>fasciatum, <i>Brug.</i>, Encycl. Méth. Vers</li> + + <li>rubus, <i>Sowerby</i> (as of <i>Martyn</i>), Thes. Conch. + ii.</li> + + <li>Sowerbyi, <i>Kiener</i>, Coquilles Vivantes (teste Sir E. + Tennent).</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pleurotoma Indica, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voyage Belanger. + + <ul> + <li>virgo, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Turbinella pyrum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>rapa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. (the Chank.)</li> + + <li>cornigera, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>spirillus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cancellaria trigonostoma, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.[43] + + <ul> + <li>scalata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch.</li> + + <li>articularis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur, Conch.</li> + + <li>Littoriniformis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch.</li> + + <li>contabulata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fasciolaria filamentosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>trapezium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fusus longissimus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>colus, <i>Linn.</i> Mus. Lud. Ulricæ.</li> + + <li>toreuma, <i>Deshayes</i>, (as Murex t. <i>Martyn</i>). + ed.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><i>Lam.</i> Amin. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>laticostatus, <i>Deshayes</i>, Magas. Zool. 1831.</li> + + <li>Blosvillei, <i>Deshayes</i>, Encyl. Méthod. Vers., ii.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pyrula rapa, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.[44] + + <ul> + <li>citrina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>pugilina, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Vind.[45]</li> + + <li>ficus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>ficoides, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ranella crumena, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>spinosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>rana, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.[46]</li> + + <li>margaritula, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Belanger.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Murex haustellum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>adustus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>microphyllus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>anguliferus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>palmarosæ, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>ternispina, <i>Kiener</i>, (as of <i>Lam.</i>), Coquilles + Vivantes.</li> + + <li>tenuispina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>ferrugo, <i>Mawe</i>, Index. Test. Suppl.[47]</li> + + <li>Reeveanus, <i>Shuttleworth</i>, (teste <i>Cuming</i>)</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg242" id= + "pg242"></a></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Triton anus, <i>Linn</i>, Syst. Nat.[48] + + <ul> + <li>mulus, <i>Dillwyn</i>, Descript. Cat. Shells.</li> + + <li>retusus, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>pyrum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>clavator, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>Ceylonensis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc.</li> + + <li>lotorium, <i>Lam</i>. (not <i>Linn</i>.) Anim. s. + Vert.</li> + + <li>lampas, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pterocera lambis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>millepeda, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Strombus canarium, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[49] + + <ul> + <li>succinctus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>fasciatus, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>Sibbaldii, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch. t.</li> + + <li>lentiginosus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>marginatus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Lamarckii, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cassis glauca, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[50] + + <ul> + <li>canaliculata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Zeylanica, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>areola, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ricinula alboiabris, <i>Blainv</i>. Nouv. Ann. Mus. H. N. + i.[51] + + <ul> + <li>horrida, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>morus, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Purpura fiscella, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab. + + <ul> + <li>Persica, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>hystrix, <i>Lam</i>. (not <i>Linn</i>.) Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>granatina, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Belanger.</li> + + <li>mancinella, <i>Lam</i>. (as of <i>Linn</i>.) Anim. s. + Vert.</li> + + <li>bufo, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>carinifera, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Harpa conoidalis, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>minor, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dolium pomum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>olearium, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>perdix, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>maculatum, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nassa ornata, <i>Kiener</i>, Coq. Vivantes.[52] + + <ul> + <li>verrucosa, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>crenulata, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>olivacea, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>glans, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>arcularia, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>papillosa, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phos virgatus, <i>Hinds</i>, Zool. Sul. Moll. + + <ul> + <li>retecosus, <i>Hinds</i>, Zool. Sulphur, Moll.</li> + + <li>senticosus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Buccinum melanostoma, <i>Sowerly</i>, App. to Tankerv. Cat. + + <ul> + <li>erythrostoma, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>Proteus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>rubiginosum, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eburna spirata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[53] + + <ul> + <li>canaliculata, <i>Schumacher</i>, Sys. Anim. s. + Vert.[54]</li> + + <li>Ceylanica, <i>Bruguiere</i>, En. Méth. Vers.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bullia vittata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>lineolata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Tankerv. Cat.[55]</li> + + <li>Melanoides, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Belan</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Terebra chlorata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>muscaria, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>lævigata, <i>Gray</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.</li> + + <li>maculata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>subulata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>concinna, <i>Deshayes</i>, ed. <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. + Vert.</li> + + <li>myurus, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>tigrina, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Cerithina, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Columbella flavida, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>fulgurans, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>mendicaria, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>scripta, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.(teste <i>Jay</i>).</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mitra episcopalis, <i>Dillwyn</i>, Descript. Cat. Shells. + + <ul> + <li>cardinalis, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>crebrilirata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li> + + <li>punctostriata, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>insculpta, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li> + + <li>Layard, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[56]</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Voluta vexillum, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab. + + <ul> + <li>Lapponica, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Melo Indicus, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Marginella Sarda, <i>Kiener</i>, Coq. Vivantes.</li> + + <li>Ovulum ovum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>verrucosum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>pudicum, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool Soc. 1854.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cypræa Argus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>Arabica, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Mauritiana, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>hirundo, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Lynx, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>asellus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>erosa, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>vitellus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>stolida, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg243" id= + "pg243"></a></li> + + <li>mappa, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>helvola, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>errones, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>cribraria, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>globulus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>clandestina, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>ocellata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>caurica, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>tabescens, <i>Solander</i>, in Dillwyn Descr. Cat. + Shells.</li> + + <li>gangrenosa, <i>Solander</i>, in Dillwyn Desc. Cat. + Shells.</li> + + <li>interrupta, <i>Gray</i>, Zool. Journ. i.</li> + + <li>lentiginosa, <i>Gray</i>, Zool. Journ. i.</li> + + <li>pyriformis, <i>Gray</i>, Zool. Journ. i.</li> + + <li>nivosa, <i>Broderip</i>, Zool. Journ. iii.</li> + + <li>poraria, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>testudinaria, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Terebellum subulatum, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Ancillaria glabrata, <i>Linn</i>. Syst Nat. + + <ul> + <li>candida, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Oliva Maura, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert. + + <ul> + <li>erythrostoma, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>gibbosa, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Cæs.[57]</li> + + <li>nebulosa, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>Macleayana, <i>Duclos</i>, Monograph of Oliva.</li> + + <li>episcopalis, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>elegans, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>ispidula, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. (partly).[58]</li> + + <li>Zeilanica, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert,</li> + + <li>undata, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>frisans, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert, (teste + <i>Duclos</i>).</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Conus miles, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat. + + <ul> + <li>generalis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>betulinus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>stercus-muscarum, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Hebræus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>virgo, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>geographicus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>aulicus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>figulinus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>striatus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>senator, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.[58]</li> + + <li>literatus, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat</li> + + <li>imperialis, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>textile, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>terebra, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>tessellatus, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.</li> + + <li>Augur, <i>Bruguiere</i>, Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>obesus, <i>Bruguiere</i> Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>araneosus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>gubernator, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>monile, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>nimbosus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>eburneus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>vitulinus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>quercinus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>lividus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>Omaria, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>Maldivus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>nocturnus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>Ceylonensis, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>arenatus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>Nicobaricus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>glans, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>Amadis, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>punctatus, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>minimus, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Linn</i>.), Conch. + Icon.</li> + + <li>terminus, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vert.</li> + + <li>lineatus, <i>Chemn</i>. Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>episcopus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>verriculum, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Cab.</li> + + <li>zonatus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>rattus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers. (teste + <i>Chemn</i>.)</li> + + <li>pertusus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. Méth. Vers.</li> + + <li>Nussatella, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>lithoglyphus, <i>Brug</i>. En. Méth. Vers.[59]</li> + + <li>tulipa, <i>Linn</i>. Syst. Nat.</li> + + <li>Ammiralis, <i>var. Linn,</i> teste <i>Brug.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spirula Peronii, <i>Lam</i>. Anim. s. Vett.</li> + + <li>Sepia Hieredda, <i>Rang</i>. Magas, Zool, ser. i. p. 100.</li> + + <li>Sepioteuthis, <i>Sp</i>.</li> + + <li>Loligo, <i>Sp</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A. dichotomum, <i>Chenu</i>.</p> + + <p>2: Fistulana gregata, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>3: Blainvillea, <i>Hupé</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Latraria tellinoides, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>5: I have also seen M. hians of Philippi in a Ceylon + collection.</p> + + <p>6: M. Taprobanensis, <i>Index Test. Suppl</i>.</p> + + <p>7: Psammotella Skinneri, <i>Reeve</i>.</p> + + <p>8: P. cærulescens, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>9: Sanguinolaria rugosa, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>10: T. striatula of Lamarck is also supposed to be indigenous to + Ceylon.</p> + + <p>11: T. rostrata, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>12: L. divaricata is found, also, in mixed Ceylon + collections.</p> + + <p>13: C. dispar of Chemnitz is occasionally found in Ceylon + collections.</p> + + <p>14: C. impudica, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>15: As Donax.</p> + + <p>16: V. corbis, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>17: As Tapes.</p> + + <p>18: V. textile, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>19: ? Arca Helblingii, <i>Chemn</i>.</p> + + <p>20: Mr. Cuming informs me that he has forwarded no less than six + distinct <i>Uniones</i> from Ceylon to Isaac Lea of Philadelphia + for determination or description.</p> + + <p>21: M. smaragdinus, <i>Chemn</i>.</p> + + <p>22: As Avicula.</p> + + <p>23: The specimens are not in a fitting state for positive + determination. They are strong, extremely narrow, with the beak of + the lower valve much produced, the inner edge of the upper valve + denticulated throughout. The muscular impressions are dusky + brown.</p> + + <p>24: An Anomia.</p> + + <p>25: The fissurata of Humphreys and Dacosta, pl. 4—E. + rubra, <i>Lamarck</i>.</p> + + <p>26: B. Ceylanica, <i>Brug</i>.</p> + + <p>27: P. Tennentii. "Greyish brown, with longitudinal rows of + rufous spots, forming interrupted bands along the sides. A + singularly handsome species, having similar habits to <i>Limax</i>. + Found in the valleys of the Kalany Ganga, near + Ruanwellé."—<i>Templeton</i> MSS.</p> + + <p>28: Not far from bistrialis and Ceylanica. The manuscript + species of Mr. Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended work upon + the land and fluviatile shells of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>29: As Ellobium.</p> + + <p>30: As Melampus.</p> + + <p>31: As Ophicardelis.</p> + + <p>32: M. fasciolata, <i>Olivier</i>.</p> + + <p>33: These four species are included on the authority of Mr. + Dohrn.</p> + + <p>34: N. exuvia, <i>Lam</i>. not <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>35: Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7, and N. melanostoma, <i>Lam</i>. in + part.</p> + + <p>36: Chemn, Conch. Cab, 1892-3.</p> + + <p>37: N. glaucina, <i>Lam.</i> not <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <p>38: Not of <i>Lamarck</i>. D. atrata. <i>Reeve</i>.</p> + + <p>39: Philippia L.</p> + + <p>40: Zeit. Mal. 1846 for T. argyrostoma, <i>Lam.</i> not + <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <p>41: Buccinum pyramidatum, <i>Gm.</i> in part: B. sulcatum, var. + C. of <i>Brug</i>.</p> + + <p>42: Teste Cuming.</p> + + <p>43: As Delphinulat.</p> + + <p>44: P. papyracea, <i>Lam.</i> In mixed collections I have seen + the Chinese P. bezoar of <i>Lamarck</i> as from Ceylon.</p> + + <p>45: P. vespertilio, <i>Gm.</i></p> + + <p>46: R. albivaricosa, <i>Reeve</i>.</p> + + <p>47: M. anguliferus var. <i>Lam.</i></p> + + <p>48: T. cynocephalus of <i>Lamarck</i> is also met with in Ceylon + collections.</p> + + <p>49: S. incisus of the Index Testaceologicus (urceus, var. + <i>Sow</i>. Thesaur.) is found in mixed Ceylon collections.</p> + + <p>50: C. plicaria of <i>Lamarck</i>, and C. coronulata of + <i>Sowerby</i>, are also said to be found in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>51: As Purpura.</p> + + <p>52: N. suturalis, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Lam</i>.), is met with + in mixed Ceylon collections.</p> + + <p>53: E. areolata <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>54: E. spirata, <i>Lam</i>. not <i>Linn</i>.</p> + + <p>55: B Belangeri, <i>Kiener</i>.</p> + + <p>56: As Turricula L.</p> + + <p>57: 0. utriculus, <i>Dillwyn</i>.</p> + + <p>58: C. planorbis, <i>Born</i>; C, vulpinus, <i>Lam</i>.</p> + + <p>59: Conus ermineus, <i>Born</i>, in part.</p> + </div> + + <p>A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be deduced from this + catalogue; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and hence + unacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European shell which has + been described by Linnæus without a recorded habitat. This fact gives + to Ceylon specimens an importance which can only be appreciated by + collectors and the students of Mollusca.</p><a name="pg244" id= + "pg244"></a> + + <h3>2 RADIATA.</h3> + + <p>The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated animals, but + it is to be regretted that they have as yet received but little + attention from English naturalists. Dr. Kelaart has, however, devoted + himself to the investigation of some of the Singhalese species, and + has given the fruits of his discoveries in the Journal of the Ceylon + Branch of the Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our information respecting + the radiata on the confines of the island is, therefore, very scanty; + with the exception of the genera[1] examined by him. Hence the notice + of this extensive class of animals must be limited to indicating a + few of those which exhibit striking peculiarities, or which admit of + the most common observation.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Actinia, 9 sp.: Anthea, 4 sp.; Actinodendron, 3 sp.; + Dioscosoma, 1 sp.; Peechea, 1 sp.; Zoanthura, 1 sp.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Star Fish.</i>—Very large species of <i>Ophiuridæ</i> are + to be met with at Trincomalie, crawling busily about, and insinuating + their long serpentine arms into the irregularities and perforations + in the rocks. To these they attach themselves with such a firm grasp, + especially when they perceive that they have attracted attention, + that it is next to impossible to procure unmutilated specimens + without previously depriving them of life, or at least modifying + their muscular tenacity. The upper surface is of a dark purple + colour, and coarsely spined; the arms of the largest specimens are + more than a foot in length, and very fragile.</p> + + <p>The star fishes, with immovable rays[1], are not by any means + rare; many kinds are brought up in the nets, or may be extracted from + the stomachs of the larger market fish. One very large species[2], + figured by Joinville in the manuscript volume in the library at the + India House, is not uncommon; it has thick arms, from <a name="pg245" + id="pg245"></a> which and the disc numerous large fleshy cirrhi of a + bright crimson colour project downwards, giving the creature a + remarkable aspect. No description of it, so far as I am aware has + appeared in any systematic work on zoology.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Asterias</i>, Linn.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Pentaceros?</i></p> + </div> + + <p><i>Sea Slugs.</i>—There are a few species of + <i>Holothuriæ</i>, of which the trepang is the best known example. It + is largely collected in the Gulf of Manaar, and dried in the sun to + prepare it for export to China. A good description and figure of it + are still desiderata.</p> + + <p><i>Parasitic Worms.</i>—Of these entozoa, the <i>Filaria + medinensis</i>, or guinea worm, which burrows in the cellular tissue + under the skin, is well known in the north of the island, but rarely + found in the damper districts of the south and west. In Ceylon, as + elsewhere, the natives attribute its occurrence to drinking the + waters of particular wells; but this belief is inconsistent with the + fact that its lodgment in the human body is almost always effected + just above the ankle, which shows that the minute parasites are + transferred to the skin of the leg from the moist vegetation + bordering the footpaths leading to wells. The creatures are at this + period minute, and the process of insinuation is painless and + imperceptible. It is only when they attain to considerable size, a + foot or more in length, that the operation of extracting them is + resorted to, when exercise may have given rise to inconvenience and + inflammation.</p> + + <p><i>Planaria</i>.—In the journal above alluded to, Dr. + Kelaart has given descriptions of fifteen species of planaria, and + four of a new genus, instituted by him for the reception of those + differing from the normal kinds by some peculiarities which they + exhibit in common. At Point Pedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on + the bark of trees, after heavy rain, which would appear to belong to + the subgenus <i>geoplana</i>.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "A curious species, which is of a light brown above, white + underneath; very broad and thin, and has a peculiarly shaped tail, + half-moon-shaped, in fact, like a grocer's cheese knife."</p> + </div><a name="pg246" id="pg246"></a> + + <p><i>Acalephæ</i>.—Acalephæ[1] are plentiful, so much so, + indeed, that they occasionally tempt the larger cetacea into the Gulf + of Manaar. In the calmer months of the year, when the sea is glassy, + and for hours together undisturbed by a ripple, the minute + descriptions are rendered perceptible by their beautiful prismatic + tinting. So great is their transparency that they are only to be + distinguished from the water by the return of the reflected light + that glances from their delicate and polished surfaces. Less + frequently they are traced by the faint hues of their tiny peduncles, + arms, or tentaculæ; and it has been well observed that they often + give the seas in which they abound the appearance of being crowded + with flakes of half-melted snow. The larger kinds, when undisturbed + in their native haunts, attain to considerable size. A faintly blue + medusa, nearly a foot across, may be seen in the Gulf of Manaar, + where, no doubt, others of still larger growth are to be found.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Jellyfish.</p> + </div> + + <p>The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores, and other + polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to undertake their + investigation, but in all probability the species are not very + numerous.</p><a name="pg247" id="pg247"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VI</h2> + + <h3>INSECTS.</h3> + + <p>Owing to the combination of heat, moisture, and vegetation, the + myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of the characteristic features + of the island. In the solitude of the forests there is a perpetual + music from their soothing and melodious hum, which frequently swells + to a startling sound as the cicada trills his sonorous drum on the + sunny bark of some tall tree. At morning the dew hangs in diamond + drops on the threads and gossamer which the spiders suspend across + every pathway; and above the pool dragon flies, of more than metallic + lustre, flash in the early sunbeams. The earth teems with countless + ants, which emerge from beneath its surface, or make their devious + highways to ascend to their nests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, + with their golden elytra, bask on the leaves, whilst minuter species + dash through the air in circles, which the ear can follow by the + booming of their tiny wings. Butterflies of large size and gorgeous + colouring flutter over the endless expanse of flowers, and frequently + the extraordinary sight presents itself of flights of these delicate + creatures, generally of a white or pale yellow hue, apparently miles + in breadth, and of such prodigious extension as to occupy hours, and + even days, uninterruptedly in their passage—whence coming no + one knows; wither going no one can tell.[1] As day <a name="pg248" + id="pg248"></a> declines, the moths issue from their retreats, the + crickets add their shrill voices to swell the din; and when darkness + descends, the eye is charmed with the millions of emerald lamps + lighted up by the fire-flies amidst the surrounding gloom.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The butterflies I have seen in these wonderful migrations in + Ceylon were mostly <i>Callidryas Hilariæ, C. Alcmeone</i>, and + <i>C. Pyranthe</i>, with straggling individuals of the genus + <i>Euploea, E. Coras</i>, and <i>E. Prothoe</i>. Their passage took + place in April and May, generally in a north-easterly + direction.</p> + </div> + + <p>No attempt has as yet been made to describe the class + systematically, much less to enumerate the prodigious number of + species which abound in every locality. Occasional observers have, + from time to time, contributed notices of particular families to the + Scientific Associations of Europe, but their papers remain + undigested, and the time has not yet arrived for the preparation of + an Entomology of the island.</p> + + <p>What Darwin remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is nearly as + applicable to the same order of insects in Ceylon: "The number of + minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great; the + cabinets of Europe can as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only of + the larger species from tropical climates, and it is sufficient to + disturb the composure of an entomologist to look forward to the + future dimensions of a catalogue with any pretensions to + completeness."[l]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Nat. Journal</i>, p. 39.</p> + </div> + + <p>M. Neitner, a German entomologist, who has spent some years in + Ceylon, has recently published, in one of the local periodicals, a + series of papers on the Coleoptera of the island, in which every + species introduced is stated to be previously undescribed.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Republished in the <i>Ann. Nat. Hist</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>COLEOPTERA.—<i>Buprestidoe; Golden Beetles</i>.—In the + morning the herbaceous plants, especially on the eastern side of the + island, are studded with these gorgeous beetles whose golden + elytra[1] are used to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana, + whilst the lustrous joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, + and form necklaces and bracelets of singular brilliancy.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Sternocera Chrysis; S. sternicornis</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, <a name= + "pg249" id="pg249"></a> and some of the Elateridæ[1] and Lamellicorns + exhibit hues of green and blue, that rival the deepest tints of the + emerald and sapphire.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Of the family of <i>Elateridæ</i>, one of the finest is a + Singhalese species, the <i>Compsosternus Templetonii</i>, of an + exquisite golden green colour, with blue reflections (described and + figured by Mr. WESTWOOD in his <i>Cabinet of Oriental + Entomology</i>, pl. 35, f. 1). In the same work is figured another + species of large size, also from Ceylon, this is the <i>Alaus + sordidus</i>.—WESTWOOD, 1. c. pl. 35, f. 9.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Scavenger Beetles</i>.—Scavenger beetles[1] are to be + seen wherever the presence of putrescent and offensive matter affords + opportunity for the display of their repulsive but most curious + instincts; fastening on it with eagerness, severing it into lumps + proportionate to their strength, and rolling it along in search of + some place sufficiently soft in which to bury it, after having + deposited their eggs in the centre. I had frequent opportunities, + especially in traversing the sandy jungles in the level plains to the + north of the island, of observing the unfailing appearance of these + creatures instantly on the dropping of horse dung, or any other + substance suitable for their purpose; although not one was visible + but a moment before. Their approach through the air is announced by a + loud and joyous booming sound, as they dash in rapid circles in + search of the desired object, led by their sense of smell, but + evidently little assisted by the eye in shaping their course towards + it. In these excursions they exhibit a strength of wing and sustained + power of flight, such as is possessed by no other class of beetles + with which I am acquainted, but which is obviously indispensable for + the due performance of the useful functions they discharge.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ateuchus sacer; Copris sagax; C. capucinus</i>, &c. + &c.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>The Coco-nut Beetle.</i>—In the luxuriant forests of + Ceylon, the extensive family of Longicorns live in destructive + abundance. Their ravages are painfully familiar to the coco-nut + planters.[1] The larva of one species <a name="pg250" id="pg250"></a> + of large dimensions, <i>Batocera rubus</i>[2], called by the + Singhalese "<i>Cooroominya</i>" makes its way into the stems of the + younger trees, and after perforating them in all directions, it forms + a cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust, in which it reposes during + its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of the period when it emerges + as a perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the repulsive aspect of the + large pulpy larvæ of these beetles, they are esteemed a luxury by the + Malabar coolies, who so far avail themselves of the privilege + accorded by the Levitical law, which permitted the Hebrews to eat + "the beetle after his kind."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is a paper in the <i>Journ. of the Asiat. Society of + Ceylon</i>, May, 1845, by Mr. CAPPER, on the ravages perpetrated by + these beetles. The writer had recently passed through several + coco-nut plantations, "varying in extent from 20 to 150 acres, and + about two to three years old; and in these he did not discover a + single young tree untouched by the cooroominya."—P. 49.</p> + + <p>2: Called also B. <i>octo-maculatus; Lamia rubus</i>, Fabr.</p> + + <p>3: Leviticus, xi. 22.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Tortoise Beetles</i>.—There is one family of insects, the + members of which cannot fail to strike the traveller by their + singular beauty, the <i>Cassidiadæ</i> or tortoise beetles, in which + the outer shell overlaps the body, and the limbs are susceptible of + being drawn entirely within it. The rim is frequently of a different + tint from the centre, and one species which I have seen is quite + startling from the brilliancy of its colouring, which gives it the + appearance of a ruby enclosed in a frame of pearl; but this wonderful + effect disappears immediately on the death of the insect.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: One species, the <i>Cassida farinosa</i>, frequent in the + jungle which surrounded my official residence at Kandy, is covered + profusely with a snow-white powder, arranged in delicate filaments, + which it moves without dispersing: but when dead they fall rapidly + to dust.</p> + </div> + + <p>ORTHOPTERA. <i>The Soothsayer</i>.—But the admiration of + colours is still less exciting than the astonishment created by the + forms in which some of the insect families present themselves, + especially the "soothsayers" (<i>Mantidæ</i>) and "walking leaves." + The latter[1], exhibiting the most cunning of all nature's devices + for the preservation of her creatures, are found in the jungle in all + <a name="pg251" id="pg251"></a> varieties of hue, from the pale + yellow of an opening bud to the rich green of the full-blown leaf, + and the withered tint of decaying foliage. And so perfect is the + imitation in structure and articulation, that these amazing insects + when at rest are almost indistinguishable from the verdure around + them: not the wings alone being modelled to resemble ribbed and + fibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs being expanded into a + broad plait like a half-opened leaflet.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Phyllium siccifolium.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it slowly along, + and thus the flatness of its attitude serves still further to add to + the appearance of a leaf. One of the most marvellous incidents + connected with its organisation was exhibited by one which I kept + under a glass shade on my table; it laid a quantity of eggs, that, in + colour and shape, were not to be discerned from <i>seeds</i>. They + were brown and pentangular, with a short stem, and slightly punctured + at the intersections.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/251.jpg"><img src="images/251.jpg" alt= + "EGGS OF THE LEAF INSECT." /></a> + + <p>EGGS OF THE LEAF INSECT.</p> + </div> + + <p>The "soothsayer," on the other hand <i>(Mantis superstitiosa</i> + Fab.[1]), little justifies by its propensities the appearance of + gentleness, and the attitudes of sanctity, which have obtained for it + its title of the praying mantis. Its habits are carnivorous, and + degenerate into cannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals of + its own species. Two which I enclosed in a box were both found dead a + few hours after, literally severed limb from limb in their encounter. + The formation of the foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on the + sharp edge of the thigh as to amputate any slender substance grasped + within it.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>M. aridifolia</i> and <i>M. extensicollis</i>, as well as + <i>Empusa gongyloides</i>, remarkable for the long leaf-like head, + and dilatations on the posterior thighs, are common in the + island.</p> + </div><a name="pg252" id="pg252"></a> + + <p><i>The Stick-insect</i>—The <i>Phasmidoe</i> or spectres, + another class of orthoptera, present as close a resemblance to small + branches or leafless twigs as their congeners do to green leaves. The + wing-covers, where they exist, instead of being expanded, are applied + so closely to the body as to detract nothing from its rounded form, + and hence the name which they have acquired of + "<i>walking-sticks</i>." Like the <i>Phyllium</i>, the <i>Phasma</i> + lives exclusively on vegetables, and some attain the length of + several inches.</p> + + <p>Of all the other tribes of the <i>Orthoptera</i> Ceylon possesses + many representatives; in swarms of cockroaches, grasshoppers, + locusts, and crickets.</p> + + <p>NEUROPTERA. <i>Dragon-flies.</i>—Of the <i>Neuroptera</i>, + some of the dragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful; one species, + with rich brown-coloured spots upon its gauzy wings, is to be seen + near every pool.[1] Another[2], which dances above the mountain + streams in Oovah, and amongst the hills descending towards Kandy, + gleams in the sun as if each of its green enamelled wings had been + sliced from an emerald.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Libellula pulchella.</i></p> + + <p>2: <i>Euphoea splendens</i>, Hagen.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Gymnacantha subinterrupta</i>, Ramb. distinguished by its + large size, is plentiful about the mountain streamlets.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>The Ant-lion</i>.—Of the ant-lion, whose larvæ have + earned a bad renown from their predaceous ingenuity, Ceylon has, at + least, four species, which seem peculiar to the island.[1] This + singular creature, preparatory to its pupal transformation, contrives + to excavate a conical pitfall in the dust to the depth of about an + inch, in the bottom of which it conceals itself, exposing only its + open mandibles above the surface; and here every ant and soft-bodied + insect which, curiosity tempts to descend, or accident may + precipitate into the trap, is ruthlessly seized and devoured by its + ambushed inhabitant.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Palpares contrarius</i>, Walker; <i>Myrmeleon gravis</i>, + Walker; <i>M. dirus</i>, Walker; <i>M. barbarus</i>, Walker.</p> + </div><a name="pg253" id="pg253"></a> + + <p><i>The White Ant</i>—But of the insects of this order the + most noted are the <i>white ants</i> or termites (which are ants only + by a misnomer). They are, unfortunately, at once ubiquitous and + innumerable in every spot where the climate is not too chilly, or the + soil too sandy, for them to construct their domed edifices.</p> + + <p>These they raise from a considerable depth under ground, + excavating the clay with their mandibles, and moistening it with + tenacious saliva[1] until it assume the appearance, and almost the + consistency, of sandstone. So delicate is the trituration to which + they subject this material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the + powdered clay of the ant hills in preference to all other substances + in the preparation of crucibles and moulds for their finer castings; + and KNOX says, in his time, "the people used this clay to make their + earthen gods of, it is so pure and fine."[2] These structures the + termites erect with such perseverance and durability that they + frequently rise to the height of ten or twelve feet from the ground, + with a corresponding diameter. They are <a name="pg254" id= + "pg254"></a> so firm in their texture that the weight of a horse + makes no apparent indentation on their solidity; and even the intense + rains of the monsoon, which no cement or mortar can long resist, fail + to penetrate the surface or substance of an ant hill.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It becomes an interesting question whence the termites derive + the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temper the + clay for the construction of their long covered-ways above ground, + but for keeping their passages uniformly damp and cool below the + surface. Yet their habits in this particular are unvarying, in the + seasons of droughts as well as after rain; in the driest and least + promising positions, in situations inaccessible to drainage from + above, and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from + below. Dr. Livingstone, struck with this phenomenon in Southern + Africa, asks: "Can the white ants possess the power of combining + the oxygen and hydrogen of their vegetable food by vital force so + as to form water?"—<i>Travels</i>, p. 22. And he describes at + Angola an insect (A. goudotti? Bennett.) resembling the + <i>Aphrophora spumaria</i>; seven or eight individuals of which + distil several pints of water every night.—P. 414. It is + highly probable that the termites are endowed with some such + faculty: nor is it more remarkable that an insect should combine + the gases of its food to produce water, than that a fish should + decompose water in order to provide itself with gas. FOURCROIX + found the contents of the air-bladder in a carp to be pure + nitrogen.—<i>Yarrell</i>, vol. i. p. 42. And the aquatic + larva of the dragon-fly extracts air for its respiration from the + water in which it is submerged. A similar mystery pervades the + inquiry whence plants under peculiar circumstances derive the water + essential to vegetation.</p> + + <p>2: KNOX'S <i>Ceylon</i>, Part I, ch. vi. p. 24.</p> + + <p>3: Dr. HOOKER, in his <i>Himalayan Journal</i> (vol. i. p. 20) + is of opinion that the nests of the termites are not independent + structures, but that their nucleus is "the debris of clumps of + bamboos or the trunks of large trees which these insects have + destroyed." He supposes that the dead tree falls leaving the stump + coated with sand, <i>which the action of the weather soon fashions + info a cone</i>. But independently of the fact that the "action of + the weather" produces little or no effect on the closely cemented + clay of the white ants' nest, they may be daily seen constructing + their edifices in the very form of a cone, which they ever after + retain. Besides which, they appear in the midst of terraces and + fields where no trees are to be seen; and Dr. Hooker seems to + overlook the fact that the termites rarely attack a living tree; + and although their nests may be built against one, it continues to + flourish not the less for their presence.</p> + </div> + + <p>In their earlier stages the termites proceed with such energetic + rapidity, that I have seen a pinnacle of moist clay, six inches in + height and twice as large in diameter, constructed underneath a table + between sitting down to dinner and the removal of the cloth.</p> + + <p>As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried up from + beneath the surface, a cave of corresponding dimensions is + necessarily scooped out below, and here, under the multitude of + cupolas and pinnacles which canopy it above, the termites hollow out + the royal chamber for their queen, with spacious nurseries + surrounding it on all sides. Store-rooms and magazines occupy the + lower apartments, and all are connected by arched galleries, long + passages, and doorways of the most intricate and elaborate + construction. In the centre and underneath the spacious dome is the + recess for the queen—a hideous creature, with the head and + thorax of an ordinary termite, but a body swollen to a hundred times + its usual and proportionate bulk, and presenting the appearance of a + mass of shapeless pulp. From this great progenitrix proceed the + myriads which people the subterranean hive, consisting, like the + communities <a name="pg255" id="pg255"></a> of the genuine ants, of + labourers and soldiers, which are destined never to acquire a fuller + development than that of larvas, and the perfect insects which in due + time become invested with wings and take their departing flight from + the cave. But their new equipment seems only destined to facilitate + their dispersion from the parent nest, which takes place at dusk; and + almost as quickly as they leave it they divest themselves of their + ineffectual wings, waving them impatiently and twisting them in every + direction till they become detached and drop off, and the swarm, + within a few hours of their emancipation, become a prey to the + night-jars and bats, which are instantly attracted to them as they + issue in a cloud from the ground. I am not prepared to say that the + other insectivorous birds would not gladly make a meal of the + termites, but, seeing that in Ceylon their numbers are chiefly kept + in check by the crepuscular birds, it is observable, at least as a + coincidence, that the dispersion of the swarm generally takes place + at <i>twilight</i>. Those that escape the <i>caprimulgi</i> lose + their wings before morning, and are then disposed of by the + crows.</p> + + <p>The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of the white + ants is that they shrink from the light, in all their expeditions for + providing food they construct a covered pathway of moistened clay, + and their galleries above ground extend to an incredible distance + from the central nest. No timber, except ebony and ironwood, which + are too hard, and those which are strongly impregnated with camphor + or aromatic oils, which they dislike, presents any obstacle to their + ingress. I have had a case of wine filled, in the course of two days, + with almost solid clay, and only discovered the presence of the white + ants by the bursting of the corks. I have had a portmanteau in my + tent so peopled with them in the course of a single night that the + contents were found worthless in the morning. In an incredibly short + time a detachment of these pests will destroy a press full <a name= + "pg256" id="pg256"></a> of records, reducing the paper to fragments; + and a shelf of books will be tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to + be in their line of march.</p> + + <p>The timbers of a house when fairly attacked are eaten from within + till the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, so thin that it may + be punched through with the point of the finger: and even kyanized + wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity of corrosive + sublimate, appears to occasion them no inconvenience. The only + effectual precaution for the protection of furniture is incessant + vigilance—the constant watching of every article, and its daily + removal from place to place, in order to baffle their assaults.</p> + + <p>They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 2000 feet. + One species of white ant, the <i>Termes Taprobanes</i>, was at one + time believed by Mr. Walker to be peculiar to the island, but it has + recently been found in Sumatra and Borneo, and in some parts of + Hindustan.</p> + + <p>HYMENOPTERA. <i>Mason Wasp</i>.—In Ceylon as in all other + countries, the order of hymenopterous insects arrests us less by the + beauty of their forms than the marvels of their sagacity and the + achievements of their instinct. A fossorial wasp of the family of + <i>Sphegidoe</i>,[1] which is distinguished by its metallic lustre, + enters by the open windows, and disarms irritation at its movements + by admiration of the graceful industry with which it stops up the + keyholes and similar apertures with clay in order to build in them a + cell, into which it thrusts the pupa of some other insect, within + whose body it has previously introduced its own eggs; and, enclosing + the whole with moistened earth, the young parasite, after undergoing + its transformations, gnaws its way into light, and emerges a + four-winged fly.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It belongs to the genus <i>Pelopoeus</i>, <i>P. Spinoloe</i>, + St. Fargeau. The <i>Ampulex compressa</i>, which drags about the + larvæ of cockroaches into which it has implanted its eggs, belongs + to the same family.</p> + + <p>2: Mr. E. L. Layard has given an interesting account of this + Mason wasp in the <i>Annals and Magazine of Nat. History</i> for + May, 1853.</p> + + <p>"I have frequently," he says, "selected one of these flies for + observation, and have seen their labours extend over a period of a + fortnight or twenty days; sometimes only half a cell was completed + in a day, at others as much as two. I never saw more than twenty + cells in one nest, seldom indeed that number, and whence the + caterpillars were procured was always to me a mystery. I have seen + thirty or forty brought in of a species which I knew to be very + rare in the perfect state, and which I had sought for in vain, + although I knew on what plant they fed.</p> + + <p>"Then again how are they disabled by the wasp, and yet not + injured so as to cause their immediate death? Die they all do, at + least all that I have ever tried to rear, after taking them from + the nest.</p> + + <p>"The perfected fly never effects its egress from the closed + aperture, through which the caterpillars were inserted, and when + cells are placed end to end, as they are in many instances, the + outward end of each is always selected. I cannot detect any + difference in the thickness in the crust of the cell to cause this + uniformity of practice. It is often as much as half an inch + through, of great hardness, and as far as I can see impervious to + air and light. How then does the enclosed fly always select the + right end, and with what secretion is it supplied to decompose this + mortar?"</p> + </div><a name="pg257" id="pg257"></a> + + <p><i>Wasps</i>.—Of the wasps, one formidable species (<i>Sphex + ferruginea</i> of St. Fargeau), which is common to India and most of + the eastern islands, is regarded with the utmost dread by the unclad + natives, who fly precipitately on finding themselves in the + vicinity[1] of its nests, which are of such ample dimensions, that + when suspended from a branch, they often measure upwards of six feet + in length.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In ought to be remembered in travelling in the forests of + Ceylon that sal volatile applied immediately is a specific for the + sting of a wasp.</p> + + <p>2: At the January (1839) meeting of the Entomological Society, + Mr. Whitehouse exhibited portions of a wasps' nest from Ceylon, + between seven and eight feet long and two feet in diameter, and + showed that the construction of the cells was perfectly analogous + to those of the hive bee, and that when connected each has a + tendency to assume a circular outline. In one specimen where there + were three cells united the outer part was circular, whilst the + portions common to the three formed straight walls. From this + Singhalese nest Mr. Whitehouse demonstrated that the wasps at the + commencement of their comb proceed slowly, forming the bases of + several together, whereby they assume the hexagonal shape, whereas, + if constructed separately, he thought each single cell would be + circular. See <i>Proc. Ent. Soc</i>. vol. iii. p. xvi.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Bees</i>.—Bees of several species and genera, some + divested of stings, and some in size scarcely exceeding a house-fly, + deposit their honey in hollow trees, or suspend their combs from a + branch; and the spoils of their industry form one of the chief + resources of the uncivilised Veddahs, who collect the wax in their + <a name="pg258" id="pg258"></a> upland forests, to be bartered for + arrow points and clothes in the lowlands.[1] I have never heard of an + instance of persons being attacked by the bees of Ceylon, and hence + the natives assert, that those most productive of honey are destitute + of stings.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A gentleman connected with the department of the + Surveyor-General writes to me that he measured a honey-comb which + he found fastened to the overhanging branch of a small tree in the + forest near Adam's Peak, and found it nine links of his chain or + about six feet in length and a foot in breadth where it was + attached to the branch, but tapering towards the other extremity. + "It was a single comb with a layer of cells on either side, but so + weighty that the branch broke by the strain."</p> + </div> + + <p><i>The Carpenter Bee</i>.—The operations of one of the most + interesting of the tribe, the Carpenter bee,[1] I have watched with + admiration from the window of the Colonial Secretary's official + residence at Kandy. So soon as the day grew warm, these active + creatures were at work perforating the wooden columns which supported + the verandah. They poised themselves on their shining purple wings, + as they made the first lodgment in the wood, enlivening the work with + an uninterrupted hum of delight, which was audible to a considerable + distance. When the excavation had proceeded so far as that the insect + could descend into it, the music was suspended, but renewed from time + to time, as the little creature came to the orifice to throw out the + chips, to rest, or to enjoy the fresh air. By degrees, a mound of + saw-dust was formed at the base of the pillar, consisting of + particles abraded by the mandibles of the bee; and these, when the + hollow was completed to the depth of several inches, were partially + replaced in the excavation after being agglutinated to form + partitions between the eggs, as they are deposited within.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Xylocopa tenuiscapa</i>, Westw.; X. <i>latipes</i>, + Drury.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Ants</i>.—As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstanding + their numbers and familiarity, information is very imperfect relative + to the varieties and habits of these marvellous insects in Ceylon.[1] + In point of multitude <a name="pg259" id="pg259"></a> it is scarcely + an exaggeration to apply to them the figure of "the sands of the + sea." They are everywhere; in the earth, in the houses, and in the + trees; they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and almost on + every plant in the jungle. To some of the latter they are, perhaps, + attracted by the sweet juices secreted by the aphides and coccidæ; + and such is the passion of the ants for sugar, and their wonderful + faculty of discovering it, that the smallest particle of a substance + containing it, though placed in the least conspicuous position, is + quickly covered with them, where not a single one may have been + visible a moment before. But it is not sweet substances alone that + they attack; no animal or vegetable matter comes amiss to them; no + aperture appears too small to admit them; it is necessary to place + everything which it may be desirable to keep free from their + invasion, under the closest cover, or on tables with cups of water + under every foot. As scavengers, they are invaluable; and as ants + never sleep, but work without cessation, during the night as well as + by day, every particle of decaying vegetable or putrid animal matter + is removed with inconceivable speed and certainty. In collecting + shells, I have been able to turn this propensity to good account; by + placing them within their reach, the ants in a few days will remove + every vestige of the mollusc from the innermost and otherwise + inaccessible whorls; thus avoiding all risk of injuring the enamel by + any mechanical process.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Jerdan, in a series of papers in the thirteenth volume of + the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, has described forty-seven + species of ants in Southern India. But M. Nietner has recently + forwarded to the Berlin Museum upwards of seventy species taken by + him in Ceylon, chiefly in the western province and the vicinity of + Colombo, Of these many are identical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan + as belonging to the Indian continent. One (probably + <i>Drepanognathus saltator</i> of Jerdan) is described by M. + Nietner as "moving by jumps of several inches at a spring."</p> + </div> + + <p>But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead animals + alone, they attack equally such small insects as they can overcome, + or find disabled by accidents or wounds; and it is not unusual to see + some hundreds of <a name="pg260" id="pg260"></a> them surrounding a + maimed beetle, or a bruised cockroach, and hurrying it along in spite + of its struggles. I have, on more than one occasion, seen a contest + between them and one of the viscous ophidians, <i>Coecilia + glutinosa</i>[1], a reptile resembling an enormous earthworm, common + in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in diameter, and nearly two feet in + length. It would seem as if the whole community had been summoned and + turned out for such a prodigious effort; they surrounded their victim + literally in tens of thousands, inflicting wounds on all parts, and + forcing it along towards their nest in spite of resistance. In one + instance to which I was a witness, the conflict lasted for the latter + part of a day, but towards evening the Cæcilia was completely + exhausted, and in the morning it had totally disappeared, having been + carried away either whole or piecemeal by its assailants.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See ante, <a href="#pg201">Pt, 1. ch. iii. p. 201</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The species I here allude to, is a very small ant, called the + <i>Koombiya</i> in Ceylon. There is a still more minute description, + which frequents the caraffes and toilet vessels, and is evidently a + distinct species. A third, probably the <i>Formica nidificans</i> of + Jerdan, is black, of the same size as that last mentioned, and, from + its colour, called the <i>Kalu koombiya</i> by the natives. In the + houses its propensities and habits are the same as the others; but I + have observed that it frequents the trees more profusely, forming + small paper cells for its young, like miniature wasps' nests, in + which it deposits its eggs, suspending them from the leaf of a + plant.</p> + + <p>The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya.[1] It + is particularly abundant in gardens, and on fruit trees; it + constructs its dwellings by glueing the leaves of such species as are + suitable from their shape and pliancy into hollow balls, which it + lines with a kind of transparent paper, like that manufactured + <a name="pg261" id="pg261"></a> by the wasp. I have watched them at + the interesting operation of forming their dwellings;—a line of + ants standing on the edge of one leaf bring another into contact with + it, and hold both together with their mandibles till their companions + within attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper, the + assistants outside moving along as the work proceeds. If it be + necessary to draw closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by the + immediate workers, they form a chain by depending one from the other + till the object is reached, when it is at length brought into + contact, and made fast by cement.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Formica smaragdina</i>, Fab.</p> + </div> + + <p>Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual motion, forming + lines on the ground along which they pass, in continual procession to + and from the trees on which they reside. They are the most irritable + of the whole order in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity as to + render it difficult for the unclad natives to collect the fruit from, + the mango trees, which the red ants especially frequent. They drop + from the branches upon travellers in the jungle, attacking them with + venom and fury, and inflicting intolerable pain both upon animals and + man. On examining the structure of the head through a microscope, I + found that the mandibles, instead of merely meeting in contact, are + so hooked as to cross each other at the points, whilst the inner line + is sharply serrated throughout its entire length; thus occasioning + the intense pain of their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary + ant.</p> + + <p>To check the ravages of the coffee bug (<i>Lecanium coffeoe</i>, + Walker), which for some years past has devastated some of the + plantations in Ceylon, the experiment was made of introducing the red + ants, who feed greedily on the Coccus. But the remedy threatened to + be attended with some inconvenience, for the Malabar Coolies, with + bare and oiled skins, were so frequently and fiercely assaulted by + the ants as to endanger their stay on the estates.</p><a name="pg262" + id="pg262"></a> + + <p>The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are generally, but + not invariably, black, and some of them are of considerable size. One + species, about the third of an inch in length, is abundant in the + hills, and especially about the roots of trees, where they pile up + the earth in circular heaps round the entrance to their nests, and in + doing this I have observed a singular illustration of their instinct. + To carry up each particle of sand by itself would be an endless waste + of labour, and to carry two or more loose ones securely would be to + them embarrassing, if not impossible; they therefore overcome the + difficulty by glueing together with their saliva so much earth or + sand as is sufficient for a burden, and each one may be seen hurrying + up from below with his load, carrying it to the top of the circular + heap outside, and throwing it over, whilst it is so strongly attached + as to roll to the bottom without breaking asunder.</p> + + <p>The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, differing in + this particular from the Dimiya and another of similar size and + ferocity, which is called by the Singhalese <i>Kaddiya</i>; and they + have a legend illustrative of their alarm for the bites of the + latter, to the effect that the cobra de capello invested the Kaddiya + with her own venom in admiration of the singular courage displayed by + these little creatures.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: KNOX'S <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, pt i. ch vi. p. + 23.</p> + </div> + + <p>LEPIDOPTERA. <i>Butterflies</i>.—Butterflies in the interior + of the island are comparatively rare, and, contrary to the ordinary + belief, they are seldom to be seen in the sunshine, They frequent the + neighbourhood of the jungle, and especially the vicinity of the + rivers and waterfalls, living mainly in the shade of the moist + foliage, and returning to it in haste after the shortest flights, as + if their slender bodies were speedily dried up and exhausted by the + exposure to the intense heat.</p> + + <p>Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepidoptera is the + great black and yellow butterfly (<i>Ornithoptera darsius</i>, + <a name="pg263" id="pg263"></a> Gray); the upper wings, of which + measure six inches across, are of deep velvet black, the lower, + ornamented by large particles of satiny yellow, through which the + sunlight passes, and few insects can compare with it in beauty, as it + hovers over the flowers of the heliotrope, which furnish the + favourite food of the perfect fly, although the caterpillar feeds on + the aristolochia and the <i>betel leaf</i> and suspends its chrysalis + from its drooping tendrils.</p> + + <p>Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often exceeding it in + breadth, is the black and blue <i>Papilio Polymnestor</i>, which + darts rapidly through the air, alighting on the ruddy flowers of the + hibiscus, or the dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it + deposits its eggs. The larvæ of this species are green with white + bands, and have a hump on the fourth or fifth segment. From this hump + the caterpillar, on being irritated, protrudes a singular horn of an + orange colour, bifurcate at the extremity, and covered with a pungent + mucilaginous secretion. This is evidently intended as a weapon of + defence against the attack of the ichneumon flies, that deposit their + eggs in its soft body, for when the grub is pricked, either by the + ovipositor of the ichneumon, or by any other sharp instrument, the + horn is at once protruded, and struck upon the offending object with + unerring aim.</p> + + <p>Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies is the <i>P. + Hector</i>, with gorgeous crimson spots set in the black velvet of + the inferior wings; these, when fresh, are shot with a purple blush, + equalling in splendour the azure of the European + "<i>Emperor</i>."</p> + + <p>Another butterfly, but belonging to a widely different group, is + the "sylph" (<i>Hestia Jasonia</i>), called by the Europeans by the + various names of <i>Floater, Spectre,</i> and + <i>Silver-paper-fly</i>, as indicative of its graceful flight. It is + found only in the deep shade of the damp forest, frequenting the + vicinity of pools of water and cascades, about which it sails + heedless of the spray, the moisture of which <a name="pg264" id= + "pg264"></a> may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity of + its thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act of + flight.</p> + + <p>The <i>Lycoenidoe</i>[1], a particularly attractive group, abound + near the enclosures of cultivated grounds, and amongst the low shrubs + edging the patenas, flitting from flower to flower, inspecting each + in turn, and as if attracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of + sun-light; and shunning exposure less sedulously than the other + diurnals. Some of the more robust kinds[2] are magnificent in the + bright light, from the splendour of their metallic blues and glowing + purples, but they yield in elegance of form and variety to their + tinier and more delicately-coloured congeners.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Lycana polyommatus, &c.</i></p> + + <p>2: <i>Amblypodia pseudocentaurus, &c.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar forms, + and the naturalist marks with interest the small, but strong, + <i>Hesperiidoe</i>,[1] hurrying, by abrupt and jerking flights, to + the scented blossoms of the champac or the sweet night-blowing + moon-flower; and, when darkness gathers around, we can hear, though + hardly distinguish amid the gloom, the humming of the powerful wings + of innumerable hawk moths, which hover with their long proboscides + inserted into the starry petals of the periwinkle.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Pamphila hesperia, &c.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-coloured + <i>Acherontia Satanas</i>, one of the Singhalese representatives of + our Death's head moth, which utters a sharp and stridulous cry when + seized. This sound has been variously conjectured to be produced by + the friction of its thorax against the abdomen, and Reaumur believed + it to be caused by rubbing the palpi against the tongue. I have never + been able to observe either motion, and Mr. E. L. Layard is of + opinion that the sound is emitted from two apertures concealed by + tufts of wiry bristles <a name="pg265" id="pg265"></a> thrown out + from each side of the inferior portion of the thorax.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is another variety of the same moth in Ceylon which + closely resembles it in its markings, but I have never detected in + it the utterance of this curious cry. It is smaller than the <i>A. + Satanas</i>, and, like it, often enters dwellings at night, + attracted by the lights; but I have not found its larvæ, although + that of the other species is common on several widely different + plants.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Moths.</i>—Among the strictly nocturnal + <i>Lepidoptera</i> are some gigantic species. Of these the + cinnamon-eating <i>Atlas</i>, often attains the dimensions of nearly + a foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It is very common in the + gardens about Colombo, and its size, and the transparent talc-like + spots in its wings cannot fail to strike even the most careless + saunterer. But little inferior to it in size is the famed Tusseh silk + moth[1], which feeds on the country almond (<i>Terminalia + catappa</i>) and the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easily + distinguishable from the Atlas, which has a triangular wing, whilst + its [wing] is falcated, and the transparent spots are covered with a + curious thread-like division drawn across them.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Antheroea mylitta</i>, Drury.</p> + </div> + + <p>Towards the northern portions of the island this valuable species + entirely displaces the other, owing to the fact that the almond and + <i>palma Christi</i> abound there. The latter plant springs up + spontaneously on every manure-heap or neglected spot of ground; and + might be cultivated, as in India, with great advantage, the leaf to + be used as food for the caterpillar, the stalk as fodder for cattle, + and the seed for the expression of castor-oil. The Dutch took + advantage of this facility, and gave every encouragement to the + cultivation of silk at Jaffna[1], but it never attained such a + development as to <a name="pg266" id="pg266"></a> become an article + of commercial importance. Ceylon now cultivates no silkworms + whatever, notwithstanding this abundance of the favourite food of one + species; and the rich silken robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist + priesthood are still imported from China and the continent of + India.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Portuguese had made the attempt previous to the arrival + of the Dutch, and a strip of land on the banks of the Kalany river + near Colombo, still bears the name of Orta Seda, the silk garden. + The attempt of the Dutch to introduce the true silkworm, the + <i>Bombyx mori</i>, took place under the governorship of Ryklof Van + Goens, who, on handing over the administration to his successor in + A.D. 1663, thus apprises him of the initiation of the + experiment:—"At Jaffna Palace a trial has been undertaken to + feed silkworms, and to ascertain whether silk may be reared at that + station. I have planted a quantity of mulberry trees, which grow + well there, and they ought to be planted in other + directions."—VALENTYN, chap. xiii. The growth of the mulberry + trees is noticed the year after in a report to the governor-general + of India, but the subject afterwards ceased to be attended to.</p> + </div> + + <p>In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there are many + other <i>Bombycidoe</i> in Ceylon; and, though the silk of some of + them, were it susceptible of being unwound from the cocoon, would not + bear a comparison with that of the <i>Bombyx mori</i>, or even of the + Tusseh moth, it might still prove to be valuable when carded and + spun. If the European residents in the colony would rear the larvæ of + these Lepidoptera, and make drawings of their various changes, they + would render a possible service to commerce, and a certain one to + entomological knowledge.</p> + + <p><i>The Wood-carrying Moth.</i>—There is another family of + insects, the singular habits of which will not fail to attract the + traveller in the cultivated tracts of Ceylon—these are moths of + the genus <i>Oiketicus</i>,[1] of which the females are devoid of + wings, and some possess no articulated feet; the larvæ construct for + themselves cases, which they suspend to a branch frequently of the + pomegranate,[2] surrounding them with the stems of leaves, and thorns + or pieces of twigs bound together by threads, till the whole presents + the appearance of a bundle of rods about an inch and a half long; + and, from the resemblance of this to a Roman fasces, one African + species has obtained the name of "Lictor." The German entomologists + denominated the group <i>Sack-träger</i>, the Singhalese call them + <i>Dalmea kattea</i> or "billets of firewood," and <a name="pg267" + id="pg267"></a> regard the inmates as human beings, who, as a + punishment for stealing wood in some former stage of existence, have + been condemned to undergo a metempsychosis under the form of these + insects.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Eumeta</i>, Wlk.</p> + + <p>2: The singular instincts of a species of Thecla, <i>Dipsas + Isocrates</i>, Fab., in connection with the fruit of the + pomegranate, were fully described by Mr. Westwood, in a paper read + before the Entomological Society of London in 1835.</p> + </div> + + <p>The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from one end of + this singular covering, but the female makes it her dwelling for + life; moving about with it at pleasure, and entrenching herself + within it, when alarmed, by drawing together the purse-like aperture + at the open end. Of these remarkable creatures there are five + ascertained species in Ceylon. <i>Psyche Doubledaii</i>, Westw.; + <i>Metisa plana</i>, Walker; <i>Eumeta Cramerii</i>, Westw.; <i>E. + Templetonii</i>, Westw.; and <i>Cryptothelea consorta</i>, Temp.</p> + + <p>All the other tribes of minute <i>Lepidoptera</i> have abundant + representatives in Ceylon; some of them most attractive from the + great beauty of their markings and colouring. The curious little + split-winged moth (<i>Pterophorus</i>) is frequently seen in the + cinnamon gardens and the vicinity of the fort, resting in the noonday + heat in the cool grass shaded by the coco-nut topes. Three species + have been captured, all characterised by the same singular feature of + having the wings fan-like, separated nearly their entire length into + detached sections resembling feathers in the pinions of a bird + expanded for flight.</p> + + <p>HOMOPTERA. <i>Cicada.</i>—Of the <i>Homoptera</i>, the one + which will most frequently arrest attention is the cicada, which, + resting high up on the bark of a tree, makes the forest re-echo with + a long-sustained noise so curiously resembling that of a cutler's + wheel that the creature which produces it has acquired the + highly-appropriate name of the "knife-grinder."</p> + + <p>HEMIPTERA. <i>Bugs.</i>—On the shrubs in his compound the + newly-arrived traveller will be attracted by an insect of a pale + green hue and delicately-thin configuration, which, resting from its + recent flight, composes its scanty wings, and moves languidly along + the leaf. But experience will teach him to limit his examination to a + <a name="pg268" id="pg268"></a> respectful view of its attitudes; it + is one of a numerous family of bugs, (some of them most attractive[1] + in their colouring,) which are inoffensive if unmolested, but if + touched or irritated, exhale an odour that, once perceived, is never + after forgotten.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Such as <i>Cantuo ocellatus, Leptopelis Marginalis, Callidea + Stockerius</i>, &c. &c. Of the aquatic species, the + gigantic <i>Belostoma Indicum</i> cannot escape notice, attaining a + size of nearly three inches.</p> + </div> + + <p>APHANIPTERA. <i>Fleas.</i>—Fleas are equally numerous, and + may be seen in myriads in the dust of the streets or skipping in the + sunbeams which fall on the clay floors of the cottages. The dogs, to + escape them, select for their sleeping places spots where a wood fire + has been previously kindled; and here prone on the white ashes, their + stomachs close to the earth, and their hind legs extended behind, + they repose in comparative coolness, and bid defiance to their + persecutors.</p> + + <p>DIPTERA. <i>Mosquitoes.</i>—But of all the insect pests that + beset an unseasoned European the most provoking by far are the + truculent mosquitoes.[1] Even in the midst of endurance from their + onslaughts one cannot but be amused by the ingenuity of their + movements; as if aware of the risk incident to an open assault, a + favourite mode of attack is, when concealed by a table, to assail the + ankles through the meshes of the blocking, or the knees which are + ineffectually protected by a fold of Russian duck. When you are + reading, a mosquito will rarely settle on that portion of your hand + which is within range of your eyes, but cunningly stealing by the + underside of the book fastens on the wrist or finger, and noiselessly + inserts his proboscis there. I have tested the classical expedient + recorded by Herodotus, who states that the fishermen inhabiting the + fens of Egypt cover their beds with their nets, knowing that the + mosquitoes, although they bite through linen <a name="pg269" id= + "pg269"></a> robes, will not venture though a net.[2] But, + notwithstanding the opinion of Spence,[3] that nets with meshes an + inch square will effectually exclude them, I have been satisfied by + painful experience that (if the theory is not altogether fallacious) + at least the modern mosquitoes of Ceylon are uninfluenced by the same + considerations which restrained those of the Nile under the + successors of Cambyses.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Culex laniger</i>? Wied. In Kandy Mr. Thwaites finds <i>C. + fuscanus, C. circumvolens</i>, &c., and one with a most + formidable hooked proboscis, to which he has assigned the + appropriate name <i>C. Regius</i>.</p> + + <p>2: HERODOTUS, <i>Euterpe</i>, xcv.</p> + + <p>3: KIRBY and SPENCE'S <i>Entomology</i>, letter iv.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>List of Ceylon Insects.</i></p> + + <p>For the following list of the insects of the island, and the + remarks prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. Walker, by whom it + has been prepared after a careful inspection of the collections made + by Dr. Templeton, Mr. E.L. Layard, and others; as well as those in + the British Museum and in the Museum of the East India Company.</p> + + <p>"A short notice of the aspect of the Island will afford the best + means of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological Fauna: + first, as it is an island, and has a mountainous central region, the + tropical character of its productions, as in most other cases, rather + diminishes, and somewhat approaches that of higher latitudes.</p> + + <p>"The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its northern + part, have a much drier atmosphere than that of the rest of its + surface; and their climate and vegetation are nearly similar to those + of the Carnatic, with which this island may have been connected at no + very remote period.[1] But if, on the contrary, the land in Ceylon is + gradually rising, the difference of its Fauna from that of Central + Hindostan is less remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then + be conjectured to have been nearly or wholly separated from the + central part of Hindostan, and confined to the range of mountains + along the eastern coast; the insect-fauna of which is as <a name= + "pg270" id="pg270"></a> yet almost unknown, but will probably be + found to have more resemblance to that of Ceylon than to the insects + of northern and western India—just as the insect-fauna of + Malaya appears more to resemble the similar productions of + Australasia than those of the more northern continent.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: On the subject of this conjecture see <i>ante</i>, <a href= + "#pg007">Vol. I. Pt. I, ch. i. p. 7.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>"Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry northern + province of Ceylon; and among them more Hindostan insects are to be + observed than among those collected by Dr. Templeton, and found + wholly in the district between Colombo and Kandy. According to this + view the faunas of the Neilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of + the peninsula of Malacca, and of Australasia would be found to form + one group;—while those of Northern Ceylon, of the western + Dekkan, and of the level parts of Central Hindostan would form + another of more recent origin. The insect-fauna of the Carnatic is + also probably similar to that of the lowlands of Ceylon; but it is + still unexplored. The regions of Hindostan in which species have been + chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silhet, and the Punjaub, are at + the distance of from 1,300 to 1,600 miles from Ceylon, and therefore + the insects of the latter are fully as different from those of the + above regions as they are from those of Australasia, to which Ceylon + is as near in point of distance, and agrees more with regard to + latitude.</p> + + <p>"Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the + mountains of Ceylon to be quite different from that of the plains and + of the shores. The south and west districts have a very moist + climate, and as their vegetation is like that of Malabar, their + insect-fauna will probably also resemble that of the latter + region.</p> + + <p>"The insects mentioned in the following list are thus + distributed:—</p> + + <p>Order COLEOPTERA.</p> + + <p>"The recorded species of <i>Cicindelidoe</i> inhabit the plains or + the coast country of Ceylon, and several of them are also found in + Hindostan.</p> + + <p>"Many of the species of <i>Carabidoe</i> and of + <i>Staphylinidoe</i>, especially those collected by Mr. Thwaites, + near Kandy, and by M. Nietner at Colombo, have much resemblance to + the insects of these two families in North Europe; in the + <i>Scydmoenidoe,</i> <i>Ptiliadoe, Phalacridoe, Nitidulidoe, + Colydiadoe</i>, and <i>Lathridiadoe</i> the northern form is still + more striking, and strongly contrasts <a name="pg271" id="pg271"></a> + with the tropical forms of the gigantic <i>Copridoe, Buprestidoe</i>, + and <i>Cerambycidoe</i>, and with the <i>Elateridoe, Lampyridoe, + Tenebrionidoe, Helopidoe, Meloidoe, Curculionidoe, Prionidoe, + Cerambycidoe, Lamiidoe</i>, and <i>Endomychidoe</i>.</p> + + <p>"The <i>Copridoe, Dynastidoe, Melolonthidoe, Cetoniadoe</i>, and + <i>Passalidoe</i> are well represented on the plains and on the + coast, and the species are mostly of a tropical character.</p> + + <p>"The <i>Hydrophilidoe</i> have a more northern aspect, as is + generally the case with aquatic species.</p> + + <p>"The order <i>Strepsiptera</i> is here considered as belonging to + the <i>Mordellidoe</i>, and is represented by the genus + <i>Myrmecolax</i>, which is peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon.</p> + + <p>"In the <i>Curculionidoe</i> the single species of <i>Apion</i> + will recall to mind the great abundance of that genus in North + Europe.</p> + + <p>"The <i>Prionidoe</i> and the two following families have been + investigated by Mr. Pascoe, and the <i>Hispidoe</i>, with the five + following families, by Mr. Baly; these two gentlemen are well + acquainted with the above tribes of beetles, and kindly supplied me + with the names of the Ceylon species.</p> + + <p>Order ORTHOPTERA.</p> + + <p>"These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The + <i>Physapoda</i>, which will probably be soon incorporated with them, + are likely to be numerous, though only one species has as yet been + noticed.</p> + + <p>Order NEUROPTERA.</p> + + <p>"The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue published + by Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species named by him + or by M. Nietner. They were found in the most elevated parts of the + island, near Rambodde, and Dr. Hagen informs me that not less than + 500 species have been noticed in Ceylon, but that they are not yet + recorded, with the exception of the species here enumerated. It has + been remarked that the <i>Trichoptera</i> and other aquatic + <i>Neuroptera</i> are less local than the land species, owing to the + more equable temperature of the habitation of their larvæ, and on + account of their being often conveyed along the whole length of + rivers. The species of <i>Psocus</i> in the list are far more + numerous than those yet observed in any other country, with the + exception of Europe.</p><a name="pg272" id="pg272"></a> + + <p>Order HYMENOPTERA.</p> + + <p>"In this order the <i>Formicidoe</i> and the <i>Poneridoe</i> are + very numerous, as they are in other damp and woody tropical + countries. Seventy species of ants have been observed, but as yet few + of them have been named. The various other families of aculeate + <i>Hymenoptera</i> are doubtless more abundant than the species + recorded indicate, and it may be safely reckoned that the parasitic + <i>Hymenoptera</i> in Ceylon far exceed one thousand species in + number, though they are yet only known by means of about two dozen + kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites.</p> + + <p>Order LEPIDOPTERA.</p> + + <p>"The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order than in + any other of the insect tribes, but as yet the <i>Lepidoptera</i> + alone in their class afford materials for a comparison of the + productions of Ceylon with those of Hindostan and of Australasia; 932 + species have been collected by Dr. Templeton and by Mr. Layard in the + central, western, and northern parts of the island. All the families, + from the <i>Papilionidoe</i> to the <i>Tineidoe</i>, abound, and + numerous species and several genera appear, as yet, to be peculiar to + the island. As Ceylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern + regions, the list in this volume will suitably precede the + descriptive catalogues of the heterocerous <i>Lepidoptera</i> of + Hindostan, Java, Borneo, and of other parts of Australasia, which are + being prepared for publication. In some of the heterocerous families + several species are common to Ceylon and to Australasia, and in + various cases the faunas of Ceylon and of Australasia seem to be more + similar than those of Ceylon and of Hindostan. The long intercourse + between those two regions may have been the means of conveying some + species from one to the other. Among the <i>Pyralites, Hymenia + recurvalis</i> inhabits also the West Indies, South America, West + Africa, Hindostan, China, Australasia, Australia, and New Zealand; + and its food-plant is probably some vegetable which is cultivated in + all those regions; so also <i>Desmia afflictalis</i> is found in + Sierra Leone, Ceylon, and China.</p> + + <p>Order DIPTERA.</p> + + <p>"About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but most of + those here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at Kandy, and have + a great likeness to North European species.</p><a name="pg273" id= + "pg273"></a> + + <p>"The mosquitoes are very annoying on account of their numbers, as + might be expected from the moisture and heat of the climate. <i>Culex + laniger</i> is the coast species, and the other kinds here mentioned + are from Kandy. Humboldt observed that in some parts of South America + each stream had its peculiar mosquitoes, and it yet remains to be + seen whether the gnats in Ceylon are also thus restricted in their + habitation. The genera <i>Sciara, Cecidomyia</i>, and + <i>Simulium</i>, which abound so exceedingly in temperate countries, + have each one representative species in the collection made by Mr. + Thwaites. Thus an almost new field remains for the Entomologist in + the study of the yet unknown Singhalese Diptera, which must be very + numerous.</p> + + <p>Order HEMIPTERA.</p> + + <p>"The species of this order in the list are too few and too similar + to those of Hindustan to need any particular mention. <i>Lecanium + coffeoe</i> may be noticed, on account of its infesting the coffee + plant, as its name indicates, and the ravages of other species of the + genus will be remembered, from the fact that one of them, in other + regions, has put a stop to the cultivation of the orange as an + article of commerce.</p> + + <p>"In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of insects in + Ceylon may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in number, of which about + 2,000 are enumerated in this volume.</p> + + <p>Class ARACHNIDA.</p> + + <p>"Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens cannot be + satisfactorily described; one <i>Ixodes</i> and one <i>Chelifer</i> + have been forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr. + Thwaites."</p><a name="pg274" id="pg274"></a> + + <p>NOTE.—The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered + in Ceylon since Sir J.E. Tennent's departure from the Island in + 1849.</p> + + <p>ORDER, <b>Coleoptera</b>, <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CICINDELIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cicindela, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>flavopunctata, <i>Aud.</i></li> + + <li>discrepans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>aurofasciata, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>quadrilineata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>biramosa, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>catena, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*insignificans, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tricondyla, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>femorata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*tumidula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*scitiscabra, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*concinna, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CARABIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Casnouia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*punctata, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*pilifera, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ophionea, <i>Klug.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*cyanocephala, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Euplynes, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dohrnii, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Heteroglossa, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*elegans, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*ruficollis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*bimaculata, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Zuphium, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*pubescens, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pheropsophus, <i>Solier.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Catoirei, <i>Dej.</i></li> + + <li>bimaculatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cymindis, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufiventris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anchista, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*modesta, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dromius, <i>Bon.</i> + + <ul> + <li>marginifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>repandens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lebia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bipars, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Creagris, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>labrosa, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Elliotia, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pallipes, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Maraga, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>planigera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Catascopus, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>facialis, <i>Wied.</i></li> + + <li>reductus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Scarites, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obliterans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>subsignans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>designans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*minor, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Clivina, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*rugosifrons, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*elongatula, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*maculata, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>recta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Leistus, <i>Froehl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>linearis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Isotarsus, <i>Laferté.</i> + + <ul> + <li>quadrimaculatus, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Panagæeus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chlænius, <i>Bon.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bimaculatus, <i>Dej.</i></li> + + <li>diffinis, <i>Reiche.</i></li> + + <li>*Ceylanicus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*quinque-maculatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>pulcher, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>cupricollis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>rugulosus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anchomenus, <i>Bon.</i> + + <ul> + <li>illocatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agonum, <i>Bon.</i> + + <ul> + <li>placidulum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Colpodes? <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>marginicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Argutor, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>degener, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>relinquens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Simphyus, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*unicolor, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bradytus, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>stolidus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Curtonotus, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>compositus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Harpalus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*advolans, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>dispellens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Calodromus, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*exornatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Megaristerus, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*mandibularis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*stenolophoides, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*Indicus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Platysma, <i>Bon.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retinens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Morio, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>trogositoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cucujoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Barysomus, <i>Dej</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Gyllenhalii, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Oodes, <i>Bon.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*piceus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Selenophorus, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>infixus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Orthogonius, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>femoratus, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Helluodes, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanæ, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Physocrotaphus, <i>Parry.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonicus, <i>Parry.</i></li> + + <li>*minax, <i>West.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Psysodera, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eschscholtzii, <i>Parry.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Omphra, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*ovipennis, <i>Reiche.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Planetes, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bimaculatus, <i>Macleay.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cardiaderus, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>scitus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Distrigus, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*costatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*submetallicus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*rufopiceus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*æeneus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*Dejeani, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Drimostoma, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Ceylanicum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*marginale, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cyclosomus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>flexuosus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ochthephilus, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Ceylanicus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spathinus, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*nigriceps, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acupalpus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>derogatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>extremus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bembidium, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>finitimum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*opulentum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*truncatum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*tropicum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*triangalare, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*Ceylanicum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Klugii, <i>Niet.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*ebeninum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*orientale, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*emarginatum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*ornatum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*scydmænoides, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PAUSSIDÆ, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cerapterus, <i>Swed.</i> + + <ul> + <li>latipes, <i>Swed.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pleuropterus, <i>West.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Westermanni, <i>West.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Paussus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pacificus, <i>West.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DYTISCIDÆ, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cybister, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>limbatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dytiscus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>extenuans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eunectes, <i>Erich.</i> + + <ul> + <li>griseus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hydaticus, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>festivus, <i>Ill.</i></li> + + <li>vittatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>disclocans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fractifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg275" id= + "pg275"></a></li> + + <li>Colymbetes, <i>Clairv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>interclusus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hydroporus, <i>Clairv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>interpulsus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>intermixtus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lætabilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*inefficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GYRINIDÆ, <i>Leach</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dineutes, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>spinosus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Porrorhynchus, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>indicans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gyretes, <i>Brullé.</i> + + <ul> + <li>discifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gyrinus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nitidulus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>obliquus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Orectochilus, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*lenoeinium, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. STAPHILINIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Ocypus, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>longipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>congruus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>punctilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*lineatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Philonthus, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*pedestris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xantholinus, <i>Dahl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cinctus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*inclinans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sunius, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*obliquus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Oedichirus, <i>Erich.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*alatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Poederus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>alternans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stenus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*barbatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*lacertoides, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Osorius? <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*compactus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Prognatha, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>decisa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*tenuis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Leptochirus, <i>Perty.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*bispinus, <i>Erich.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Oxytelus, <i>Grav.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rudis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>productus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*bicolor, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trogophloeus? <i>Mann.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Taprobanæ, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Omalium, <i>Grav.</i> + + <ul> + <li>filiforme, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aleochara, <i>Grav.</i> + + <ul> + <li>postica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*translata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*subjecta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dinarda, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>serricornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PSELAPHIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pselaphanax, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>setosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SCYDMÆNIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Erineus, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>monstrosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Scydmænus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*megamelas, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*alatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*femoralis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*Ceylanicus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*intermedius, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*pselaphoides, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*advolans, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*pubescens, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*pygmæus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*glanduliferus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*graminicola, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*pyriformis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*angusticeps, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*ovatus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PTILIADÆ, <i>Woll.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trichopteryx, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*cursitans, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*immatura, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*invisibilis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ptilium, <i>Schüpp..</i> + + <ul> + <li>*subquadratum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ptenidium, <i>Erich.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*macrocephalum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PHALACRIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Phalacrus, <i>Payk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>conjiciens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>confectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NITIDULIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nitidula, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>contigens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>intendens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>significans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>tomentifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*submaculata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*glabricula, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nitidulopsis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>æqualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Meligethes, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*orientalis, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*respondens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhizophagus, <i>Herbst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>parallelus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. COLYDIADÆ, <i>Woll.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lyctus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>disputans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ditoma, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rugicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TROGOSITIDÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trogosita, <i>Oliv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>insinuans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*rhyzophagoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CUCUJIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Loemophloeus, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ferrugineus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cucujus? <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*incommodus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Silvanus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*scuticollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*porrectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Brontes, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*orientalis, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LATHRIDIADÆ, <i>Woll.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lathridius, <i>Herbst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>perpusillus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corticaria, <i>Marsh.</i> + + <ul> + <li>resecta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Monotoma, <i>Herbst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>concinnula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DERMESTIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dermestes, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vulpinus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Attagenus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>defectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rufipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trinodes, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hirtellus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BYRRHIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Inclica, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>solida, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HISTERIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hister, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bengalensis, <i>Weid.</i></li> + + <li>encaustus, <i>Mars.</i></li> + + <li>orientalis, <i>Payk.</i></li> + + <li>bipustulatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*mundissimus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Saprinus, <i>Erich.</i> + + <ul> + <li>semipunctatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Platysoma, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>atratum? <i>Erichs.</i></li> + + <li>desinens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>restoratum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg276" id= + "pg276"></a></li> + + <li>Dendrophilus, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>finitimus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. APHODIADÆ, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Aphodius, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>robustus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>dynastoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>pallidicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mutans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>sequens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Psammodius, <i>Gyll.</i> + + <ul> + <li>inscitus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TROGIDÆ, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trox, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>inclusus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cornutus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. COPRIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ateuchus, <i>Weber.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sacer. <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gymnopleurus, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>smaragdifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Koenigii, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sisyphus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>setosulus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>subsidens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>prominens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Orepanocerus, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanæ, <i>West.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Copris, <i>Geoffr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pirmal, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>sagax, <i>Quens.</i></li> + + <li>capucinus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>cribricollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>repertus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>sodalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>signatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>diminutivus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Onthophagus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bonassus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>cervicornis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>prolixus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>gravis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>diffieilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lucens, <i>Wtk.</i></li> + + <li>negligens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>moerens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>turbatus <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Onitis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Philemon, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DYNASTIDÆ, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oryetes, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rhinoceros, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xylotrupes, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Gideon, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>reductus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>solidipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phileurus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>detractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Orphnus, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>detegens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>scitissimus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GEOTRUPIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bolboceras, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lineatus, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MELOLONTHIDÆ, <i>Macl.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>Melolontha, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nummicudens, <i>Newm.</i></li> + + <li>rubiginosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ferruginosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>seriata, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>pinguis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>setosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhizotrogus, <i>Lair.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hirtipectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>æqualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>costatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inductus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>exactus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>sulcifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phyllopertha, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>transversa, <i>Burm.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Silphodes, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Indica, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trigonostoma, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>assimile, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>compressum? <i>Weid.</i></li> + + <li>nanum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Serica, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pruinosa, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Popilia, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>marginicollis, <i>Newm.</i></li> + + <li>cyanella, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>discalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sericesthis, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rotundata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>subsignata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>confirmata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Plectris, <i>Lep. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>solida, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>punctigera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>glabrilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Isonychus, <i>Mann.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ventralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>pectoralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Omaloplia, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fracta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>interrupta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>semicincta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*hamifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*picta, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>*nana, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apogonia, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigrieaus, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phytalus, <i>Erich.</i> + + <ul> + <li>eurystomus; <i>Burm.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ancylonycha, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Reynaudii, <i>Blanch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Leucopholis, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mellei, <i>Guer.</i></li> + + <li>pinguis, <i>Burm.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anomala, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>elata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>humeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>discalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>varicolor, <i>Sch.</i></li> + + <li>conformis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>similis, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>punctatissima, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>infixa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mimela, <i>Kirby</i> + + <ul> + <li>variegata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mundissima, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Parastasia, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufopicta, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Euchlora, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>viridis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>perplexa, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CETONIADÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Glycyphana, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>versicolor, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>luctuosa, <i>Gory.</i></li> + + <li>variegata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>marginicollis, <i>Gory.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Clinteria, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>imperialis, <i>Schaum.</i></li> + + <li>incerta, <i>Parry.</i></li> + + <li>chloronota, <i>Blanch</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tæniodera, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Malabariensis, <i>Gory.</i></li> + + <li>quadrivittata, <i>White.</i></li> + + <li>alboguttata, <i>Vigors.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Protætia, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>maculata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Whitehousii, <i>Parry.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agestrata, <i>Erich.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigrita, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>orichalcea, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coryphocera, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>elegans, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Macronota, <i>Hoffm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>quadrivittata, <i>Sch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TRICHIADÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Valgus, <i>Scriba.</i> + + <ul> + <li>addendus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LUCANIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Odontolabis, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bengalensis, <i>Parry.</i></li> + + <li>emarginatus, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ægus, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>acuminatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>lunatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Singhala, <i>Blanch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tenella, <i>Blanch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg277" id="pg277"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PASSALIDÆ, <i>Macl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Passalus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>transversus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>interstitialis, <i>Perch.</i></li> + + <li>punctiger? <i>Lefeb.</i></li> + + <li>bicolor, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SPHÆRIDIADÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sphæridium, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tricolor, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cercyon, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*vicinale, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYDROPHILIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hydrous, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*rufiventris, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*inconspicuus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hydrobius, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>stultus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Philydrus, <i>Solier.</i> + + <ul> + <li>esuriens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Berosus, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*decrescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hydrochus, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*lacustris, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Georyssus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*gemma, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*insularis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dastarcus, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>porosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BUPRESTIDÆ, <i>Stph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sternocera, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>chrysis, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>sternicornis, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chrysochroa, <i>Solier.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ignita, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Chinensis, <i>Lap.</i></li> + + <li>Rajah, <i>Lap.</i></li> + + <li>*cyaneocephala, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chyrsodema, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sulcata, <i>Thunb.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Belionota, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>scutellaris, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*Petiti, <i>Gory.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chrysobothris, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>suturalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agrilus, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sulcicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*cupreiceps, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*cupreicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*armatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ELATERIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Campsosternos, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetonii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>aureolus, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>Bohemannii, <i>Cand.</i></li> + + <li>venustulus, <i>Cand.</i></li> + + <li>pallidipes, <i>Cand.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agrypnus, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fuscipes, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Alaus, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>speciosus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>sordidus, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cardiophorus, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>humerifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corymbites, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dividens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>divisa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*bivittava, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lacon, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*obesus, <i>Cand.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Athous, <i>Esch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>punctosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inapertus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decretus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inefficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ampedus, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*acutifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*discicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Legna, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>idonea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LAMPYRIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lycus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>triangularis, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>geminus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>astutus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fallax, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>planicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>melanopterus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>pubicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>duplex, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>costifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>revocans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>dispellens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*pubipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*humerifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>expansicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>divisus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dictyopterus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>internexus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lampyris, <i>Geoff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tenebrosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>diffinis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lutescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*vitrifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Colophotia, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>humeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>[vespertina, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>perplexa, <i>Wlk.</i>?]</li> + + <li>intricata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>extricans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>promelas, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Harmatelia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>discalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>bilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TELEPHORIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Telephorus, <i>Schäff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dimidiatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>malthinoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eugeusis, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>palpator, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>gryphus, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>olivaceus, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CEBRIONIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Callirhipis, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetonii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>Championii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MERLYRIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Malachius, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>plagiatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Malthinus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*forticornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*retractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fragilis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Enciopus, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>proficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Honosca, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>necrobioides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CLERIDÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cylidrus, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sobrinus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stigmatium, <i>Gray.</i> + + <ul> + <li>elaphroides, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Necrobia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufipes, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>aspera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PTINIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ptinus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*nigerrimus, <i>Boield.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DIAPERIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Diaperis, <i>Geoff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>velutina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fragilis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TENEBRIONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Zophobas, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>errans? <i>Dej.</i></li> + + <li>clavipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>?solidus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pseudoblaps, <i>Guer.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigrita, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tenebrio, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rubripes, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>retenta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trachyscelis, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>brunnea, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg278" id="pg278"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. OPATRIDÆ, <i>Shuck.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Opatrum, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>contrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>bilineatum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>planatum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>serricolle, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Asida, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>horrida, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crypticus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>detersus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>longipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phaleria, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Toxicum, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>oppugnans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>biluna, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Boletophagus, <i>Ill.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*morosus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>*exasperatus, <i>Doh.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Uloma, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>scita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Alphitophagus, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subfascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HELOPIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Osdara, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>picipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cholipus, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>brevicornis, <i>Dej.</i></li> + + <li>parabolicus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>læviusculus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Helops, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ebenius, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Camaria, <i>Lep. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>amethystina, <i>L. & S.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amarygmus, <i>Dalm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>chrysomeloides, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MELOIDÆ, <i>Woll.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Epicauta, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigrifinis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cissites, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>testaceus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mylabris, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>humeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>alterna, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*recognita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Atractocerus, <i>Pal., Bv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>debilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>reversus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. OEDEMERIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cistela, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>congrua, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*falsitica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Allecula, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fusiformis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>elegans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*flavifemur], <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sora, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*marginata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thaccona, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dimelas, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MORDELLIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Acosmus, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>languidus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhipiphorus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*tropicus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mordella, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>composita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*defectiva, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Myrmecolax, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Nietneri, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ANTHICIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Anthicus, <i>Payk</i> + + <ul> + <li>*quisquilarius, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*insularius, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*sticticollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CISSIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cis, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>contendens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TOMICIDÆ, <i>Shuck.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Apate, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>submedia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bostrichus, <i>Geoff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mutilatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*vertens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*moderatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*testaceus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*exiguus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Platypus, <i>Herbst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>minax, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>solidus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*latitinis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hylurgus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>determinans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*concinnulus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hylesinus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>curvifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>despectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>irresolutus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CURCULIONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bruchus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>scutellaris, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spermophagus, <i>Steven.</i> + + <ul> + <li>convolvuli, <i>Thumb.</i></li> + + <li>figuratus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cisti, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>incertus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decretus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dendropemon <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*melancholicus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dendrotrogus, <i>Jek.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dohrnii, <i>Jek.</i></li> + + <li>discrepans, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eucorynus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>colligendus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>colligens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Basitropis, <i>Jek.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*disconotatus, <i>Jek.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Litocerus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>punctulatus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tropideres, <i>Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>punctulifer, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>fragilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cedus, <i>Waterh.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*cancellatus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xylinades, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sobrinulus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>indignus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xenocerus, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>anguliferus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>revocans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*anchoralis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Callistocerus, <i>Dohrn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Nietneri, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anthribus, <i>Geoff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>longicornis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>apicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>facilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aræcerus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>coffeæ, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*insidiosus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*musculus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>*intangens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*bifovea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dipieza, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*insignis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apolecta, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Nietneri, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>*musculus, <i>Dohrn</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Arrhenodes, <i>Steven.</i> + + <ul> + <li>miles, <i>Sch.</i></li> + + <li>pilicornis, <i>Sch.</i></li> + + <li>dentirostris, <i>Jek.</i></li> + + <li>approximans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Veneris, <i>Dohrn</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cerobates, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>thrasco, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>aciculatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ceocephalus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cavus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*reticulatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nemocephalus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sulcirostris, <i>De Haan.</i></li> + + <li>planicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>spinirostris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apoderus, <i>Oliv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>longicollis ? <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Tranquebaricus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>cygneus, <i>Fabr.</i>?</li> + + <li>scitulus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*triangularis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*echinatus, <i>Sch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhynchites, <i>Herbst.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <a name="pg279" id="pg279"></a> + + <ul> + <li>suffundens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*restituens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apion, <i>Herbst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Cingalense, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Strophosomus, <i>Bilbug.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*suturalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Piazomias, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>æqualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Astycus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lateralis, <i>Fabr.?</i></li> + + <li>ebeninus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*immunis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cleonus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>inducens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Myllocerus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>transmarinus, <i>Herbst.</i>?</li> + + <li>spurcatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*retrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*posticus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phyllobius, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*mimicus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Episomus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pauperatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lixus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nebulifascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aclees, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cribratus, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Alcides, <i>Dalm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>signatus, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>obliquus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>transversus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*clausus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acicnemis, <i>Fairm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonicus, <i>Jek.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apotomorhinus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>signatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>alboater, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cryptorhynchus, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ineffectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>assimilans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>declaratus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>notabilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>vexatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Camptorhinus, <i>Schön.?</i> + + <ul> + <li>reversus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*indiscretus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Desmidophorus, <i>Chevr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hebes, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>communicans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>strenuus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*discriminans <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inexpertus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*fasciculicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sipalus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>granulatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>porosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>tinctus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mecopus, <i>Dalm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Waterhousei, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhynchophorus, <i>Herbst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ferrugineus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>introducens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Protocerus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>molossus? <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sphænophorus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>glabridiscus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>exquisitus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Dehaani? <i>Jek.</i></li> + + <li>cribricollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>? panops, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cossonus, <i>Clairv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*quadrimacula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>? hebes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ambiguus, <i>Sch.?</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sitophilus, <i>Schön.</i> + + <ul> + <li>oryzæ, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>disciferus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mecinus, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*? relictus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PRIONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trictenotoma, <i>G.H. Gray.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetoni, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Prionomma, <i>White.</i> + + <ul> + <li>orientalis, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acanthophorus, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>serraticornis, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cnemoplites, <i>Newm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Rhesus, <i>Motch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ægosoma, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cingalense, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CERAMIBYCIDÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cerambyx, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>indutus, <i>Newm.</i></li> + + <li>vernicosus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>consocius, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>versutus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>nitidus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>macilentus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>venustus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>torticollis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sebasmia, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetoni, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Callichroma, <i>Lair.</i> + + <ul> + <li>trogoninum, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>telephoroides, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Homalomelas, <i>White.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gracilipes, <i>Parry.</i></li> + + <li>zonatus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Colobus, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cingalensis, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thranius, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gibbosus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Deuteromma, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mutica, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Obrium, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>laterale, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>moestum, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Psilomerus, <i>Blanch.</i></li> + + <li>macilentus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>Clytus <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vicinus, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>ascendens, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>Walkeri, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>annularis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*aurilinea, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhaphuma, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>leucoscutellata, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ceresium, <i>Newm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cretatum, <i>White.</i></li> + + <li>Zeylanicum, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stromatium, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>barbatum, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>maculatum, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hespherophanes, <i>Muls.</i> + + <ul> + <li>simplex, <i>Gyll.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LAMIIDÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nyphona, <i>Muls.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cylindracea, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mesosa, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>columba, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coptops, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bidens, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xylorhiza, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>adusta, <i>Wied.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cacia, <i>Newm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>triloba, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Batocera, <i>Blanch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rubus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>ferruginea, <i>Blanch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Monohammus, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fistulator, <i>Germ.</i></li> + + <li>crucifer, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>nivosus, <i>White.</i></li> + + <li>commixtus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cereopsius, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>patronus, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pelargoderus, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tigrinus, <i>Chevr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Olenocamptus, <i>Chevr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bilobus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Praonetha, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>annulata, <i>Chevr.</i></li> + + <li>posticalis, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apomecyna, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>histrio, <i>Fabr.</i> var.?</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ropica, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>præusta, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hathlia, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>procera, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Iolea, <i>Pasc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>proxima, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>histrio, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Glenea, <i>Newm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sulphurella, <i>White.</i></li> + + <li>commissa, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>scapifera, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + + <li>vexator, <i>Pasc.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stibara, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigricornis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg280" id="pg280"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HISPIDÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oncocephala, <i>Dohrn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>deltoides, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Leptispa, <i>Baly.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pygmæa, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amblispa, <i>Baly.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Döhrnii, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Estigmena, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chinensis, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hispa, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hystrix, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>erinacea, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>nigrina, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>*Walkeri, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Platypria, <i>Guér.</i> + + <ul> + <li>echidna, <i>Guér.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CASSIDIDÆ, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Epistictia, <i>Boh.</i> + + <ul> + <li>matronula, <i>Boh.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hoplionota, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tetraspilota, <i>Baly.</i></li> + + <li>rubromarginata, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>horrifica, <i>Boh.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aspidomorpha, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>St. crucis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>miliaris, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>pallidimarginata, <i>Baly.</i></li> + + <li>dorsata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>calligera, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>micans, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cassida, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>clathrata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>timefacta, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>farinosa, <i>Boh.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Laccoptera, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>14-notata, <i>Boh.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coptcycla, <i>Chevr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sex-notata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>13-signata, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>13-notata, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>ornata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Ceylonica, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>Balyi, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>trivittata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>15-punctate, <i>Boh.</i></li> + + <li>catenata, <i>Dej.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SAGRIDÆ:, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sagra, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigrita, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DONACIDÆ, <i>Lacord.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Donacia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Delesserti, <i>Guér</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coptocephala, <i>Chev.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetoni, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EUMOLPIDÆ, <i>Baly.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Corynodes, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cyaneus, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>æneus, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Glyptoscelis, <i>Chevr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetoni, <i>Baly.</i></li> + + <li>pyrospilotus, <i>Baly.</i></li> + + <li>micans, <i>Baly.</i></li> + + <li>cupreus, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eumolpus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lemoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CRYPTOCEPHALIDÆ, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cryptocephalus, <i>Geoff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sex-punctatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Walkeri, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diapromorpha, <i>Lac.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Turcica, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CHRYSOMELIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chalcolampa, <i>Baly.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetoni, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lina, <i>Meg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>convexa, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chrysomela, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Templetoni, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GALERUCIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Galeruca, <i>Geoff.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none">*pectinata, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + + <li>Graptodera, <i>Chevr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cyanea, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Monolepta, <i>Chevr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pulchella, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thyamis, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonicus, <i>Baly.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. COCCINELLIDÆ, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Epilachna, <i>Chevr.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>28-punctata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Delessortii, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>pubescens, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>innuba, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coccinella, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tricincta, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*repanda, <i>Muls.</i></li> + + <li>tenuilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rejiciens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>interrumpens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>quinqueplaga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>simplex, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>antica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>flaviceps, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Neda, <i>Muls.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tricolor, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coelophora, <i>Muls.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"> + <ul> + <li>9-maculata, <i>Fabr.</i> ?</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chilocorus, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>opponens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Seymnus, <i>Kug.</i> + + <ul> + <li>variabilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EROTYLIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Fatua, <i>Dej.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nepalensis, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Triplax, <i>Payk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>decorus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tritoma, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*bifacies, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*preposita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ischyrus, <i>Cherz.</i> + + <ul> + <li>grandis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ENDOMYCHIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eugonius, <i>Gerst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>annularis, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + + <li>lunulatus, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eumorphus, <i>Weber.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pulchripes, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + + <li>*tener, <i>Dohrn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stenotarsus, <i>Perty.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nietneri, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + + <li>*castaneus, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + + <li>*tomentosus, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + + <li>*vallatus, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lycoperdina, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>glabrata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ancylopus, <i>Gerst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>melanocephalus, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Saula, <i>Gerst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*nigripes, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + + <li>*ferruginea, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mycetina, <i>Gerst.</i> + + <ul> + <li>castanea, <i>Gerst.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order <b>Orthoptera</b>, <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. FORFICULIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Forficula, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BLATTIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Panesthia, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Javanica, <i>Serv.</i></li> + + <li>plagiata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polyzosteria, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>larva.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corydia, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Petiveriana, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MANTIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Empusa, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gongylodes, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Harpax, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>signifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Schizocephala, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bicornis, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mantis, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>superstitiosa, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>aridifolia, <i>Stoll</i></li> + + <li>extensicollis ? <i>Serv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg281" id="pg281"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PHASMIDÆ, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Acrophylla, <i>Gray.</i> + + <ul> + <li>systropedon, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phasma, <i>Licht.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sordidum, <i>De Haan.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phyllium, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>siccifolium, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GRYLLIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Acheta, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bimaculata, <i>Deg.</i></li> + + <li>supplicans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>æqualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>confirmata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Platydactylus, <i>Brull.</i> + + <ul> + <li>crassipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Steirodon, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lanceolatum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phyllophora, <i>Thunb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>falsifolia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acanthodis, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rugosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phaneroptera, <i>Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>attenuata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phymateus, <i>Thunb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>miharis, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Truxalis, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>exaltata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>porrecta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acridium, <i>Geoffr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>extensum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>deponens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rufitibia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cinctifemur, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>respondens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>nigrifascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order, <b>Physapoda</b>, <i>Dum.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li> + <ul> + <li>Thrips, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>stenomelas, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order, <b>Neuroptera</b>, <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SERICOSTOMIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mormonia, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*ursina, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LEPTOCERIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Macronema, <i>Pict.</i> + + <ul> + <li>multitarium, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*splendidum, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*nebulosum, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*obliquum, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*Ceylanicum, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>*annulicorne, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Molanna, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mixta, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sctodes, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Iris, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*Ino, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PSYCHOMIDÆ, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chimarra, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*auriceps, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*funesta, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*sepulcralis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYDROPSYCHIDÆ, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hydropsyche, <i>Pict.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Taprobanes, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*mitis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. RHYACOPHILIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Rhyacophila, <i>Pict.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*castanea, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PERLIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Perla, <i>Geoffr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>angulata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*testacea, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*limosa, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SILIADÆ, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dilar, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Nietneri, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HEMEROBIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mantispa, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Indica, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>mutata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chrysopa, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>invaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*tropica, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>aurifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*punctata, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Micromerus, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*linearis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*australis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemerobius, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*frontalis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coniopteryx, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*cerata, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MYRMELEONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Palpares, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>contrarius, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acanthoclisis, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*—n. s. <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*molestus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Myrmeleon, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gravis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>dirus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>barbarus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ascalaphus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nugax, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>incusans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*cervinus, <i>Niet.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PSOCIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Psocus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Taprobanes, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*oblitus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*consitus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*trimaculatus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*obtusus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*elongatus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*chloroticus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*aridus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*coleoptratus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*dolabratus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*infelix, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TERMITIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Termes, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fatalis, <i>Koen.</i></li> + + <li>monoceros, <i>Koen.</i></li> + + <li>*umbilicatus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*n.s. <i>Jouv.</i></li> + + <li>*n.s. <i>Jouv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EMBIDÆ, <i>Hagen.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oligotoma, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Saundersii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EPHEMERIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bætis, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Potamanthus, <i>Pict.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*fasciatus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*annulatus, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*femoralis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cloe, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*tristis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*consueta, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*solida, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*sigmata, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*marginalis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cænis, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>perpusilla, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LIBELLULIDÆ. + + <ul> + <li>Calopteryx, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chinensis, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Euphoea, <i>Selys.</i> + + <ul> + <li>splendens, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Micromerus, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lineatus, <i>Burm.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trichocnemys, <i>Selys.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*serapica, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lestes, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*elata, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*gracilis, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg282" id= + "pg282"></a></li> + + <li>Agrion, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>*Coromandelianum, <i>F.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*tenax, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*hilare, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*velare, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>*delicatum, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gynacantha, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subinterrupta, <i>Ramb.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Epophthalmia, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vittata, <i>Burm.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Zyxomma, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>petiolatum, <i>Ramb.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acisoma, <i>Ramb.</i> + + <ul> + <li>panorpoides, <i>Ramb.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Libellula, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Marcia, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Tillarga, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>variegata, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>flavescens, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Sabina, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>viridula, <i>Pal. Beauv.</i></li> + + <li>congener, <i>Ramb.</i></li> + + <li>soror, <i>Ramb.</i></li> + + <li>Aurora, <i>Burm.</i></li> + + <li>violacea, <i>Niet.</i></li> + + <li>perla, <i>Hagen.</i></li> + + <li>sanguinea, <i>Burm.</i></li> + + <li>trivialis, <i>Ramb.</i></li> + + <li>contaminata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>equestris, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>nebulosa, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order, <b>Hymenoptera,</b> <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. FORMICIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Formica, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>smaragdina, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>mitis, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*Taprobane, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*variegata, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*exercita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*exundans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*meritans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*latebrosa, <i>Wlk</i></li> + + <li>*pangens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*ingruens <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*detorquens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*diffidens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*obscurans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*indeflexa, <i>Wik.</i></li> + + <li>consultans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polyrhachis, <i>Smith.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*illaudatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PONERIDÆ, <i>Smith.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Odontomachus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>simillimus, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Typhlopone, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cartisii, <i>Shuck.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Myrmica, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>basalis, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>contigua, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>glyciphila, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*consternens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crematogaster, <i>Lund.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*pellens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*deponens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*forticulus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pseudomyrma, <i>Guré.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*atrata, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>allaborans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Atta, <i>St. Farg.</i> + + <ul> + <li>didita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pheidole, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Janus, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*Taprobanæ, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*rugosa, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Meranoplus, <i>Smith.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*dimicans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cataulacus, <i>Smith.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanæ, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MUTILLIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mutilla, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Sibylla, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tiphia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*decrescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EUMENIDÆ, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Odynerus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*tinctipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*intendens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Scolia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>auricollis, <i>St. Farg.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam, CRABRONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Philanthus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>basalis, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stigmus, <i>Jur.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*congruus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SPHEGIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ammophila, <i>Kirby.</i> + + <ul> + <li>atripes, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pelopoæus, <i>Latr.</i></li> + + <li>Spinolæ, <i>St. Farg.</i></li> + + <li>Sphex, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ferruginea, <i>St. Farg.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ampulex, <i>Jur.</i> + + <ul> + <li>conapressa, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LARRIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Larrada, <i>Smith.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*extensa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. POMPILIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pompilus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>analis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. APIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Andrena, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*exagens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nomia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rustica, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>*vincta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Allodaps, <i>Smith.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*marginata, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ceratina, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>viridis, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>picta, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*simillima, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cælioxys, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>capitata, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crocisa, <i>Jur.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*ramosa, <i>St. Farg.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stelis, <i>Panz.</i> + + <ul> + <li>carbonaria, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anthophora, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>zonata, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xylocopa, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tenuiscapa, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>latipes, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apis, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Indica, <i>Smith.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trigona, <i>Jur.</i> + + <ul> + <li>iridipennis, <i>Smith.</i></li> + + <li>*præterita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam, CHRYSIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Stilbum, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>splendidum, <i>Dahl.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DORYLIDÆ, <i>Shuck.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Enictus, <i>Shuck.</i> + + <ul> + <li>porizonoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ICHNEUMONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cryptus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*onustus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemiteles ? <i>Grav.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*varius, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Porizon, <i>Fall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*dominans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pimpla, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>albopicta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BRACONIDÆ, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Microgaster, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*recusans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*significans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*subducens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*detracta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spathius, <i>Nees.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*bisignatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*signipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Heratemis, <i>Wlk</i> + + <ul> + <li>*filosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg283" id= + "pg283"></a></li> + + <li>Nebartha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*macropoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Psyttalia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*testacea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CHALCIDIÆ, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chalcis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*dividens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*pandens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Halticella, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*rufimanus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*inficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dirrhinus, <i>Dalm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Anthracia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eurytoma, <i>Ill.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*contraria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*indefensa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eucharis, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*convergens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*deprivata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pteromalus, <i>Swed.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*magniceps, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Encyrtus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*obstructus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DIAPHIDÆ, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Diapria, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>apicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order, <b>Lepidoptera,</b> <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PAPILIONIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ornithoptera, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Darsius, <i>G. R. Gray.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Papilio, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Diphilus, <i>Esp.</i></li> + + <li>Jophon, <i>G. R. Gray.</i></li> + + <li>Hector, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Romulus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Polymnestor, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Crino, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Helenus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Pammon, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Polytes, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Erithonius, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Antipathis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Agamemnon, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Eurypilos, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Bathycles, <i>Zinck-Som.</i></li> + + <li>Sarpedon, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>dissimilis, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pontia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nina, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pieris, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eacharis, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Coronis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Epicharis, <i>Gudt.</i></li> + + <li>Nama, <i>Doubl.</i></li> + + <li>Remba, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Mesentina, <i>Godt.</i></li> + + <li>Severina, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Namouna, <i>Doubl.</i></li> + + <li>Phryne, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Paulina, <i>Godt.</i></li> + + <li>Thestylis, <i>Doubl.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Callosune, <i>Doubl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eucharis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Danaë, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Etrida, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Idmais, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Calais, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thestias, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mariamne, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Pirene, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hebomoia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Glaucippe, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eronia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Valeria, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Callidryas, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Phillipina, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Pyranthe, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Hilaria, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Alemeone, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Thisorella, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Terias, <i>Swain.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Drona, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Hecabe, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NYMPHALIDÆ, <i>Swain.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Euploea, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Prothoe, <i>Godt.</i></li> + + <li>Core, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Alcathoë, <i>Godt.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Danais, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chrysippus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Plexippus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Aglae, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Melissa, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Limniacæ, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Juventa, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hestia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Jasonia, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Telchinia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>violæ, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cethosia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cyane, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Messarus, <i>Doubl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Erymanthis, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Atella, <i>Doubl.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Phalanta, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Argynnis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Niphe, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Clagia, <i>Godt.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ergolis, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobana, <i>West.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Vanessa, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Charonia, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Libythea, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Medhavina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Pushcara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pyrameis, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Charonia, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Cardui, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Callirhoë, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Junonia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Limonias, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Oenone, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Orithyia, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Laomedia, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Asterie, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Precis, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Iphita, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cynthia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Arsinoe, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Parthenos, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Gambrisius, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Limenitis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Calidusa, <i>Moore.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Neptis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Heliodore, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Columella, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>aceris, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Jumbah, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Hordonia, <i>Stoll.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diadema, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Auge, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Bolina, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Symphædra, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Thyelia, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Adolias, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Evelina, <i>Stoll.</i></li> + + <li>Lubentina, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Vasanta, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Garada, <i>Moore.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nymphalis, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Psaphon, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>Bernardus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Athamas, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Fabius, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Kallima, <i>Doubl.</i></li> + + <li>Philarchus, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>Melanitis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Banksia, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Leda, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Casiphone, <i>G. R. Gray.</i></li> + + <li>unduluris, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ypththima, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lysandra, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Parthalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cyllo, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Gorya, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cathæna, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Embolima, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Neilgherriensis, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>Purimata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Pushpamitra, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mycalesis, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Patnia, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Gamuliba, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Dosaron, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Samba, <i>Moore.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cænonympha, <i>Hübn.</i> <a name="pg284" id="pg284"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Euaspla, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Emesis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Echerius, <i>Stoll.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LYCÆNIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Anops, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bulis, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Thetys, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Loxura, <i>Horsf.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Atymnus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Myrina, <i>Godt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Selimnus, <i>Doubled.</i></li> + + <li>Triopas, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amblypodia, <i>Horsf.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Longinus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Narada, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Pseudocentaurus, <i>Do.</i></li> + + <li>quercetorum, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aphnæus, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pindarus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Etolus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Hephæstos, <i>Doubled.</i></li> + + <li>Crotus, <i>Doubled.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dipsas, <i>Doubled.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chrysomallos, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + + <li>Isocrates, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lycæna, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Alexis, <i>Stoll.</i></li> + + <li>Boetica, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Cnejus, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Rosimon, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Theophrastus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Pluto, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Parana, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Nyseus, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>Ethion, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Celeno, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Kandarpa, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Elpis, <i>Godt.</i></li> + + <li>Chimonas, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Gandara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Chorienis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Geria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Doanas, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Sunya, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Audhra, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polyommatus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Akasa, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Puspa, <i>Horsf.</i></li> + + <li>Laius, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Ethion, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Cattigara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Gorgippia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lucia, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Epius, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pithecops, <i>Horsf.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hylax, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HESPERIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Goniloba, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Iapetus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pyrgus, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Superna, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Danna, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Genta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Sydrus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nisoniades, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Diocles, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Salsala, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Toides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pamphila, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Angías, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Achylodes, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Temala, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hesperia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Indrani, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Chaya, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>Cinnara, <i>Moore.</i></li> + + <li>gremius, <i>Latr.</i></li> + + <li>Cendochates, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Tiagara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cotiaris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Sigala, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SPHINGIDÆ. <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sesia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hylas, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Macroglossa, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Stellatarum, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>gyrans, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Corythus, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>divergens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Calymnia, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Panopus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Choerocampa, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Thyelia, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Nyssus, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Clotho, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Oldenlandiæ, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>Lycetus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Silhetensis, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pergesa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Acteus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Panacra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vigil, <i>Guer.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Daphnis, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nerii, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Zonilia, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Morpheus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Macrosila, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obliqua, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>discistriga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sphinx, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>convolvuli, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acherontia, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Satanas, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Smerinthus, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dryas, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CASTNIIDÆ <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eusemia, <i>Dalm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bellatrix, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ægocera, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Venulia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>bimacula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ZYGÆNIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Syntomis, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Schoenherri, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + + <li>Creusa, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Imaon, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Glaucopis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subaurata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Enchromia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Polymena, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>diminuta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LITHOSIIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Scaptesyle, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bicolor, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nyctemera, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lacticinia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>latistriga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Coleta, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Euschema, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subrepleta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>transversa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>vilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chalcosia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Tiberina, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>venosa, <i>Anon.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eterusia, <i>Hope.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ædea, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Trypanophora, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Heteropan, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>scintillans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hypsa, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>plana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>caricæ, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>ficus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Vitessa, <i>Moor.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Zemire, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lithosia, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>antica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>brevipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Setina, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>semifascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>solita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Doliche, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hilaris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pitane, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>conserta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Æmene, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dirades, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>attacoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cyllene, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>transversa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*spoliata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bizone, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subornata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>peregrina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg285" id= + "pg285"></a></li> + + <li>Deiopeia, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pulchella, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Astrea, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Argus, <i>Kollar.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ARCTIIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Alope, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ocellifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Sangarida, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tinolius, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>eburneigutta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Creatonotos, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>interrupta, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>emittens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acmonia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lithosioides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spilosoma, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subfascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cycnia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rubida, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>sparsigutta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Antheua, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>discalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aloa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lactinea, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>candidula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>erosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amerila, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Melanthus, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ammatho, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>cunionotatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LIPARIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Artaxa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>guttata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*varians, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>atomaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acyphas, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>viridescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lacida, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rotundata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>antica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>subnotata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>complens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>promittens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>strigulifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amsacta? <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tenebrosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Antipha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>costalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anaxila, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>notata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Procodeca, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>augulifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Redoa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>submarginata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Euproctis, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>virguncula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>bimaculata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lunata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>tinctifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cispia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>plagiata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dasychira, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pudibunda, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lymantria, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>grandis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>marginata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Enome, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ampla, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dreata, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>plumipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>geminata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mutans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mollifera. <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pandala, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dolosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Charnidas, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>junctifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam PSYCHIDÆ, <i>Bru.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Psyche, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Doubledaii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Metisa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>plana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eumeta, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cramerii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + + <li>Templetonii, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cryptothelea, <i>Templ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>consorta, <i>Templ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NOTODONTIDÆ, <i>St.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cerura, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>liturata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stauropus, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>alternans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nioda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fusiformis, <i>Wlk..</i></li> + + <li>transversa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rilia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lanceolata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>basivitta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ptilomacra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>juvenis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Elavia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>metaphæa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Notodonta, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ejecta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ichthyura, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>restituens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LIMACODIDÆ, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Scopelodes, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>unicolor, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Messata, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rubiginosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Miresa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>argentifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>aperiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nyssia, <i>Herr. Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>læta, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nesera, <i>Herr. Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>graciosa, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Narosa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>conspersa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Naprepa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>varians, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DREPANULIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oreta, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>suffusa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>extensa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Arna, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>apicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ganisa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>postica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SATURINIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Attacus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Atlas, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>lunula, <i>Anon.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Antheræa, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mylitta, <i>Drury.</i></li> + + <li>Assama, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tropæa, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Selene, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BOMBYCIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trabala, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>basalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>prasina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lasiocampa, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>trifascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Megasoma, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>venustum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lebeda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>repanda, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>plagiata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>bimaculata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>scriptiplaga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. COSSIDÆ, <i>Newm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cossus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>quadrinotatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Zeuzera, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>leuconota, <i>Steph.</i></li> + + <li>pusilla, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HEPIALIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Phassus, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>signifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CYMATOPHORIDÆ, <i>Herr. Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Thyatira, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>repugnans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BRYOPHILIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bryophila, <i>Treit.</i> + + <ul> + <li>semipars, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg286" id="pg286"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BOMBYCOIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Diphtera, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>deceptura, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LEUCANIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Leucania, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>confusa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>exempta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inferens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>collecta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Brada, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>truncata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crambopsis, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>excludens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GLOTTULIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Polytela, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gloriosa, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Glottula, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dominica, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chasmina, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pavo, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cygnus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. APAMIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Laphygma, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obstans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>trajiciens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Prodenia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retina, <i>Friv.</i></li> + + <li>glaucistriga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>apertura, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Calogramma, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>festiva, <i>Don.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Heliophobus, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>discrepans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hydræcia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lampadifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Apamea, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>undecilia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Celæna, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>serva, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CARADRINIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Amyna, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>selenampha, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NOCTUIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Agrotis, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>aristifera, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>congrua, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>punctipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mundata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>transducta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>plagiata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>plagifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HADENIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eurois, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>auriplena, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inclusa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Epiceia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subsignata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hadena, <i>Treit.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subcurva, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>postica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>retrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>confundens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>congressa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ruptistriga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ansa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>filipalpis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. XYLINIDÆ, <i>Guén,</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ragada, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pyrorchroma, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cryassa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bifacies, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Egelista, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rudivitta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Xylina, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>deflexa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inchoans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HELIOTHIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Heliothis, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>armigera, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HÆMEROSIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ariola, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>coelisigna, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>dilectissima, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>saturata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ACONTIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Xanthodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>intersepta, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acontia, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tropica, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>olivacea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fasciculosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>signifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>turpis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mianöides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>approximans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>divulsa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*egens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>plenicosta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>determinata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>hypætroides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chlumetia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>multilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ANTHOPHILIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Micra, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>destituta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>derogata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>simplex, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ERIOPIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Callopistria, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>exotica, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>rivularis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>duplicans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EURHIPIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Penicillaria, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nugatrix, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>resoluta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>solida, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ludatrix, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhesala, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>imparata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eutelia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>favillatrix, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>thermesiides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PLUSIIDÆ, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Abrostola, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>transfixa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Plusia, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>aurifera, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + + <li>verticillata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>agramma, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>obtusisigna, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>nigriluna, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>signata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>dispellens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>propulsa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CALPIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Calpe, <i>Treit.</i> + + <ul> + <li>minuticornis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Oroesia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>emarginata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Deva, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>conducens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HEMICERIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Westermannia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>superba, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYBLÆIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hyblæa, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Puera, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>constellata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nolasena, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ferrifervens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GONOPTERIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cosmophila, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Indica, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>xanthindyma, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anomis, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fulvida, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>iconica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gonitis, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>combinans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>albitibia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mesogona, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>guttanivis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>involuta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg287" id= + "pg287"></a></li> + + <li>basalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eporedia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>damnipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rusicada, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nigritarsis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pasipeda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufipalpis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TOXOCAMPIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Toxocampa, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>metaspila, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>sexlinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>quinquelina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Albonica, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>reversa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. POLYDESMIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Polydesma, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>boarmoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>erubescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HOMOPTERIDÆ, <i>Bois.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Alamis, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>spoliata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Homoptera, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>basipallens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>retrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>costifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>divisistriga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>procumbens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diacuista, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>homopteroides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Daxata, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bijungens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYPOGRAMMIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Briarda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>precedens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Brana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>calopasa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corsa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lignicolor, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Avatha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>includens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gadirtha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>decrescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>impingens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>spurcata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rectifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>duplicans, <i>Wlk</i></li> + + <li>intrusa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ercheia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>diversipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Plotheia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>frontalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diomea, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rotundata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>chloromela, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>orbicularis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>muscosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dinumma, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>placens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lusia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>geometroides, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>perficita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>repulsa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Abunis, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>trimesa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CATEPHIDÆ, <i>Guén</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cocytodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>coerula, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>modesta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Catephia, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lioteola, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Anophia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>acronyctoides, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Steiria, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>subobliqua, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>trajiciens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aucha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>velans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ægilia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>describens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Maceda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mansueta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYPOCALIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hypocala, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>efflorescens, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>subsatura, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CATOCALIDÆ, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Blenina, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>donans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>accipiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. OPHIDERIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ophideres, <i>Boisd.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Materna, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>fullonica, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>Cajeta, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Ancilla, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Salaminia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Hypermnestra, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>multiscripta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>bilineosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Potamophera, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Manlia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lygniodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>reducens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>disparans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>hypoleuca, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EREBIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oxyodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Clytia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. OMMATOPHORIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Speiredonia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sericia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>anops, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>parvipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Patula, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>macrops, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Argiva, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hieroglyphica, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Beregra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>replenens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYPOPYRIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Spiramia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Heliconia, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + + <li>triloba, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hypopyra, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vespertilio, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ortospana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>connectens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Entomogramma, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fautrix, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BENDIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Homæa, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>clathrum <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hulodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>caranea, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>palumba, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. OPHIUSIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sphingomorpha, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chlorea <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lagoptera, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>honesta, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + + <li>magica, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + + <li>dotata, <i>Fabr</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ophiodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>discriminans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>basistigma, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cerbia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fugitiva, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ophisma, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lætabilis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>deficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>gravata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>circumferens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>terminans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Achæa, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Melicerta, Drury.</li> + + <li>Mezentia, Cram.</li> + + <li>Cyllota, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>Cyllaria, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>fusifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>signivitta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>reversa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>combinans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>expectans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg288" id= + "pg288"></a></li> + + <li>Serrodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>campana, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Naxia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>absentimacula, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>Onelia, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>calefaciens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>calorifica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Calesia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hoemorrhoda, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hypætra, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>trigonifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>curvifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>condita, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>complacens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>divisa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ophiusa, <i>Ochs.</i> + + <ul> + <li>myops, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>albivitta, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>Achatina, <i>Sulz.</i></li> + + <li>fulvotænia, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>simillima, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>festinata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>pallidilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>luteipalpis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fodina, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>stola, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Grammodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ammonia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Mygdon, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>stolida, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>mundicolor, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EUCLIDIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trigonodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hippasia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. REMIGIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Remigia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Archesia, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>frugalis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>pertendens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>congregata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>opturata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. FOCILLIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Focilla, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>submemorans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. AMPHIGANIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lacera, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>capella, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amphigonia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hepatizans, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. THERMISIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sympis, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufibasis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thermesia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>finipalpis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>soluta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Azazia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rubricans, <i>Boisd.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Selenis, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nivisapex, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>multiguttata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>semilux, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ephyrodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>excipiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>crististera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lineifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Capnodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*maculicosta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ballatha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>atrotumens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Daranissa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>digramma, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Darsa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>defectissima, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. URAPTERYDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lagyra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Talaca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ENNOMIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hyperythra, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>limbolaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>deductaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Orsonoba, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Rajaca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sabaria, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>contractaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Angerona, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>blandiaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fascellina, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>chromataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BOARMIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Amblychia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>angeronia, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemerophila, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Vidhisara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>poststrigaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Boarmia, <i>Treit.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sublavaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>admissaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>raptaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Medasina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Bhurmitra, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Suiasasa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>diffluaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>caritaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>exclusaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hypochroma, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>minimaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gnophos, <i>Treit.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pulinda, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Culataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemerophila, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vidhisara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agathia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>blandiaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bulonga, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ajaia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Chacoraca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Chandubija, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GEOMETRIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Geometra, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>specularia, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>Nanda, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nemoria, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>caudularia, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>solidaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thalassodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>quadraria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>catenaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>immissaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Sisunaga, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>adornataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>meritaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>coelataria, <i>_WlK.</i></li> + + <li>gratularia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>chlorozonaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>læsaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>simplicaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>immissaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Comibæna, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Divapala, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>impulsaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Celenna, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>saturaturia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pseudoterpna, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Vivilaca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Amaurinia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rubrolimbaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PALYADÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eumelea, <i>Dunc.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ludovicata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>aureliata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>carnearia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EPHYRIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ephyra, <i>Dap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obrinaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decursaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cacavena, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>abhadraca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Vasudeva, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Susarmana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Vutumana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>inæquata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ACIDALIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Drapetodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mitaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pomasia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Psylaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>Sunandaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg289" id= + "pg289"></a></li> + + <li>Acidalia, <i>Treit.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obliviaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>adeptaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>nexiaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>addictaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>actiosaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>defamataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>negataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>actuaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cæsaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cabera, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>falsaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decussaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>famularia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>nigrarenaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hyria, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>elataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>marcidaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>oblataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>grataria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rhodinaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Timandra, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ajuia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Vijuia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agyris, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>deliaria, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Zanclopteryx, <i>Herr. Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>saponaria, <i>Herr. Sch.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MICRONIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Micronia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>caudata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>aculeata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MACARIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Macaria, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eleonora, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Varisara, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Rhagivata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Palaca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>honestaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Sangata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>honoraria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cessaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>subcandaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Doava, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>adjutaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>figuraria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LARENTIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sauris, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hirudinata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Camptogramma, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>baccata, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Blemyia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Bataca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>blitiaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Coremia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Gomatina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lobophora, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Salisuca, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Ghosha, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>contributaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mesogramma, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lactularia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>scitaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Eupithecia, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>recensitaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>admixtaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>immixtaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gathynia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>miraria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PLATYDIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trigonia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cydonialis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYPENIDÆ, <i>Herr. Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dichromia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Orosialis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>Hypena, <i>Schr.</i></li> + + <li>rhombalis. <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>jocosalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>mandatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>quæsitalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>laceratalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>iconicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>labatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>obacerralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>pactalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>raralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>paritalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>surreptalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>detersalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ineffectalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>incongrualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rubripunctum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gesonia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*obeditalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>duplex, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HERMINIDÆ, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Herminia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Timonalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>diffusalis, <i>Wlk</i></li> + + <li>interstans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Adrapsa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ablualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bertula, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>abjudicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>raptatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>contigens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bocana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>jutalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>manifestalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ophiusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>vagalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>turpatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>hypernalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>gravatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>tumidalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Orthaga, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Euadrusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hipoepa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lapsalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lamura, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>oberratalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Echana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>abavalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dragana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pansalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pingrasa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>accuralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Egnasia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ephyradalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>accingalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>participalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>usurpatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Berresa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>natalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Imma, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rugosalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chusaris, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corgatha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>zonalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Catada, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>glomeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>captiosalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PYRALIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pyralis, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>igniflualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Palesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>reconditalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Idalialis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Janassalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aglossa, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Gnidusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Isabanda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>herbealis. <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ENNYCHIDÆ, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pyrausta, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*absistalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ASOPIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Desmia, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>afflictalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>concisalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ædiodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>flavibasalis, <i>Guén..</i></li> + + <li>effertalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Samea, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gratiosalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Asopia, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>vulgalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>falsidicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>abruptalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>latimarginalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>præteritalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Eryxalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg290" id= + "pg290"></a></li> + + <li>roridalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agathodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ostentalis, <i>Geyer.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Leucinades, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>orbonalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hymenia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>recurvalis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Agrotera, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>suffusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decessalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Isopteryx, <i>Guen.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*melaleucalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*impulsalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*spilomelalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>acclaralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>abnegatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYDROCAMPIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oligostigma, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obitalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>votalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cataclysta, <i>Herr. Sch.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dilucidalis, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>bisectalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>blandialis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>elutalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SPILOMELIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lepyrodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>geometralis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>lepidalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>peritalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phalangiodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Neptisalis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Spilomela, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>meritalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>abdicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decussalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>aurolinealis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nistra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>coelatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pagyda, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>salvalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Massepha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>absolutalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MARGARODIDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Glyphodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>diurnalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>decretalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>coesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>univocalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phakellura, <i>L. Guild.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gazorialis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Margarodes, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>psittacalis, <i>Hübn.</i></li> + + <li>pomonalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>hilaralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pygospila, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Tyresalis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Neurina, <i>Guén,</i> + + <ul> + <li>Procopialis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>ignibasalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ilurgia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>defamalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Maruca, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ruptalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>caritalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. BOTYDÆ, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Botys, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>marginalis, <i>Cram.</i></li> + + <li>sellalis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>multilinealis, <i>Guén.</i></li> + + <li>admensalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>abjungalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>rutilalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>admixtalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>celatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>deductalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>celsalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>vulsalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ultimalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>tropicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>abstrusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>ruralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>adhoesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>illisalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>stultalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>adductalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>histricalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>illectalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>suspicalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Janassalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Nephealis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cynaralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Dialis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Thaisalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Dryopealis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Myrinalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>phycidalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>annulalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>brevilinealis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>plagiatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ebulea, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>aberratalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Camillalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pionea, <i>Guén.</i> + + <ul> + <li>actualis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Optiletalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Jubesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>brevialis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>suffusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Scopula, <i>Schr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>revocatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>turgidalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>volutatalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Godara, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pervasalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Herculia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>bractialis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mecyna, <i>Guen.</i> + + <ul> + <li>deprivulis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SCOPARIDÆ, <i>Guén</i> + + <ul> + <li>Scoparia, <i>Haw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>murificalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>congestalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Alconalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Davana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Phalantalia, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Darsania, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Niobesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dosara, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>coelatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lapsalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>immeritalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CHOREUTIDÆ, <i>Staint.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Niaccaba, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sumptialis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Simæthis, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Clatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Damonella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Bathusella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PHYCIDÆ, <i>Staint.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Myelois, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>actiosella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>bractiatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>cautella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>adaptella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>illusella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>basifuscella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Ligeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Marsyasalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dascusa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Valensalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Daroma, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Zeuxoalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Epulusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Timeusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Homoesoma, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>gratella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Getusella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nephopteryx, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Etolusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cyllusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Hylasalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Acisalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Harpaxalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Æolusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Argiadesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Philiasalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pempelia, <i>Hühn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>laudatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Prionapteryx, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lincusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg291" id= + "pg291"></a></li> + + <li>Pindicitora, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Acreonalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Annusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Thysbesalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Linceusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lacipea, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>muscosella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Araxes, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>admotella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>decusella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>celsella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>admigratella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>coesella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>candidatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Catagela, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>adjurella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>acricuella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>lunulella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CRAMBIDÆ, <i>Dup.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Crambus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>concinellus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Darbhaca, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>inceptella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Jartheza, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>honorella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bulina, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>solitella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Bembina, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cyanusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Chilo, <i>Zinck.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dodatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>gratiosella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>aditella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>blitella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dariausa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eubusalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Arrhade, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ematheonalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Darnensis, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Strephonella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CHLOEPHORIDÆ, <i>Staint.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Thagora, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>figurans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Earias, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>chromatana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TORTRICIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lozotænia, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>retractana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Peronea, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>divisana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lithogramma, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>flexilineana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dictyopteryx, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>punctana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Homona, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>fasciculana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hemonia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>orbiferana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Achroia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tricingulana, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. YPONOMEUTIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Atteva, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>niveigutta, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GELICHIDÆ, <i>Staint.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Depressaria, <i>Haw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>obligatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fimbriella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Decuaria, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mendicella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gelechia, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nugatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>calatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>deductella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Perionella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gizama, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>blandiella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Enisipia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>falsella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gapharia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>recitatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Goesa, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>decusella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cimitra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>seclusella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ficulea, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>blandulella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fresilia, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>nesciatella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gesontha, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>captiosella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aginis, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hilariella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cadra, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>defectella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. GLYPHYPTIDÆ, <i>Staint.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Glyphyteryx, <i>Hübn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>scitulella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hybele, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>mansuetella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TINEIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Tinea, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tapetzella, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>receptella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>pelionella, <i>Linn.</i></li> + + <li>plagiferella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LYONETIDÆ, <i>Staint.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cachura, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>objectella, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PTEROPHORIDÆ, <i>Zell.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pterophorus, <i>Geoffr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>leucadactylus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>oxydactylus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>anisodactylus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order <b>Diptera</b>, <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MYCETOPHILIDÆ, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Sciara, <i>Meig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*valida, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CECIDOMYZIDÆ, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cecidomyia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*primaria, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SIMULIDÆ, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Simulium, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*destinatum, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CHIRONOMIDÆ, <i>Hal</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ceratopogon, <i>Meig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*albocinctus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CULICIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Culex, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>regius, <i>Thwaites.</i></li> + + <li>fuscanus, <i>Wied.</i></li> + + <li>circumvolans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>contrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TIPULIDÆ, <i>Hal.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ctenophora, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gymnoplistia? <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hebes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. STRATIOMIDÆ, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ptilocera, <i>Wied.</i> + + <ul> + <li>quadridentata, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>fastuosa, <i>Geist.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pachygaster, <i>Meig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rufitarsis, <i>Macq.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acanthina, <i>Wied.</i> + + <ul> + <li>azurea, <i>Geist</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TABANIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pangonia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ASILIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trupanea, <i>Macq.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ceylanica, <i>Macq.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Asilus, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>flavicornis, <i>Macq.</i></li> + + <li>Barium, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg292" id="pg292"></a> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DOLICHOPIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Psilopus, <i>Meig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*procuratus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MUSCIDÆ, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Tachina? <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*tenebrosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Musca. <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>domestica, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Dacus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*interclusus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*nigroseneus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*detentus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ortalis, <i>Fall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*confundens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sciomyza, <i>Fall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*leucotelus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Drosophila, <i>Fall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*restituens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NYCTERIBIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Nycteribia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>——? a species parasitic on Scatophilus + Coromandelicus, <i>Bligh.</i> See <i>ante,</i> <a href= + "#pg161">p. 161.</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order <b>Hemiptera,</b> <i>Linn.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PACHYCORIDÆ, <i>Dall</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cantuo, <i>Amyot & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ocellatus, <i>Thunb.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Callidea, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>superba, <i>Dall.</i></li> + + <li>Stockerus, <i>Linn.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EURYGASTERIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Trigonosoma, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Desfontainii, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PLATASPIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Coptosoma, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>laticeps, <i>Dall.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HALYDIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Halys, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>dentate, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PENTATOMIDÆ, <i>Suph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pentatoma, <i>Oliv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Timorensensis, <i>Hope.</i></li> + + <li>Taprobanensls, <i>Dall.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Catacanthus, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>incarnatus, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhaphigaster, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>congrua, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. EDESSIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Aspongopus, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Janus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tesseratoma, <i>Lep. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>papillosa, <i>Drury.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cyclopelta, <i>Am. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>siccifolia, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PHYLLOCEPHALIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Phyllocephala, <i>Lap.</i></li> + + <li>Ægyptiaca, <i>Lefeb.</i></li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MICTIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Mictis, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>castanea, <i>Dall.</i></li> + + <li>yalida, <i>Dall.</i></li> + + <li>punctum, <i>Hope.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Crinocerus, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ponderosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam, ANISOSCELIDÆ <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Leptoscelis, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>ventralis, <i>Dall.</i></li> + + <li>turpis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>marginalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Serinetha, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Taprobanensis, <i>Dall.</i></li> + + <li>abdominalis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ALYDIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Alydus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>linearis, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. STENOCEPHALIDÆ, <i>Dall.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Leptocorisa, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Chinensis, <i>Dall.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. COREIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Rhopalus, <i>Schill.</i> + + <ul> + <li>interruptus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. LYGÆIDÆ, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lygæus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lutescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>figuratus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>discifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhyparochromus, <i>Curt.</i> + + <ul> + <li>testaciepes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ARADIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Piestosoma, <i>Lap.</i> + + <ul> + <li>picipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TINGIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Calloniana, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*elegans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CIMICIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cimex, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>lectularius, <i>Linn.?</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. REDUVIIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Pirates, <i>Burm.</i> + + <ul> + <li>marginatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acanthaspis, <i>Am. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sanguinipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>fulvispina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. HYDROMETRIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ptilomera, <i>Am. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>laticauda, <i>Hardw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NEPIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Belostoma, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Indicum, <i>St. Farg. & Serv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nepa, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>minor, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. NOTONECTIDÆ, <i>Steph.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Notonecta, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>abbreviata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>simplex, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corixa, <i>Geoff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*subjacens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p>Order <b>Homoptara,</b> <i>Latr.</i></p> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CICADIDÆ, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Dundubia, <i>Am. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>stipata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Cioafa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Larus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cicada, <i>Linn.</i> + + <ul> + <li>limitaris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>nuhifurea, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. FULCORIDÆ, <i>Schaum.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hotinus, <i>Am. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>maculatus, <i>Oliv.</i></li> + + <li>fulvirostris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>coccineus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pyrops, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>punctata <i>Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li style="list-style: none"><a name="pg293" id= + "pg293"></a></li> + + <li>Aphæna, <i>Guér.</i> + + <ul> + <li>sanguinalis, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Elidiptera, <i>Spin.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Emersoniana, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CIXIIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Eurybrachys, <i>Guér.</i> + + <ul> + <li>tomentosa, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>dilatata, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>crudelis, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cixius, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*nubilus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. ISSIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hemisphærius, <i>Schaum.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*Schaumi, <i>Stal.</i></li> + + <li>*bipustulatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. DERBIDÆ, <i>Schaum.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Thracia, <i>Westw.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pterophorides, <i>Westw.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Derbe, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*furcato-vittata, <i>Stal.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. FLATTIDÆ, <i>Schaum.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Flatoides, <i>Guér.</i> + + <ul> + <li>hyalinus, <i>Fabr.</i></li> + + <li>tenebrosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ricania, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Hemerobii, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Poeciloptera, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>pulverulenta, <i>Guér.</i></li> + + <li>stellaris, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>Tennentina, <i>White.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. MEMBRACIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Oxyrhachis, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*indicans, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Centrotus, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*reponens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*malleus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>substitutus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*decipiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*relinquens, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*imitator, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*repressus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>*terminalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. CERCOPIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Cercopis, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>inclusa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ptyelus, <i>Lep. & Serv.</i> + + <ul> + <li>costalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. TETTIGONIIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Tettigonia, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>paulula, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. SCARIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Ledra, <i>Fabr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>rugosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + + <li>conica, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gypona, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>prasina, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. IASSIDÆ, <i>Wlk.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Acocephalus, <i>Germ.</i> + + <ul> + <li>porrectus, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. PSYLLIDÆ, <i>Latr.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Psylla, <i>Goff.</i> + + <ul> + <li>*marginalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <ul> + <li>Fam. COCCIDÆ, <i>Leach.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Lecanium, <i>Illig.</i> + + <ul> + <li>Coffeæ, <i>Wlk.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg294" id="pg294"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VII</h2> + + <h3>ARACHNIDA—MYRIOPODA—CRUSTACEA, ETC.</h3> + + <p>With a few striking exceptions, the true <i>spiders</i> of Ceylon + resemble in oeconomy and appearance those we are accustomed to see at + home. They frequent the houses, the gardens, the rocks and the stems + of trees, and along the sunny paths, where the forest meets the open + country, the <i>Epeira</i> and her congeners, the true net-weaving + spiders, extend their lacework, the grace of their designs being even + less attractive than the beauty of the creatures that elaborate + them.</p> + + <p>Those that live in the woods select with singular sagacity the + bridle-paths and narrow passages for expanding their nets; no doubt + perceiving that the larger insects frequent these openings for + facility of movement through the jungle; and that the smaller ones + are carried towards them by the currents of air. These nets are + stretched across the path from four to eight feet above the ground, + hung from projecting shoots, and attached, if possible, to thorny + shrubs; and sometimes exhibit the most remarkable scenes of carnage + and destruction. I have taken down a ball as large as a man's head + consisting of successive layers rolled together, in the heart of + which was the den of the family, whilst the envelope was formed, + sheet after sheet, by coils of the old web filled with the wings and + limbs of insects of all descriptions, from the largest moths and + butterflies to mosquitoes and minute coleoptera. Each layer appeared + to have been originally suspended across the passage to intercept the + expected prey; and, as it became surcharged with carcases, it was + loosened, tossed <a name="pg295" id="pg295"></a> over by the wind or + its own weight, and wrapped round the nucleus in the centre, the + spider replacing it by a fresh sheet, to be in turn detached and + added to the mass within.</p> + + <p>Walckenaer has described a species of large size, under the name + of <i>Olios Taprobanius</i>, which is very common and conspicuous + from the fiery hue of the under surface, the remainder being covered + with gray hair so short and fine that the body seems almost denuded. + It spins a moderate-sized web, hung vertically between two sets of + strong lines, stretched one above the other athwart the pathways. + Some of the spider-cords thus carried horizontally from tree to tree + at a considerable height from the ground are so strong as to cause a + painful check across the face when moving quickly against them; and + more than once in riding I have had my hat lifted off my head by a + single thread.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Over the country generally are scattered species of + <i>Gasteracantha</i>, remarkable for their firm shell-covered + bodies, with projecting knobs arranged in pairs. In habit these + anomalous-looking <i>Epeiridæ</i> appear to differ in no respect + from the rest of the family, waylaying their prey in similar + situations and in the same manner.</p> + + <p>Another very singular subgenus, met with in Ceylon, is + distinguished by the abdomen being dilated behind, and armed with + two long spines, arching obliquely backwards. These abnormal kinds + are not so handsomely coloured as the smaller species of typical + form.</p> + </div> + + <p>Separated by marked peculiarities of structure, as well as of + instinct, from the spiders which live in the open air, and busy + themselves in providing food during the day, the <i>Mygale + fasciata</i> is not only sluggish in its habits, but disgusting in + its form and dimensions. Its colour is a gloomy brown, interrupted by + irregular blotches and faint bands (whence its trivial name); it is + sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs, when expanded, stretch + over an area of six to eight inches in diameter. It is familiar to + Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name, and ascribed to it + the fabulous propensities, of the Tarentula.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Species of the true <i>Tarentulæ</i> are not uncommon in + Ceylon; they are all of very small size, and perfectly + harmless.</p> + </div><a name="pg296" id="pg296"></a> + + <p>By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it issues at night + to feed on larvæ and worms, devouring cockroaches[1] and their pupæ, + and attacking the millepeds, gryllotalpæ, and other fleshy insects. + The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts of + the island, and occasionally in dark unfrequented apartments in the + western province; but its inclinations are solitary, and it shuns the + busy traffic of towns.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD has described the encounter between a + Mygale and a cockroach, which he witnessed in the madua of a temple + at Alittane, between Anarajapoora and Dambool. When about a yard + apart, each discerned the other and stood still, the spider with + his legs slightly bent and his body raised, the cockroach + confronting him and directing his antennæ with a restless + undulation towards his enemy. The spider, by stealthy movements, + approached to within a few inches and paused, both parties eyeing + each other intently: then suddenly a rush, a scuffle, and both fell + to the ground, when the blatta's wings closed, the spider seized it + under the throat with his claws, and dragging it into a corner, the + action of his jaws was distinctly audible. Next morning Mr. Layard + found the soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing but the + head, thorax, and elytra remaining.—<i>Ann. & Mag. Nat. + Hist.</i> May, 1853.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Ticks</i>.—Ticks are to be classed among the intolerable + nuisances to the Ceylon traveller. They live in immense numbers in + the jungle[1], and attaching themselves to the plants by the two + forelegs, lie in wait to catch at unwary animals as they pass. A + shower of these diminutive <a name="pg297" id="pg297"></a> vermin + will sometimes drop from a branch, if unluckily shaken, and disperse + themselves over the body, each fastening on the neck, the ears, and + eyelids, and inserting a barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their + heads pressed as far as practicable under the skin, causing a + sensation of smarting, as if particles of red hot sand had been + scattered over the flesh. If torn from their hold, the suckers remain + behind and form an ulcer. The only safe expedient is to tolerate the + agony of their penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice + of a lime can be applied, when these little furies drop off without + further ill consequences. One very large species, dappled with grey, + attaches itself to the buffaloes.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. HOOKER, in his <i>Himalayan Journal</i>, vol. 1. p. 279, + in speaking of the multitude of these creatures in the mountains of + Nepal, wonders what they find to feed on, as in these humid forests + in which they literally swarmed, there was neither pathway nor + animal life. In Ceylon they abound everywhere in the plains on the + low brushwood; and in the very driest seasons they are quite as + numerous as at other times. In the mountain zone, which is more + humid, they are less prevalent. Dogs are tormented by them; and + they display something closely allied to cunning in always + fastening on an animal in those parts where they cannot be torn off + by his paws; on his eyebrows, the tips of his ears, and the back of + his neck. With a corresponding instinct I have always observed in + the gambols of the Pariah dogs, that they invariably commence their + attentions by mutually gnawing each other's ears and necks, as if + in pursuit of ticks from places from which each is unable to expel + them for himself. Horses have a similar instinct; and when they + meet, they apply their teeth to the roots of the ears of their + companions, to the neck and the crown of the head. The buffaloes + and oxen are relieved of ticks by the crows which rest on their + backs as they browse, and free them from these pests. In the low + country the same acceptable office is performed by the + "cattle-keeper heron" (<i>Ardea bubuleus</i>), which is "sure to be + found in attendance on them while grazing; and the animals seem to + know their benefactors, and stand quietly, while the birds peck + their tormentors from their flanks."—<i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> + p. 111, 1844.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Mites</i>.—The <i>Trombidium tinctorum</i> of Hermann is + found about Aripo, and generally over the northern + provinces,—where after a shower of rain or heavy night's dew, + they appear in countless myriads. It is about half an inch long, like + a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts its colouring matter readily to + any fluid in which it may be immersed. It feeds on vegetable juices, + and is perfectly innocuous. Its European representative, similarly + tinted, and found in garden mould, is commonly called the "Little red + pillion."</p> + + <p>MYRIAPODS.—The certainty with which an accidental pressure + or unguarded touch is resented and retorted by a bite, makes the + centipede, when it has taken up its temporary abode within a sleeve + or the fold of a dress, by far the most unwelcome of all the + Singhalese assailants. The great size, too (little short of a foot in + length), to which it sometimes attains, renders it formidable; and, + apart from the apprehension of unpleasant consequences from a wound, + one shudders at the bare idea of such hideous creatures crawling over + the skin, beneath the innermost folds of one's garments.</p> + + <p>At the head of the <i>Myriapods</i>, and pre-eminent from a + superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus <i>Cermatia</i>: + singular-looking objects; mounted upon <a name="pg298" id= + "pg298"></a> slender legs, of gradually increasing length from front + to rear, the hind ones in some species being amazingly prolonged, and + all handsomely marked with brown annuli in concentric arches. These + myriapods are harmless, excepting to woodlice, spiders, and young + cockroaches, which form their ordinary prey. They are rarely to be + seen; but occasionally at daybreak, after a more than usually + abundant repast, they may be observed motionless, and resting with + their regularly extended limbs nearly flat against the walls. On + being disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity, to conceal + themselves in chinks until the return of night.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/298.jpg"><img src="images/298.jpg" alt= + "CERMATIA." /></a> + + <p>CERMATIA.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the species to be really dreaded are the true + <i>Scolopendræ</i>, which are active and carnivorous, living in holes + in old walls and other gloomy dens. One species[1] attains to nearly + the length of a foot, with corresponding breadth; it is of a dark + purple colour, approaching black, with yellowish legs and antennæ, + and its whole aspect repulsive and frightful. It is strong and + active, and evinces an eager disposition to fight when molested. The + <i>Scolopendræ</i> are gifted by nature with a rigid coriaceous + armour, which does not yield to common pressure, or even to a + moderate blow; so that they often escape the most well-deserved and + well-directed attempts to destroy them, seeking refuge in retreats + which effectually conceal them from sight.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Scolopendra crassa</i>, Temp.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is a smaller one[1], which frequents dwelling-houses, + <a name="pg299" id="pg299"></a> about one quarter the size of the + preceding, of a dirty olive colour, with pale ferruginous legs. It is + this species which generally inflicts the wound, when persons + complain of being bitten by a scorpion; and it has a mischievous + propensity for insinuating itself into the folds of dress. The bite + at first does not occasion more suffering than would arise from the + penetration of two coarsely-pointed needles; but after a little time + the wound swells, becomes acutely painful, and if it be over a bone + or any other resisting part, the sensation is so intolerable as to + produce fever. The agony subsides after a few hours' duration. In + some cases the bite is unattended by any particular degree of + annoyance, and in these instances it is to be supposed that the + contents of the poison gland had become exhausted by previous + efforts, since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest to enable it + to resume its accustomed functions and to secrete a supply of + venom.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Scolopendra pullipes</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Millipeds.</i>—In the hot dry season, and in the northern + portions of the island more especially, the eye is attracted along + the edges of the sandy roads by fragments of the dislocated rings of + a huge species of millipede,[1] lying in short, curved tubes, the + cavity admitting the tip of the little finger. When perfect the + creature is two-thirds of a foot long, of a brilliant jet black, and + with above a hundred yellow legs, which, when moving onward, present + the appearance of a series of undulations from rear to front, bearing + the animal gently forwards. This <i>julus</i> is harmless, and may be + handled with perfect impunity. Its food consists chiefly of fruits + and the roots and stems of succulent vegetables, its jaws not being + framed for any more formidable purpose. Another and a very pretty + species,[2] quite as black, but with a bright crimson band down the + back, and the legs similarly tinted, is common in the gardens about + Colombo and throughout the western province.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Julus ater</i>, Temp.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Julus carnifex</i>, Fab.</p> + </div><a name="pg300" id="pg300"></a> + + <p>CRUSTACEA.—The seas around Ceylon abound with marine + articulata; but a knowledge of the crustacea of the island is at + present a desideratum; and with the exception of the few commoner + species which frequent the shores, or are offered in the markets, we + are literally without information, excepting the little that can be + gleaned from already published systematic works.</p> + + <div class="figleft"> + <a href="images/300.jpg"><img src="images/300.jpg" alt= + "CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON." /></a> + + <p>CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are exposed for + sale; and amongst the delicacies at the tables of Europeans, curries + made from prawns and lobsters are the triumphs of the Ceylon cuisine. + Of these latter the fishermen sometimes exhibit specimens[1] of + extraordinary dimensions, and of a beautiful purple hue, variegated + with white. Along the level shore north and south of Colombo, and in + no less profusion elsewhere, the nimble little Calling Crabs[2] + scamper over the moist sands, carrying aloft the enormous hand + (sometimes larger than the rest of the body), which is their peculiar + characteristic, and which, from its beckoning gesture, has suggested + their popular name. They hurry to conceal themselves in the deep + retreats which they hollow out in the banks that border the sea.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Palinurus ornatus</i>, Fab.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Gelasimus tatragonon</i>? Edw.; <i>G. annulipes</i>? Edw.; + <i>G. Dussumieri</i>? Edw.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Sand Crabs.</i>—In the same localities, or a little + farther inland, the <i>ocypode</i>[1] burrows in the dry soil, making + deep excavations, bringing up literally armfuls of sand; which with a + spring in the air, and employing its other limbs, it jerks far from + its burrows, distributing it in radii to the distance of several + feet.[2] So inconvenient are the operations of these industrious + pests that men <a name="pg301" id="pg301"></a> are kept regularly + employed at Colombo in filling up the holes formed by them on the + surface of the Galle face, which is the only equestrian promenade of + the capital; but so infested by these active little creatures that + accidents often occur by horses stumbling in their troublesome + excavations.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ocypode ceratophthalmus</i>, Pall.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i> April, 1852. Paper by Mr. EDGAR L. + LAYARD.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Painted Crabs.</i>—On the reefs which lie to the south of + the harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little painted crabs,[1] + distinguished by dark red markings on a yellow ground, may be seen + all day long running nimbly in the spray, and ascending and + descending in security the almost perpendicular sides of the rocks + which are washed by the waves. <i>Paddling Crabs</i>,[2] with the + hind pair of legs terminated by flattened plates to assist them in + swimming, are brought up in the fishermen's nets. <i>Hermit Crabs</i> + take possession of the deserted shells of the univalves, and crawl in + pursuit of garbage along the moist beach. Prawns and shrimps furnish + delicacies for the breakfast table; and the delicate little pea crab, + <i>Pontonia inflata</i>,[3] recalls its Mediterranean congener,[4] + which attracted the attention of Aristotle, from taking up its + habitation in the shell of the living pinna.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Grapsus strigosus</i>, Herbst.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Neptunus pelagicus</i>, Linn,; <i>N. sanguinolentus</i>, + Herbst, &c. &c.</p> + + <p>3: MILNE EDW. <i>Hist. Nat. Crust.</i> vol. ii. p. 360.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Pinnotheres veterum.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>ANNELIDÆ.—The marine <i>Annelides</i> of the island have not + as yet been investigated; a cursory glance, however, amongst the + stones on the beach at Trincomalie and in the pools, which afford + convenient basins for examining them, would lead to the belief that + the marine species are not numerous; tubicole genera, as well as some + nereids, are found, but there seems to be little diversity; though it + is not impossible that a closer scrutiny might be repaid by the + discovery of some interesting forms.</p> + + <p><i>Leeches.</i>—Of all the plagues which beset the traveller + <a name="pg302" id="pg302"></a> in the rising grounds of Ceylon, the + most detested are the land leeches.[1] They are not frequent in the + plains, <a name="pg303" id="pg303"></a> which are too hot and dry for + them; but amongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill + country, which is kept damp by frequent showers, they are found in + tormenting profusion. They are terrestrial, never visiting ponds or + streams. In size they are about an inch in length, and as fine as a + common knitting needle; but capable of distension till they equal a + quill in thickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their + structure is so flexible that they can insinuate themselves through + the meshes of the finest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and + ankles, but ascending to the back and throat and fastening on the + tenderest parts of the body. The coffee planters, who live amongst + these pests, are obliged, in order to exclude them, to envelope their + legs in "leech gaiters" made of closely woven cloth. The natives + smear their bodies with oil, tobacco ashes, or lemon juice;[2] the + latter serving not only to stop the flow of blood, but to expedite + the healing of the wounds. In moving, the land leeches have the power + of planting one extremity on the earth and raising the other + perpendicularly to watch for their victim. Such is their vigilance + and instinct, that on the approach of a passer-by to a spot which + they infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves on + the edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for their + attack on man and horse. On <a name="pg304" id="pg304"></a> descrying + their prey they advance rapidly by semicircular strides, fixing one + end firmly and arching the other forwards, till by successive + advances they can lay hold of the traveller's foot, when they + disengage themselves from the ground and ascend his dress in search + of an aperture to enter. In these encounters the individuals in the + rear of a party of travellers in the jungle invariably fare worst, as + the leeches, once warned of their approach, congregate with singular + celerity. Their size is so insignificant, and the wound they make is + so skilfully punctured, that both are generally imperceptible, and + the first intimation of their onslaught is the trickling of the blood + or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins to hang heavily on the + skin from being distended by its repast. Horses are driven wild by + them, and stamp the ground in fury to shake them from their fetlocks, + to which they hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs of the palankin + bearers and coolies are a favourite resort; and, their hands being + too much engaged to be spared to pull them off, the leeches hang like + bunches of grapes round their ankles; and I have seen the blood + literally flowing over the edge of a European's shoe from their + innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions the wounds, if not + irritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than a + slight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of + body, the punctures, if rubbed, are liable <a name="pg305" id= + "pg305"></a> to degenerate into ulcers, which may lead to the loss of + limb or of life. Both Marshall and Davy mention, that during the + marches of troops in the mountains, when the Kandyans were in + rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and especially the Madras sepoys, + with the pioneers and coolies, suffered so severely from this cause + that numbers of them perished.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <div class="figleft"> + <a href="images/302.jpg"><img src="images/302.jpg" alt= + "EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECHES OF CEYLON" /></a> + + <p>EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECHES OF CEYLON.</p> + </div> + + <p>1: <i>Hæmadipsa Ceylanica</i>, Bosc. Blainv. These pests are + not, however; confined to Ceylon; they infest the lower ranges of + the Himalaya. —HOOKER, vol. i. p. 107; vol. ii. p. 54. + THUNBEBG, who records (<i>Travels</i>, vol. iv. p. 232) having seen + them in Ceylon, likewise met with them in the forests and slopes of + Batavia. MARSDEN (<i>Hist</i>. p. 311) complains of them dropping + on travellers in Sumatra. KNORR, found them at Japan; and it is + affirmed that they abound in islands farther to the eastward. M. + GAY encountered them, in Chili.—MOQUIN-TANDON, + (<i>Hirudinèes</i>, p. 211, 346.) It is very doubtful, however, + whether all these are to be referred to one species. M. DE + BLAINVILLE, under <i>H. Ceylanica</i>, in the <i>Diet, de Scien. + Nat.</i> vol. xlvii. p. 271, quotes M. BOSC as authority for the + kind which that naturalist describes being "rouges et tachetées;" + which is scarcely applicable to the Singhalese species. It is more + than probable therefore, considering the period at which M. BOSC + wrote, that he obtained his information from travellers to the + further east, and has connected with the habitat universally + ascribed to them from old KNOX'S work (Part I. chap, vi.) a meagre + description, more properly belonging to the land leech of Batavia + or Japan, In all likelihood, therefore, there may be a <i>H. + Boscii,</i> distinct from the <i>H. Ceylanica.</i> That which is + found in Ceylon is round, a little flattened on the inferior + surface, largest at the extremity, thence graclimlly tapering + forward, and with the anal sucker composed of four rings, and wider + in proportion than in other species. It is of a clear brown colour, + with a yellow stripe the entire length of each side, and a greenish + dorsal one. The body is formed of 100 rings; the eyes, of which + there are five pairs, are placed in an arch on the dorsal surface; + the first four pairs occupying contiguous rings (thus differing + from the water-leeches, which have an unoccupied ring betwixt the + third and fourth); the fifth pair are located on the seventh ring, + two vacant rings intervening. To Dr. Thwaites, Director of the + Botanic Garden at Peradenia, who at my request examined their + structure minutely, I am indebted for the following most + interesting particulars respecting them. "I have been giving a + little time to the examination of the land leech. I find it to have + five pairs of ocelli, the first four seated on corresponding + segments, and the posterior pair on the seventh segment or ring, + the fifth and sixth rings being eyeless (<i>fig</i>. A). The mouth + is very retractile, and the aperture is shaped as in ordinary + leeches. The serratures of the teeth, or rather the teeth + themselves, are very beautiful. Each of the three 'teeth,' or + cutting instruments, is principally muscular, the muscular body + being very clearly seen. The rounded edge in which the teeth are + set appears to be cartilaginous in structure; the teeth are very + numerous, (<i>fig</i>. B); but some near the base have a curious + appendage, apparently (I have not yet made this out quite + satisfactorily) set upon one side. I have not yet been able to + detect the anal or sexual pores. The anal sucker seems to be formed + of four rings, and on each side above is a sort of crenated + flesh-like appendage. The tint of the common species is + yellowish-brown or snuff-coloured, streaked with black, with a + yellow-greenish dorsal, and another lateral line along its whole + length. There is a larger species to be found in this garden with a + broad green dorsal fascia; but I have not been able to procure one + although I have offered a small reward to any coolie who will bring + me one." In a subsequent communication Mr. Thwaites remarks "that + the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the same width as the lateral + ones, and differs only in being perhaps slightly more green; the + colour of the three fasciæ varies from brownish-yellow to bright + green." He likewise states "that the rings which compose the body + are just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 in each set, in a single row, + except to one end, where they are in a double row."</p> + + <p>2: The Minorite friar, ODORIC of Portenau, writing in A.D. 1320, + says that the gem-finders who sought the jewels around Adam's Peak, + "take lemons which they peel, anointing themselves with the juice + thereof, so that the leeches may not be able to hurt + them."—HAKLUYT, <i>Voy.</i> vol. ii. p. 58.</p> + + <p>3: DAVY'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. 104; MARSHALL'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. + 15.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/304.jpg"><img src="images/304.jpg" alt= + "LAND LEECHES." /></a> + + <p>LAND LEECHES.</p> + </div> + + <p>One circumstance regarding these land leeches is remarkable and + unexplained; they are helpless without moisture, and in the hills + where they abound at all other times, they entirely disappear during + long droughts;—yet re-appear instantaneously on the very first + fall of rain; and in spots previously parched, where not one was + visible an hour before; a single shower is sufficient to reproduce + them in thousands, lurking beneath the decaying leaves, or striding + with rapid movements across the gravel. Whence do they re-appear? Do + they, too, take a "summer sleep," like the reptiles, molluscs, and + tank fishes, or may they be, like the <i>Rotifera</i>, dried up and + preserved for an indefinite period, resuming their vital activity on + the mere recurrence of moisture?</p> + + <p>Besides the medicinal leech, a species of which[1] is <a name= + "pg306" id="pg306"></a> found in Ceylon, nearly double the size of + the European one, and with a prodigious faculty of engorging blood, + there is another pest in the low country, which is a source of + considerable annoyance, and often of loss, to the husbandman. This is + the cattle leech[2], which infests the stagnant pools, chiefly in the + alluvial lands around the base of the mountain zone, to which the + cattle resort by day, and the wild animals by night, to quench their + thirst and to bathe. Lurking amongst the rank vegetation which + fringes these deep pools, and hid by the broad leaves, or concealed + among the stems and roots covered by the water, there are quantities + of these pests in wait to attack the animals that approach them. + Their natural food consists of the juices of lumbrici and other + invertebrata; but they generally avail themselves of the opportunity + afforded by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals into the water + to fasten on their nostrils, and by degrees to make their way to the + deeper recesses of the nasal passages, and the mucous membranes of + the throat and gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached to + the epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such irritation + and submucous effusion that death has eventually <a name="pg307" id= + "pg307"></a> ensued; and so tenacious are the leeches that even after + death they retain their hold for some hours.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <div class="figleft"> + <a href="images/305.jpg"><img src="images/305.jpg" alt= + "DORSAL and VENTRAL." /></a> + + <p>DORSAL and VENTRAL.</p> + </div> + + <p>1: <i>Hirudo sanguisorba.</i> The paddifield leech of Ceylon, + used for surgical purposes, has the dorsal surface of blackish + olive, with several longitudinal striæ, more or less defined; the + crenated margin yellow. The ventral surface is fulvous, bordered + laterally with olive; the extreme margin yellow. The eyes are + ranged as in the common medicinal leech of Europe; the four + anterior ones rather larger than the others. The teeth are 140 in + each series, appearing as a single row; in size diminishing + gradually from one end, very close set, and about half the width of + a tooth apart. When of full size, these leeches are about two + inches long, but reaching to six inches when extended. Mr. + Thwaites, to whom I am indebted for these particulars, adds that he + saw in a tank at Colonna Corle leeches which appeared to him + flatter and of a darker colour than those described above, but that + he had not an opportunity of examining them particularly.</p> + + <p>Mr. Thwaites states that there is a smaller tank leech of an + olive-green colour, with some indistinct longitudinal striæ on the + upper surface; the crenated margin of a pale yellowish-green; + ocelli as in the paddi-field leech. Length, one inch at rest, three + inches when extended.</p> + + <p>Mr. E. LAYARD informs us, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> p. 225, 1853, + that a bubbling spring at the village of Tonniotoo, three miles + S.W. of Moeletivoe, supplies most of the leeches used in the + island. Those in use at Colombo are obtained in the immediate + vicinity.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Hæmopsis paludum.</i> In size the cattle leech of Ceylon + is somewhat larger than the medicinal leech of Europe; in colour it + is of a uniform brown without bands, unless a rufous margin may be + so considered. It has dark striæ. The body is somewhat rounded, + flat when swimming, and composed of rather more than ninety rings. + The greatest dimension is a little in advance of the anal sucker; + the body thence tapers to the other extremity, which ends in an + upper lip projecting considerably beyond the mouth. The eyes, ten + in number, are disposed as in the common leech. The mouth is oval, + the biting apparatus with difficulty seen, and the teeth not very + numerous. The bite is so little acute that the moment of attachment + and of division of the membrane is scarcely perceived by the + sufferer from its attack.</p> + + <p>3: Even men are not safe, when stooping to drink at a pool, from + the assault of the cattle leeches. They cannot penetrate the human + skin, but the delicate membrane of the mucous passages is easily + ruptured by their serrated jaws. Instances have come to my + knowledge of Europeans into whose nostrils they have gained + admission and caused serious disturbance.</p> + </div> + + <p>ARTICULATA.</p> + + <p><i>APTERA</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Thysanura.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Podura <i>albicollis</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>atricollis</i>.</li> + + <li><i>viduata</i>.</li> + + <li><i>pilosa</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Achoreutes <i>coccinea</i>.</li> + + <li>Lepisma nigrofasciata, <i>Temp. nigra</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Arachnida.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Buthus afer, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>Ceylonicus, <i>Koch</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Scorpio <i>linearis</i>.</li> + + <li>Chelifer librorum. + + <ul> + <li><i>oblongus</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Obisium <i>crassifemur</i>.</li> + + <li>Phrynus lunatus, <i>Pall</i>.</li> + + <li>Thelyphonus caudatus, <i>Linn</i>.</li> + + <li>Phalangium <i>bisignatum</i>.</li> + + <li>Mygale fasciata, <i>Walck</i>.</li> + + <li>Olios taprobanius, <i>Walck</i>.</li> + + <li>Nephila...?</li> + + <li>Trombidium tinctorum, <i>Herm</i>.</li> + + <li>Oribata...?</li> + + <li>Ixodes...?</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Myriapoda.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li>Cermatia <i>dispar</i>.</li> + + <li>Lithobius <i>umbratilis</i>.</li> + + <li>Scolopendra <i>crassa</i>. + + <ul> + <li>spinosa, <i>Newp</i>.</li> + + <li><i>pallipes</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Grayii? Newp.</i></li> + + <li>tuberculidens, <i>Newp</i>.</li> + + <li>Ceylonensis, <i>Newp</i>.</li> + + <li>flava, <i>Newp</i>.</li> + + <li><i>olivacea</i>.</li> + + <li><i>abdominalis</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cryptops <i>sordidus</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>assimilis</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Geophilus <i>tegularius</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>speciosus</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Julus <i>ater</i>. + + <ul> + <li>carnifex, <i>Fabr</i>.</li> + + <li><i>pallipes</i>.</li> + + <li><i>flaviceps</i>.</li> + + <li><i>pallidus</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Craspedosoma <i>juloides</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>præusta</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polydesmus <i>granulatus</i>.</li> + + <li>Cambala <i>catenulata</i>.</li> + + <li>Zephronia <i>conspicua</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><i>CRUSTACEA</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Decapoda brachyura.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li> + <ul> + <li><i>Polybius</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Neptunus pelagicus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li>sanguinolentus, <i>Herbst</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Thalamita...?</li> + + <li>Thelphusa <i>Indica, Latr.</i></li> + + <li><i>Cardisoma...?</i></li> + + <li>Ocypoda ceratophthalmus, <i>Pall</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>macrocera, Edw</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gelasimus <i>tetragonon, Edw</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>annulipes, Edw</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Macrophthalmus <i>carinimanus, Latr</i>.</li> + + <li>Grapsus <i>messor, Forsk</i>. + + <ul> + <li>strigosus, <i>Herbst</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Plagusia depressa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li> + + <li>Calappa philargus, <i>Linn</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>tuberculata, Fabr</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Matuta victor, <i>Fabr</i>.</li> + + <li>Leucosia <i>fugax, Fabr</i></li> + + <li><i>Dorippe.</i></li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Decapoda anomura.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Dromia...?</i></li> + + <li>Hippa Asiatica, <i>Edw</i>.</li> + + <li>Paguras affinis, <i>Edw</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>punctulatus, Oliv.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Porcellana...?</i></li> + </ul><a name="pg308" id="pg308"></a> + + <p><b>Decapoda Macrura</b>.</p> + + <ul> + <li>Scyllarus <i>orientalis, Fab.</i>.</li> + + <li>Palinurus ornatus, <i>Fab.</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>affinis</i>, <i>N</i>.<i>S</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li><i>Crangon...?</i></li> + + <li><i>Alpheus...?</i></li> + + <li>Pontonia inflata, <i>Edw</i>.</li> + + <li>Palæmon carcinus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li> + + <li>Stenopus...?</li> + + <li>Peneus...?</li> + </ul> + + <p><b>Stomatopoda.</b></p> + + <ul> + <li><i>Squilla...?</i></li> + + <li>Gonodactylus chiragra, <i>Fabr</i>.</li> + </ul> + + <p><i>CIRRHIPEDIA</i>.</p> + + <ul> + <li> + <ul> + <li><i>Lepas</i>.</li> + + <li><i>Balanus</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + + <p><i>ANNELIDA</i>.</p> + + <ul> + <li>Tubicolæ.</li> + + <li>Dorsibranchiata.</li> + + <li>Abranchia. + + <ul> + <li>Hirudo <i>sanguisorba</i>. + + <ul> + <li><i>Thwaitesii</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hæmopsis <i>paludum</i>.</li> + + <li>Hæmadipsa Ceylana. <i>Blainv</i>.</li> + + <li>Lumbricus...?</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul><a name="pg309" id="pg309"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>PART III.</h2> + + <h3>THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.</h3><a name="pg310" id="pg310"></a> + <a name="pg311" id="pg311"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + + <h3>SOURCES OF SINGHALESE HISTORY.—THE MAHAWANSO AND OTHER + NATIVE ANNALS.</h3> + + <p>It was long affirmed by Europeans that the Singhalese annals, like + those of the Hindus, were devoid of interest or value as historical + material; that, as religious disquisitions, they were the ravings of + fanaticism, and that myths and romances had been reduced to the + semblance of national chronicles. Such was the opinion of the + Portuguese writers DE BARROS and DE COUTO; and VALENTYN, who, about + the year 1725, published his great work on the Dutch possessions in + India, states his conviction that no reliance can be placed on such + of the Singhalese books as profess to record the ancient condition of + the country. These he held to be even of less authority than the + traditions of the same events which had descended from father to son. + On the information of learned Singhalese, drawn apparently from the + <i>Rajavali</i>, he inserted an account of the native sovereigns, + from the earliest times to the arrival of the Portuguese; but, + wearied by the monotonous inanity of the story, he omitted every + reign between the fifth and fifteenth centuries of the Christian + era.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: VALENTYN, <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien, &c., + Landbeschryving van t' Eyland Ceylon</i>, ch iv. p. 60.</p> + </div> + + <p>A writer, who, under the signature of PHILALETHES, published, in + 1816, <i>A History of Ceylon from the earliest period</i>, adopted + the dictum of Valentyn, and contented himself with still further + condensing the "account," which the latter had given "of the ancient + Emperors <a name="pg312" id="pg312"></a> and Kings" of the island. + Dr. DAVY compiled that portion of his excellent narrative which has + reference to the early history of Kandy, chiefly from the recitals of + the most intelligent natives, borrowed, as in the case of the + informants of Valentyn, from the perusal of the popular legends; and + he and every other author unacquainted with the native language, who + wrote on Ceylon previous to 1833, assumed without inquiry the + nonexistence of historic data.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: DAVY's <i>Ceylon</i>, ch. x. p. 293. See also PERCIVAL'S + <i>Ceylon</i>, p. 4.</p> + </div> + + <p>It was not till about the year 1826 that the discovery was made + and communicated to Europe, that whilst the history of India was only + to be conjectured from myths and elaborated from the dates on copper + grants, or fading inscriptions on rocks and columns[1], Ceylon was in + possession of continuous written chronicles, rich in authentic facts, + and not only presenting a connected history of the island itself, but + also yielding valuable materials for elucidating that of India. At + the moment when Prinsep was deciphering the mysterious Buddhist + inscriptions, which are scattered over Hindustan and Western India, + and when Csoma de Körös was unrolling the Buddhist records of Thibet, + and Hodgson those of Nepaul, a fellow labourer of kindred genius was + successfully exploring the Pali manuscripts of Ceylon, and developing + results not less remarkable nor less conducive to the illustration of + the early history of Southern Asia. Mr. Turnour, a civil officer of + the Ceylon service[2], was then administering <a name="pg313" id= + "pg313"></a>" /> the government of the district of Saffragam, and + being resident at Ratnapoora near the foot of Adam's Peak, he was + enabled to pursue his studies under the guidance <a name="pg314" id= + "pg314"></a> of Gallé, a learned priest, through whose + instrumentality he obtained from the Wihara, at Mulgiri-galla, near + Tangalle (a temple founded about 130 years before the Christian era), + some rare and important manuscripts, the perusal of which gave an + impulse and direction to the investigations which occupied the rest + of his life.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: REINAUD, <i>Mémoire sur l' Inde</i>, p. 3.</p> + + <p>2: GEORGE TURNOUR was the eldest son of the Hon. George Turnour, + son of the first Earl of Winterton; his mother being Emilie, niece + to the Cardinal Due de Beausset. He was born in Ceylon in 1799 and + having been educated in England under the guardianship of the Right + Hon. Sir Thomas Maitland, then governor of the island, he entered + the Civil Service in 1818, in which he rose to the highest rank. He + was distinguished equally by his abilities and his modest display + of them. Interpreting in its largest sense the duty enjoined on + him, as a public officer, of acquiring a knowledge of the native + languages, he extended his studies, from the vernacular and written + Singhalese to Pali, the great root and original of both, known only + to the Buddhist priesthood, and imperfectly and even rarely amongst + them. No dictionaries then existed to assist in defining the + meaning of Pali terms which no teacher could be found capable of + rendering into English, so that Mr. Turnour was entirely dependent + on his knowledge of Singhalese as a medium for translating them. To + an ordinary mind such obstructions would have proved + insurmountable, aggravated as they were by discouragements arising + from the assumed barrenness of the field, and the absence of all + sympathy with his pursuits, on the part of those around him, who + reserved their applause and encouragement till success had rendered + him indifferent to either. To this apathy of the government + officers, Major Forbes, who was then the resident at Matelle, + formed an honourable exception; and his narrative of <i>Eleven + Years in Ceylon</i> shows with what ardour and success he shared + the tastes and cultivated the studies to which he had been directed + by the genius and example of Turnour. So zealous and unobtrusive + were the pursuits of the latter, that even his immediate connexions + and relatives were unaware of the value and extent of his + acquirements till apprised of their importance and profundity by + the acclamation with which his discoveries and translations from + the Pali were received by the savans of Europe. Major Forbes, in a + private letter, which I have been permitted to see, speaking of the + difficulty of doing justice to the literary character of Turnour, + and the ability, energy, and perseverance which he exhibited in his + historical investigations, says, "his <i>Epitome of the History of + Ceylon</i> was from the first <i>correct;</i> I saw it seven years + before it was published, and it scarcely required an alteration + afterwards." Whilst engaged in his translation of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, TURNOUR, amongst other able papers on <i>Buddist + History</i> and <i>Indian Chronology</i> in the <i>Journal of the + Bengal Asiatic Society</i>, v. 521, vi. 299, 790, 1049, contributed + a series of essays <i>on the Pali-Buddhistical Annals</i>, which + were published in 1836, 1837, 1838.—<i>Journ. Asiatic Soc. + Bengal</i>, vi. 501, 714, vii. 686, 789, 919. At various times he + published in the same journal an account of the <i>Tooth Relic of + Ceylon, Ib.</i> vi. 856, and notes on the inscriptions on the + columns of Delhi, Allahabad, and Betiah, &c. &c.; and + frequent notices of Ceylon coins and inscriptions. He had likewise + planned another undertaking of signal importance, the translation + into English of a Pali version of the Buddhist scriptures, an + ancient copy of which he had discovered, unencumbered by the + ignorant commentaries of later writers, and the fables with which + they have defaced the plain and simple doctrines of the early + faith. He announced his intention in the <i>Introduction to the + Mahawanso</i> to expedite the publication, as "the least tardy + means of effecting a comparison of the Pali with the Sanskrit + version" (p. cx.). His correspondence with Prinsep, which I have + been permitted by his family to inspect, abounds with the evidence + of inchoate inquiries in which their congenial spirits had a common + interest, but which were abruptly ended by the premature decease of + both. Turnour, with shattered health, returned to Europe in 1842, + and died at Naples on the 10th of April in the following year, The + first volume of his translation of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, which + contains thirty-eight chapters out of the hundred which form the + original work, was published at Colombo in 1837; and apprehensive + that scepticism might assail the authenticity of a discovery so + important, he accompanied his English version with a reprint of the + original Pali in Roman characters with diacritical points.</p> + + <p>He did not live to conclude the task he had so nobly begun; he + died while engaged on the second volume of his translation, and + only a few chapters, executed with his characteristic accuracy, + remain in manuscript in the possession of his surviving relatives. + It diminishes, though in a slight degree, our regret for the + interruption of his literary labours to know that the section of + the <i>Mahawanso</i> which he left unfinished is inferior both in + authority and value to the earlier portion of the work, and that + being composed at a period when literature was at its lowest ebb in + Ceylon, it differs little if at all from other chronicles written + during the decline of the native dynasty.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is necessary to premise, that the most renowned of the + Singhalese books is the <i>Mahawanso</i>, a metrical chronicle, + containing a dynastic history of the island for twenty-three + centuries from B.C. 543 to A.D. 1758. But being written in Pali verse + its existence in modern times was only known to the priests, and + owing to the obscurity of its diction it had ceased to be studied by + even the learned amongst them.</p> + + <p>To relieve the obscurity of their writings, and supply the + omissions, occasioned by the fetters of rhythm and the necessity of + permutations and elisions, required to accommodate their phraseology + to the obligations of verse; the Pali authors of antiquity were + accustomed to accompany their metrical compositions with a + <i>tika</i> or running commentary, which contained a literal version + of the mystical text, and supplied illustrations of its more abstruse + passages. Such a <i>tika</i> on the <i>Mahawanso</i> was generally + known to have been written; but so utter was the neglect into which + both it and the original text had been permitted to fall, that + Turnour till 1826 had never met with an individual who had critically + read the one, or more than casually heard of the existence of the + other.[1] At length, amongst <a name="pg315" id="pg315"></a> the + books which, were procured for him by the high, priest of Saffragam, + was one which proved to be this neglected commentary on the mystic + and otherwise unintelligible <i>Mahawanso</i>; and by the assistance + of this precious document he undertook, with confidence, a + translation into English of the long lost chronicle, and thus + vindicated the claim of Ceylon to the possession of an authentic and + unrivalled record of its national history.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR's <i>Mahawanso</i>, introduction, vol. i. p. ii.</p> + </div> + + <p>The title "Mahawanso," which means literally the "<i>Genealogy of + the Great</i>," properly belongs only to the first section of the + work, extending from B.C. 543 to A.D. 301,[1] and containing the + history of the early kings, from Wijayo to Maha Sen, with whom the + Singhalese consider the "Great Dynasty" to end. The author of this + portion was Mahanamo, uncle of the king Dhatu Sena, in whose reign it + was compiled, between the years A.D. 459 and 477, from annals in the + vernacular language then existing at Anarajapoora.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Although the <i>Mahawanso</i> must be regarded as containing + the earliest <i>historical</i> notices of Ceylon, the island, under + its Sanskrit name of Lanka, occupies a prominent place in the + mythical poems of the Hindus, and its conquest by Rama is the theme + of the <i>Ramayana</i>, one of the oldest epics in existence. In + the <i>Raja-Tarangini</i> also, an historical chronicle which may + be regarded as the <i>Mahawanso</i> of Kashmir, very early accounts + of Ceylon are contained, and the historian records that the King + Megavahana, who, according to the chronology of Troyer, reigned + A.D. 24, made an expedition to Ceylon for the purpose of extending + Buddhism, and visited Adam's Peak, where he had an interview with + the native sovereign.—<i>Raja-Tarangini</i>, Book iii. sl. + 71-79. <i>Ib.</i> vol. ii. p. 364.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. i. The Arabian travellers in Ceylon + mention the official historiographers employed by order of the + kings. See <a href="#pg387">Vol. I Pt. III. ch. viii. p. 387,</a> + note.</p> + </div> + + <p>The sovereigns who succeeded Maha Sen are distinguished as the + "Sulu-wanse," the "lower race," and the story of their line occupies + the continuation of this extraordinary chronicle, the second portion + of which was written by order of the illustrious king Prakrama Bahu, + about the year A.D. 1266, and the narrative was carried on, under + subsequent sovereigns, down to the year A.D. 1758, the latest + chapters having been compiled by command of the King of Kandy, + Kirti-Sri, <a name="pg316" id="pg316"></a> partly from Singhalese + works brought back to the island from Siam (whither they had been + carried at former periods by priests dispatched upon missions), and + partly from native histories, which had escaped the general + destruction of such records in the reign of Raja Singha I., an + apostate from Buddhism, who, about the year A.D. 1590, during the + period when the Portuguese were in occupation of the low country, + exterminated the priests of Buddha, and transferred the care of the + shrine on Adam's Peak to Hindu Fakirs.</p> + + <p>But the <i>Mahawanso</i>, although the most authentic, and + probably the most ancient, is by no means the only existing + Singhalese chronicle. Between the 14th and 18th centuries several + historians recorded passing events; and as these corroborate and + supplement the narrative of the greater work, they present an + uninterrupted Historical Record of the highest authenticity, + comprising the events of nearly twenty-four centuries.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In 1833 Upham published, under the title of <i>The Sacred and + Historical Books of Ceylon</i>, translations of what professed to + be authentic copies of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, the + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, and <i>Rajavali</i>; prepared for the use of + Sir Alexander Johnston when Chief-Justice of the island. But + Turnour, in the introduction to his masterly translation of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>; has shown that Sir Alexander had been imposed + upon, and that the alleged transcripts supplied to him are + imperfect as regards the original text and unfaithful as + translations. Of the <i>Mahawanso</i> in particular, Mr. Turnour + says, in a private letter which I have seen, that the early part of + Upham's volume "is not a translation but a compendium of several + works, and the subsequent portions a mutilated abridgment." The + <i>Rajavali</i>, which is the most valuable of these volumes, was + translated for Sir Alexander Johnston by Mr. Dionysius Lambertus + Pereira, who was then Interpreter-Moodliar to the Cutchery at + Matura. These English versions, though discredited as independent + authorities, are not without value in so far as they afford + corroborative support to the genuine text of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, + and on this account I have occasionally cited them.</p> + </div> + + <p>From the data furnished by these, and from corroborative + sources,[1] Turnour, in addition to many elaborate contributions + drawn from the recesses of Pali learning in elucidation of the + chronology of India, was <a name="pg317" id="pg317"></a> enabled to + prepare an <i>Epitome of the History of Ceylon,</i> in which he has + exhibited the succession and genealogy of one hundred and sixty-five + kings, who filled the throne during 2341 years, extending from the + invasion of the island from Bengal, by Wijayo, in the year B.C. 543 + to its conquest by the British in 1798. In this work, after infinite + labour, he has succeeded in condensing the events of each reign, + commemorating the founders of the chief cities, and noting the + erection of the great temples and Buddhist monuments, and the + construction of some of those gigantic reservoirs and works for + irrigation, which, though in ruins, arrest the traveller in + astonishment at their stupendous dimensions. He thus effectually + demonstrated the misconceptions of those who previously believed the + literature of Ceylon to be destitute of historic materials.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Besides the <i>Mahawanso, Rajaratnacari</i>, and + <i>Rajavali</i>, the other native chronicles relied on by Turnour + in compiling his epitome were the <i>Pujavali</i>, composed in the + thirteenth century, the <i>Neekaasangraha</i>, written A.D. 1347, + and the <i>Account of the Embassy to Siam</i> in the reign of Raja + Singha II., A.D. 1739-47, by WILBAAGEDERE MUDIANSE.</p> + + <p>2: By the help of TURNOUR'S translation of the <i>Mahawanso</i> + and the versions of the <i>Rajaratnacari</i> and <i>Rajavali,</i> + published by Upham, two authors have since expanded the + <i>Epitome</i> of the former into something like a connected + narrative, and those who wish to pursue the investigation of the + early story of the island, will find facilities in the <i>History + of Ceylon,</i> published by KNIGHTON in 1845, and in the first + volume of <i>Ceylon and its Dependencies,</i> by PRIDHAM, London, + 1849. To facilitate reference I have appended a <i>Chronological + List of Singhalese Sovereigns,</i> compiled from the historical + epitome of Turnour. See <a href="#pg320">Note B.</a> at the end of + this chapter.</p> + </div> + + <p>Besides evidence of a less definite character, there is one + remarkable coincidence which affords grounds for confidence in the + faithfulness of the purely historic portion of the Singhalese + chronicles; due allowance being made for that exaggeration of style + which is apparently inseparable from oriental recital. The + circumstance alluded to is the mention in the <i>Mahawanso</i> of the + Chandragupta[1], so often alluded to by the Sanskrit writers, who, as + Sir William Jones was the first to discover, is identical with + Sandracottus or Sandracoptus, the King of the Prasii, to whose court, + on the banks of the Ganges, Megasthenes was accredited as an + ambassador from Seleucus Nicator, about 323 years before <a name= + "pg318" id="pg318"></a> Christ. Along with a multitude of facts + relating to Ceylon, the <i>Mahawanso</i> contains a chronologically + connected history of Buddhism in India from B.C. 590 to B.C. 307, a + period signalized in classical story by the Indian expedition of + Alexander the Great, and by the Embassy of Megasthenes to + Palibothra,—events which in their results form the great link + connecting the histories of the West and East, but which have been + omitted or perverted in the scanty and perplexed annals of the + Hindus, because they tended to the exaltation of Buddhism, a religion + loathed by the Brahmans.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The era and identity of Sandracottus and Chandragupta have + been accurately traced in MAX MÜLLER'S <i>History of Sanskrit + Literature</i>, p. 298, &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Prasii, or people of Megadha, occupy a prominent place in the + history of Ceylon, inasmuch as Gotama Buddha, the great founder of + the faith of its people, was a prince of that country, and Mahindo, + who finally established the Buddhist religion amongst them, was the + great-grandson of Chandagutto, a prince whose name thus recorded in + the <i>Mahawanso</i>[1] (notwithstanding a chronological discrepancy + of about sixty years), may with little difficulty be identified with + the "Chandragupta" of the Hindu Purána, and the "Sandracottus" of + Megasthenes.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mahawanso, ch. v. p. 21. See also WILSON'S <i>Notes to the + Vishnu Purána</i>, p. 468.</p> + </div> + + <p>This is one out of the many coincidences which demonstrate the + authenticity of the ancient annals of Ceylon; and from sources so + venerable, and materials so abundant, I propose to select a few of + the leading events, sufficient to illustrate the origin, and explain + the influence of institutions and customs which exist at the present + day in Ceylon, and which, from time immemorial, have characterised + the inhabitants of the island.</p> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (A.)</h3> + + <h4>ANCIENT MAP OF CEYLON.</h4> + + <p>So far as I am aware, no map has ever been produced, exhibiting + the comparative geography of Ceylon, and placing its modern names in + juxtaposition with their Sanskrit and Pali.</p><a name="pg319" id= + "pg319"></a> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/319.jpg"><img src="images/319.jpg" width="100%" + alt="LANGKÂ OR TÂMBRAPARNI." /></a> + + <p>LANGKÂ OR TÂMBRAPARNI. + <br /> + <i>(CEYLON)</i> + <br /> + <i>according to</i> + <br /> + The Sanscrit Pali & Singhalese Authorities. + <br /> + NB The modern Names are given in Italics. + <br /> + By + <br /> + Sir J. Emerson Tennet</p> + </div><a name="pg320" id="pg320"></a> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (B.)</h3> + + <h4>NATIVE SOVEREIGNS OF CEYLON.</h4> + + <p>N.B. The names of subordinate or cotemporary Princes are printed + in <i>Italics</i>.</p> + + <table summary="NATIVE SOVEREIGNS OF CEYLON."> + <tr> + <th></th> + + <th>Names and Relationship of each succeeding Sovereign.</th> + + <th>Capital.</th> + + <th>Accession</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td></td> + + <td></td> + + <th>B.C.</th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">1.</td> + + <td>Wejaya, founder of the Wejayan dynasty</td> + + <td>Tamananeuera</td> + + <td align="right">543</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">2.</td> + + <td>Upatissa 1st, minister—regent </td> + + <td>Upatissaneuera</td> + + <td align="right">505</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">3.</td> + + <td>Panduwása, paternal nephew of Wejaya</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">504</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Ráma</i></td> + + <td><i>Rámagona</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Rohuna</i></td> + + <td><i>Rohuna</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Diggaina</i></td> + + <td><i>Diggámadulla</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Urawelli</i></td> + + <td><i>Mahawelligama</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Anurádha</i></td> + + <td><i>Anurádhapoora</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Wijitta</i></td> + + <td><i>Wijittapoora</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>these six are brothers-in-law</td> + + <td></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">4.</td> + + <td>Abhaya, son of Paduwása, dethroned</td> + + <td>Upatissaneuera</td> + + <td align="right">474</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Interregnum</td> + + <td></td> + + <td align="right">454</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">5.</td> + + <td>Pandukábhaya, maternal grandson of Panduwása</td> + + <td>Anurádhapoora</td> + + <td align="right">437</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">6.</td> + + <td>Mutasiwa, paternal grandson</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">367</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">7.</td> + + <td>Devenipiatissa, second son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">307</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Mahanága, brother</i></td> + + <td><i>Mágama</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Yatálatissa, son</i></td> + + <td><i>Kellania</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Gotábhaya, son</i></td> + + <td><i>Mágama</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Kellani-tissa, not specified</i></td> + + <td><i>Kellania</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td><i>Káwan-tissa, son of Gotábhaya</i></td> + + <td><i>Mágama</i></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">8.</td> + + <td>Uttiya, fourth son of Mutasiwa</td> + + <td>Anurádhapoora</td> + + <td align="right">267</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">9.</td> + + <td>Mahasiwa, fifth son of Mutasiwa</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">257</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">10.</td> + + <td>Suratissa, sixth son of Mutasiwa put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">247</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">11.</td> + + <td>Séna and Guttika, foreign usurpers—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">237</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">12.</td> + + <td>Aséla, ninth son of Mutasiwa—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">215</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">13.</td> + + <td>Elála, foreign usurper—killed in battle</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">205</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">14.</td> + + <td>Dutugaimunu, son of <i>Káwantissa</i></td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">161</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">15.</td> + + <td>Saidaitissa, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">137</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">16.</td> + + <td>Tuhl or Thullathanaka, younger son—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">119</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">17.</td> + + <td>Laiminitissa 1st or Lajjitissa, elder brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">119</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">18.</td> + + <td>Kalunna or Khallátanága, brother—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">109</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">19.</td> + + <td>Walagambáhu 1st or Wattagamini, brother—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">104</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">20.</td> + + <td>Five foreign usurpers—successively deposed and put to + death</td> + + <td></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Pulahattha</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">103</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Báyiha</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">100</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Panayamárá</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">98</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Peliyamárá</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">91</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td></td> + + <td>Dáthiya</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">90</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">21.</td> + + <td>Walagambáhu 1st, reconquered the kingdom</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">88</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">22.</td> + + <td>Mahadailitissa or Mahachula, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">76</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">23.</td> + + <td>Chora Nága, son—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">62</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">24.</td> + + <td>Kudá Tissa, son—poisoned by his wife</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">50</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">25.</td> + + <td>Anulá, widow</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">47</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">26.</td> + + <td>Makalantissa or Kallakanni Tissa, second son of + Kudátissa</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">41</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">27.</td> + + <td>Bátiyatissa 1st or Bátikábhaya, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">19</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan="3"></td> + + <td>A.D.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"><a name="pg321" id="pg321"></a>28.</td> + + <td>Maha Dailiya Mána or Dáthika, brother</td> + + <td>Anurádhapoora</td> + + <td align="right">9</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">29.</td> + + <td>Addagaimunu or Amanda Gámini, son—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">21</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">30.</td> + + <td>Kinibirridaila or Kanijáni Tissa, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">30</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">31.</td> + + <td>Kudá Abhá or Chulábhaya, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">33</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">32.</td> + + <td>Singhawallí or Síwalli, sister—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">34</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Interregnum</td> + + <td></td> + + <td align="right">35</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">33.</td> + + <td>Elluná or Ha Nága, maternal nephew of Addagaimunu</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">38</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">34.</td> + + <td>Sanda Muhuna or Chanda Mukha Siwa, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">44</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">35.</td> + + <td>Yasa Silo or Yatálakatissa, brother—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">52</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">36.</td> + + <td>Subha, usurper—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">60</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">37.</td> + + <td>Wahapp or Wasahba, descendant of Laiminitissa</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">66</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">38.</td> + + <td>Waknais or Wanka Násica, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">110</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">39.</td> + + <td>Gajábáhu 1st or Gámini, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">113</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">40.</td> + + <td>Mahalumáná or Mallaka Nága, maternal cousin</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">125</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">41.</td> + + <td>Bátiya Tissa 2nd or Bhátika Tissa, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">131</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">42.</td> + + <td>Chula Tissa or Kanittbatissa, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">155</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">43.</td> + + <td>Kuhuna or Chudda Nága, son—murdered</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">173</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">44.</td> + + <td>Kudanáma or Kuda Nága, nephew—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">183</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">45.</td> + + <td>Kuda Siriná or Siri Nága 1st, brother-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">184</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">46.</td> + + <td>Waiwahairatissa or Wairatissa, son—murdered</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">209</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">47.</td> + + <td>Abhá Sen or Abhá Tissa, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">231</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">48.</td> + + <td>Siri Nága 2nd, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">239</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">49.</td> + + <td>Weja Indu or Wejaya 2nd, son—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">241</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">50.</td> + + <td>Sangatissa 1st, descendant of + Laiminitissa—poisoned</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">242</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">51.</td> + + <td>Dahama Sirisanga Bo or Sirisanga Bodhi 1st, do + do.—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">245</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">52.</td> + + <td>Golu Abhá, Gothábhaya or Megha warna Abhay, do. do.</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">248</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">53.</td> + + <td>Makalan Detu Tissa 1st, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">261</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">54.</td> + + <td>Maha Sen, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">275</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">55.</td> + + <td>Kitsiri Maiwan 1st or Kirtisri Megha warna, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">302</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">56.</td> + + <td>Detu Tissa 2nd, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">330</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">57.</td> + + <td>Bujas or Budha Dása, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">339</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">58.</td> + + <td>Upatissa 2nd, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">368</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">59.</td> + + <td>Maha Náma, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">410</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">60.</td> + + <td>Senghot or Sotthi Sena, son—poisoned</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">432</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">61.</td> + + <td>Laimini Tissa 2nd or Chatagáhaka, descendant of + Laiminitissa</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">432</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">62.</td> + + <td>Mitta Sena or Karalsora, not specified—put to + death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">433</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">63.</td> + + <td>Pándu}</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">434</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Párinda Kuda}</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">439</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Khudda Párinda} 24.9. Foreign + usurpers</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">455</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Dátthiya}</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">455</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Pitthiya}</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">458</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">64.</td> + + <td>Dásenkelleya or Dhátu Séna, descendant of the original royal + family—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">459</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">65.</td> + + <td>Sígiri Kasumbu or Kásyapa 1st, son—committed + suicide</td> + + <td>Sigiri Galla Neuera</td> + + <td align="right">477</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"><a name="pg322" id="pg322"></a>66.</td> + + <td>Mugallána 1st, brother</td> + + <td>Anurádhapoora</td> + + <td align="right">495</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">68.</td> + + <td>Kirti Séna, son-murdered</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">522</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">69.</td> + + <td>Maidi Síwu or Síwaka, maternal uncle-murdered</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">531</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">70.</td> + + <td>Laimini Upátissa 3rd, brother-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">531</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">71.</td> + + <td>Ambaherra Salamaiwan or Silákála, son-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">534</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">72.</td> + + <td>Dápulu 1st or Dátthápa Bhodhi, second son—committed + suicide</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">547</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">73.</td> + + <td>Dalamagalan or Mugallána 2nd, elder brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">547</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">74.</td> + + <td>Kuda Kitsiri Maiwan 1st or Kirtisri Meg-hawarna, son-put to + death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">567</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">75.</td> + + <td>Senewi or Maha Nága, descendant of the Okáka branch</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">586</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">76.</td> + + <td>Aggrabodhi 1st or Akbo, maternal nephew</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">589</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">77.</td> + + <td>Aggrabodhi 2nd or Sula Akbo, son-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">623</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">78.</td> + + <td>Sanghatissa, brother-decapitated</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">633</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">79.</td> + + <td>Buna Mugalan or Laimini Bunáya, usurper-put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">633</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">80.</td> + + <td>Abhasiggáhaka or Asiggáhaka, maternal grandson</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">639</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">81.</td> + + <td>Siri Sangabo 2nd, son-deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">648</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">82.</td> + + <td>Kaluna Detutissa or Laimina Katuriya, descendant of + Laiminitissa-committed suicide</td> + + <td>Dewuneura or Dondera</td> + + <td align="right">648</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Siri Sangabo 2nd, restored, and again deposed</td> + + <td>Anurádhapoora</td> + + <td align="right">649</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">83.</td> + + <td>Dalupiatissa 1st or Dhatthopatissa, Laimini branch-killed in + battle</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">665</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">84.</td> + + <td>Paisulu Kasumbu or Kásyapa 2nd, brother of Sirisangabo</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">677</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">85.</td> + + <td>Dapulu 2nd, Okáka branch-deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">686</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">86.</td> + + <td>Dalupiatissa 2nd or Hattha-Datthopatissa, son of Dalupiatissa + 1st</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">693</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">87.</td> + + <td>Paisulu Siri Sanga Bo 3rd or Aggrabodhi, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">702</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">88.</td> + + <td>Walpitti Wasidata or Dantanáma, Okáka branch</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">718</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">89.</td> + + <td>Hununaru Riandalu or Hatthadátha, original royal + family-decapitated</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">720</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">90.</td> + + <td>Máhalaipánu or Mánawamma, do. do.</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">720</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">91.</td> + + <td>Kásiyappa 3rd o Kasumbu, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">726</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">92.</td> + + <td>Aggrabodhi 3rd or Akbo, nephew</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">729</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">93.</td> + + <td>Aggrabodhi 4th or Kudá Akbo, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">769</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">94.</td> + + <td>Mahindu 1st or Salamaiwan, original royal family</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">775</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">95.</td> + + <td>Dappula 2nd, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">795</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">96.</td> + + <td>Mahindu 2nd or Dharmika-Sîlámaiga, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">800</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">97.</td> + + <td>Aggrabodhi 5th or Akbo, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">804</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">98.</td> + + <td>Dappula 3rd or Kudá Dappula, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">815</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">99.</td> + + <td>Aggrabodhi 6th, cousin</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">831</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">100.</td> + + <td>Mitwella Sen or Silámaiga, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">838</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">101.</td> + + <td>Kásiyappa 4th or Máganyin Séna or Mihindu, grandson</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">858</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">102.</td> + + <td>Udaya 1st, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">891</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"><a name="pg323" id="pg323"></a>103.</td> + + <td>Udaya 2nd, son</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">926</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">104.</td> + + <td>Kásiyappa 5th, nephew and son-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">937</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">105.</td> + + <td>Kásiyappa 6th, son-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">954</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">106.</td> + + <td>Dappula 4th, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">964</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">107.</td> + + <td>Dappula 5th, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">964</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">108.</td> + + <td>Udaya 3rd, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">974</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">109</td> + + <td>Séna 2nd, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">977</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">110.</td> + + <td>Udaya 4th, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">986</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">111.</td> + + <td>Séna 3rd, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">994</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">112.</td> + + <td>Mihindu 3rd, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">997</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">113.</td> + + <td>Sèna 4th, son—minor</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1013</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">114.</td> + + <td>Mihindu 4th, brother—carried captive to India during + the Sollean conquest</td> + + <td>Anurádhapoora</td> + + <td align="right">1023</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Interregnum Sollean viceroyalty</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">1059</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Maha Lai or Maha Lála Kirti</i></td> + + <td><i>Rohuna</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Wikrama Pándi</i></td> + + <td><i>Kalutotta</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Jagat Pándi or Jagati Pála</i></td> + + <td><i>Rohuna</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Prákrama Pándi or Prákhrama Báhu</i></td> + + <td><i>ditto</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Lokaiswara</i></td> + + <td><i>Kácharagama</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Subordinate native kings during the Sollean vice-royalty. + (5 above)</i></td> + + <td></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">115.</td> + + <td>Wejayabáhu 1st or Sirisangabo 4th, grandson of Mihindu + 4th</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">1071</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">116.</td> + + <td>Jayabáhu 1st, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1126</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">117.</td> + + <td>Wikramabáhu 1st</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1127</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Mánábarana</i></td> + + <td><i>Rohuna</i></td> + + <td align="right">1127</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">118.</td> + + <td>Gajábáhu 2nd</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">1127</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Siriwallaba or Kitsiri Maiwan</i></td> + + <td><i>Rohuna</i></td> + + <td align="right">1127</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>A disputed succession (4 above)</td> + + <td></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">119.</td> + + <td>Prákrama Báhu 1st, son of Mánábárana</td> + + <td>Pollonuarrua</td> + + <td align="right">1153</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">120.</td> + + <td>Wejayabáhu 2nd, nephew—murdered</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1186</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">121.</td> + + <td>Mihindu 5th or Kitsen Kisdas, usurper—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1187</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">122.</td> + + <td>Kirti Nissanga, a prince of Kálinga</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1187</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Wírabáhu, son—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1196</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">123.</td> + + <td>Wikramabáhu 2nd, brother of Kirti Nissanga—put to + death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1196</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">124.</td> + + <td>Chondakanga, nephew—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1196</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">125.</td> + + <td>Lálawátí, widow of Prákramabáhu—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1197</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">126.</td> + + <td>Sáhasamallawa, Okáka branch—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1200</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">127.</td> + + <td>Kalyánawati, sister of Kirti Nissanga</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1202</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">128.</td> + + <td>Dharmásóka, not specified—a minor</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1208</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">129.</td> + + <td>Nayaanga or Nikanga, minister—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1209</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Lílawatí, restored, and again deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1209</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">130.</td> + + <td>Lokaiswera 1st, usurper—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1210</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td>Lílawatí, again restored, and deposed a third time</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1211</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">131.</td> + + <td>Pandi Prákrama Báhu 2nd, usurper—deposed</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1211</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">132.</td> + + <td>Mágha, foreign usurper</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1214</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">133.</td> + + <td>Wejayabáhu 3rd, descendant of Sirisangabo 1st</td> + + <td>Dambadenia</td> + + <td align="right">1235</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">134.</td> + + <td>Kalikála Sahitya Sargwajnya or Pandita Prakrama Báhu 3rd, + son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1266</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">135.</td> + + <td>Bosat Wejaya Báhu 4th, son</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">1301</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Bhuwaneka Báhu</i></td> + + <td><i>Yapahu or Subbapabatto</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"><a name="pg324" id="pg324"></a>136.</td> + + <td>Bhuwaneka Báhu 1st, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1303</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">137.</td> + + <td>Prákrama Báhu 3rd, son of Bosat Wejayabáhu</td> + + <td>Pollonnarrua</td> + + <td align="right">1314</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">138.</td> + + <td>Bhuwaneka Báhu 2nd, son of Bhuwaneka Báhu</td> + + <td>Kurunaigalla or Hastisailapoora</td> + + <td align="right">1319</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">139.</td> + + <td>Pandita Prákrama Báhu 4th, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">140.</td> + + <td>Wanny Bhuwaneka Báhu 3rd, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">141.</td> + + <td>Wejaya Báhu 5th, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">142.</td> + + <td>Bhuwaneka Báhu 4th, not specified</td> + + <td>Gampola or Gangásiripoora</td> + + <td align="right">1347</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">143.</td> + + <td>Prákrama Báhu 5th, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1361</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">144.</td> + + <td>Wikram Báhu 3rd, cousin</td> + + <td>Partly at Kandy or Sengadagalla Neuera</td> + + <td align="right">1371</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">145.</td> + + <td>Bhuwaneka Báhu 5th, not specified</td> + + <td>Gampola or Gangásiripoora</td> + + <td align="right">1378</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">146.</td> + + <td>Wejaya Báhu 5th, or Wíra Báhu, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1398</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">147.</td> + + <td>Sri Prákrama Bahu 6th, not specified</td> + + <td>Kotta or Jayawardanapoora</td> + + <td align="right">1410</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">148.</td> + + <td>Jayabáhu 2nd, maternal grandson—put to death</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1462</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">149.</td> + + <td>Bhuwaneka Báhu 6th, not specified</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1464</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">150.</td> + + <td>Pandita Prákrama Báhu 7th, adopted son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1471</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">151.</td> + + <td>Wíra Prákrama Báhu 8th, brother of Bhuwaneka Báhu 6th</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1485</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">152.</td> + + <td>Dharma Prákrama Báhu 9th, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1505</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">153.</td> + + <td>Wejaya Báhu 7th, brother—murdered</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1527</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Jayawíra Bandára</i></td> + + <td><i>Gampola</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">154.</td> + + <td>Bhuwaneka Báhu 7th, son</td> + + <td>Kotta</td> + + <td align="right">1534</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Máyádunnai</i></td> + + <td><i>Setawacca</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Raygam Bandára</i></td> + + <td><i>Raygam</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Jayawíra Bandára</i></td> + + <td><i>Kandy</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">155.</td> + + <td>Don Juan Dharmapála</td> + + <td>Kotta</td> + + <td align="right">1542</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>A Malabar</i></td> + + <td><i>Yapahu</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Portuguese</i></td> + + <td><i>Colombo</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Wídiye Rája</i></td> + + <td><i>Pailainda Neuera</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Rája Singha</i></td> + + <td><i>Aiwissáwelle</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Idirimáné Suriya</i></td> + + <td><i>Seven Korles</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Wikrama Báhu descendant of</i> Sirisangabo 1st</td> + + <td><i>Kandy</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">156.</td> + + <td>Rája Singha 1st, son of <i>Máyádunnai</i></td> + + <td>Setawacca</td> + + <td align="right">1581</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Jaya Suriya</i></td> + + <td><i>Setawacca</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Wídiye Rája's queen</i></td> + + <td><i>ditto</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">157.</td> + + <td>Wimala Dharma, original royal family</td> + + <td>Khandy</td> + + <td align="right">1592</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">158.</td> + + <td>Senáraana or Senarat, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1604</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">159.</td> + + <td>Rája-singha 2nd, son</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1637</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Kumára-singa, brother</i></td> + + <td><i>Ouvah</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right"></td> + + <td><i>Wejaya Pála, brother</i></td> + + <td><i>Matelle</i></td> + + <td align="right"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">160.</td> + + <td>Wimala Dharma Suriya 2nd, son of Rájasingha</td> + + <td>Khandy</td> + + <td align="right">1687</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">161.</td> + + <td>Sriwíra Prákrama Narendrasingha or Kundasála</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1707</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">162.</td> + + <td>Sriwejaya Rája Singha or Hanguranketta, brother-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1739</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">163.</td> + + <td>Kirtisri Rája Singha, brother-in-law</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1747</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">164.</td> + + <td>Rajádhi Rája Singha, brother</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1781</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="right">165.</td> + + <td>Sri Wikrema Rája Singha, son of the late king's wife's + sister, deposed by the English in 1815, and died in captivity in + 1832</td> + + <td>ditto</td> + + <td align="right">1798</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>NOTE.—The Singhalese vowels <i>a, e, i, o, u</i> are to be + pronounced as in French or Italian.</p><a name="pg325" id= + "pg325"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. II.</h2> + + <h3>THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF CEYLON.</h3> + + <p>Divested of the insipid details which overlay them, the annals of + Ceylon present comparatively few stirring incidents, and still fewer + events of historic importance to repay the toil of their perusal. + They profess to record no occurrence anterior to the advent of the + last Buddha, the great founder of the national faith, who was born on + the borders of Nepaul in the <i>seventh</i> century before + Christ.</p> + + <p>In the theoretic doctrines of Buddhism "<i>Buddhas</i>"[1] are + beings who appear after intervals of inconceivable extent; they + undergo transmigrations extending over vast spaces of time, + accumulating in each stage of existence an increased degree of merit, + till, in their last incarnation as men, they attain to a degree of + purity so immaculate as to entitle them to the final exaltation of + "Buddha-hood," a state approaching to incarnate divinity, in which + they are endowed with wisdom so supreme as to be competent to teach + mankind the path to ultimate bliss.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A sketch of the Buddhist religion may be seen in Sir J. + EMERSON TENNENT'S <i>History of Christianity in Ceylon</i>, ch. v. + London, 1850. But the most profound and learned dissertations on + Buddhism as it exists in Ceylon, will be found in the works of the + Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY, <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, Lond. 1850, and + <i>A Manual of Buddhism</i>, Lond. 1853.</p> + </div> + + <p>Their precepts, preserved orally or committed to writing, are + cherished as <i>bana</i> or the "<i>word</i>;" their doctrines are + incorporated in the system of <i>dharma</i> or "<i>truth</i>;" and, + at their death, instead of entering on a new form of being, either + corporeal or spiritual, they are absorbed into <i>Nirwana</i>, that + state of blissful unconsciousness akin to annihilation which is + regarded by Buddhists as the consummation of eternal + felicity.</p><a name="pg326" id="pg326"></a> + + <p>Gotama, who is represented as the last of the series of + Buddhas[1], promulgated a religious system in India which has + exercised a wider influence over the Eastern world than the doctrines + of any other uninspired teacher in any age or country.[2] He was born + B.C. 624 at Kapila-Vastu (a city which has no place in the geography + of the Hindus, but which appears to have been on the borders of + Nepaul); he attained his superior Buddha-hood B.C. 588, under a + bo-tree[3] in the forest of Urawela, the site of the present Buddha + Gaya in Bahar; and, at the age of eighty, he died at Kusinara, a + doubtful locality, which it has been sought to identify with the + widely separated positions of Delhi, Assam, and Cochin China.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There were twenty-four Buddhas previous to the advent of + Gotama, who is the fourth in the present Kalpa or chronological + period. His system of doctrine is to endure for 5000 years, when it + will be superseded by the appearance and preaching of his + successor.—<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. i. p. 42.</p> + + <p>2: HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, ch. i. p. 1. There is + evidence of the widely-spread worship of Buddha in the remotely + separated individuals with whom it has been sought at various times + to identify him. "Thus it has been attempted to show that Buddha + was the same as Thoth of the Egyptians, and Turm of the Etruscans, + that he was Mercury, Zoroaster, Pythagoras, the Woden of the + Scandinavians, the Manes of the Manichæans, the prophet Daniel, and + even the divine author of Christianity." (PROFESSOR WILSON, + <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc.</i>, vol. xvi. p. 233.) Another curious + illustration of the prevalence of his doctrines may be discovered + in the endless variations of his name in the numerous countries + over which his influence has extended: Buddha, Budda, Bud, Bot, + Baoth, Buto, Budsdo, Bdho, Pout, Pote, Fo, Fod, Fohi, Fuh, Pet, + Pta, Poot, Phthi, Phut, Pht, &c.—POCOCKE'S <i>India in + Greece</i>, appendix, 397. HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. vii. p. + 355. HARDY in his <i>Eastern Monachism</i> says, "There is no + country in either Europe or Asia, <i>except those that are + Buddhist</i>, in which the same religion is now professed that was + there existent at the time of the Redeemer's death," ch. xxii. p. + 327.</p> + + <p>3: The Pippul, <i>Ficus religiosa</i>.</p> + + <p>4: Professor H.H. WILSON has identified Kusinara or Kusinagara + with <i>Kusia</i> in Gorakhpur, <i>Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i>, vol + xvi. p. 246.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the course of his ministrations Gotarna is said to have thrice + landed in Ceylon. Prior to his first coming amongst them, the + inhabitants of the island appear to have been living in the simplest + and most primitive manner, supported on the almost spontaneous + products of the soil. Gotama in person undertook their conversion, + and alighted on the first occasion at Bintenne, where <a name="pg327" + id="pg327"></a> there exists to the present day the remains of a + monument erected two thousand years ago[1] to commemorate his + arrival. His second visit was to Nagadipo in the north of the island, + at a place whose position yet remains to be determined; and the + "sacred foot-print" on Adam's Peak is still worshipped by his + devotees as the miraculous evidence of his third and last + farewell.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: By Dutugaimunu, B.C. 164. For an account of the present + condition of this Dagoba at Bintenne, see Vol. II. Pt. IX. ch. + ii.</p> + </div> + + <p>To the question as to what particular race the inhabitants of + Ceylon at that time belonged, and whence or at what period the island + was originally peopled, the Buddhist chronicles furnish no reply. And + no memorials of the aborigines themselves, no monuments or + inscriptions, now remain to afford ground for speculation. + Conjectures have been hazarded, based on no sufficient data, that the + Malayan type, which extends from Polynesia to Madagascar, and from + Chin-India to Taheite, may still be traced in the configuration, and + in some of the immemorial customs, of the people of Ceylon.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Amongst the incidents ingeniously pressed into the support of + this conjecture is the use by the natives of Ceylon of those + <i>double canoes</i> and <i>boats with outriggers</i>, which are + never used on the Arabian side of India, but which are peculiar to + the Malayan race in almost every country to which they have + migrated; Madagascar and the Comoro islands, Sooloo, Luzon, the + Society Islands, and Tonga. PRITCHARD'S <i>Races of Man</i>, ch. + iv. p. 17. For a sketch of this peculiar canoe, see Vol. II. Pt. + VII. ch. i.</p> + + <p>There is a dim tradition that the first settlers in Ceylon + arrived from the coasts of China. It is stated in the introduction + to RIBEYRO'S <i>History of Ceylon</i>, but rejected by VALENTYN, + ch, iv. p. 61.</p> + + <p>The legend prefixed to RIBEYRO is as follows. "Si nous en + croyons les historiens Portugais, les Chinois out été les premiers + qui ont habité cette isle, et cela arriva de cette manière. Ces + peuples étoient les maîtres du commerce de tout l'orient; quelques + unes de leurs vaisseaux furent portéz sur les basses qui sont près + du lieu, que depuis on appelle Chilao par corruption au lieu de + Cinilao. Les équipages se sauvèrent à terre, et trouvant le pais + bon et fertile ils s'y établirent: bientôt après ils s'allièrent + avec les Malabares, et les Malabares y envoyoient ceux qu'ils + exiloient et qu'ils nominoient <i>Galas</i>. Ces exiles s'étant + confondus avec les Chinois, de deux noms n'en out fait qu'un, et se + sont appellés <i>Chin-galas</i> et ensuite + Chingalais."—RIBEYRO, <i>Hist. de Ceylan</i>, pref. du + trad.</p> + + <p>It is only necessary to observe in reference to this hypothesis + that it is at variance with the structure of the Singhalese + alphabet, in which <i>n</i> and <i>g</i> form but one letter. DE + BARROS and DE COUTO likewise adhere to the theory of a mixed race, + originating in the settlement of Chinese in the south of Ceylon, + but they refer the event to a period subsequent to the seizure of + the Singhalese king and his deportation to China in the fifteenth + century. DE BARROS, Dec. iii. ch. i.; DE COUTO, Dec. v. ch. 5.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the greater probability is, that a branch of the same stock + which originally colonised the Dekkan extended its migrations to + Ceylon. All the records and traditions of the peninsula point to a + time when its <a name="pg328" id="pg328"></a> nations were not Hindu; + and in numerous localities[1], in the forests and mountains of the + peninsula, there are still to be found the remnants of tribes who + undoubtedly represent the aboriginal race.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: LASSEN, <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i>, vol. i. p. 199, + 362.</p> + </div> + + <p>The early inhabitants of India before their comparative + civilisation under the influence of the Aryan invaders, like the + aborigines of Ceylon before the arrival of their Bengal conquerors, + are described as mountaineers and foresters who were "rakshas" or + demon worshippers; a religion, the traces of which are to be found to + the present day amongst the hill tribes in the Concan and Canara, as + well as in Guzerat and Cutch. In addition to other evidences of the + community of origin of these continental tribes and the first + inhabitants of Ceylon, there is a manifest identity, not alone in + their popular superstitions at a very early period, but in the + structure of the national dialects, which are still prevalent both in + Ceylon and Southern India. Singhalese, as it is spoken at the present + day, and, still more strikingly, as it exists as a written language + in the literature of the island, presents unequivocal proofs of an + affinity with the group of languages still in use in the Dekkan; + Tamil, Telingu, and Malayalim. But with these its identification is + dependent on analogy rather than on structure, and all existing + evidence goes to show that the period at which a vernacular dialect + could have been common to the two countries must have been extremely + remote.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Mahawanso</i> (ch. xiv.) attests that at the period of + Wijayo's conquest of Ceylon, B.C. 543, the language of the natives + was different from that spoken by himself and his companions, + which, as they came from Bengal, was in all probability Pali. + Several centuries afterwards, A.D. 339, the dialect of the two + races was still different; and some of the sacred writings were + obliged to be translated from Pali into the Sihala + language.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. xxxviii. p. 247. At a + still later period, A.D. 410; a learned priest from Magadha + translated the Attah-Katha from Singhalese into + Pali.—<i>Ib</i>. p. 253. See also DE ALWIS, + <i>Sidath-Sangara</i>, p. 19.</p> + </div><a name="pg329" id="pg329"></a> + + <p>Though not based directly on either Sanskrit or Pali, Singhalese + at various times has been greatly enriched from both sources, and + especially from the former; and it is corroborative of the inference + that the admixture was comparatively recent; and chiefly due to + association with domiciliated strangers, that the further we go back + in point of time the proportion of amalgamation diminishes, and the + dialect is found to be purer and less alloyed. Singhalese seems to + bear towards Sanskrit and Pali a relation similar to that which the + English of the present day bears to the combination of Latin, + Anglo-Saxon, and Norman French, which serves to form the basis of the + language. As in our own tongue the words applicable to objects + connected with rural life are Anglo-Saxon, whilst those indicative of + domestic refinement belong to the French, and those pertaining to + religion and science are borrowed from Latin[1]; so, in the language + of Ceylon, the terms applicable to the national religion are taken + from Pali, those of science and art from Sanskrit, whilst to pure + Singhalese belong whatever expressions were required to denote the + ordinary wants of mankind before society had attained + organisation.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See TRENCH on the <i>Study of Words</i>.</p> + + <p>2: See DE ALWIS, <i>Sidath-Sangara</i>, p. xlviii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 543</span>Whatever momentary success may + have attended the preaching of Buddha, no traces of his pious labours + long survived him in Ceylon. The mass of its inhabitants were still + aliens to his religion, when, on the day of his decease, B.C. 543, + Wijayo[1], the discarded son of one <a name="pg330" id="pg330"></a> + of the petty sovereigns in the valley of the Ganges[2] effected a + landing with a handful of followers in the vicinity of the modern + Putlam.[3] Here he married the <a name="pg331" id="pg331"></a> + daughter of one of the native chiefs, and having speedily made + himself master of the island by her influence, he established his + capital at Tamana Neuera[4], and founded a dynasty, which, for nearly + eight centuries, retained supreme authority in Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Sometimes spelled <i>Wejaya</i>. TURNOUR has demonstrated + that the alleged concurrence of the death of Buddha and the landing + of Wijayo is a device of the sacred annalists, in order to give a + pious interest to the latter event, which took place about sixty + years later.—Introd <i>Mahawanso</i>, p. liii.</p> + + <p>2: To facilitate reference to the ancient divisions of India, a + small map is subjoined, chiefly taken from Lassen's <i>Indische + Alterthumskunde</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/330.jpg"><img src="images/330.jpg" width="100%" + alt="MAP OF ANCIENT INDIA." /></a> + + <p>MAP OF ANCIENT INDIA.</p> + </div> + + <p>3: BURNOUF conjectures that the point from which Wijayo set sail + for Ceylon was the Godavery, where the name of Bandar-maha-lanka + (the Port of the Great Lanka), still commemorates the + event.—<i>Journ. Asiat.</i> vol. xviii. p. 134. DE COUTO, + recording the Singhalese tradition as collected by the Portuguese, + he landed at Preaturé (Pereatorre), between Trincomalie and + Jaffna-patam, and that the first city founded by him was + Mantotte.—<i>Decade</i> v. l. 1. c. 5.</p> + + <p>4: See <a href="#pg332">a note</a> at the end of this chapter, + on the landing of Wijayo in Ceylon, as described in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 543.</span>The people whom he mastered + with so much facility are described in the sacred books as + <i>Yakkhos</i> or "demons,"[1] and <i>Nagas</i>[2], or "snakes;" + designations which the Buddhist historians are supposed to have + employed in order to mark their contempt for the uncivilised + aborigines[3], in the same manner that the aborigines in the Dekkan + were denominated goblins and demons by the Hindus[4], from the fact + that, like the Yakkhos of Ceylon, they too were demon worshippers. + The Nagas, another section of the same superstition, worshipped the + cobra de capello as an emblem of the destroying power. These appear + to have chiefly inhabited the northern and western coasts of Ceylon, + and the Yakkhos the interior[5]; and, notwithstanding their alleged + barbarism, both had organised some form of government, however + rude.[6] The Yakkhos had a capital which they called Lankapura, and + the Nagas a king, the possession of whose "throne of gems"[7] was + disputed by the rival sovereign of a neighbouring kingdom. So + numerous were the followers of this gloomy idolatry of that time in + Ceylon, that they gave the name of Nagadipo[8], + <i>the</i></p><a name="pg332" id="pg332"></a> + + <p><i>Island of Serpents</i>, to the portion of the country which + they held, in the same manner that Rhodes and Cyprus severally + acquired the ancient designation of <i>Ophiusa</i>, from the fact of + their being the residence of the Ophites, who introduced + serpent-worship into Greece.[9]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii.; FA HIAN, + <i>Foĕ-kouĕ-ki</i>, ch. xxxvii.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 169.</p> + + <p>3: REINAUD, Introd. to <i>Abouldfeda</i>, vol. i. sec. iii. p. + ccxvi. See also CLOUGH'S <i>Singhalese Dictionary</i>, vol. ii. p. + 2.</p> + + <p>4: MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE'S, <i>History of India</i>, b. iv. + ch. xi. p. 216.</p> + + <p>5: The first descent of Gotama Buddha in Ceylon was amongst the + Yakkhos at Bintenne; in his second visit he converted the + "<i>Naga</i> King of Kalany," near Colombo, <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + i. p. 5.</p> + + <p>6: FABER, <i>Origin of Idolatry</i>, b. ii ch. vii. p. 440.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. i.</p> + + <p>8: TURNOUR was unable to determine the position on the modern + map of the ancient territory of Nagadipo.—Introd. p. xxxiv. + CASIE CHITTY, in a paper in the <i>Journal of the Ceylon Asiatic + Society</i>, 1848, p. 71, endeavours to identify it with Jaffna, + The <i>Rajaratnacari</i> places it at the present Kalany, on the + river of that name near Colombo (vol. ii. p. 22). The + <i>Mahawanso</i> in many passages alludes to the existence of Naga + kingdoms on the continent of India, showing that at that time + serpent-worship had not been entirely extinguished by Brahmanism in + the Dekkan, and affording an additional ground for conjecture that + the first inhabitants of Ceylon were a colony from the opposite + coast of Calinga.</p> + + <p>9: BRYANT'S <i>Analysis of Mythology</i>, chapter on + Ophiolatria, vol. i p. 480, "Euboea means <i>Oub-aia</i>, and + signifies the serpent island." (<i>Ib</i>.)</p> + + <p>But STRABO affords us a still more striking illustration of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, in calling the serpent worshippers of Ceylon + "Serpents," since he states that in Phrygia and on the Hellespont + the people who were styled [Greek: ophiogeneis], or the Serpent + races, actually retained a physical affinity with the snakes with + whom they were popularly identified, [Greek: "entautha mytheuousi + tous Ophiogeneis syngenneian tina echein pros tous + oseis."]—STRABO, lib. xiii. c. 588.</p> + + <p>PLINY alludes to the same fable (lib. vii.). And OVID, from the + incident of Cadmus' having sown the dragon's teeth (that is, + implanted Ophiolatria in Greece), calls the Athenians + <i>Serpentigenæ</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>But whatever were the peculiarities of religion which + distinguished the aborigines from their conquerors, the attention of + Wijayo was not diverted from his projects of colonisation by any + anxiety to make converts to his own religious belief. The earliest + cares of himself and his followers were directed to implant + civilisation, and two centuries were permitted to elapse before the + first effort was made to supersede the popular worship by the + inculcation of a more intellectual faith.</p> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE.</h3> + + <h4>DESCRIPTION IN THE MAHAWANSO OF THE LANDING OF WIJAYO.</h4> + + <p>The landing of Wijayo in Ceylon is related in the 7th chapter of + the <i>Mahawanso</i>, and Mr. TURNOUR has noticed the strong + similarity between this story and Homer's account of the landing of + Ulysses in the island of Circe. The resemblance is so striking that + it is difficult to conceive that the Singhalese historian of the 5th + century was entirely ignorant of the works of the Father of Poetry. + Wijayo and his followers, having <a name="pg333" id="pg333"></a> made + good their landing, are met by a "devo" (a divine spirit), who + blesses them and ties a sacred thread as a charm on the arm of each. + One of the band presently discovers the princess in the person of a + devotee, seated near a tank, and she being a magician (Yakkhini) + imprisons him and eventually the rest of his companions in a cave. + The <i>Mahawanso</i> then proceeds: "all these persons not returning, + Wijayo, becoming alarmed, equipping himself with the five weapons of + war, proceeded after them, and examined the delightful pond: he could + perceive no footsteps but those leading down into it, and there he + saw the princess. It occurred to him his retinue must surely have + been seized by her, and he exclaimed, 'Pray, why dost not thou + produce my attendants?' 'Prince,' she replied, 'from attendants what + pleasure canst thou derive? drink and bathe ere thou departest.' + Seizing her by the hair with his left hand, whilst with his right he + raised his sword, he exclaimed, 'Slave, deliver my followers or die.' + The Yakkhini terrified, implored for her life; 'Spare me, prince, and + on thee will I bestow sovereignty, my love, and my service.' In order + that he might not again be involved in difficulty he forced her to + swear[1], and when he again demanded the liberation of his attendants + she brought them forth, and declaring 'these men must be famishing,' + she distributed to them rice and other articles procured from the + wrecked ships of mariners, who had fallen a prey to her. A feast + follows, and Wijayo and the princess retire to pass the night in an + apartment which she causes to spring up at the foot of a tree, + curtained as with a wall and fragrant with incense." It is impossible + not to be struck with a curious resemblance between this description + and that in the 10th book of the Odyssey, where Eurylochus, after + landing, returns to Ulysses to recount the fate of his companions, + who, having wandered towards the palace of Circe, had been imprisoned + after undergoing transformation into swine. Ulysses hastens to their + relief, and having been provided by Mercury with antidotes, which + enabled him to resist the poisons of the sorceress, whom he discovers + in her retreat, the story proceeds:—</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: [Greek: + <br /> + Ei mê moi tlaiês ge, thea, megan horkon homossai + <br /> + Mêti moi autps pêma kakon bouleusemen allo.]—<i>Odys</i>. x. + l. 343.</p> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>[Greek:</p> + + <p>Ôs phat egô d aor oxu eryssamenos para mêrou</p> + + <p>Kirkêepêixa hôste ktameuai meneainôn. k. t. l.]</p> + </div><a name="pg334" id="pg334"></a> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"She spake, I, drawing from beside my thigh</p> + + <p>The faulchion keen, with death denouncing looks,</p> + + <p>Rush'd on her,—she, with a shrill scream of fear,</p> + + <p>Ran under my raised arm, seized fast my knees,</p> + + <p>And in winged accents plaintive thus began:—</p> + + <p>'Who, whence thy city, and thy birth declare,—</p> + + <p>Amazed I see thee with that potion drenched,</p> + + <p>Yet unenchanted: never man before</p> + + <p>Once passed it through his lips and lived the same.</p> + + <p> + * * * Sheath + again</p> + + <p>Thy sword, and let us on my bed recline,</p> + + <p>Mutual embrace, that we may trust henceforth</p> + + <p>Each other without jealousy or fear.'</p> + + <p>The goddess spake, to whom I thus replied:</p> + + <p>'Oh Circe, canst thou bid me meek become,</p> + + <p>And gentle, who beneath thy roof detain'st</p> + + <p>My + fellow-voyagers. * * *</p> + + <p>No, trust me, never will I share thy bed,</p> + + <p>Till first, oh goddess, thou consent to swear</p> + + <p>That dread, all-binding oath, that other harm</p> + + <p>Against myself, thou wilt imagine none.'</p> + + <p>I spake, she, swearing as I bade, renounced</p> + + <p>All evil purpose, and her solemn oath</p> + + <p>Concluded, I ascended next her bed."[1]</p> + </div> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: COWPER's <i>Odyssey</i>, B. x, p. 392.</p> + </div> + + <p>The story of Wijayo's interview with Kuweni is told in nearly the + same terms as it appeared in the <i>Mahawanso</i> in the + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 172.</p> + + <p>Another classical coincidence is curious: we are strongly reminded + of Homer's description of the Syrens by the following passage, + relative to the female <i>Rakshasis</i>, or demons, by whom Ceylon + was originally inhabited, which is given in the memoirs of + HIOUEN-THSANG, the Chinese traveller in the 7th century, as extracted + by him from the Buddhist Chronicles. "Elles épiaient constamment les + marchands qui abordaient dans l'isle, et se changeant en femmes d'une + grande beauté elles venaient au-devant d'eux avec des fleurs + odorantes et au son des instruments de musique, leur adressaient des + paroles bienveillantes et les attiraient dans la ville de fer. Alors + elles leur offraient un joyeux festin et se livraient au plaisir avec + eux: puis elles les enfermaient dans un prison de fer et les + mangeaient l'un après l'autre."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HIOUEN-THSANG, <i>Mém. des Péler. Boudd</i>. 1. xi. p. + 131.</p> + </div><a name="pg335" id="pg335"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. III</h2> + + <h3>THE CONQUEST OF CEYLON BY WIJAYO, B.C. 543, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT + OF BUDDHISM, B.C. 307.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 543.</span>The sacred historians of Ceylon + affect to believe in the assertion of some mysterious connection + between the landing of Wijayo, and the conversion of Ceylon to + Buddhism, one hundred and fifty years afterwards; and imply that the + first event was but a pre-ordained precursor of the second.[1] The + Singhalese narrative, however, admits that Wijayo was but a "lawless + adventurer," who being expelled from his own country, was refused a + settlement on the coast of India before he attempted Ceylon, which + had previously attracted the attention of other adventurers. This + story is in no way inconsistent with that told by the Chinese + Buddhists, who visited the island in the fifth and seventh centuries. + FA HIAN states, that even before the advent of Buddha, Ceylon was the + resort of merchants, who repaired there to exchange their commodities + for gems, which the "demons" and "serpents," who never appeared in + person, deposited on the shore, with a specified value attached to + each, and in lieu of them the strangers substituted certain indicated + articles, and took their departure.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii.</p> + + <p>2: FA HIAN, <i>Foĕ-Kouĕ-ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. See a + notice of this story of FA HIAN, as it applies to the still + existing habits of the Veddahs, <a href="#pg369">Vol. I. Pt III. + ch. vii.</a></p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 543.</span>HIOUEN-THSANG, at a later + period, disposes of the fables of Wijayo's descent from a lion[1], + and of his <a name="pg336" id="pg336"></a> divine mission to Ceylon, + by intimating, that, according to certain authorities, he was the son + of a merchant (meaning a sea-faring trader), who, having appeased the + enmity of the Yakkhos, succeeded by his discretion in eventually + making himself their king.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The legend of Wijayo's descent from a lion, probably + originated from his father being the son of an outlaw named + "Singha."</p> + + <p>2: "Suivant certains auteurs, Sengkia-lo (Wijayo) serait le nom + du fils d'un marchand, qui, par sa prudence, ayant échappé à la + fureur homicide des Lo-tsa" (demons) "réussit ensuite à se faire + Roi."—HIOUEN THSANG, <i>Voyages &c</i>. l. iv. p. + 198.</p> + </div> + + <p>Whatever may have been his first intentions, his subsequent policy + was rather that of an agriculturist than an apostle. Finding the + country rich and fertile, he invited merchants to bring their + families, and take possession of it.[1] He dispersed his followers to + form settlements over the island, and having given to his kingdom his + patrimonial name of Sihala[2], he addressed himself to render his + dominions "habitable for men."[3] He treated the subjugated race of + Yakkhos with a despotic disdain, referable less to pride of caste + than to contempt for the rude habits of the native tribes. He + repudiated the Yakkho princess whom he had married, because her + unequal rank rendered her unfit to remain the consort of a king[4]; + and though she had borne him children, he drove her out before his + second marriage with the daughter of an Indian sovereign, on the + ground that the latter would be too timid to bear the presence of a + being so inferior.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HIOUEN THSANG, ch iv.</p> + + <p>2: Whence Singhala (and Singhalese) Silan, Seylan, and + Ceylon.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii p. 49. <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. + i.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 51.</p> + + <p>5: Ibid., p. 52.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 504.</span>Leaving no issue to inherit the + throne, he was succeeded by his nephew[1], who selected a relation of + Gotama Buddha for his queen; and her brothers having dispersed + themselves over the island, increased the number of petty kingdoms, + which they were permitted to form in various districts[2], a policy + which was freely encouraged by all the early kings, and which, though + it served to <a name="pg337" id="pg337"></a> accelerate colonisation + and to extend the knowledge of agriculture, led in after years to + dissensions, civil war, and disaster. It was at this period that + Ceylon was resolved into the three geographical divisions, which, + down to a very late period, are habitually referred to by the native + historians. All to the north of the Mahawelli-ganga was comprised in + the denomination <i>Pihiti</i>, or the Raja-ratta, from its + containing the ancient capital and the residence of royalty; south of + this was <i>Rohano</i> or <i>Rahuna</i>, bounded on the east and + south by the sea, and by the Mahawelli-ganga and Kalu-ganga, on the + north and west; a portion of this division near Tangalle still + retains the name of Roona.[3] The third was the <i>Maya-ratta</i>, + which lay between the mountains, the two great rivers and the sea, + having the Dedera-oya to the north, and the Kalu-ganga as its + southern limit.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B.C. 504.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 51, ix. p. 57; <i>Rajavali</i>, + part i. p. 177, 186; and TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 12, 14.</p> + + <p>3: The district of Rohuna included the mountain zone of Ceylon, + and hence probably its name, <i>rohuno</i> meaning the "act or + instrument of ascending, as steps or a ladder." Adam's Peak was in + the Maya division; but Edrisi, who wrote in the twelfth century, + says, that it was then called "El Rahoun."—<i>Géographie, + &c</i>. viii, JAUBERT'S <i>Transl</i>. vol. ii. p. 71. + <i>Rahu</i> is an ordinary name for it amongst Mahometan writers, + and in the <i>Raja Tarangini</i>, it is called "Rohanam," b. iii. + 56, 72.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 504.</span>The patriarchal village system, + which from time immemorial has been one of the characteristics of the + Dekkan, and which still prevails throughout Ceylon in a modified + form, was one of the first institutions organised by the successors + of Wijayo. "They fixed the boundaries of every village throughout + Lanka;"[1] they "caused the whole island to be divided into fields + and gardens;"[2] and so uniformly were the rites of these rural + municipalities respected in after times, that one of the Singhalese + monarchs, on learning that merit attached to alms given from the + fruit of the donor's own exertions, undertook to sow a field of rice, + and "from the <a name="pg338" id="pg338"></a> portion derived by him + as the cultivator's share," to bestow an offering on a + "thero."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It was established by Pandukabhaya, A.D. + 437.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 67, <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, + ch. i.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii., <i>Rajavali</i>, b. i. p. + 185.</p> + + <p>3: The king was Mahachula, 77 B.C.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxxiv.</p> + </div> + + <p>From the necessity of providing food for their followers, the + earliest attention of the Bengal conquerors was directed to the + introduction and extension of agriculture. A passage in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> would seem to imply, that previous to the landing of + Wijayo, rice was imported for consumption[1], and upwards of two + centuries later the same authority specifies "one hundred and sixty + loads of hill-paddi,"[2] among the presents which were sent to the + island from Bengal.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Kuweni distributed to the companions of Wijayo; "rice and + other articles, <i>procured from the wrecked ships of + mariners</i>." (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 49.) A tank is + mentioned as then existing near the residence of Kuweni; but it was + only to be used as a bath. (Ib. c. vii. p. 48.) The + <i>Rajaratnacari</i> also mentions that, in the fabulous age of the + second Buddha, of the present Kalpa, there was a famine in Ceylon, + which dried up the cisterns and fountains of the inland. But there + is no evidence of the existence of systematic tillage anterior to + the reign of Wijayo.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xi. p. 70. <i>Paddi</i> is rice before + it has been freed from the husk.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 504.</span>In a low and level country like + the north of Ceylon, where the chief subsistence of the people is + rice, a grain which can only be successfully cultivated under water, + the first requisites of society are reservoirs and canals. The + Buddhist historians extol the father of Wijayo for his judgment and + skill "in forming villages in situations favourable for + irrigation;"[1] his own attention was fully engrossed with the cares + attendant on the consolidation of his newly acquired power; but the + earliest public work undertaken by his successor Panduwasa, B.C. 504, + was a tank, which he caused to be formed in the vicinity of his new + capital Anarajapoora, the <i>Anurogrammum</i> of Ptolemy, originally + a village founded by one of the followers of Wijayo.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vi. p. 46.</p> + + <p>2: The first tank recorded in Ceylon is the Abayaweva, made by + Panduwasa, B.C. 505 (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. ix. p. 57). The second + was the Jayaweva, formed by Pandukabhaya, B.C. 437. (Ib. ch. x. p. + 65.) The <i>third</i>, the Gamini tank, made by the same king at + the same place, Anarajapoora.—Ib. ch. x. p. 66.</p> + </div><a name="pg339" id="pg339"></a> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 307.</span>The continual recurrence of + records of similar constructions amongst the civil exploits of nearly + every succeeding sovereign, together with the prodigious number + formed, alike attests the unimproved condition of Ceylon, prior to + the arrival of the Bengal invaders, and the indolence or ignorance of + the original inhabitants, as contrasted with the energy and skill of + their first conquerors.</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 307.</span>Upwards of two hundred years + were spent in initiatory measures for the organisation of the new + state. Colonists from the continent of India were encouraged by the + facilities held out to settlers, and carriage roads were formed in + the vicinity of the towns.[1] Village communities were duly + organised, gardens were planted, flowers and fruit-bearing trees + introduced,[2] and the production of food secured by the construction + of canals,[3] and public works for irrigation. Moreover, the kings + and petty princes attested the interest which they felt in the + promotion of agriculture, by giving personal attention to the + formation of tanks and to the labours of cultivation.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. xv. xvi.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xi. p. 60 (367 B.C.), ch. xxxiv. p. 211 + (B.C. 20), ch. xxxv. p. 215 (A.D. 20). <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. + ii. p. 29. <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 185, 227.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 210 (B.C. 42), ch. xxxv. p. + 221, 222 (A.D. 275), ch. xxxvii. p. 238. <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. + ii. p. 49, and <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 223, &c.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 61, xxii. p. 130, xxiv. p. 149. + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 185, 186. The Buddhist kings of Burmah, at the + present day, in imitation of the ancient sovereigns of Ceylon, rest + their highest claims to renown on the number of works for + irrigation which they have either formed or repaired. See <i>Yule's + Narrative of the British mission, to Ava in 1855</i>, p. 106.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 307.</span>Meantime, the effects of + Gotama's early visits had been obliterated, and the sacred trees + which he planted were dead; and although the bulk of the settlers had + come from countries where Buddhism was the dominant faith, no + measures appear to have been taken by the immigrants to revive or + extend it throughout Ceylon. Wijayo was, in all probability, a + Brahman, but so indifferent <a name="pg340" id="pg340"></a> to his + own faith, that his first alliance in Ceylon was with a demon + worshipper.[1] His immediate successors were so eager to encourage + immigration, that they treated all religions with a perfect equality + of royal favour. Yakkho temples were not only respected, but "annual + demon offerings were provided" for them; halls were built for the + worshippers of Brahma, and residences were provided at the public + cost, for "five hundred persons of various foreign religious + faiths;"[2] but no mention is made in the <i>Mahawanso</i> of a + single edifice having been then raised for the worshippers of Buddha, + whether resident in the island, or arriving amongst the colonists + from India.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: According to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, Vishnu, in order to + protect Wijayo and his followers from the sorceries of the Yakkhos, + met them on their landing in Ceylon, and "<i>tied threads on their + arms</i>," ch. vii.; and at a later period, when the king + Panduwasa, B.C. 504, was afflicted with temporary insanity, as a + punishment in his person of the crime of perjury, committed by his + predecessor Wijayo, <i>Iswara</i> was supplicated to interpose, and + by his mediation the king was restored to his right + mind.—<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 181.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 67; ch, xxxiii, p. 203.</p> + </div> + + <p>It was not till the year B.C. 307, in the reign of Tissa, that the + preacher Mahindo ventured to visit Ceylon, under the auspices of the + king, whom he succeeded in inducing to abstain from Brahmanical + rites, and to profess faith in the doctrines of Buddha. From the + prominent part thus taken by Tissa in establishing the national faith + of Ceylon, the sacred writers honour his name with the prefix of + <i>Déwánan-pia</i>, or "beloved of the saints."</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 307.</span>The <i>Mahawanso</i> exhausts + the vocabulary of ecstacy in describing the advent of Mahindo, a + prince of Magadha, and a lineal descendant of Chandragutto. It + records the visions by which he was divinely directed to "depart on + his mission for the conversion of Lanka;" it describes his aërial + flight, and his descent on Ambatthalo, the loftiest peak of + Mihintala, the mountain which, rising suddenly from the plain, + overlooks <a name="pg341" id="pg341"></a> the sacred city of + Anarajapoora. The story proceeds to explain, how the king, who was + hunting the elk, was miraculously allured by the fleeing game to + approach the spot where Mahindo was seated[1]; and how the latter + forthwith propounded the Divine doctrine "to the ruler of the land; + who, at the conclusion of his discourse, together with his forty + thousand followers, obtained the salvation of the faith."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The story, as related in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, bears a + resemblance to the legend of St. Hubert and the stag, in the forest + of Ardennes, and to that of St. Eustace, who, when hunting, was led + by a deer of singular beauty towards a rock, where it displayed to + him the crucifix upon its forehead; whence an appeal was addressed + which effected his conversion. "The king Dewananpiyatissa departed + for an elk hunt, taking with him a retinue; and in the course of + the pursuit of the game on foot, he came to the Missa mountain. A + certain devo, assuming the form of an elk, stationed himself there, + grazing; the sovereign descried him, and saying 'it is not fair to + shoot him standing,' sounded his bowstring, on which the elk fled + to the mountain. The king gave chase to the flying animal, and, on + reaching the spot where the priests were, the thero Mahindo came + within sight of the monarch; but the metamorphosed deer + vanished."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, c. xiv.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. p. 80.</p> + </div> + + <p>Then follows the approach of Mahindo to the capital; the + conversion of the queen and her attendants, and the reception of + Buddhism by the nation, under the preaching of its great Apostle, who + "thus became the luminary which shed the light of religion over the + land." He and his sister Sanghamitta thenceforth devoted their lives + to the organisation of Buddhist communities throughout Ceylon, and + died in the odour of sanctity, in the reign of King Uttiya, B.C. + 267.</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>But the grand achievement which + consummated the establishment of the national faith, was the arrival + from Magadha of a branch of the sacred Bo-tree. Every ancient race + has had its sacred tree; the Chaldeans, the Hebrews[1], the Greeks, + the Romans and the Druids, had each their groves, their elms and + their oaks, under which to worship. Like them, the Brahmans have + their <i>Kalpa tree</i> in Paradise, and the Banyan in the vicinity + of their <a name="pg342" id="pg342"></a> temples; and the Buddhists, + in conformity with immemorial practice, selected as their sacred tree + the Pippul, which is closely allied to the Banyan, yet sufficiently + distinguished from it, to serve as the emblem of a new and peculiar + worship.[2] It was whilst reclining under the shade of this tree in + Uruwela, that Gotama received Buddhahood; hence its adoption as an + object of reverence by his followers, and in all probability its + adoration preceded the use of images and temples in Ceylon.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "They sacrifice upon the tops of mountains, and burn incense + under oaks, and poplars, and elms, because the shadow thereof is + good."—<i>Hosea</i>, iv. 13.</p> + + <p>2: The Bo-tree (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>) is the "pippul" of + India. It differs from the Banyan (<i>F. indica</i>), by sending + down no roots from its branches. Its heart-shaped leaves, with long + attenuated points, are attached to the stem by so slender a stalk, + that they appear in the profoundest calm to be ever in motion, and + thus, like the leaves of the aspen, which, from the tradition that + the cross was made of that wood, the Syrians believe to tremble in + recollection of the events of the crucifixion, those of the Bo-tree + are supposed by the Buddhists to exhibit a tremulous veneration, + associated with the sacred scene of which they were the + witnesses.</p> + + <p>3: Previous Buddhas had each his Bo-tree or Buddha-tree. The + pippul had been before assumed by the first recorded Buddha; others + had the iron-tree, the champac, the nipa, + &c.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, TURNOUR'S Introd. p. xxxii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>In order that his kingdom might + possess a sacred tree of the supremest sanctity, king Tissa solicited + a branch of the identical tree under which Gotama reclined, from + Asoca, who then reigned in Magadha. The difficulty of severing a + portion without the sacrilegious offence of "lopping it with any + weapon," was overcome by the miracle of the branch detaching itself + spontaneously, and descending with its roots into the fragrant earth + prepared for it in a golden vase, in which it was transported by sea + to Ceylon[1], and planted by king Tissa in the spot at Anarajapoora, + where, after the <a name="pg343" id="pg343"></a> lapse of more than + 2000 years, it still continues to flourish and to receive the + profound veneration of all Buddhist nations.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The ceremonial of the mysterious severance of the sacred + branch "amid the din of music, the clamours of men, the howling of + the elements, the roar of animals, the screams of birds, the yells + of demons, and the crash of earthquakes," is minutely described in + an elaborate passage of the <i>Mahawanso</i>. And its landing in + Ceylon, the retinue of its attendants, the homage paid to it, its + progress to the capital, its arrival at the Northern-gate "at the + hour when shadows are most extended," its reception by princes + "adorned with the insignia of royalty," and its final deposition in + the earth, under the auspices of Mahindo and his sister + Sanghamitta, form one of the most striking episodes in that very + singular book.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xviii. xix.</p> + + <p>2: The planting of the Bo-tree took place in the eighteenth year + of the reign of King Devenipiatissa, B.C. 288; it is consequently + at the present time 2147 years old.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/342.jpg"><img src="images/342.jpg" alt= + "THE BO TREE AT ANARAJAPOORA" /></a> + + <p>THE BO TREE AT ANARAJAPOORA</p> + </div><a name="pg344" id="pg344"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. IV.</h2> + + <h3>THE EARLY BUDDHIST MONUMENTS.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289</span>Almost simultaneously with the + establishment of the Buddhist religion was commenced the erection of + those stupendous ecclesiastical structures, the number and magnitude + of whose remains form a remarkable characteristic in the present + aspect of the country.</p> + + <p>The architectural history of continental India dates from the + third century before Christ; not a single building or sculptured + stone having as yet been discovered there, of an age anterior to the + reign of Asoca[1], who was the first of his dynasty to abandon the + religion of Brahma for that of Buddha. In like manner the earliest + existing monuments of Ceylon belong to the same period; they owe + their construction to Devenipiatissa, and the historical annals of + the island record with pious gratitude the series of dagobas, + wiharas, and temples erected by him and his successors.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: FERGUSON, <i>Handbook of Architecture</i>, b. i. c. i. p. + 5.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of these the most remarkable are the Dagobas, piles of brickwork + of dimensions so extraordinary that they suggest comparison with the + pyramids of Memphis[1], the barrow of Halyattys[2], or the mounds in + the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: So vast did the dagobas appear to the Singhalese that the + author of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, in describing the construction of + that called the <i>Ruanwelle</i> at Anarajapoora, states that each + of the lower courses contained ten kotis (a koti being equal to 100 + lacs) or 10,000,000 bricks.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx, p. + 179.</p> + + <p>2: "The ancient edifices of Chi-Chen in Central America bear a + striking resemblance to the topes of India. The shape of one of the + domes, its apparent size, the small tower on the summit, the trees + growing on the sides, the appearance of masonry here and there, the + shape of the ornaments, and the small doorway at the base, are so + exactly similar to what I had seen at Anarajapoora that when my + eyes first fell on the engravings of these remarkable ruins I + supposed that they were presented in illustration of the dagobas of + Ceylon."—HARDY's <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, c. xix. p. + 222.</p> + </div><a name="pg345" id="pg345"></a> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>A dagoba (from <i>datu</i>, a + relic, and <i>gabbhan</i>, a shrine[1]) is a monument raised to + preserve one of the relics of Gotama, which were collected after the + cremation of his body at Kusinara, and it is candidly admitted in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> that the intention in erecting them was to provide + "objects to which offerings could be made."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Deha</i>, "the body," and <i>gopa</i>, "what preserves;" + because they enshrine hair, teeth, nails, &c. of + Buddha.—WILSON'S <i>Asiat. Res.</i> vol. xvii. p. 605.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xvii. p. 104.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/345.jpg"><img src="images/345.jpg" alt= + "A SMALL DAGOBA AT KANDY" /></a> + + <p>A SMALL DAGOBA AT KANDY</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>Ceylon contains but one class + of these structures, and boasts no tall monolithic pillars like the + <i>lats</i> of Delhi and Allahabad, and no regularly built columns + similar to the <i>minars</i> of Cabul; but the fragments of the bones + of Gotama, and locks of his hair, are enclosed in enormous masses of + hemispherical masonry, modifications of which may be traced in every + Buddhist country of Asia, in the topes of Affghanistan and the + Punjaub, in the pagodas of Pegu, and in the Boro-Buddor of Java. + Those of Ceylon consist of a bell-shaped dome of brick-work + surmounted by a terminal or <i>tee</i> (generally in the form of a + cube supporting a pointed spire), and resting on a square platform + approached by flights of stone steps. Those, the ruins of which have + been explored in modern times, have been found to be almost solid, + enclosing <a name="pg346" id="pg346"></a> a hollow vessel of metal or + stone which had once contained the relic, but of which the ornament + alone and a few gems or discoloured pearls set in gold, are usually + all that is now discoverable.</p> + + <p>Their outline exhibits but little of ingenuity or of art, and + their construction is only remarkable for the vast amount of labour + which must necessarily have been expended upon them. But, + independently of this, the first dagoba erected at Anarajapoora, the + Thuparamaya, which exists to the present day, "as nearly as may be in + the same form in which it was originally designed, is possessed of a + peculiar interest from the fact that it is in all probability the + oldest architectural monument now extant in India."[1] It was raised + by King Tissa, at the close of the third century before Christ, over + the collar-bone of Buddha, which Mahindo had procured for the + king.[2] In dimensions this monument is inferior to those built at a + later period by the successors of Tissa, some of which are scarcely + exceeded in diameter and altitude by the dome of St. Peter's[3]; but + in elegance of outline it immeasurably surpassed all the other + dagobas, and the beauty of its design is still perceptible in its + ruins after the lapse of two thousand years.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: FERGUSON'S <i>Handbook of Architecture</i>, b. i. c. iii. p. + 43.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xvii. <i>The Rajavali</i> calls it the + jaw-bone, p. 184.</p> + + <p>3: The Abhayagiri dagoba at Anarajapoora, built B.C. 89, was + originally 180 cubits high, which, taking the Ceylon cubit at 2 + feet 3 inches, would be equal to 405 feet. The dome was + hemispherical, and described with a radius of 180 feet, giving a + circumference of 1130 feet. The summit of this stupendous work was + therefore fifty feet higher than St. Paul's, and fifty feet lower + than St. Peter's.</p> + </div> + + <p>The king, in addition to this, built a number of others in various + parts of Ceylon[1], and his name has been perpetuated as the founder + of temples, for the rites of the new religion, and of Wiharas or + monasteries for the residence of its priesthood. The former were of + the simplest design, for an atheistical system, which substitutes + meditation for worship, dispenses with splendour in its edifices and + pomp in its ceremonial.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 15.</p> + </div><a name="pg347" id="pg347"></a> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>The images of Grotama, which in + time became objects of veneration, were but a late innovation[1], and + a doubt even been expressed whether the religion of Buddha in its + primitive constitution, rejecting as it does the doctrine of a + mediatorial priesthood, contemplated the existence of any organised + ministry.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The precise date of their introduction is unknown, but the + first mention of a statue occurs in an inscription on the rock at + Mihintala, bearing date A.D. 246, and referring to the house + constructed over a figure of Buddha.</p> + </div> + + <p>Caves, or insulated apartments in imitation of their gloom and + retirement, were in all probability the first resort of devotees in + Ceylon, and hence amongst the deeds of King Tissa, the most + conspicuous and munificent were the construction of rock temples, on + Mihintala, and of apartments for the priests in all parts of his + dominions.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR's <i>Epitome</i>, p. 15.</p> + </div> + + <p>The directions of Gotama as to the residence of his votaries are + characterised by the severest simplicity, and the term "pansala," + literally "a dwelling of leaves,"[1] by which the house of a priest + is described to the present day, serves to illustrate the original + intention that persons dedicated to his service should cultivate + solitude and meditation by withdrawing into the forest, but within + such a convenient distance as would not estrange them from the + villagers, on whose bounty and alms they were to be dependent for + subsistence.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It is questionable whether the Sarmanai, mentioned by + Megasthenes, were Buddhists or Brahmans; but the account which he + gives of the class of them whom he styles the Hylobii, would seem + to identify them with the Sramanas of Buddhism, "passing their + lives in the woods, [Greek: zôntes en tais ulais], living on fruits + and seeds, and clothed with the bark of trees."—MEGASTHENES' + <i>Indica</i>, &c., Fragm. xlii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>In one of the rock inscriptions + deciphered by Prinsep, King Asoca, in addressing himself to his + Buddhist subjects, distinguishes them as "ascetics and + <i>house-holders</i>." In the sacred books a laic is called a "graha + pali," meaning "the ruler of a house;" and in contra-distinction Fa + Hian, the Chinese Buddhist, speaks of the priests of Ceylon under the + designation of "the house-less," <a name="pg348" id="pg348"></a> to + mark their abandonment of social enjoyments.[1] Anticipating the + probable necessity of their eventually resorting to houses for + accommodation, Buddha directed that, if built for an individual, the + internal measurement of a cell should be twelve spans in length by + seven in breadth[2]; and, if restricted to such dimensions, the + assertions of the Singhalese chronicles become intelligible as to the + prodigious number of such dwellings said to have been raised by the + early kings.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Les hommes hors de leur maisons."—FA HIAN, <i>Foĕ + Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxix. This is the equivalent of the + Singhalese term for the same class, <i>agariyan-pubbajito</i>, used + in the Pittakas.</p> + + <p>2: HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, ch. xiii. p. 122.</p> + + <p>3: The <i>Rajaratnacari</i> says that Devenipiatissa caused + <i>eighty-four thousand</i> temples to be built during his reign, + p. 35.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the multitudes who were thus attracted to a life of indolent + devotion became in a short time so excessive that recourse was had to + other devices for combining economy with accommodation, and groups of + such cells were gradually formed into wiharas and monasteries, the + inmates of which have uniformly preserved their organisation and + order. Still the edifices thus constructed have never exhibited any + tendency to depart from the primitive simplicity so strongly enjoined + by their founder; and, down to the present time, the homes of the + Buddhist priesthood are modest and humble structures generally reared + of mud and thatch, with no pretension to external beauty and no + attempt at internal decoration.</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>To supply to the ascetics the + means of seclusion and exercise, the early kings commenced the + erection of ambulance-halls; and gardens were set apart for the use + of the great temple communities. The <i>Mahawanso</i> describes, with + all the pomp of Oriental diction, the ceremony observed by King Tissa + on the occasion of setting apart a portion of ground as a site for + the first wihara at his capital; the monarch in person, attended by + standard bearers and guards with golden staves, having come to mark + out the boundary with <a name="pg349" id="pg349"></a> a plough drawn + by elephants.[1] A second monastery was erected by him on the summit + of Mihintala[2]; a third was attached to the dagoba of the + Thuparamaya, and others were rapidly founded in every quarter of the + island.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xv. p. 99.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xx. p. 123.</p> + + <p>3: Five hundred were built by one king alone, the third in + succession from Devenipiatissa, B.C. 246 (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxi, p. 127). About the same period the petty chiefs of Rohuna and + Mahagam were equally zealous in their devout labours, the one + having erected sixty-four wiharas in the east of the island, and + the other sixty-eight in the south.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxiv. p. 145, 148.</p> + </div> + + <p>It was in all probability owing to the growth of these + institutions, and the establishment of colleges in connection with + them, that halls were eventually appropriated for the reception of + statues; and that apartments so consecrated were devoted to the + ceremonies and worship of Buddha. Hence, at a very early period, the + dwellings of the priests were identified with the chaityas and sacred + edifices, and the name of the Wihara came to designate indifferently + both the temple and the monastery.</p> + + <p>But the hall which contains the figures of Buddha, and which + constitutes the "temple" proper, is always detached from the domestic + buildings, and is frequently placed on an eminence from which the + view is commanding. The interior is painted in the style of Egyptian + chambers, and is filled with figures and illustrations of the legends + of Gotama, whose statue, with hand uplifted in the attitude of + admonition, or reclining in repose emblematic of the blissful state + of Nirwana, is placed in the dimmest recess of the edifice. Here + lamps cast a feeble light, and the air is heavy with the perfume of + flowers, which are daily renewed by fresh offerings from the + worshippers at the shrines.</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>In no other system of idolatry, + ancient or modern, have the rites been administered by such a + multitude of priests as assist in the passionless ceremonial of + <a name="pg350" id="pg350"></a> Buddhism. Fa Hian, in the fourth + century, was assured by the people of Ceylon that at that period the + priests numbered between fifty and sixty thousand, of whom two + thousand were attached to one wihara at Anarajapoora, and three + thousand to another.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: FA HIAN, <i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 336, + 350. At the present day the number in the whole island does not + probably exceed 2500 (HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, p. 57, + 309). But this is far below the proportion of the Buddhist + priesthood in other countries; in Siam nearly every adult male + becomes a priest for a certain portion of his life; a similar + practice prevails in Ava; and in Burmah so common is it to assume + the yellow robe, that the popular expedient for effecting divorce + is for the parties to make a profession of the priesthood, the + ceremonial of which is sufficient to dissolve the marriage vow, and + after an interval of a few months, they can throw off the yellow + robe and are then at liberty to marry again.</p> + </div> + + <p>As the vow which devotes the priests of Buddha to religion binds + them at the same time to a life of poverty and mendicancy, the + extension of the faith entailed in great part on the crown the duty + of supporting the vast crowds who withdrew themselves from industry + to embrace devotion and indigence. They were provided with food by + the royal bounty, and hence the historical books make perpetual + reference to the priests "going to the king's house to eat,"[1] when + the monarch himself set the example to his subjects of "serving them + with rice broth, cakes, and dressed rice."[2] Rice in all its + varieties is the diet described in the <i>Mahawanso</i> as being + provided for the priesthood by the munificence of the kings; "rice + prepared with sugar and honey, rice with clarified butter, and rice + in its ordinary form."[3] In addition to the enjoyment of a life of + idleness, another powerful incentive conspired to swell the numbers + of these devotees. The followers and successors of Wijayo <a name= + "pg351" id="pg351"></a> preserved intact the institution of caste, + which they had brought with them from the valley of the Ganges; and, + although caste was not abolished by the teachers of Buddhism, who + retained and respected it as a social institution, it was practically + annulled and absorbed in the religious character;—all who + embraced the ascetic life being simultaneously absolved from all + conventional disabilities, and received as members of the sacred + community with all its exalted prerogatives.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 198. Hiouen Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, + describing Anarajapoora in the seventh century, says: "A côté du + palais du roi; on a construit une vaste cuisine où l'on prépare + chaque jour des aliments pour dix-huit mille religieux. A l'heure + de repas, les religieux viennent, un pot à la main, pour recevoir + leur nourriture. Après l'avoir obtenue ils s'en retournent chacun + dans leur chambre."—HIOUEN THSANG, <i>Transl.</i> M. JULIEN, + lib. xi. tom. ii. p. 143.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. p. 82.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii.; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. i. p. + 37, ch. ii. p. 56, 60, 62.</p> + + <p>4: Professor Wilson, <i>Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i> vol. xvi. p. + 249.</p> + </div> + + <p>Along with food, clothing consisting of three garments to complete + the sacerdotal robes, as enjoined by the Buddhist ritual[1], was + distributed at certain seasons; and in later times a practice + obtained of providing robes for the priests by "causing the cotton to + be picked from the tree at sunrise, cleaned, spun, woven, dyed + yellow, and made into garments and presented before sunset."[2] The + condition of the priesthood was thus reduced to a state of absolute + dependency on alms, and at the earliest period of their history the + vow of poverty, by which their order is bound, would seem to have + been righteously observed.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: To avoid the vanity of dress or the temptation to acquire + property, no Buddhist priest is allowed to have more than one set + of robes, consisting of three pieces, and if an extra one be + bestowed on him it must be surrendered to the chapter of his wihara + within ten days. The dimensions must not exceed a specified length, + and when obtained new the cloth must be disfigured with mud or + otherwise before he puts it on. A magnificent robe having been + given to Gotama, his attendant Ananda, in order to destroy its + intrinsic value, cut it into thirty pieces and sewed them together + in four divisions, so that the robe resembled the patches of a + rice-field divided by embankments. And in conformity with this + precedent the robes of every priest are similarly dissected and + reunited.—Hardy's <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, c. xii. p. 117; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. pp. 60, 66.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp. 104, 109, 112. The custom which is + still observed in Ceylon, of weaving robes between sunrise and + sunset is called <i>Catina dhwana</i> (<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 261). + The work is performed chiefly by women, and the practice is + identical with that mentioned by Herodotus, as observed by the + priests of Egypt, who celebrated a festival in honour of the return + of Rhampsinitus, after playing at dice with Ceres in Ilades, by + investing one of their body with a cloak made in a single day, + [Greek: pharos autêmeron exyphênantes], <i>Euterpe</i>, cxxii. + Gray, in his ode of <i>The Fatal Sisters</i>, has embodied the + Scandinavian myth in which the twelve weird sisters, the + <i>Valkiriur</i>, weave "the crimson web of war" between the rising + and setting of the sun.</p> + </div><a name="pg352" id="pg352"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP V.</h2> + + <h3>SINGHALESE CHIVALRY.—ELALA AND DUTUGAIMUNU.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 289.</span>For nearly a century after the + accession of Devenipiatissa, the religion and the social development + of Ceylon thus exhibited an equally steady advancement. The + <span class="side">B.C. 266.</span> cousins of the king, three of + whom ascended the throne in succession, seem to have vied with each + other in works of piety and utility. Wiharas were built in all parts + of the island, both north and south of the Maha-welli-ganga. Dagobas + were raised in various places, and cultivation was urged forward by + the formation of tanks and canals. But, during this period, from the + fact of the Bengal immigrants being employed in more congenial or + more profitable occupations (possibly also from the numbers who were + annually devoting themselves to the service of the temples), and from + the ascertained inaptitude of the native Singhalese to bear arms, a + practice was commenced of retaining foreign mercenaries, which, even + at that early period, was productive of animosity and bloodshed, and + in process of time led to the overthrow of the Wijayan dynasty and + the gradual decay of the Sinhala sovereignty.</p> + + <p>The genius of the Gangetic race, which had taken possession of + Ceylon, was essentially adapted to agricultural pursuits—in + which, to the present day, their superiority is apparent over the + less energetic tribes of the Dekkan. Busied with such employments, + the early colonists had no leisure for military service; besides, + whilst Devenipiatissa and his successors were earnestly engaged in + the formation of religious communities, and the erection of sacred + edifices in the <a name="pg353" id="pg353"></a> <span class= + "side">B.C. 266.</span>northern portion of the island, various + princes of the same family occupied themselves in forming settlements + in the south and west; and hence, whilst their people were zealously + devoted to the service and furtherance of religion, the sovereign at + Anarajapoora was compelled, through a combination of causes, to take + into his pay a body of Malabars[1] for the protection both of the + coast and the interior. Of the foreigners thus confided in, "two + youths, powerful in their cavalry and navy, named Sena and + Gottika,"[2] proved unfaithful to their trust, and after causing the + death of the king Suratissa <span class="side">B.C. 237.</span>(B.C. + 237), retained the supreme power for upwards of twenty years, till + overthrown in their turn and put to death by the adherents of the + legitimate line.[3] Ten years, however, had barely elapsed when the + attempt to establish a Tamil sovereign was renewed by Elala, "a + Malabar of the illustrious Uju tribe, who invaded the + island<span class="side">B.C. 205.</span> from the Chola[4] country, + killed the reigning king Asela, and ruled the kingdom for forty + years, administering justice impartially to friends and foes."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The term "Malabar" is used throughout the following pages in + the comprehensive sense in which it is applied in the Singhalese + chronicles to the continental invaders of Ceylon; but it must be + observed that the adventurers in these expeditions, who are styled + in the <i>Mahawanso, "damilos"</i> or Tamils, came not only from + the south-western tract of the Dekkan, known in modern geography as + "Malabar," but also from all parts of the peninsula, as far north + as Cuttack and Orissa.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi. p. 127.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, xxi.; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii.</p> + + <p>4: Chola, or Solee, was the ancient name of Tanjore, and the + country traversed by the river Caveri.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 161.</span>Such is the encomium which the + <i>Mahawanso</i> passes on an infidel usurper, because Elala offered + his protection to the priesthood; but the orthodox annalist closes + his notice of his reign by the moral reflection that "even he who was + an heretic, and doomed by his creed to perdition, obtained an exalted + extent of supernatural power from having eschewed impiety and + injustice."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, xxi. p. 129. The other historical books, + the <i>Rajavali</i>, and <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, give a totally + different character of Elala, and represent him as the desecrator + of monuments and the overthrower of temples. The traditional + estimation which has followed his memory is the best attestation of + the superior accuracy of the <i>Mahawanso</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg354" id="pg354"></a> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 161.</span>But it was not the priests + alone who were captivated by the generosity of Elala. In the final + struggle for the throne, in which the Malabars were worsted by the + gallantry of Dutugaimunu, a prince of the excluded family, the deeds + of bravery displayed by him were the admiration of his enemies. The + contest between the rival chiefs is the solitary tale of Ceylon + chivalry, in which Elala is the Saladin and Dutugaimunu the + Coeur-de-lion. So genuine was the admiration of Elala's bravery that + his rival erected a monument in his honour, on the spot where he + fell; its ruins remain to the present day, and the Singhalese still + regard it with respect and veneration. "On reaching the quarter of + the city in which it stands," says the <i>Mahawanso</i>[1], "it has + been the custom for the monarchs of Lanka to silence their music, + whatsoever cession they may be heading;" and so uniformly was the + homage continued down to the most recent period, that so lately as + 1818, on the suppression of an attempted rebellion, when the defeated + aspirant to the throne was making his escape by Anarajapoora, he + alighted from his litter, on approaching the quarter in which the + monument was known to exist, "and although weary and almost incapable + of exertion, not knowing the precise spot, he continued on foot till + assured that he had passed far beyond the ancient memorial."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi.</p> + + <p>2: FORBES' <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>, vol. i. p. 233.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 161.</span>Dutugaimunu, in the epics of + Buddhism, enjoys a renown, second only to that of King Tissa, as the + champion of the faith. On the recovery of his kingdom he addressed + himself with energy to remove the effects produced in the northern + portions of the island by forty years of neglect and inaction under + the sway of Elala. During that monarch's protracted usurpation the + minor sovereignties, which had been formed in various parts of the + island prior to his seizure of the crown, were <a name="pg355" id= + "pg355"></a> little impeded in their social progress by the + forty-four years' residence of the Malabars at Anarajapoora. Although + the petty kings of Rohuna and Maya submitted to pay tribute to Elala, + his personal rule did not extend south of the Mahawelli-ganga[1], and + whilst the strangers in the north of the island were plundering the + temples of Buddha, the feudal chiefs in the south and west were + emulating the munificence of Tissa in the number of wiharas which + they constructed.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxii., <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 188, + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 36. The <i>Mahawanso</i> has a story of + Dutugaimunu, when a boy, illustrative of his early impatience to + rid the island of the Malabars. His father seeing him lying on his + bed, with his hands and feet gathered up, inquired, "My boy, why + not stretch thyself at length on thy bed?" "Confined by the + Damilos," he replied, "beyond the river on the one side, and by the + unyielding ocean on the other, how can I lie with outstretched + limbs?"</p> + </div> + + <p>Eager to conciliate his subjects by a similar display of regard + for religion, Dutugaimunu signalised his victory and restoration by + commencing the erection of the Ruanwellé dagoba, the most stupendous + as well as the most venerated of those at Anarajapoora, as it + enclosed a more imposing assemblage of relics than were ever + enshrined in any other in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>The mass of the population was liable to render compulsory labour + to the crown; but wisely reflecting that it was not only derogatory + to the sacredness of the object, but impolitic to exact any avoidable + sacrifices from a people so recently suffering from internal warfare, + Dutugaimunu came to the resolution of employing hired workmen only, + and according to the <i>Mahawanso</i> vast numbers of the Yakkhos + became converts to Buddhism during the progress of the building[1], + which the king did not live to complete.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxviii. xxix. xxx. xxxi.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 161.</span>But the most remarkable of the + edifices which he erected at the capital was the Maha-Lowa-paya, a + monastery which obtained the name of the <i>Brazen Palace</i> from + the fact of its being roofed with plates of that metal. It was + elevated on sixteen hundred monolithic columns of <a name="pg356" id= + "pg356"></a> granite twelve feet high, and arranged in lines of + forty, so as to cover an area of upwards of two hundred and twenty + feet square. On these rested the building nine stories in height, + which, in addition to a thousand dormitories for priests, contained + halls and other apartments for their exercise and accommodation.</p> + + <p>The <i>Mahawanso</i> relates with peculiar unction the munificence + of Dutugaimunu in remunerating those employed upon this edifice; he + deposited clothing for that purpose as well as "vessels filled with + sugar, buffalo butter and honey;" he announced that on this occasion + it was not fitting to exact unpaid labour, and, "placing high value + on the work to be performed, he paid the workmen with money."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxvii. p. 163.</p> + </div> + + <p>The structure, when completed, far exceeded in splendour anything + recorded in the sacred books. All its apartments were embellished + with "beads, resplendent like gems;" the great hall was supported by + golden pillars resting on lions and other animals, and the walls were + ornamented with festoons of pearls and of flowers formed of jewels; + in the centre was an ivory throne, with an emblem on one side of a + golden sun, and on the other of the moon in silver, and above all + glittered the imperial "chatta," the white canopy of dominion. The + palace, says the <i>Mahawanso</i>, was provided with rich carpets and + couches, and "even the ladle of the rice boiler was of gold."</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 161.</span>The vicissitudes and + transformations of the Brazen Palace are subjects of frequent mention + in the history of the sacred city. As originally planned by + Dutugaimunu, it did not endure through the reign of his successor + Saidaitissa, at whose expense it was reconstructed, B.C. 140, but the + number of stories was lowered to seven.[1] More than two centuries + later, A.D. 182, these were again reduced to five[2], and the entire + <a name="pg357" id="pg357"></a> building must have been taken down in + A.D. 240, as the king who was then reigning caused "the pillars of + the Lowa Pasado to be arranged in a different form."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvi.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiii.</p> + </div> + + <p>The edifice erected on its site was pulled to the ground by the + apostate Maha Sen, A.D. 301[1]; but penitently reconstructed by him + on his recantation of his errors. Its last recorded restoration took + place in the reign of Prakrama-bahu, towards the close of the twelfth + century, when "the king rebuilt the Lowa-Maha-paya, and raised up the + 1600 pillars of rock."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/357.jpg"><img src="images/357.jpg" alt= + "RUINS OF THE BRAZEN PALACE" /></a> + + <p>RUINS OF THE BRAZEN PALACE</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 161.</span>Thus exposed to spoliation by + its splendour, and obnoxious to infidel invaders from the religious + uses to which it was dedicated, it was subjected to violence on every + commotion, whether civil or external, which disturbed the repose of + the capital; and at the present day, no traces of it remain except + the indestructible monoliths on which it stood. A "world of stone + columns," to use the quaint expression of Knox, still marks the site + of the Brazen Palace of Dutugaimunu, <a name="pg358" id="pg358"></a> + and attests the accuracy of the chronicles which describe its former + magnificence.</p> + + <p>The character of Dutugaimunu is succinctly expressed in his dying + avowal, that he had lived "a slave to the priesthood."[1] Before + partaking of food, it was his practice to present a portion for their + use; and recollecting in maturer age, that on one occasion, when a + child, he had so far forgotten this invariable rule, as <i>to eat a + chilly</i> without sharing it with the priest, he submitted himself + to a penance in expiation of this youthful impiety.[2] His death + scene, as described in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, contains an enumeration + of the deeds of piety by which his reign had been signalised.[3] + <span class="side">B.C. 137.</span>Extended on his couch in front of + the great dagoba which he had erected, he thus addressed one of his + military companions who had embraced the priesthood: "In times past, + supported by my ten warriors, I engaged in battles; now, + single-handed, I commence my last conflict, with death; and it is not + permitted to me to overcome my antagonist." "Ruler of men," replied + the thero, "without subduing the dominion of sin, the power of death + is invincible; but call to recollection thy acts of piety performed, + and from these you will derive consolation." The secretary then "read + from the register of deeds of piety," that "one hundred wiharas, less + one, had been constructed by the Maharaja, that he had built two + great dagobas and the Brazen Palace at Anarajapoora; that in famines + he had given his jewels to support the pious; that on three several + occasions he had clothed the whole priesthood throughout the island, + giving three garments to each; that five times he had conferred the + sovereignty of the land for the space of seven days on the National + Church; that he had founded hospitals for the infirm, and distributed + rice to the indigent; bestowed lamps on innumerable temples, <a name= + "pg359" id="pg359"></a> and maintained preachers, in the various + wiharas, in all parts of his dominions. 'All these acts,' said the + dying king, 'done in my days of prosperity, afford no comfort to my + mind; but two offerings which I made when in affliction and in + adversity, disregardful of my own fate, are those which alone + administer solace to me now.[4] After this, the pre-eminently wise + Maharaja expired, stretched on his bed, in the act of gazing on the + Mahatupo."[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiv, xxv.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii.</p> + + <p>5: Another name for the Ruanwellé dagoba, which he had + built.</p> + </div><a name="pg360" id="pg360"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VI.</h2> + + <h3>THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 137.</span>After the reign of Dutugaimunu + there is little in the pages of the native historians to sustain + interest in the story of the Singhalese monarchs. The long line of + sovereigns is divided into two distinct classes; the kings of the + <i>Maha-wanse</i> or "superior dynasty" of the uncontaminated blood + of Wijayo, who occupied the throne from his death, B.C. 505, to that + of Maha Sen, A.D. 302;—and the <i>Sulu-wanse</i> or "inferior + race," whose descent was less pure, but who, amidst invasions, + revolutions, and decline, continued, with unsteady hand, to hold the + government clown to the occupation of the island by Europeans in the + beginning of the sixteenth century.</p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 137.</span>To the great dynasty, and more + especially to its earliest members, the inhabitants were indebted for + the first rudiments of civilisation, for the arts of agricultural + life, for an organised government, and for a system of national + worship. But neither the piety of the kings nor their munificence + sufficed to conciliate the personal attachment of their subjects, or + to strengthen their throne by national attachment such as would have + fortified its occupant against the fatalities incident to despotism. + Of fifty-one sovereigns who formed the pure Wijayan dynasty, two were + deposed by their subjects, and nineteen put to death by their + successors.[1] Excepting the <a name="pg361" id="pg361"></a> rare + instances in which a reign was marked by some occurrence, such as an + invasion and repulse of the Malabars, there is hardly a sovereign of + the "Solar race" whose name is associated with a higher achievement + than the erection of a dagoba or the formation of a tank, nor one + whose story is enlivened by an event more exciting than the murder + through which he mounted the throne or the conspiracy by which he was + driven from it.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is something very striking in the facility with which + aspirants to the throne obtained the instant acquiescence of the + people, so soon as assassination had put them in possession of + power. And this is the more remarkable, where the usurpers were of + the lower grade, as in the instance of Subho, a gate porter, who + murdered King Yasa Silo, A.D. 60, and reigned for six years + (<i>Mahaw.</i> ch. xxxv. p. 218). A carpenter, and a carrier of + fire-wood, were each accepted in succession as sovereigns, A.D. 47; + whilst the "<i>great dynasty</i>" was still in the plenitude of its + popularity. The mystery is perhaps referable to the dominant + necessity of securing tranquillity at any cost, in the state of + society where the means of cultivation were directly dependent on + the village organisation, and famine and desolation would have been + the instant and inevitable consequences of any commotions which + interfered with the conservancy and repair of the tanks and means + of irrigation, and the prompt application of labour to the raising + and saving of produce at the instant when the fall of the rains or + the ripening of the crops demanded its employment with the utmost + vigour.</p> + + <p>2: In theory the Singhalese monarchy was elective in the + descendants of the Solar race: in practice, primogeniture had a + preference, and the crown was either hereditary or became the prize + of those who claimed to be of royal lineage. On reviewing the + succession of kings from B.C. 307 to A.D. 1815, <i>thirty-nine</i> + eldest sons (or nearly one fourth), succeeded to their fathers: and + <i>twenty-nine</i> kings (or more than one fifth), were succeeded + by brothers. <i>Fifteen</i> reigned for a period less than one + year, and thirty for more than one year, and less than four. Of the + Singhalese kings who died by violence, twenty-two were murdered by + their successors; six were killed by other individuals; thirteen + fell in feuds and war, and four committed suicide; eleven were + dethroned, and their subsequent fate is unknown. Not more than + two-thirds of the Singhalese kings retained sovereign authority to + their decease, or reached the funeral pile without a violent + death.—FORBES' <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>, vol. i. ch. iv. + p. 80, 97; JOINVILLE, <i>Religion and Manners of the People of + Ceylon; Asiat. Res.</i> vol. vii. p. 423. See also + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 201.</p> + </div> + + <p>One source of royal contention arose on the death of Dutugaimunu; + his son, having forfeited his birthright by an alliance with a wife + of lower caste, was set aside from the succession; Saidaitissa, a + brother of the deceased king, being raised to the throne in his + stead. The priests, on the death of Saidaitissa, B.C. 119, hastened + to proclaim his youngest son Thullatthanako[1], to the prejudice of + his elder brother Laiminitissa, but the latter established his just + claim by the sword, and hence <a name="pg362" id="pg362"></a> + <span class="side">B.C. 119.</span>arose two rival lines, which for + centuries afterwards were prompt on every opportunity to advance + adverse pretensions to the throne, and assert them by force of + arms.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiii. p. 201.</p> + </div> + + <p>In such contests the priesthood brought a preponderant influence + to whatever side they inclined [1]; and thus the royal authority, + though not strictly sacerdotal, became so closely identified with the + hierarchy, and so guided by its will, that each sovereign's attention + was chiefly devoted to forwarding such measures as most conduced to + the exaltation of Buddhism and the maintenance of its monasteries and + temples.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It was the dying boast of Dutugaimunu that he had lived "a + slave to the priesthood." The expression was figurative in his + case; but so abject did the subserviency of the kings become, and + so rapid was its growth, that Bhatiya Tissa, who reigned A.D. 8, + rendered it literal, and "dedicated himself, his queen, and two + sons, as well as his charger, and state elephant, as <i>slaves to + the priesthood</i>." The <i>Mahawanso</i> intimates that the + priests themselves protested against this debasement, ch. xxxiv. p. + 214.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 119.</span>A signal effect of this regal + policy, and of the growing diffusion of Buddhism, is to be traced in + the impulse which it communicated to the reclamation of lands and the + extension of cultivation. For more than three hundred years no + mention is made in the Singhalese annals of any mode of maintaining + the priesthood other than the royal distribution of clothing and + voluntary offerings of food. They resorted for the "royal alms" + either to the residence of the authorities or to halls specially + built for their accommodation [1], to which they were summoned by + "the shout of refection;" [2] the ordinary priests receiving rice, + "those endowed with the gift of preaching, clarified butter, sugar, + and honey."[3] Hospitals and medicines for their use, and rest houses + on their journeys, were also provided at the public charge.[4] These + expedients were available so long as the numbers of the priesthood + were limited; but such were the <a name="pg363" id="pg363"></a> + multitudes who were tempted to withdraw from the world and its + pursuits, in order to devote themselves to meditation and the + diffusion of Buddhism, that the difficulty became practical of + maintaining them by personal gifts, and the alternative suggested + itself of setting apart lands for their support. This innovation was + first resorted to during an interregnum. The Singhalese king Walagam + Bahu, being expelled from his capital by a Malabar usurpation + <span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>B.C. 104, was unable to continue + the accustomed regal bounty to the priesthood; dedicated certain + lands while in exile in Rohuna, for the support of a fraternity "who + had sheltered him there."[5] The precedent thus established, was + speedily seized upon and extended; lands were everywhere set apart + for the repair of the sacred edifices[6], and eventually, about the + beginning of the Christian era, the priesthood acquired such an + increase of influence as sufficed to convert their precarious + eleemosynary dependency into a permanent territorial endowment; and + the practice became universal of conveying estates in mortmain on the + construction of a wihara or the dedication of a temple.[7]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xx. p. 123; xxii. p. 132,135.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxviii. p. 167.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii. p. 196-7.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii. p. 196 xxxvii. p. 244; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 39, 41.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xxxiii. p. 203. Previous to this date a + king of Rohuna, during the usurpation of Elala, B.C. 205, had + appropriated lands near Kalany, for the repairs of the + dagoba.—<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 37.</p> + + <p>6: In the reign of Batiya Tissa, B.C. 20. <i>Mahawanso</i>,, ch. + xxxiv. p. 212; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 51.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 214.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>The corporate character of the + recipients served to neutralise the obligations by which they were + severally bound; the vow of poverty, though compulsory on an + individual priest, ceased to be binding on the community of which he + was a member; and whilst, on his own behalf, he was constrained to + abjure the possession of property, even to the extent of one + superfluous cloth, the wihara to which he was attached, in addition + to its ecclesiastical buildings, and its offerings in gems and gold, + was held competent to become the proprietor of broad and fertile + lands.[1] These were so bountifully <a name="pg364" id="pg364"></a> + bestowed by royal piety, by private munificence, and by mortuary + gifts, that ere many centuries had elapsed the temples of Ceylon + absorbed a large proportion of the landed property of the kingdom, + and their possessions were not only exempted from taxation, but + accompanied by a right to the compulsory labour of the temple + tenants.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, ch. viii. p. 68.</p> + + <p>2: The <i>Rajaratnacari</i> mentions an instance, A.D. 62, of + eight thousand rice fields bestowed in one grant; and similar + munificence is recorded in numerous instances prior, to A.D. + 204.—<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 57, 59, 64, 74, 113, &c. + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 223, 224; ch. xxxvi. p. 233.</p> + </div> + + <p>As the estates so made over to religious uses lay for the most + part in waste districts, the quantity of land which was thus brought + under cultivation necessarily involved large extensions of the means + of irrigation. To supply these, reservoirs were formed on such a + scale as to justify the term "consecrated lakes," by which they are + described in the Singhalese annals.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. p. 37; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. + 237.</p> + </div> + + <p>Where the circumstances of the ground permitted, their formation + was effected by drawing an embankment across the embouchure of a + valley so as to arrest and retain the waters by which it was + traversed, and so vast were the dimensions of some of these gigantic + tanks that many yet in existence still cover an area of from fifteen + to twenty miles in circumference. The ruins of that at Kalaweva, to + the north-west of Dambool, show that its original circuit could not + have been less than forty miles, its retaining bund being upwards of + twelve miles long. The spill-water of stone, which remains to the + present time, is "perhaps one of the most stupendous monuments of + misapplied human labour in the island."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR, <i>Mahawanso</i>, p. 12. The tank of Kalaweva was + formed by Dhatu Sena, A.D. 459.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxxviii. p. 257.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>The number of these stupendous + works, which were formed by the early sovereigns of Ceylon, almost + exceeds credibility. Kings are named in the native annals, <a name= + "pg365" id="pg365"></a> each of whom made from fifteen to thirty[1], + together with canals and all the appurtenances for irrigation. + Originally these vast undertakings were completed "for the benefit of + the country," and "out of compassion for living creatures;"[2] but so + early as the first century of the Christian era, the custom became + prevalent of forming tanks with the pious intention of conferring the + lands which they enriched on the church. Wide districts, rendered + fertile by the interception of a river and the formation of suitable + canals, were appropriated to the maintenance of the local + priesthood[3]; a tank and the thousands of acres which it fertilised + were sometimes assigned for the perpetual repairs of a dagoba[4], and + the revenues of whole villages and their surrounding rice fields were + devoted to the support of a single wihara.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 41, 45, 54, 55; King Saidaitissa + B.C. 137, made "eighteen lakes" (<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 233). King + Wasabha, who ascended the throne A.D. 62, "caused sixteen large + lakes to be enclosed" (<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 57). Detu Tissa, + A.D. 253, excavated six (<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 237), and King Maha + Sen, A.D. 275, seventeen (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xxxviii. p. + 236).</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xxxvii. p. 242.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 210; xxxv. p. 221; xxxviii. + p. 237, <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. p. 57, 59, 64, 69, 74.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 215, 218, 223; ch. xxxvii. p. + 234; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. p. 51. TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, + p. 21.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 218, 221; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. p. 51; <i>Rajaviai</i>, p. 241.</p> + </div> + + <p>So lavish were these endowments, that one king, who signalised his + reign by such extravagances as laying a carpet seven miles in length, + "in order that pilgrims might proceed with unsoiled feet all the way + from the Kadambo river (the Malwatté oya) to the mountain Chetiyo + (Mihintala)," awarded a priest who had presented him with a draught + of water during the construction of a wihara, "land within the + circumference of half a yoyana (eight miles) for the maintenance of + the temple."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv, p. 3.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>It was in this manner that the + beautiful tank at Mineri, one of the most lovely of these artificial + lakes, was enclosed by Maha Sen, A.D. 275; and, together with the + 80,000 amonams of ground which it waters, was <a name="pg366" id= + "pg366"></a> conferred on the Jeytawana Wihara which the king had + just erected at Anarajapoora.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. p. 69.</p> + </div> + + <p>To identify the crown still more closely with the interests of + agriculture, some of the kings superintended public works for + irrigating the lands of the temples[1]; and one more enthusiastic + than the rest toiled in the rice fields to enhance the merit of + conferring their produce on the priesthood.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 33.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. The Buddhist kings of Burmah are + still accustomed to boast, almost in the terms of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, of the distinction which they have earned, by the + multitudes of tanks they have constructed or restored. See YULE'S + <i>Narrative of the Mission to Ava in 1855</i>, p. 106.</p> + </div> + + <p>These broad possessions, the church, under all vicissitudes and + revolutions, has succeeded in retaining to the present day. Their + territories, it is true, have been diminished in extent by national + decay; the destruction of works for irrigation has converted into + wilderness and jungle plains once teeming with fertility; and the + mild policy of the British government, by abolishing + <i>raja-kariya</i>[1], has emancipated the peasantry, who are no + longer the serfs either of the temples or the chiefs. But in every + district of the island the priests are in the enjoyment of the most + fertile lands, over which the crown exercises no right of taxation; + and such is the extent of their possessions that, although their + precise limits have not been ascertained by the local government, + they have been conjectured with probability to be equal to one-third + of the cultivated land of the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Compulsory labour.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>One peculiarity in the Buddhist + ceremonial served at all times to give a singular impulse to the + progress of horticulture. Flowers and garlands are introduced in its + religious rites to the utmost excess. The atmosphere of the wiharas + and temples is rendered oppressive with the perfume of champac and + jessamine, and the shrine of the deity, the pedestals of his image, + and the steps leading to the temple are strewn thickly with blossoms + <a name="pg367" id="pg367"></a> of the nagaha and the lotus. At an + earlier period the profusion in which these beautiful emblems were + employed in sacred decorations appears almost incredible; the + <i>Mahawanso</i> relates that the Ruanwellé dagoba, which was 270 + feet in height, was on one occasion "festooned with garlands from + pedestal to pinnacle till it resembled one uniform bouquet;" and at + another time, it and the lofty dagoba at Mihintala were buried under + heaps of jessamine from the ground to the summit.[1] Fa Hian, in + describing his visit to Anarajapoora in the fourth century, dwells + with admiration and wonder on the perfumes and flowers lavished on + their worship by the Singhalese[2]; and the native historians + constantly allude as familiar incidents to the profusion in which + they were employed on ordinary occasions, and to the formation by + successive kings of innumerable gardens for the floral requirements + of the temples. The capital was surrounded on all sides[3] by flower + gardens, and these were multiplied so extensively that, according to + the <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, one was to be found within a distance of + four leagues in any part of Ceylon.[4] Amongst the regulations of the + temple built at Dambedinia, in the thirteenth century, was "every day + an offering of 100,000 flowers, and each day a different + flower."[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv.; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 52, + 53.</p> + + <p>2: FA HIAN. <i>Foè Kouè Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 335.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 227; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xi. p. 67.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 29, 49. Amongst the officers + attached to the great establishments of the priests in Mihintala, + A.D. 246, there are enumerated in an inscription engraven on a rock + there, a secretary, a treasurer, a physician, a surgeon, a painter, + twelve cooks, twelve thatchers, ten carpenters, six carters, and + <i>two florists</i>.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 103. The same book states that + another king, in the fifteenth century, "offered no less than + 6,480,320 sweet smelling flowers" at the shrine of the + Tooth.—<i>Ib.</i>, p. 136.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>Another advantage conferred by + Buddhism on the country was the planting of fruit trees and esculent + vegetables for the gratuitous use of travellers in all the frequented + parts of the island. The historical evidences of this are singularly + corroborative of the genuineness of the <a name="pg368" id= + "pg368"></a> Buddhist edicts engraved on various rocks and monuments + in India, the deciphering of which was the grand achievement of + Prinsep and his learned coadjutors. On the pillars of Delhi, + Allahabad, and other places, and on the rocks of Girnar and Dhauli, + there exist a number of Pali inscriptions purporting to be edicts of + Asoca (the Dharmasoca of the <i>Mahawanso</i>), King of Magadha, in + the third century before the Christian era, who, on his conversion to + the religion of Buddha, commissioned Mahindo, his son, to undertake + its establishment in Ceylon. In these edicts, which were promulgated + in the vernacular dialect, the king endeavoured to impress both upon + his subjects and allies, as well as those who, although aliens, were + yet "united in the law" of Buddha, the divine precepts of their great + teacher; prominent amongst which are the prohibition against taking + animal life[1], and the injunction that, "everywhere wholesome + vegetables, roots, and fruit trees shall be cultivated, and that on + the roads wells shall be dug and trees planted for the enjoyment of + men and animals." In apparent conformity with these edicts, one of + the kings of Ceylon, Addagaimunu, A.D. 20, is stated in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> to have "caused to be planted throughout the island + every description of fruit-bearing creepers, and interdicted the + destruction of animal life,"[2] and similar acts of pious + benevolence, performed by command of various other sovereigns, are + adverted to on numerous occasions.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It is curious that one of these edicts of Asoca, who was + contemporary with Devenipiatissa, is addressed to "all the + conquered territories of the raja, even unto the ends of the earth; + as in Chola, in Pida, in Keralaputra, <i>and in Tambapanni</i> (or + Ceylon)." This license of speech, reminding one of the + grandiloquent epistles "from the Flaminian Gate," was no doubt + assumed in virtue of the recent establishment of Buddhism, or, as + it is called in the <i>Mahawanso</i> "the religion of the + Vanquisher," and Asoca, as its propagator, thus claims to address + the converts as his "subjects."</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 215. The king Upatissa, A.D. + 368, in the midst of a solemn ceremonial, "observing ants, and + other insects drowning in an inundation, halted, and having swept + them towards the with the feathers of a peacock's tail, and enabled + them to save a themselves, he continued the + procession."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii p. 249; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 49, 52; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 228.</p> + </div><a name="pg369" id="pg369"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VII</h2> + + <h3>FATE OF THE ABORIGINES.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>It has already been shown, that + devotion and policy combined to accelerate the progress of social + improvement in Ceylon, and that before the close of the third century + of the Christian era, the island to the north of the Kandyan + mountains contained numerous cities and villages, adorned with + temples and dagobas, and seated in the midst of highly cultivated + fields. The face of the country exhibited broad expanses of rice + land, irrigated by artificial lakes, and canals of proportionate + magnitude, by which the waters from the rivers, which would otherwise + have flowed idly to the sea, were diverted inland in all directions + to fertilise the rice fields of the interior.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. xxxvii.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the formation of these prodigious tanks, the labour chiefly + employed was that of the aboriginal inhabitants, the Yakkhos and + Nagas, directed by the science and skill of the conquerors. Their + contributions of this kind, though in the instance of the Buddhist + converts they may have been to some extent voluntary, were, in + general, the result of compulsion.[1] Like the Israelites under the + Egyptians, the aborigines were compelled to make bricks[2] for the + stupendous dagobas erected by their masters[3]; and eight hundred + years after the subjugation of the island, the <i>Rajavali</i> + describes vast reservoirs and appliances for irrigation, as being + constructed by the forced labour of the <a name="pg370" id= + "pg370"></a></p> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>Yakkhos[4] under the + superintendence of Brahman engineers.[5] This, to some extent, + accounts for the prodigious amount of labour bestowed on these + structures; labour which the whole revenue of the kingdom would not + have sufficed to purchase, had it not been otherwise procurable.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In some instances the soldiers of the king were employed in + forming works of irrigation.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxvii.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 237, 238. Exceptions to the extortion of + forced labour for public works took place under the more pious + kings, who made a merit of paying the workmen employed in the + erection of dagobas and other religious + monuments.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xxxv.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Maharwanso</i>, ch. x.</p> + </div> + + <p>Under this system, the fate of the aborigines was that usually + consequent on the subjugation of an inferior race by one more highly + civilised. The process of their absorption into the dominant race was + slow, and for centuries they continued to exist distinct, as a + subjugated people. So firmly rooted amongst them was the worship both + of demons and serpents, that, notwithstanding the ascendency of + Buddhism, many centuries elapsed before it was ostensibly abandoned; + from time to time, "demon offerings" were made from the royal + treasury[1]; and one of the kings, in his enlarged liberality, + ordered that for every ten villages there should be maintained an + astrologer and a "devil-dancer," in addition to the doctor and the + priest.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x.; TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>. p. + 23.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 27; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. + ii.; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 241.</p> + </div> + + <p>Throughout the Singhalese chronicles, the notices of the + aborigines are but casual, and occasionally contemptuous. Sometimes + they allude to "slaves of the Yakkho tribe,"[1] and in recording the + progress and completion of the tanks and other stupendous works, the + <i>Mahawanso</i> and the <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, in order to indicate + the inferiority of the natives to their masters, speak of their + conjoint labours as that of "men and snakes,"[2] and "men and + demons."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid., ch. xix, p. 115.</p> + + <p>3: The King Maha-Sen, anxious for the promotion of agriculture, + caused many tanks to be made "by men and + devils."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii.; UPHAM'S <i>Transl.; + Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 69; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 237.</p> + </div><a name="pg371" id="pg371"></a> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>Notwithstanding the degradation + of the natives, it was indispensable to "befriend the interests" of a + race so numerous and so useful; hence, they were frequently employed + in the military expeditions of the Wijayan sovereigns[1], and the + earlier kings of that dynasty admitted the rank of the Yakkho chiefs + who shared in these enterprises. They assigned a suburb of the + capital for their residence[2], and on festive occasions they were + seated on thrones of equal eminence with that of the king.[3] But + every aspiration towards a recovery of their independence was checked + by a device less characteristic of ingenuity in the ascendant race, + than of simplicity combined with jealousy in the aborigines. The + feeling was encouraged and matured into a conviction which prevailed + to the latest period of the Singhalese sovereignty, that no + individual of pure Singhalese extraction could be elevated to the + supreme power, since no one could prostrate himself before one of his + own nation.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso,</i> ch. x.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid.,</i> ch. x. p. 67.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid.,</i> p. 66.</p> + + <p>4: JOINVILLE'S <i>Asiat. Res,</i> vol. vii. p. 422.</p> + </div> + + <p>For successive generations, however, the natives, although treated + with partial kindness, were regarded as a separate race. Even the + children of Wijayo, by his first wife Kuweni, united themselves with + their maternal connexions on the repudiation of their mother by the + king, "and retained the attributes of Yakkhos,"[1] and by that + designation the natives continued to be distinguished down to the + reign of Dutugaimunu.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso,</i> ch. vii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>In spite of every attempt at + conciliation, the process of amalgamation between the two races was + reluctant and slow. The earliest Bengal immigrants sought wives among + the Tamils, on the opposite coast of India[1]; and although their + descendants intermarried with the natives, the great mass of the + population long held aloof from the invaders, and occasionally vented + <a name="pg372" id="pg372"></a> their impatience in rebellion.[2] + Hence the progress of civilisation amongst them was but partial and + slow, and in the narratives of the early rulers of the island there + is ample evidence that the aborigines long retained their habits of + shyness and timidity.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid.,</i> p. 53.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, lxxxv.</p> + </div> + + <p>Notwithstanding the frequent resort of every nation of antiquity + to its coasts, the accounts of the first voyagers are almost wholly + confined to descriptions of the loveliness of the country, the + singular brilliancy of its jewels, the richness of its pearls, the + sagacity of its elephants, and the delicacy and abundance of its + spices; but the information which they furnish regarding its + inhabitants is so uniformly meagre, as to attest the absence of + intercourse; and the writers of all nations, Romans, Greeks, + Arabians, Chinese and Indians, concur in their allusions to the + unsocial and uncivilised customs of the islanders.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See an account of these singular peculiarities, <a href= + "#pg470">Vol. I. P. IV. c. vii.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>As the Bengal adventurers advanced into the interior of the + island, a large section of the natives withdrew into the forests and + hunting grounds on the eastern and southern coasts.[1] There, + subsisting by the bow[2] and the chase, they adhered, with moody + tenacity, to the rude habits of their race; and in the Veddah of the + present day, there is still to be recognised a remnant of the untamed + aborigines of Ceylon.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Hiouen Thsang,</i> the Chinese geographer, who visited + India in the seventh century, says that at that time the Yakkhos + had retired to the south-east corner of Ceylon;—and here + their descendants, the Veddahs, are found at the present + day,—<i>Voyages,</i> &c., liv. iv. p. 200.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso,</i> ch. xxiv. p. 145, xxxiii. p. 204.</p> + + <p>3: DE ALWIS, <i>Sidath Sangara,</i> p. xvii. For an account of + the Veddahs and their present condition, see Vol. II. P. ix. ch. + iii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>Even those of the original race + who slowly conformed to the religion and habits of their masters, + were never entirely emancipated from the ascendency of their ancient + superstitions. Traces of the worship of snakes and demons are to the + present hour clearly perceptible amongst them; the Buddhists still + resort to the incantations <a name="pg373" id="pg373"></a> of the + "devil dancers" in case of danger and emergency[1]; a Singhalese, + rather than put a Cobra de Capello to death, encloses the reptile in + a wicker cage, and sets it adrift on the nearest stream; and in the + island of Nainativoe, to the south-west of Jaffa, there was till + recently a little temple, dedicated to the goddess Naga Tambiran, in + which consecrated serpents were tenderly reared by the Pandarams, and + daily fed at the expense of the worshippers.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of Demon worship as it still exists in Ceylon, + see Sir J. EMERSON TENNANT'S <i>History of Christianity in + Ceylon,</i> ch. v. p. 236.</p> + + <p>2: CASIE CHITTY'S <i>Gazetteer, &c.,</i> p. 169.</p> + </div><a name="pg374" id="pg374"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VIII</h2> + + <h3>EXTINCTION OF THE "GREAT DYNASTY."</h3> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>From the death of Dutugaimunu + to the exhaustion of the superior dynasty on the death of Malta-Sen, + A.D. 301, there are few demonstrations of pious munificence to + signalise the policy of the intervening sovereigns. The king whom, + next to Devenipiatissa and Dutugaimunu, the Buddhist historians + rejoice to exalt as one of the champions of the faith, was + Walagam-bahu I.[1], whose reign, though marked by vicissitudes, was + productive of lasting benefit to the national faith. Walagam-bahu + ascended the throne B.C. 104., but was almost immediately forced to + abdicate by an incursion of the Malabars; who, concerting a + simultaneous landing at several parts of the island, combined their + movements so successfully that they seized on Anarajapoora, and drove + the king into concealment in the mountains near Adam's Peak; and + whilst one portion of the invaders returned laden with plunder to the + Dekkan, their companions remained behind and held undisputed + possession of the northern parts of Ceylon for nearly fifteen + years.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Called in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, "Wata-gamini".</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 104.</span>In this and the frequent + incursions which followed, the Malabar leaders were attracted by the + wealth of the country to the north of the Mahawelli-ganga; the + southern portion of the island being either too wild and unproductive + to present a temptation to conquest, or too steep and inaccessible to + afford facilities for invasion. Besides, the highlanders who inhabit + the lofty ranges that lie around Adam's Peak; (a district known + <a name="pg375" id="pg375"></a> as Malaya, "the region of mountains + and torrents,")[1] then and at all times exhibited their superiority + over the lowlanders in vigour, courage, and endurance. Hence the + petty kingdoms of Maya and Rohuna afforded on every occasion a refuge + to the royal family when driven from the northern capital, and + furnished a force to assist in their return and restoration. + Walagam-bahu, after many years' concealment there, was at last + enabled to resume the offensive, and succeeded in driving out the + infidels, and recovering possession of the sacred city, an event + which he commemorated in the usual manner by the erection of dagobas, + tanks, and wiharas.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/375.jpg"><img src="images/375.jpg" alt= + "THE ALU WIHARA NEAR MATELLE." /></a> + + <p>THE ALU WIHARA NEAR MATELLE.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the achievement by which most of all he entitled himself to + the gratitude of the Singhalese annalists, was the reduction to + writing of the doctrines and discourses of Buddha, which had been + orally delivered by Mahindo, and previously preserved by tradition + alone. These sacred volumes, which may be termed the Buddhist + <a name="pg376" id="pg376"></a> <span class="side">B.C. + 89.</span>Scriptures, contain the Pittakataya, and its commentaries + the Atthakatha, and were compiled by a company of priests in a cave + to the north of Matelle, known as the Aloo-wihara.[1] This, and other + caverns in which the king had sought concealment during his + adversity, he caused to be converted into rock temples after his + restoration to power. Amongst the rest, Dambool, which is the most + remarkable of the cave temples of Ceylon from its vastness, its + elaborate ornaments, and the romantic beauty of its situation and the + scenery surrounding it.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. i. p. 43. Abouzeyd states that at + that time public writers were employed in recording the traditions + of the island: "Le Royaume de Serendyb a une loi et des docteurs + qui s'assemblent de temps en temps comme se réunissent chez nous + les personnes qui recreillent les traditions du prophète, et les + Indiens se rendent auprès des docteurs, et écrivent sous leurs + dictée, la vie de leurs prophètes et les préceptes de leur + loi."—REINAUD, <i>Relation, &c.,</i> tom. i. p. 127.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 62.</span>The history of the Buddhist + religion in Ceylon is not, however, a tale of uniform prosperity. The + first of its domestic enemies was Naga, the grandson of the pious + Walagam-bahu, whom the native, historians stigmatise by the prefix of + "chora" or the "marauder." His story is thus briefly but emphatically + told in the <i>Mahawanso</i>: "During the reign of his father + Mahachula, Chora Naga wandered through the island leading the life of + a robber; returning on the demise of the king he assumed the + monarchy; and in the places which had denied him an asylum during his + <span class="side">B.C. 50.</span>marauding career, he impiously + destroyed the wiharas.[1] After a reign of twelve years he was + poisoned by his queen Anula, and regenerated in the Lokantariko + hell."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiii.; <i>Rajarali</i>, p. 224; + TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 19; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. i. p. + 43, 44.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 209.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">B.C. 47.</span>His son, King Kuda Tissa, was + also poisoned by his mother, in order to clear her own way to the + throne. The Singhalese annals thus exhibit the unusual incident of a + queen enrolled amongst the monarchs of the <i>great + dynasty</i>—a precedent which was followed in after times; + <a name="pg377" id="pg377"></a> Queen Siwalli having reigned in the + succeeding century, A.D. 37, Queen Lila-wati, in A.D. 1197, and Queen + Kalyana-wati in A.D. 1202. From the excessive vileness of her + character, the first of these Singhalese women who attained to the + honours of sovereignty is denounced in the <i>Mahawanso</i> as "the + infamous Anula." In the enormity of her crimes and debauchery she was + the Messalina of Ceylon;—she raised to the throne a porter of + the palace with whom she cohabited, descending herself to the + subordinate rank of Queen Consort, and poisoned him to promote a + carpenter in his stead. A carrier of firewood, a Brahman, and + numerous other paramours followed in rapid succession, and shared a + similar fate, till the kingdom was at last relieved from the + opprobrium by a son of Prince Tissa, who put the murderess to death, + and restored the royal line in his own person. His successors for + more than two centuries<span class="side">B.C. 41.</span> were a race + of pious <i>fainéants</i>, undistinguished by any qualities, and + remembered only by their fanatical subserviency to the + priesthood.</p> + + <p>Buddhism, relieved from the fury of impiety, was next imperilled + by the danger of schism. Even before the funeral obsequies of Buddha, + schism had displayed itself in Maghadha, and two centuries had not + elapsed from his death till it had manifested itself on no less than + seventeen occasions, and in each instance it was with difficulty + checked by councils in which the priesthood settled the faith in + relation to the points which gave rise to dispute; but not before the + actual occurrence of secessions from the orthodox church.[1] The + earliest differences were on questions of discipline amongst the + colleges and fraternities at Anarajapoora; but in the reign of + Wairatissa, <span class="side">A.D. 209.</span>A.D. 209, a formidable + controversy arose, impugning the doctrines of Buddhism, and + threatening for a time to rend in sunder the sacred unity of the + church.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. v. p. 21.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid., ch. xxxiii.</p> + </div><a name="pg378" id="pg378"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 209.</span>Buddhism, although, tolerant of + heresy, has ever been vehement in its persecution of schism. Boldly + confident in its own superiority, it bears without impatience the + glaring errors of open antagonists, and seems to exult in the + contiguity of competing systems as if deriving strength by + comparison. In this respect it exhibits a similarity to the religion + of Brahma, which regards with composure shades of doctrinal + difference, and only rises into jealous energy in support of the + distinctions of caste, an infringement of which might endanger the + supremacy of the priesthood.[1] To the assaults of open opponents the + Buddhist displays the calmest indifference, convinced that in its + undiminished strength, his faith is firm and inexpugnable; his + vigilance is only excited by the alarm of internal dissent, and all + his passions are aroused to stifle the symptoms of schism.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Hence the indomitable hatred with which the Brahmans pursued + the disciples of Buddhism from the fourth century before Christ to + its final expulsion from Hindustan. "Abundant proofs," says + Turnour, "may be adduced to show the fanatical ferocity with which + these two great sects persecuted each other; and which, subsided + into passive hatred and contempt, only when the parties were no + longer placed in the position of actual collision."—Introd. + <i>Mahawanso</i>, p. xxii.</p> + + <p>2: In its earliest form Buddhism was equally averse to + persecution, and the <i>Mahawanso</i> extols the liberality of + Asoca in giving alms indiscriminately to the members of all + religions <i>(Mahawanso</i>, ch. v. p. 23). A sect which is + addicted to persecution is not likely to speak approvingly of + toleration, but the <i>Mahawanso</i> records with evident + satisfaction the courtesy paid to the sacred things of Buddhism by + the believers in other doctrines; thus the Nagas did homage to the + relics of Buddha and mourned their removal from Mount Meru + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxi. p. 189); the Yakkhos assisted at the + building of dagobas to enshrine them, and the Brahmans were the + first to respect the Bo-tree on its arrival in Ceylon (<i>Ib.</i> + ch. xix. p. 119). COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, whose informant, Sopater, + visited Ceylon in the sixth century, records that there was then + the most extended toleration, and that even the Nestorian + Christians had perfect freedom and protection for their + worship.</p> + + <p>Among the Buddhists of Burmah, however, "although they are + tolerant of the practice of other religions by those who profess + them, secession from the national faith, is rigidly prohibited, and + a convert to any other form of faith incurs the penalty of + death."—Professor WILSON, <i>Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i> vol. + xvi. p. 261.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 209.</span>This characteristic of the + "religion of the Vanquisher" is in strict conformity, not alone with + the spirit of his <a name="pg379" id="pg379"></a> doctrine, but also + with the letter of the law laid down for the guidance of his + disciples. Two of the singular rock-inscriptions of India deciphered + by Prinsep, inculcate the duty of leaving the profession of different + faiths unmolested; on the ground, that "all aim at moral restraint + and purity of life, although all cannot be equally successful in + attaining to it." The sentiments embodied in one of the edicts[1] of + King Asoca are very striking: "A man must honour his own faith, + without blaming that of his neighbour, and thus will but little that + is wrong occur. There are even circumstances under which the faith of + others should be honoured, and in acting thus a man increases his own + faith and weakens that of others. He who acts differently, diminishes + his own faith and injures that of another. Whoever he may be who + honours his own faith and blames that of others out of devotion to + his own, and says, 'let us make our faith conspicuous,' that man + merely injures the faith he holds. Concord alone is to be + desired."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The twelfth tablet, which, as translated by BURNOUF and + Professor WILSON, will be found in Mrs. SPEIR'S <i>Life in Ancient + India</i>, book ii. ch. iv. p. 239.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 209.</span>The obligation, to maintain the + religion of Buddha was as binding as the command to abstain from + assailing that of its rivals, and hence the kings who had treated the + snake-worshippers with kindness, who had made a state provision for + maintaining "offerings to demons," and built dwellings at the capital + to accommodate the "ministers of foreign religions," rose in fierce + indignation against the preaching of a firm believer in Buddha, who + ventured to put an independent interpretation on points of faith. + They burned the books of the Wytulians, as the new sect were called, + and frustrated their irreligious attempt.[1] The first <a name= + "pg380" id="pg380"></a> effort at repression was ineffectual. It was + made by the King Wairatissa, A.D. 209; <span class="side">A.D. + 248.</span>but within forty years the schismatic tendency returned, + the persecution was renewed, and the apostate priests, after being + branded on the back were ignominiously transported to the opposite + coast of India.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Mahawanso</i> throws no light on the nature of the + Wytulian (or Wettulyan) heresy (ch. xxvii. p. 227), but the + <i>Rajaratnacari</i> insinuates that Wytulia was a Brahman who had + "subverted by craft and intrigue the religion of Buddha" (ch. ii, + p. 61). As it is stated in a further passage that the priests who + were implicated were stripped of their habits, it is evident that + the innovation had been introduced under the garb of + Buddha.—<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, ch. ii. p. 65.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 25, <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvi. + p. 232. As the <i>Mahawanso</i> intimates in another passage that + amongst the priests who were banished to the opposite coast of + India, there was one Sangha-mitta, "who was profoundly versed in + the rites of the demon faith ('bhuta')," it is probable that out of + the Wytulian heresy grew the system which prevails to the present + day, by which the heterodox <i>dewales</i> and halls for devil + dances are built in close contiguity to the temples and wiharas of + the orthodox Buddhists, and the barbarous rites of demon worship + are incorporated with the abstractions of the national religion. On + the restoration of Maha-Sen to the true faith, the <i>Mahawanso</i> + represents him as destroying the <i>dewales</i> at Anarajapoora in + order to replace them with wiharas (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. + p. 237). An account of the mingling of Brahmanical with Buddhist + worship, as it exists at the present day, will be found in HARDY'S + <i>Oriental Monachism</i>, ch. xix. Professor H.H. WILSON, in his + <i>Historical Sketch of the Kingdom of Pandya</i>, alludes to a + heresy, which, anterior to the sixth century, disturbed the + <i>sangattar</i> or college of Madura; the leading feature of which + was the admixture of Buddhist doctrines with the rite of the + Brahmans, and "this heresy," he says, "some traditions assert was + introduced from Ceylon."—<i>Asiat. Journ.</i> vol. iii. p. + 218.</p> + </div> + + <p>The new sect had, however, established an interest in high places; + and Sangha-mitta, one of the exiled priests, returning from + banishment on the death of the king, so ingratiated himself with his + successor, that he was entrusted with the education of the king's + sons. One of the latter, Maha-Sen, succeeded to the throne, + <span class="side">A.D. 275.</span>A.D. 275, and, openly professing + his adoption of the Wytulian tenets, dispossessed the popular + priesthood, and overthrew the Brazen Palace. With the materials of + the great wihara, he constructed at the sacred Bo-tree a building as + a receptacle for relics, and a temple in which the statue of Buddha + was to be worshipped according to the rites of the reformed + religion.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 235.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 275.</span>So bold an innovation roused + the passions of the nation; the people prepared for revolt, and a + conflict was imminent, when the schismatic Sangha-mitta was suddenly + assassinated, and the king, convinced of his <a name="pg381" id= + "pg381"></a> errors, addressed himself with energy to restore the + buildings he had destroyed, and to redress the mischiefs chiefs + caused by his apostacy. He demolished the dewales of the Hindus, in + order to use their sites for Buddhist wiharas; he erected nunneries, + constructed the Jaytawanarama (a dagoba at Anarajapoora), formed the + great tank of Mineri by drawing a dam across the Kara-ganga and that + of Kandelay or Dantalawa, and consecrated the 20,000 fields which it + irrigated to the Dennanaka Wihare.[1] "He repaired numerous + dilapidated temples throughout the island, made offerings of a + thousand robes to a thousand priests, formed sixteen tanks to extend + cultivation—there is no defining the extent of his + charity"—and having performed during his existence acts both of + piety and impity, the <i>Mahawanso</i> cautiously adds, "his destiny + after death was according to his merits."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR's <i>Epitome</i>, p. 25.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiii. p. 238.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 302.</span>With King Maha-Sen end the + glories of the "superior dynasty" of Ceylon. The "sovereigns of the + <i>Suluwanse</i>, who followed," says the <i>Rajavali</i>, "were no + longer of the unmixed blood, but the offspring of parents, only one + of whom was descended from the sun, and the other from the bringer of + the Bo-tree or the sacred tooth; on that account, because the God + Sakkraia had ceased to watch over Ceylon, because piety had + disappeared, and the city of Anarajapoora was in ruins, and because + the fertility of the land was diminished, the kings who succeeded + Maha-Sen were no longer reverenced as of old."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 289.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 302.</span>The prosperity of Ceylon, + though it may not have attained its acme, was sound and auspicious in + the beginning of the fourth century, when the solar line became + extinct. Pihiti, the northern portion of the island, was that which + most engaged the solicitude of the crown, from its containing the + ancient capital, <a name="pg382" id="pg382"></a> whence it obtained + its designation of the Raja-ratta or country of the kings. Here the + labour bestowed on irrigation had made the food of the population + abundant, and the sums expended on the adornment of the city, the + multitude of its sacred structures, the splendour of its buildings, + and the beauty of its lakes and gardens, rendered it no inappropriate + representative of the wealth and fertility of the kingdom.</p> + + <p>Anarajapoora had from time immemorial been a venerated locality in + the eyes of the Buddhists; it had been honoured by the visit of + Buddha in person, and it was already a place of importance when + Wijayo effected his landing in the fifth century before the Christian + era. It became the capital a century after, and the King + Pandukabhaya, who formed the ornamental lake which adjoined it, and + planted gardens and parks for public festivities, built gates and + four suburbs to the city; set apart ground for a public cemetery, and + erected a gilded hall of audience, and a palace for his own + residence.</p> + + <p>The <i>Mahawanso</i> describes with particularity the offices of + the Naggaraguttiko, who was the chief of the city guard, and the + organisation of the low caste Chandalas, who were entrusted with the + cleansing of the capital and the removal of the dead for interment. + For these and for the royal huntsmen villages were constructed in the + environs, mingled with which were dwellings for the subjugated native + tribes, and temples for the worship of foreign devotees.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 66.</p> + </div> + + <p>Seventy years later, when Mahindo arrived in Ceylon, the details + of his reception disclose the increased magnificence of the capital, + the richness of the royal parks, and the extent of the state + establishments; and describe the chariots in which the king drove to + Mihintala to welcome his exalted guest.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ibid., ch. xiv., xv., xx.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 302.</span>Yet these were but preliminary + to the grander constructions <a name="pg383" id="pg383"></a> which + gave the city its lasting renown; stupendous dagobas raised by + successive monarchs, each eager to surpass the conceptions of his + predecessors; temples in which were deposited statues of gold adorned + with gems and native pearls; the decorated terraces of the Bo-tree, + and the Brazen Palace, with its thousand chambers and its richly + embellished halls. The city was enclosed by a rampart upwards of + twenty feet in height[1], which was afterwards replaced by a wall[2]; + and, so late as the fourth century, the Chinese traveller Fa Hian + describes the condition of the place in terms which fully corroborate + the accounts of the <a name="pg384" id="pg384"></a> <i>Mahawanso</i>. + It was crowded, he says, with nobles, magistrates, and foreign + merchants; the houses were handsome, and the public buildings richly + adorned. The streets and highways were broad and level, and halls for + preaching and reading <i>bana</i> were erected in all the + thoroughfares. He was assured that the island contained not less than + from fifty to sixty thousand ecclesiastics, who all ate in common; + and of whom from five to six thousand were supported by the bounty of + the king.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: By WASABHA, A.D. 66. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 222.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR, in his <i>Epitome of the History of Ceylon</i>, says + that Anarajapoora was enclosed by a rampart seven cubits high, B.C. + 41, and that A.D. 66 King Wasabha built a wall round the city + sixteen gows in circumference. As he estimates the gow at four + English miles, this would give an area equal to about 300 square + miles. A space so prodigious for the capital seems to be + disproportionate to the extent of the kingdom, and far too extended + for the wants of the population. TURNOUR does not furnish the + authority on which he gives the dimensions, nor have I been able to + discover it in the <i>Rajavali</i> nor in the <i>Rajaratnacari</i>. + The <i>Mahawanso</i> alludes to the fact of Anarajapoora having + been fortified by Wasabha, but, instead of a wall, the work which + it describes this king to have undertaken, was the raising of the + height of the rampart from seven cubits to eighteen + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 222). Major Forbes, in his account + of the ruins of the ancient city, repeats the story of their former + extent, in which he no doubt considered that the high authority of + Turnour in matters of antiquity was sustained by a statement made + by Lieutenant Skinner, who had surveyed the ruins in 1822, to the + effect that he had discovered near Alia-parte the remains of + masonry, which he concluded to be a portion of the ancient city + wall running north and south and forming the west face; and, as + Alia-parte is seven miles from Anarajapoora, he regarded this + discovery as confirming the account given of its original + dimensions. Lieutenant, now Major, Skinner has recently informed me + that, on mature reflection, he has reason to fear that his first + inference was precipitate. In a letter of the 8th of May, 1856, he + says:—"It was in 1833 I first visited Anarajapoora, when I + made my survey of its ruins. The supposed foundation of the western + face of the city wall was pointed out near the village of + Alia-parte by the people, and I hastily adopted it. I had not at + the time leisure to follow up this search and determine how far it + extended, but from subsequent visits to the place I have been led + to doubt the accuracy of this tradition, though on most other + points I found the natives tolerably accurate in their knowledge of + the history of the ancient capital. I have since sought for traces + of the other faces of the supposed wall, at the distances from the + centre of the city at which it was said to have existed, but + without success." The ruins which Major Skinner saw at Alia-parte + are most probably those of one of the numerous forts which the + Singhalese kings erected at a much later period, to keep the + Malabars in check.</p> + </div> + + <p>The sacred tooth of Buddha was publicly exposed on sacred days in + the capital with gorgeous ceremonies, which he recounts, and thence + carried in procession to "the mountains without fear;" the road to + which was perfumed and decked with flowers for the occasion; and the + festival was concluded by a dramatic representation of events in the + life of Buddha, illustrated by scenery and costumes, with figures of + elephants and stags, so delicately coloured as to be + undistinguishable from nature.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: FA HIAN, <i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 334, + &c.</p> + </div><a name="pg385" id="pg385"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. IX.</h2> + + <h3>KINGS OF THE "LOWER DYNASTY."</h3> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 302.</span>The story of the kings of + Ceylon of the <i>Sulu-wanse</i> or "lower line," is but a narrative + of the decline of the power and prosperity which had been matured + under the Bengal conquerors and of the rise of the Malabar marauders, + whose ceaseless forays and incursions eventually reduced authority to + feebleness and the island to desolation. The vapid biography of the + royal imbeciles who filled the throne from the third to the + thirteenth century scarcely embodies an incident of sufficient + interest to diversify the monotonous repetition of temples founded + and dagobas repaired, of tanks constructed and priests endowed with + lands reclaimed and fertilised by the "forced labour" of the + subjugated races. Civil dissensions, religious schisms, royal + intrigues and assassinations contributed equally with foreign + invasions to diminish the influence of the monarchy and exhaust the + strength of the kingdom.</p> + + <p>Of sixty-two sovereigns who reigned from the death of Maha-Sen, + A.D. 301, to the accession of Prakrama Bahu, A.D. 1153, nine met a + violent death at the hands of their relatives or subjects, two ended + their days in exile, one was slain by the Malabars, and four + committed suicide. Of the lives of the larger number the Buddhist + historians fail to furnish any important incidents; they relate + merely the merit which each acquired by his liberality to the + national religion or the more substantial benefits conferred on the + people by the formation of lakes for irrigation.</p><a name="pg386" + id="pg386"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 330.</span>Unembarrassed by any questions + of external policy or foreign expeditions, and limited to a narrow + range of internal administration, a few of the early kings addressed + themselves to intellectual pursuits. One immortalised himself in the + estimation of the devout by his skill in painting and sculpture, and + in carving in ivory, arts which he displayed by modelling statues of + Buddha, and which he employed himself in teaching to his subjects.[1] + <span class="side">A.D. 339.</span>Another was equally renowned as a + medical author and a practitioner of surgery[2], and a third was so + passionately attached to poetry that in despair for the death of + Kalidas[3], he flung himself into the flames of the poet's funeral + pile.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Detoo Tissa, A.D. 330, <i>Mahawanso</i>, xxxvii. p. 242.</p> + + <p>2: Budha Daasa, A.D. 339. <i>Mahawanso</i>, xxxvii, p. 243. His + work on medicine, entitled <i>Sara-sangraha</i> or + <i>Sarat-tha-Sambo</i>, is still extant, and native practitioners + profess to consult it.—TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 27.</p> + + <p>3: Not KALIDAS, the author of <i>Sacontala</i>, to whom Sir W. + Jones awards the title of "The Shakspeare of the East," but PANDITA + KALIDAS, a Singhalese poet, none of whose verses have been + preserved. His royal patron was Kumara Das, king of Ceylon, A.D. + 513. For an account of Kalidas, see DE ALWIS'S <i>Sidath + Sangara</i>, p. cliv.</p> + </div> + + <p>With the exception of the embassy sent from Ceylon to Rome in the + reign of the Emperor Claudius[1], the earliest diplomatic intercourse + with foreigners of which a record exists, occurred in the fourth or + fifth centuries, when the Singhalese appear to have sent ambassadors + to the Emperor Julian[2], and for the first time to have established + a friendly connection with China. It is strange, considering the + religious sympathies which united the two people, that the native + chronicles make no mention of the latter negotiations or their + results, so that we learn of them only through Chinese historians. + The <i>Encyclopoedia</i> of MA-TOUAN-LIN, written at the close of the + thirteenth century[3], records that Ceylon <a name="pg387" id= + "pg387"></a> first entered into political relations with China in the + fourth century.[4] It was about the year <span class="side">A.D. + 400.</span>400 A.D., says the author, "in the reign of the Emperor + Nyan-ti, that ambassadors arrived from Ceylon bearing a statue of Fo + in jade-stone four feet two inches high, painted in five colours, and + of such singular beauty that one would have almost doubted its being + a work of human ingenuity. It was placed in the Buddhist temple at + Kien-Kang (Nankin)." In the year 428 A.D., the King of Ceylon (Maha + Nama) sent envoys to offer tribute, and this homage was repeated + between that period and A.D. 529, by three other Singhalese kings, + whose names it is difficult to identify with their Chinese + designations of Kia-oe, Kia-lo, and the Ho-li-ye.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PLINY, lib. vi. c. 24.</p> + + <p>2: AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, lib. XX. c. 7.</p> + + <p>3: KLAPROTH doubts, "si la science de l'Europe a produit jusqu'à + présent un ouvrage de ce genre aussi bien exécuté et capable de + soutenir la comparaison avec cette encyclopédie + chinoise."—<i>Journ. Asiat.</i> tom. xxi. p. 3. See also + <i>Asiatic Journal</i>, London, 1832, xxxv. p. 110. It has been + often reprinted in 100 large volumes. M. STANISLAS JULIEN says that + in another Chinese work, <i>Pien-i-tien</i>, or <i>The History of + Foreign Nations</i>, there is a compilation including every passage + in which Chinese authors have written of Ceylon, which occupies + about forty pages 4to. <i>Ib</i>. tom. xxix. p. 39. A number of + these authorities will be found extracted in the chapter in which I + have described the intercourse between China and Ceylon, Vol. I. P. + v. ch. iii.</p> + + <p>4: Between the years 317 and 420 A.D.—<i>Journ. Asiat.</i> + tom. xxviii. p. 401.</p> + </div> + + <p>In A.D. 670, another ambassador arrived from Ceylon, and A.D. 742, + Chi-lo-mi-kia sent presents to the Emperor of China consisting of + pearls (<i>perles de feu</i>), golden flowers, precious stones, + ivory, and pieces of fine cotton cloth. At a later period mutual + intercourse became frequent between the two countries, and some of + the Chinese travellers who resorted to Ceylon have left valuable + records as to the state of the island.</p> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 413.</span>It was during the reign of Maha + Nama, about the year 413 A.D., that Ceylon was visited by Fa Hian, + and the statements of the <i>Mahawanso</i> are curiously corroborated + by the observations recorded by this Chinese traveller. He describes + accurately the geniality of the climate, whose uniform temperature + rendered the seasons undistinguishable. Winter and summer, he says, + are alike unknown, but perpetual verdure realises the idea of a + <a name="pg388" id="pg388"></a> <span class="side">A.D. + 432.</span>perennial spring, and periods for seed time and harvest + are regulated by the taste of the husbandman. This statement has + reference to the multitude of tanks which rendered agriculture + independent of the periodical rains.</p> + + <p>Fa Hian speaks of the lofty monuments which were the memorials of + Buddha, and of the gems and gold which adorned his statues at + Anarajapoora. Amongst the most surprising of these was a figure in + what he calls "blue jasper," inlaid with jewels and other precious + materials, and holding in one hand a pearl of inestimable value.[1] + He describes the Bo-tree in terms which might almost be applied to + its actual condition at the present day, and he states that they had + recently erected a building to contain "the tooth of Buddha," which + was exhibited to the pious in the middle of the third moon with + processions and ceremonies which he minutely details.[2] All this + corresponds closely with the narrative of the <i>Mahawanso</i>. The + sacred tooth of Buddha, called at that time <i>Dáthá dhátu</i>, and + now the <i>Dalada</i>, had been brought to Ceylon a short time before + Fa Hian's arrival in the reign of Kisti-Sri-Megha-warna, A.D. 311, in + charge of a princess of Kalinga, who concealed it in the folds of her + hair. And the <i>Mahawanso</i> with equal precision describes the + procession as conducted by the king and by the assembled priests, in + <a name="pg389" id="pg389"></a> which the tooth was borne along the + streets of Anarajapoora amidst the veneration of the + multitude.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It was whilst looking at this statue that FA HIAN encountered + an incident which he has related with touching + simplicity:—"Depuis que FA HIAN avait quitté la <i>terre de + Han</i>, plusieurs années s'étaient écoulées; les gens avec + lesquels il avait des rapports étaient tous des hommes de contrées + étrangères. Les montagnes, les rivières, les herbes, les arbres, + tout ce qui avait frappé ses yeux était nouveau pour lui. De plus, + ceux qui avaient fait route avec lui, s'en étaient séparés, les uns + s'étant arrêtés, et les autres étant morts. En réfléchissant au + passé, son coeur était toujours rempli de pensées et de tristesse. + Tout à coup, à cóté de cette figure de jaspe, il vit un marchand + qui faisait hommage à la statue d'un éventail de taffetas blanc du + pays de <i>Tsin</i>. Sans qu'en s'en aperçût cela lui causa une + émotion telle que ses larmes coulèrent et remplirent ses yeux." (FA + HIAN, <i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 333.) "Tsin" + means the province of Chensi, which was the birthplace of Fa + Hian.</p> + + <p>2: FA HIAN, <i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. + 334-5.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 241, 249. After the funeral + rites of Gotama Buddha had been performed at Kusinara, B.C. 543, + his "left canine tooth" was carried to Dantapura, the capital of + Kalinga, where it was preserved for 800 years. The King of Calinga, + in the reign of Maha-Sen, being on the point of engaging in a + doubtful conflict, directed, in the event of defeat, that the + sacred relic should be conveyed to Ceylon, whither it was + accordingly taken as described. (<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 240.) Between + A.D. 1303 and 1315 the tooth was carried back to Southern India by + the leader of an army, who invaded Ceylon and sacked + <i>Yapahoo</i>, which was then the capital. The succeeding monarch, + Prakrama III., went in person to Madura to negotiate its surrender, + and brought it back to Pollanarrua. Its subsequent adventures and + its final destruction by the Portuguese, as recorded by DE COUTO + and others, will be found in a subsequent passage, see Vol. II. P. + VII. ch. v. The Singhalese maintain that the Dalada, still + treasured in its strong tower at Kandy, is the genuine relic, which + was preserved from the Portuguese spoilers by secreting it at + Delgamoa in Saffragam.</p> + + <p>TURNOUR'S <i>Account of the Tooth Relic of Ceylon; Journal of + the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, 1837, vol. vi. p. 2, p. 856.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 459.</span>One of the most striking events + in this period of Singhalese history was the murder of the king, + Dhatu Sena, A.D. 459, by his son, who seized the throne under the + title of Kasyapa I. The story of this outrage, which is highly + illustrative of the superstition and cruelty of the age, is told with + much feeling in the <i>Mahawanso</i>; the author of which, Mahanamo, + was the uncle of the outraged king, Dhatu Sena was a descendant of + the royal line, whose family were living in retirement during the + usurpation of the Malabars, A.D. 434 to 459. As a youth he had + embraced the priesthood, and his future eminence was foretold by an + omen. "On a certain day, when chaunting at the foot of a tree, when a + shower of rain fell, a cobra de capello encircled him with its folds + and covered his book with its hood."[1] He was educated by his uncle, + Mahanamo, and in process of time, surrounding himself with adherents, + he successfully attacked the Malabars, defeated two of their chiefs + in succession, put three others to death, recovered the native + sovereignty of Ceylon, "and the religion which had been set aside by + the foreigners, <a name="pg390" id="pg390"></a> he restored to its + former ascendancy." He recalled the fugitive inhabitants to + Anarajapoora; degraded the nobles who had intermarried with the + Malabars, and vigorously addressed himself to repair the sacred + edifices and to restore fertility to the lands which had been + neglected during their hostile occupation by the strangers. He + applied the jewels from his head-dress to replace the gems of which + the statue of Buddha had been despoiled. The curled hair of the + divine teacher was represented by sapphires, and the lock on his + forehead by threads of gold.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This is a frequent traditionary episode in connection with + the heroes of Hindu history.—<i>Asiat. Researches</i>, vol. + xv. p. 275.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 459.</span>The family of the king + consisted of two sons and a daughter, the latter married to his + nephew, who "caused her to be flogged on the thighs with a whip + although she had committed no offence;" on which the king, in his + indignation, ordered the mother of her husband to be burned. His + nephew and eldest son now conspired to dethrone him, and having made + him a prisoner, the latter "raised the chatta" (the white parasol + emblematic of royalty), and seized on the supreme power. Pressed by + his son to discover the depository of his treasures, the captive king + entreated to be taken to Kalawapi, under the pretence of pointing out + the place of their concealment, but in reality with a determination + to prepare for death, after having seen his early friend Mahanamo, + and bathed in the great tank which he himself had formerly + constructed. The usurper complied, and assigned for the journey a + "carriage with broken wheels," the charioteer of which shared his + store of "parched rice" with the fallen king. "Thus worldly + prosperity," says Mahanamo, who lived to write the sad story of the + interview, "is like the glimmering of lightning, and what reflecting + man would devote himself to its pursuit!" The Raja approached his + friend and, "from the manner these two persons discoursed, side by + side, mutually quenching the fire of their afflictions, they appeared + as if endowed with royal prosperity. Having allowed him to eat, the + thero (Mahanamo) in <a name="pg391" id="pg391"></a> various ways + administered consolation and abstracted his mind from all desire to + prolong his existence." The king then bathed in the tank; and + pointing to his friend and to it, "these," he exclaimed to the + messengers, "are all the treasures I possess."</p> + + <p>He was conducted back to the capital; and Kasyapa, suspecting that + the king was concealing his riches for his second son, Mogallana, + gave the order for his execution. Arrayed in royal insignia, he + repaired to the prison of the raja, and continued to walk to and fro + in his presence: till the king, perceiving his intention to wound his + feelings, said mildly, "Lord of statesmen, I bear the same affection + towards you as to Mogallana." The usurper smiled and shook his head; + then stripping the king naked and casting him into chains, he built + up a wall, embedding him in it with his face towards <span class= + "side">A.D. 477.</span>the east, and enclosed it with clay: "thus the + monarch Dhatu-Sena, who was murdered by his son, united himself with + Sakko the ruler of Devos."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. To this hideous incident + Mahanamo adds the following curious moral: "This Raja Dhatu Sena, + at the time he was improving the Kalawapi tank, observed a certain + priest absorbed in meditation, and not being able to rouse him from + abstraction, had him buried under the embankment by heaping earth + over him. His own living entombment <i>was the retribution</i> + manifested in this life for that impious act."</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 477.</span>The parricide next directed his + groom and his cook to assassinate his brother, who, however, escaped + to the coast of India.[1] Failing in the attempt, he repaired to + Sihagiri, a place difficult of access to men, and having cleared it + on all sides, he surrounded it with a rampart. He built three + habitations, accessible only by flights of steps, and ornamented with + figures of lions (siho), whence the fortress takes its name, + <i>Siha-giri</i>, "the Lion Rock." Hither he carried the treasures of + his father, and here he built a palace, "equal in beauty to the + celestial mansion." He erected temples to Buddha, and <a name="pg392" + id="pg392"></a> monasteries for his priests, but conscious of the + enormity of his crimes, these endowments were conferred in the names + of his minister and his children. Failing to "derive merit" from such + acts, stung with remorse, and anxious to test public feeling, he + enlarged his deeds of charity; he formed gardens at the capital, and + planted groves of mangoes throughout the island. Desirous to enrich a + wihara at Anarajapoora, he proposed to endow it with a village, but + "the ministers of religion, regardful of the reproaches of the world, + declined accepting gifts at the hands of a parricide. Kasyapa, bent + on befriending them, dedicated the village to Buddha, after which + they consented, <i>on the ground that it was then the property of the + divine teacher</i>." Impelled, says the <i>Mahawanso</i>, by the + irrepressible dread of a future existence, he strictly performed his + "aposaka"[2] vows, practised the virtue of non-procrastination, + acquired the "dathanga,"[3] and caused books to be written, and image + and alms-edifices to be formed.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I am indebted to the family of the late Mr. Turnour for + access to a manuscript translation of a further portion of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, from which this continuation of the narrative is + extracted.</p> + + <p>2: A lay devotee who takes on himself the obligation of + asceticism without putting on the yellow robe.</p> + + <p>3: The dathanga or "teles-dathanga" are the thirteen ordinances + by which the cleaving to existence is destroyed, involving piety, + abstinence, and self-mortification.—HARDY'S <i>Eastern + Monachism</i>, ch. ii. p. 9.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/392.jpg"><img src="images/392.jpg" alt= + "FORTIFIED ROCK OF SIGIRI" /></a> + + <p>FORTIFIED ROCK OF SIGIRI</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 495.</span>Meanwhile, after an interval of + eighteen years, Mogallana, having in his exile collected a sufficient + force, returned from India to avenge the murder of his father; + <a name="pg393" id="pg393"></a> and the brothers encountered each + other in a decisive engagement at Ambatthakolo in the Seven Corles. + Kasyapa, perceiving a swamp in his front, turned the elephant which + he rode into a side path to avoid it; on which his army in alarm + raised the shout that "their liege lord was flying," and in the + confusion which followed, Mogallana, having struck off the head of + his brother, returned the krese to its scabbard, and led his + followers to take possession of the capital; where he avenged the + death of his father, by the execution of the minister who had + consented to it. He established a marine force to guard the island + against the descents of the Malabars, and "having purified both the + orthodox dharma[1], and the religion of the vanquisher, he died, + after reigning eighteen years, signalised by acts of piety."[2] This + story as related by its eye-witness, Mahanamo, forms one of the most + characteristic, as well as the best authenticated episodes of + contemporary history presented by the annals of Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The doctrines of Buddha.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxix. Manuscript translation by + TURNOUR. TURNOUR, in his <i>Epitome</i>, says Kasyapa "committed + suicide on the field of battle," but this does not appear from the + narrative of the <i>Mahawanso</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Such was the feebleness of the royal house, that of the eight + kings who succeeded Mogallana between <span class="side">A.D. + 515.</span>A.D. 515 and A.D. 586, two died by suicide, three by + murder, and one from grief occasioned by the treason of his son. The + anarchy consequent upon such disorganisation stimulated the rapacity + of the Malabars; and the chronicles of the following centuries are + filled with the accounts of their descents on the island and the + misery inflicted by their excesses.</p><a name="pg394" id= + "pg394"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. X.</h2> + + <h3>THE DOMINATION OF THE MALABARS.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 515.</span>It has been already explained + that the invaders who engaged in forays into Ceylon, though known by + the general epithet of Malabars (or as they are designated in Pali, + <i>damilos</i>, "Tamils"), were also natives of places in India + remote from that now known as Malabar. They were, in reality, the + inhabitants of one of the earliest states organised in Southern + India, the kingdom of Pandya[1], whose sovereigns, from their + intelligence, and their encouragement of native literature, have been + appropriately styled "the Ptolemies of India." Their dominions, which + covered the extremity of the peninsula, comprehended the greater + portion of the Coromandel coast, extending to Canara on the western + coast, and southwards to the sea.[2] Their kingdom was subsequently + contracted in dimensions, by the successive independence of Malabar, + the rise of the state of Chera to the west, of Ramnad to the south, + and of Chola in the east, till it sank in modern times into the petty + government of the Naicks of Madura.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pandya, as a kingdom was not unknown in classical times, and + its ruler was the [Greek: Basileus Pandiôn] mentioned in the + <i>Periplus of the Erythræan Sea</i>, and the king Pandion, who + sent an embassy to Augustus.—PLINY, vi. 26; PTOLEMY, vii. + 1.</p> + + <p>2: See an <i>Historical Sketch of the Kingdom of Pandya</i>, by + Prof. H. H. WILSON, <i>Asiat. Journ.</i>, vol. iii.</p> + + <p>3: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg353">p. 353, n.</a></p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 515.</span>The relation between this + portion of the Dekkan and the early colonisers of Ceylon was rendered + intimate by many concurring incidents. Wijayo himself was connected + by maternal descent with the king of <a name="pg395" id="pg395"></a> + Kalinga[1], now known as the Northern Circars; his second wife was + the daughter of the king of Pandya, and the ladies who accompanied + her to Ceylon were given in marriage to his ministers and + officers.[2] Similar alliances were afterwards frequent; and the + Singhalese annalists allude on more than one occasion to the "damilo + consorts" of their sovereigns.[3] Intimate intercourse and + consanguinity, were thus established from the remotest period. + Adventurers from the opposite coast were encouraged by the previous + settlers; high employments were thrown open to them, Malabars were + subsidised both as cavalry and as seamen; and the first abuse of + their privileges was in the instance of the brothers Sena and + Goottika, who, holding naval and military commands, took advantage of + their position and seized on the throne, B.C. 237; apparently with + such acquiescence on the part of the people, that even the + <i>Mahawanso</i> praises the righteousness of their reign, which was + prolonged to twenty-two years, when they were put to death by the + rightful heir to the throne.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vi. p. 43.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 53; the <i>Rajarali</i> (p. + 173) says they were 700 in number.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 253.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i> ch. xxi. p. 127.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 515.</span>The easy success of the first + usurpers encouraged the ambition of fresh aspirants, and barely ten + years elapsed till the <i>first</i> regular invasion of the island + took place, under the illustrious Elala, who, with an army from + Mysore (then called Chola or Soli), subdued the entire of Ceylon, + north of the Mahawelli-ganga, and compelled the chiefs of the rest of + the island, and the kings of Rohuna and Maya, to acknowledge his + supremacy and become his tributaries.[1] As in the instance of the + previous revolt, the people exhibited such faint resistance to the + usurpation, that the reign of Elala extended to forty-four years. It + is difficult to conceive that their quiescence under a stranger was + entirely ascribable to the <a name="pg396" id="pg396"></a> fact, that + the rule of the Malabars, although adverse to Buddhism, was + characterised by justice and impartiality. Possibly they recognised + to some extent their pretensions, as founded on their relationship to + the legitimate sovereigns of the island, and hence they bore their + sway without impatience.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 17; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi. + p. 128; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 188.</p> + + <p>2: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg360">p. 360, n.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The majority of the subsequent invasions of Ceylon by the Malabars + partook less of the character of conquest than of forays, by a + restless and energetic race, into a fertile and defenceless country. + Mantotte, on the northwest coast, near Adam's Bridge, became the + great place of debarcation; and here successive bands of marauders + landed time after time without meeting any effectual resistance from + the unwarlike Singhalese.</p> + + <p>The <i>second</i> great invasion took place about a century after + the first, B.C. 103, when seven Malabar leaders effected simultaneous + descents at different points of the coast[1], and combined with a + disaffected "Brahman prince" of Rohuna, to force Walagam-bahu I. to + surrender his sovereignty. The king, after an ineffectual show of + resistance, fled to the mountains of Malaya; one of the invaders + carried off the queen to the coast of India; a third despoiled the + temples of Anarajapoora and retired, whilst the others continued in + possession of the capital for nearly fifteen years, till + Walagam-bahu, by the aid of the Rohuna highlanders, succeeded in + recovering the throne.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 16. The <i>Mahawanso</i> says + they landed at "Mahatittha."—<i>Mantotte</i>, ch. xxxiii. p. + 203.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 515.</span>The <i>third</i> great invasion + on record[1] was in its character <a name="pg397" id="pg397"></a> + still more predatory than those which preceded it, but it was headed + by a king in person, who carried away 12,000 Singhalese as slaves to + Mysore. It occurred in the reign of Waknais, A.D. 110, whose son + Gaja-bahu, A.D. 113, avenged the outrage by invading the Solee + country with an expedition which sailed from Jaffnapatam, and brought + back not only the rescued Singhalese captives, but also a multitude + of Solleans, whom the king established on lands in the Alootcoor + Corle, where the Malabar features are thought to be discernible to + the present day.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This incursion of the Malabars is not mentioned in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, but it is described in the <i>Rajavali</i>, p. + 229, and mentioned by TURNOUR, in his <i>Epitome</i>, &c., p. + 21. There is evidence of the conscious supremacy of the Malabars + over the north of Ceylon, in the fourth century, in a very curious + document, relating to that period. The existence of a colony of + Jews at Cochin, in the southwestern extremity of the Dekkan, has + long been known in Europe, and half a century ago, particulars of + their condition and numbers were published by Dr. Claudius + Buchanan. (<i>Christian Researches, &c.</i>) Amongst other + facts, he made known their possession of Hebrew MSS. demonstrative + of the great antiquity of their settlement in India, and also of + their title deeds of land (<i>sasanams</i>), engraved on plates of + copper, and presented to them by the early kings of that portion of + the peninsula. Some of the latter have been carefully translated + into English (see <i>Madras Journ.</i>, vol. xiii. xiv.). One of + their MSS. has recently been brought to England, under + circumstances which are recounted by Mr. FORSTER, in the third vol. + of his <i>One Primeval Language</i>, p. 303. This MS. I have been + permitted to examine. It is in corrupted Rabbinical Hebrew, written + about the year 1781, and contains a partial synopsis of the modern + history of the section of the Jewish nation to whom it belongs; + with accounts of their arrival in the year A.D. 68, and of their + reception by the Malabar kings. Of one of the latter, frequently + spoken of by the honorific style of SRI PERUMAL, but identifiable + with IRAVI VARMAR, who reigned A.D. 379, the manuscript says that + his "<i>rule extended from Goa to Colombo</i>."</p> + + <p>2: CASTE CHITTY, <i>Ceylon Gazetteer</i>, p. 7.</p> + </div> + + <p>A long interval of repose followed, and no fresh expedition from + India is mentioned in the chronicles of Ceylon till A.D. 433, when + the capital was again taken by the Malabars; the Singhalese families + fled beyond the Mahawelli-ganga; and the invaders occupied the entire + extent of the Pihiti Ratta, where for twenty-seven years, five of + them in succession administered the government, till Dhatu Sena + collected forces sufficient to overpower the strangers, and, emerging + from his retreat in Rohuna, recovered possession of the north of the + island.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 243; TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 27.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 515.</span>Dhatu Sena, after his victory, + seems to have made an attempt, though an ineffectual one, to reverse + the policy which had operated under his predecessors as an incentive + to the immigration of Malabars; settlement <a name="pg398" id= + "pg398"></a> and intermarriages had been all along encouraged[1], and + even during the recent usurpation, many Singhalese families of rank + had formed connections with the Damilos. The schisms among the + Buddhist themselves, tending as they did to engraft Brahmanical rites + upon the doctrines of the purer faith, seem to have promoted and + matured the intimacy between the two people; some of the Singhalese + kings erected temples to the gods of the Hindus[2], and the promoters + of the Wytulian heresy found a refuge from persecution amongst their + sympathisers in the Dekkan.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Anula, the queen of Ceylon, A.D. 47, met with no opposition + in raising one of her Malabar husbands to the + throne.—TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 19. Sotthi Sena, who + reigned A.D. 432, had a Damilo queen.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxxviii. p. 253.</p> + + <p>2: Sri Sanga Bo III. A.D. 702, "made a figure of the God Vishnu; + and was a supporter of the religion of Buddha, and a friend of the + people."—<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 78.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 234; TURNOUR'S + <i>Epitome</i>, p. 25.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 515.</span>The Malabars, trained to arms, + now resorted in such numbers to Ceylon, that the leaders in civil + commotions were accustomed to hire them in bands to act against the + royal forces[1]; and whilst no precautions were adopted to check the + landing of marauders on the coast, the invaders constructed forts + throughout the country to protect their conquests from recapture by + the natives. Proud of these successful expeditions, the native + records of the Chola kings make mention of their victories; and in + one of their grants of land, engraved on copper, and still in + existence, Viradeva-Chola, the sovereign by whom it was made, is + described as having triumphed over "Madura, Izham, Caruvar, and the + crowned head of Pandyan;" Izham, (or Ilám) being the Tamil name of + Ceylon.[2] On their expulsion by Dhatu Sena, he took possession of + the fortresses and extirpated the Damilos; degraded the Singhalese + who had intermarried with them; confiscated their estates in favour + of those who had remained true to his cause; <a name="pg399" id= + "pg399"></a> and organised a naval force for the protection of the + coasts[3] of the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvi. p. 238.</p> + + <p>2: DOWSON, on the Chera Kingdom of India.—<i>Asiat. + Journ.</i> vol. viii. p. 24.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawansa</i> ch. xxxviii. p. 256. and xxxix. TURNOUR'S + MS., <i>Trans.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>But his vigorous policy produced no permanent effect; his son + Mogallana, after the murder of his father and the usurpation of + Kasyapa, fled for refuge to the coast of India, and subsequently + recovered possession of the throne, by the aid of a force which he + collected there.[1] In the succession of assassinations, + conspiracies, and civil wars which distracted the kingdom in the + sixth and seventh centuries, during the struggles of the rival + branches of the royal house, each claimant, in his adversity, betook + himself to the Indian continent, and Malabar mercenaries from Pandya + and Soli enrolled themselves indifferently under any leader, and + deposed or restored kings at their pleasure.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 29; <i>Rajavali</i> p. 244.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 31; <i>Rajavali</i> p. 247.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 523.</span>The <i>Rajavali</i>, in a + single passage enumerates fourteen sovereigns who were murdered each + by his successor, between A.D. 523, and A.D. 648. During a period of + such violence and anarchy, peaceful industry was suspended, and + extensive emigrations took place to Bahar and Orissa. Buddhism, + however, was still predominant, and protection was accorded to its + professors.</p> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 640.</span>Hiouen Thsang, a Chinese + traveller, wno visited India between 629 A.D. and 645[1], encountered + numbers of exiles, who informed him that they fled from civil + commotions in Ceylon, in which religion had undergone persecution, + the king had lost his life, cultivation had been interrupted, and the + island exhausted by famine. This account of the Chinese voyager + accords accurately with the events detailed in the Singhalese annals, + in which it is stated that Sanghatissa was deposed and murdered, A.D. + 623, by the Seneriwat, <a name="pg400" id="pg400"></a> his minister, + who, amidst the horrors of a general famine, was put to death by the + people of Rohuna, and a civil war ensued; one result of which was the + defeat of the Malabar mercenaries and their distribution as slaves to + the temples. Hiouen Thsang relates the particulars of his interviews + with the fugitives, from whom he learned the extraordinary riches of + Ceylon, the number and wealth of its wiharas, the density of its + population in peaceful times, the fertility of its soil, and the + abundance of its produce.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Histoire de la Vie de Hiouen Thsang, et de ses Voyages + dans l'Inde depuis l'an</i> 629 <i>jusquèn</i> 643. <i>Par</i> + HOEI-LI <i>et</i> YEN-THSANG, <i>&c. Traduite du Chinois + par</i> STANISLAUS JULIEN, Paris, 1853.</p> + + <p>2: "Ce royaume a sept mille li de tour, et sa capitale quarante + li; la population est agglomérée, et la terre produit des grains en + abondance."—HIOUEN-THSANG, liv. iv. p. 194.</p> + </div> + + <p>For nearly four hundred years, from the seventh till the eleventh + century, the exploits and escapes of the Malabars occupy a more + prominent portion of the Singbalese annals than that devoted to the + policy of the native sovereigns. They filled every office, including + that of prime minister[1], and they decided the claims of competing + candidates for the crown. At length the island became so infested by + their numbers that the feeble monarchs found it impracticable to + effect their exclusion from Anarajapoora[2]; and to escape from their + proximity, the kings in the eighth century began to move southwards, + and transferred their residence to Pollanarrua, which eventually + became the capital of the kingdom. Enormous tanks were constructed in + the vicinity of the new capital; palaces were erected, surpassing + those of the old city in architectural beauty; dagobas were raised, + nearly equal in altitude to the Thuparama and Ruanwelli, and temples + and statues were hewn out of the living rock, the magnitude and + beauty of whose ruins attest the former splendour of + Pollanarrua.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 33.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, A.D. 686, p. 31.</p> + + <p>3: The first king who built a palace at Pollanarrua was Sri + Sanga Bo II., A.D. 642. His successor, Sri Sanga Bo III., took up + his residence there temporarily, A.D. 702; it was made the capital + by Kuda Akbo, A.D. 769, and its embellishment, the building of + colleges, and the formation of tanks in its vicinity, were the + occupations of numbers of his successors.</p> + </div><a name="pg401" id="pg401"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 640.</span>Notwithstanding their numbers + and their power, it is remarkable that the Malabars were never + identified with any plan for promoting the prosperity and + embellishment of Ceylon, or with any undertaking for the permanent + improvement of the island. Unlike the Gangetic race, who were the + earliest colonists, and with whom originated every project for + enriching and adorning the country, the Malabars aspired not to + beautify or enrich, but to impoverish and deface;—and nothing + can more strikingly bespeak the inferiority of the southern race than + the single fact that everything tending to exalt and to civilise, in + the early condition of Ceylon, was introduced by the northern + conquerors, whilst all that contributed to ruin and debase it is + distinctly traceable to the presence and influence of the + Malabars.</p> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 840.</span>The Singhalese, either + paralysed by dread, made feeble efforts to rid themselves of the + invaders; or fascinated by their military pomp, endeavoured to + conciliate them by alliances. Thus, when the king of Pandya over-ran + the north of Ceylon, A.D. 840, plundered the capital and despoiled + its temples, the unhappy sovereign had no other resource than to + purchase the evacuation of the island by a heavy ransom.[1] Yet such + was the influence still exercised by the Malabars, that within a very + few years his successor on the throne lent his aid to the son of the + same king of Pandya in a war against his father, and conducted the + expedition in person.[2] His army was, in all probability, composed + chiefly of Damilos, with whom he overran the south of the Indian + peninsula, and avenged the outrage inflicted on his own kingdom in + the late reign by bearing back the plunder of Madura.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 35; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. + 79.</p> + + <p>2: A.D. 858; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p, 84.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 954.</span>This exploit served to promote + a more intimate intercourse between the two races, and after the + lapse of a <a name="pg402" id="pg402"></a> century, A.D. 954, the + king of Ceylon a second time interposed with an army to aid the + Pandyan sovereign in a quarrel with his neighbour of Chola, wherein + the former was worsted, and forced to seek a refuge in the territory + of his insular ally, whence he was ultimately expelled for conspiracy + against his benefactor. Having fled to India without his regalia, his + Cholian rival made the refusal of the king of Ceylon to surrender + them the pretext for a fresh Malabar invasion, A.D. 990, when the + enemy was repulsed by the mountaineers of Rohuna, who, from the + earliest period down to the present day, have evinced uniform + impatience of strangers, and steady determination to resist their + encroachments.</p> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 997.</span>But such had been the influx of + foreigners, that the efforts of these highland patriots were + powerless against their numbers. Mahindo III., A.D. 997, married a + princess of Calinga[1], and in a civil war which ensued, during the + reign of his son and successor, the novel spectacle was presented of + a Malabar army supporting the cause of the royal family against + Singhalese insurgents. The island was now reduced to the extreme of + anarchy and insecurity; "the foreign population" had increased to + such an extent as to gain a complete ascendency over the native + inhabitants, and the sovereign had lost authority over both.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Now the Northern Circars.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 37.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1023.</span>In A.D. 1023, the Cholians + again invaded Ceylon[1], carried the king captive to the coast of + India (where he died in exile), and established a Malabar viceroy at + Pollanarrua, who held possession of the island for nearly thirty + years, protected in his usurpation by a foreign army. Thus, + "throughout the reign of nineteen kings," says the + <i>Rajaratnacari</i> "extending over eighty-six years, the Malabars + kept up a continual war with the Singhalese, till they filled by + degrees every village in the island."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In the reign of Mahindo IV.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 85.</p> + </div><a name="pg403" id="pg403"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1028.</span>During the absence of the + rightful sovereign, and in the confusion which ensued on his decease, + various members of the royal family arrived at the sovereignty of + Rohuna, the only remnant of free territory left. Four brothers, each + assuming the title of king, contended together for supremacy; and + amidst anarchy and intrigue, each in turn took up the reins of + government, as they fell or were snatched from the hands of his + predecessor[1], till at length, on the retirement of all other + candidates, the forlorn crown was assumed by the minister Lokaiswara, + who held his court at Kattragam, and died A.D. 1071.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 39.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxi.</p> + </div><a name="pg404" id="pg404"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP XI.</h2> + + <h3>THE REIGN OF PRAKRAMA BAHU.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1071.</span>From the midst of this gloom + and despondency, with usurpation successful in the only province + where even a semblance of patriotism survived, and a foreign enemy + universally dominant throughout the rest of Ceylon, there suddenly + arose a dynasty which delivered the island from the sway of the + Malabars, brought back its ancient wealth and tranquillity, and for + the space of a century made it pre-eminently prosperous at home and + victorious in expeditions by which its rulers rendered it respected + abroad.</p> + + <p>The founder of this new and vigorous race was a member of the + exiled family, who, on the death of Lokaiswara, was raised to the + throne under the title of Wijayo Bahu.[1] Dissatisfied with the + narrow limits of Rohuna, he resolved on rescuing Pihiti from the + usurping strangers; and, by the courage and loyalty of his + mountaineers, he recovered the ancient capitals from the Malabars, + compelled the whole extent of the island to acknowledge his + authority, reunited the several kingdoms of Ceylon under one national + banner, and, "for the security of Lanka against foreign invasion, + placed trustworthy chiefs at the head of paid troops, and stationed + them round the coast."[2] Thus signally successful at home, the fame + of his exploits "extended <a name="pg405" id="pg405"></a> over all + Dambadiva[3], and ambassadors arrived at his court from the + sovereigns of India and Siam."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 1071.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lix.; <i>Rajaranacari</i>, p. 58; + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 251; TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 39.</p> + + <p>3: India Proper.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1126.</span>As he died without heirs a + contest arose about the succession, which threatened again to + dissever the unity of the kingdom by arraying Rohuna and the south + against the brother of Wijayo Bahu, who had gained possession of + Pollanarrua. But in this emergency the pretensions of all other + claimants to the crown were overruled in favour of Prakrama, a prince + of accomplishments and energy so unrivalled as to secure for him the + partiality of his kindred and the admiration of the people at + large.</p> + + <p>He was son to the youngest of four brothers who had recently + contended together for the crown, and his ambition from childhood had + been to rescue his country from foreign dominion, and consolidate the + monarchy in his own person. He completed by foreign travel an + education which, according to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, comprised every + science and accomplishment of the age in which he lived, including + theology, medicine, and logic; grammar, poetry, and music; the + training of the elephant and the management of the horse.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxiv.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1153.</span>On the death of his father he + was proclaimed king by the people, and a summons was addressed by him + to his surviving uncle, calling on him to resign in his favour and + pay allegiance to his supremacy. As the feeling of the nation was + with him, the issue of a civil war left him master of Ceylon. He + celebrated his coronation as King of Pihiti at Pollanarrua, A.D. + 1153, and two years later after reducing the refractory chiefs of + Rohuna to obedience, he repeated the ceremonial by crowning himself + "sole King of Lanka."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxi.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is no name in Singhalese history which holds the same rank + in the admiration of the people as that of Prakrama Bahu, since to + the piety of Devenipiatissa he united the chivalry of + Dutugaimunu.</p><a name="pg406" id="pg406"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1155.</span>The tranquillity insured by + the independence and consolidation of his dominions he rendered + subservient to the restoration of religion, the enrichment of his + subjects, and the embellishment of the ancient capitals of his + kingdom; and, ill-satisfied with the inglorious ease which had + contented his predecessors, he aspired to combine the renown of + foreign conquests with the triumphs of domestic policy.</p> + + <p>Faithful to the two grand objects of royal solicitude, religion + and agriculture, the earliest attention of Prakrama was directed to + the re-establishment of the one, and the encouragement and extension + of the other. He rebuilt the temples of Buddha, restored the + monuments of religion in more than their pristine splendour, and + covered the face of the kingdom with works for irrigation to an + extent which would seem incredible did not their existing ruins + corroborate the historical narrative of his stupendous labours.</p> + + <p>Such had been the ostensible decay of Buddhism during the Malabar + domination that, when the kingdom was recovered from them by Wijayo + Bahu, A.D. 1071, "there was not to be found in the whole island five + tirunansis," and an embassy was bent to Arramana[1] to request that + members of this superior rank of the priesthood might be sent to + restore the order in Ceylon.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A part of the Chin-Indian peninsula, probably between Arracan + and Siam.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 85; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 252; + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, lx.</p> + + <p>From the identity of the national faith in the two countries; + intercourse existed between Siam and Ceylon from time immemorial. + At a very early period missions were interchanged for the + inter-communication of Pali literature, and in later times, when, + owing to the oppression of the Malabars certain orders of the + priesthood had become extinct in Ceylon, it became essential to + seek a renewal of ordination at the hands of the Siamese heirarchy + (<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 86). In the numerous incursions of the + Malabars from Chola and Pandya, the literary treasures of Ceylon + were deliberately destroyed, and the <i>Mahawanso</i> and + <i>Rajavali</i>, make frequent lamentations over the loss of the + sacred books. (See also <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp 77, 95, 97.) At a + still later period the savage Raja Singha who reigned between A.D. + 1581 and 1592, and became a convert to Brahmanism, sought eagerly + for Buddhistical books, and "delighted in burning them in heaps as + high as a coco-nut tree." These losses it was sought to repair by + an embassy to Siam, sent by Kirti-Sri in A.D. 1753, when a copious + supply was obtained of Burmese versions of Pali sacred + literature.</p> + </div><a name="pg407" id="pg407"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1155.</span>During the same troublous + times, schisms and heresy had combined to undermine the national + belief, and hence one of the first cares of Prakrama Bahu was to weed + out the perverted sects, and establish a council for the settlement + of the faith on debatable points.[1] Dagobas and statues of Buddha + were multiplied without end during his reign, and temples of every + form were erected both at Pollanarrua and throughout the breadth of + the island. Halls for the reading of bana, image rooms, residences + for the priesthood, ambulance halls and rest houses for their + accommodation when on journeys, were built in every district, and + rocks were hollowed into temples; one of which, at Pollanarrua, + remains to the present day with its images of Buddha; "one in a + sitting and another in a lying posture," almost as described in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxvii.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii. For a description of this temple + see the account of Pollanarrua in the present work, Vol. II. Pt. x. + ch. i.</p> + </div> + + <p>In conformity with the spirit of toleration, which is one of the + characteristics of Buddhism, the king "erected a house for the + Brahmans of the capital to afford the comforts of religion even to + his Malabar enemies." And mindful of the divine injunctions engraven + on the rock by King Asoca, "he forbade the animals in the whole of + Lanka, both of the earth and the water, to be killed,"[1] and planted + gardens, "resembling the paradise of the God-King Sakkraia, with + trees of all sorts bearing fruits and odorous flowers."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxvii. Among the religious edifices + constructed by Prakrama Bahu in many parts of his kingdom, the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, enumerates three temples at Pollanarrua, besides + others at every two or three gows distance; 101 dagobas, 476 + statues of Buddha, and 300 image rooms built, besides 6100 + repaired. He built for the reception of priests from a distance, + "230 lodging apartments, 50 halls for preaching, and 9 for walking, + 144 gates, and 192 rooms for the purpose of offering flowers. He + built 12 apartments and 230 halls for the use of strangers, and 31 + rock temples, with tanks, baths, and gardens for the + priesthood."</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1155.</span>For the people the king + erected almonries at the four gates of the capital, and hospitals, + with slave boys and <a name="pg408" id="pg408"></a> maidens to wait + upon the sick, superintending them in person, and bringing his + medical knowledge to assist in their direction and management.</p> + + <p>Even now the ruins of Pollanarrua, the most picturesque in Ceylon, + attest the care which he lavished on his capital. He surrounded it + with ramparts, raised a fortress within them, and built a palace for + his own residence, containing four thousand apartments. He founded + schools and libraries; built halls for music and dancing; formed + tanks for public baths; opened streets, and surrounded the whole city + with a wall which, if we are to credit the native chronicles, + enclosed an area twelve miles broad by nearly thirty in length.</p> + + <p>By his liberality, Rohuna and Pihiti were equally embellished; the + buildings of Vigittapura and Sigiri were renewed; and the ancient + edifices at Anarajapoora were restored, and its temples and palaces + repaired, under the personal superintendence of his minister. It is + worthy of remark that so greatly had the constructive arts declined, + even at that period, in Ceylon, that the king had to "bring Damilo + artificers" from the opposite coast of India to repair the structures + at his capital.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxv. lxxvii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1155.</span>The details preserved in the + Singhalese chronicles as to the works for irrigation which he formed + or restored, afford an idea of the prodigious encouragement bestowed + upon agriculture in this reign, as well as of the extent to which the + rule of the Malabars had retarded the progress and destroyed the + earlier traces of civilisation. Fourteen hundred and seventy tanks + were constructed by the king in various parts of the island, three of + them of such vast dimensions that they were known as the "Seas of + Prakrama;"[1] and in addition to these, three hundred others were + formed by him for the special benefit of the priests. The "Great + Lakes" which he repaired, as specified in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, + amount to <a name="pg409" id="pg409"></a> thirteen hundred and + ninety-five, and the smaller ones which he restored or enlarged to + nine hundred and sixty. Besides these, he made five hundred and + thirty-four watercourses and canals, by damming up the rivers, and + repaired three thousand six hundred and twenty-one.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 88</p> + + <p>2: The useful ambition of signalising their reign by the + construction of works of irrigation, is still exhibited by the + Buddhist sovereigns of the East; and the king of Burmah in his + interview with the British envoy in 1855, advanced his exploits of + this nature as his highest claim to distinction. The conversation + is thus reported in YULE'S <i>Narrative of the Mission</i>. London, + 1858.</p> + + <p>"<i>King.</i> Have you seen any of the royal tanks at + Oung-ben-le', which have recently been constructed?</p> + + <p>"<i>Envoy.</i> I have not been yet, your Majesty, but I purpose + going.</p> + + <p>"<i>King.</i> I have caused <i>ninety-nine</i> tanks and ancient + reservoirs to be dug and repaired; and <i>sixty-six</i> canals: + whereby a great deal of rice land will be available. * * * In the + reign of Nauraba-dzyar 9999 tanks and canals were constructed: I + purpose renewing them."—P. 109.</p> + </div> + + <p>The bare enumeration of such labours conveys an idea of the + prodigious extent to which structures of this kind had been + multiplied by the early kings; and we are enabled to form an estimate + of the activity of agriculture in the twelfth century, and the vast + population whose wants it supplied, by the thousands of reservoirs + still partially used, though in ruins; and the still greater number + now dry and deserted, and concealed by dense jungle, in districts + once waving with yellow grain. Such was the internal tranquillity + which, under his rule, pervaded Ceylon, that an inscription, engraved + by one of his successors, on the rock of Dambool, after describing + the general peace and "security which he established, as well in the + wilderness as in the inhabited places," records that, "even a woman + might traverse the island with a precious jewel and not be asked what + it was."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Moore's melody, beginning "Rich and rare were the gems she + wore," was founded on a parallel figure illustrative of the + security of Ireland under the rule of King Brien; when, according + to Warner, "a maiden undertook a journey done, from one extremity + of the kingdom to another, with only a wand in her hand, at the top + of which was a ring of exceeding great value."</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1155.</span>In the midst of these + congenial operations the energetic king had command of military + resources, sufficient not <a name="pg410" id="pg410"></a> only to + repress revolt within his own dominions, but also to carry war into + distant countries, which had offered him insult or inflicted injury + on his subjects. His first foreign expedition was fitted out to + chastise the king of Cambodia and Arramana[1] in the Siamese + peninsula, who had plundered merchants from Ceylon, visiting those + countries to trade in elephants; he had likewise intercepted a vessel + which was carrying some Singhalese princesses, had outraged + Prakrama's ambassador, and had dismissed him mutilated and maimed. A + fleet sailed on this service in the sixteenth year of Prakrama's + reign, he effected a landing in Arramana, vanquished the king, and + obtained full satisfaction.[2] He next directed his arms against the + Pandyan king, for the countenance which that prince had uniformly + given to the Malabar invaders of the island. He reduced Pandya and + Chola, rendered their sovereigns his tributaries, and having founded + a city within the territory of the latter, and coined money in his + own name, he returned in triumph to Ceylon.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg406">p. 406, n.</a></p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR's <i>Epitome</i>, p. 41; <i>Mahawanso</i>, lxxiv.; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 87; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 254.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxvi. I am not aware whether the Tamil + historians have chronicled this remarkable expedition, and the + conquest of this portion of the Dekkan by the king of Ceylon; but + in the catalogue of the Kings appended by Prof. WILSON to his + <i>Historical Sketch of Pandya</i> (Asiat. Journ. vol. iii. p. 201) + the name of "Pracrama Baghu" occurs as the sixty-fifth in the list + of sovereigns of that state. For an account of Dipaldenia, where he + probably coined his Indian money, see <i>Asiat. Soc. Journ. + Bengal</i>, v. vi. pp. 218, 301.</p> + </div> + + <p>"Thus," says the <i>Mahawanso</i>, "was the whole island of Lanka + improved and beautified by this king, whose majesty is famous in the + annals of good deeds, who was faithful in the religion of Buddha, and + whose fame extended abroad as the light of the moon."[1] "Having + departed this life," adds the author of the <i>Rajavali</i>, "he was + found on a silver rock in the wilderness of the Himalaya, where are + eighty-four thousand mountains of gold, and where he will reign as a + king as long as the world endures."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxviii</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 91.</p> + </div><a name="pg411" id="pg411"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. XII.</h2> + + <h3>FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY.—ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE, + A.D. 1501.</h3> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1155.</span>The reign of Prakrama Bahu, + the most glorious in the annals of Ceylon, is the last which has any + pretension to renown. His family were unequal to sustain or extend + the honours he had won, and his nephew[1], a pious voluptuary, by + whom he was succeeded, <span class="side">A.D. 1186.</span>was killed + in an intrigue with the daughter of a herdsman whilst awaiting the + result of an appeal to the Buddhist sovereign of Arramana to aid him + in reforming religion. His murderer, whom he had previously nominated + his successor, himself fell by assassination. <span class="side">A.D. + 1187.</span>An heir to the throne was discovered amongst the + Singhalese exiles on the coast of India[2], but death soon ended his + brief reign.<span class="side">A.D. 1192.</span> His brother and his + nephew in turn assumed the crown; both were despatched by the Adigar, + who, having allied himself with the royal family by <span class= + "side">A.D. 1196.</span>marrying the widow of the great Prakrama, + contrived to place her on the throne, under the title of Queen + Leela-Wattee, A.D. 1197. <span class="side">A.D. 1197.</span>Within + less than three years she was deposed by an usurper, and he being + speedily put to flight, another queen, Kalyana-Wattee, <span class= + "side">A.D. 1202.</span>was placed at the head of the kingdom. The + next ill-fated sovereign, a baby of three months <a name="pg412" id= + "pg412"></a> old, was speedily set aside by means of a hired force, + and the first queen, Leela-Wattee, restored to the throne. But the + same band who had effected a revolution in her favour were prompt to + repeat the exploit; she was a second time deposed, and a third time + recalled by the intervention of foreign mercenaries.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/412.jpg"><img src="images/412.jpg" width="30%" + alt="Singhalese coins, Leela-Wattee." /></a> + + <p>Coin of Queen Leela-Wattee.</p> + </div> + + <p>1: Wijayo Bahu II., killed by Mihindo, A.D. 1187.</p> + + <p>2: Kirti Nissanga, brought from Calinga, A.D. 1192.</p> + + <p>3: Of the very rare examples now extant of Singhalese coins, one + of the most remarkable bears the name of + Leela-Wattee.—<i>Numismatic Chronicle, 1853. Papers on some + Coins of Ceylon, by</i> W.S.W. Vaux, <i>Esq</i>., p. 126.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1211.</span>Within thirty years from the + decease of Prakrama Bahu, the kingdom was reduced to such an + extremity of weakness by contentions amongst the royal family, and by + the excesses of their partisans, that the vigilant Malabars seized + the opportunity to land with an army of 24,000 men, reconquered the + whole of the island, and Magha, their leader, became king of Ceylon + A.D. 1211.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 256.</p> + </div> + + <p>The adventurers who invaded Ceylon on this occasion came not from + Chola or Pandya, as before, but from Calinga, that portion of the + Dekkan which now forms the Northern Circars. Their domination was + marked by more than ordinary cruelty, and the <i>Mahawanso</i> and + <i>Rajaratnacari</i> describe with painful elaboration the extinction + of Buddhism, the overthrow of temples, the ruin of dagobas, the + expulsion of priests, and the occupation of their dwellings by + Damilos, the outrage of castes, the violation of property, and the + torture of its possessors to extract the disclosure of their + treasures, "till the whole island resembled a dwelling in flames or a + house darkened by funeral rites."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxix.; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 93; + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 256.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1211.</span>On all former occasions Rohuna + and the South had been comparatively free from the actual presence of + the enemy, but in this instance they established themselves <a name= + "pg413" id="pg413"></a> at Mahagam[1], and thence to Jaffnapatam, + every province in the island was brought under subjection to their + rule.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, 257.</p> + </div> + + <p>The peninsula of Jaffna and the extremity of the island north of + Adam's Bridge, owing to its proximity to the Indian coast, was at all + times the district most infested by the Malabars. Jambukola, the + modern Colombogam, is the port which is rendered memorable in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> by the departure of embassies and the arrival of + relics from the Buddhist countries, and Mantotte, to the north of + Manaar, was the landing place of the innumerable expeditions which + sailed from Chola and Pandya for the subjugation of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>The Tamils have a tradition that, prior to the Christian era, + Jaffna was colonised by Malabars, and that a Cholian prince assumed + the government, A.D. 101,—a date which corresponds closely with + the second Malabar invasion recorded in the <i>Mahawanso</i>. Thence + they extended their authority over the adjacent country of the Wanny, + as far south as Mantotte and Manaar, "fortified their frontiers and + stationed wardens and watchers to protect themselves from + invasion."[1] The successive bands of marauders arriving from the + coast had thus on every occasion a base for operations, and a strong + force of sympathisers to cover their landing; and from the inability + of the Singhalese to offer an effectual resistance, those portions of + the island were from a very early period practically abandoned to the + Malabars, whose descendants at the present day form the great bulk of + its population.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See a paper on the early History of Jaffna by S. CASIE + CHITTY, <i>Journal of the Royal Asiat. Society of Ceylon, 1847</i>, + p. 68.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1235.</span>After an interval of twenty + years, Wijayo Bahu III., A.D. 1235, collected as many Singhalese + followers as enabled him to recover a portion of the kingdom, and + establish himself in Maya, within which he built a capital at + Jambudronha or Dambedenia, fifty miles to the north of the <a name= + "pg414" id="pg414"></a> present Colombo. The Malabars still retained + possession of Pihiti and defended their frontier by a line of forts + drawn across the island from Pollanarrua to Ooroototta on the western + coast.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxx. lxxxii.; <i>Rajaratnacuri</i>, + pp. 94, 94; <i>Rajavali</i>, p.258.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1266.</span>Thirty years later Pandita + Prakrama Bahu III, A.D. 1266, effected a further dislodgment of the + enemy in the north; but Ceylon, which possessed</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"The fatal gift of beauty, that became</p> + + <p>A funeral dower of present woes and past,"</p> + </div> + + <p>was destined never again to be free from the evils of foreign + invasion; a new race of marauders from the Malayan peninsula were her + next assailants[1]; and these were followed at no very long interval + by a fresh expedition from the coast of India.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, pp. 256, 260. A second Malay landing is + recorded in the reign of Prakrama III., A.D. 1267.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxxii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Having learned by experience the exposure and insecurity of the + successive capitals, which had been built by former sovereigns in the + low lands, this king founded the city of Kandy, then called + Siriwardanapura, amongst the mountains of Maya[1], to which he + removed the sacred <i>dalada</i>, and the other treasures of the + crown. But such precautions came too late: to use the simile of the + native historian, they were "fencing the field whilst the oxen were + within engaged in devouring the corn."[2] The power of the Malabars + had become so firmly rooted, and had so irresistibly extended itself, + that, one after another, each of the earlier capitals was abandoned + to them, and the seat of government carried further towards the + south. Pollanarrua had risen into importance in the eighth and ninth + centuries, when Anarajapoora was found to be no longer tenable + against the strangers. Dambedenia was next adopted, A.D. 1235 as a + retreat from Pollanarrua; and this being deemed insecure, was + exchanged, <span class="side">A.D. 1303.</span>A.D. 1303, for Yapahu + in the Seven Corles. Here the Pandyan marauders <a name="pg415" id= + "pg415"></a> followed in the rear of the retreating sovereign[3], + surprised the new capital, and carried off the dalada relic to the + coast of India. After its recovery Yapahu was deserted, <span class= + "side">A.D. 1319.</span>A.D. 1319. Kornegalle or Kurunaigalla, then + called Hastisailapoora and Gampola[4], still further to the south and + more deeply intrenched amongst the Kandyan mountains, were + successively chosen for the royal residence, <span class="side">A.D. + 1347.</span>A.D. 1347. Thence the uneasy seat of government was + carried to Peradenia, close by Kandy, and its latest migration, + <span class="side">A.D. 1410.</span>A.D. 1410, was to + Jaya-wardana-pura, the modern Cotta, a few miles east of Colombo.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 104; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + lxxxiii.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 82.</p> + + <p>3: A.D. 1303.</p> + + <p>4: Gampola or Gam-pala, <i>Ganga-siripura</i>, "the beautiful + city near the river," is said in the <i>Rajaratnacari</i> to have + been built by one of the brothers-in-law of Panduwaasa, B.C. + 504.</p> + </div> + + <p>Such frequent removals are evidences of the alarm and despondency + excited by the forays and encroachments of the Malabars, who from + their stronghold at Jaffna exercised undisputed dominion over the + northern coasts on both sides of the island, and, secure in the + possession of the two ancient capitals, Anarajapoora and Pollanarrua, + spread over the rich and productive plains of the north. To the + present hour the population of the island retains the permanent + traces of this alien occupation of the ancient kingdom of Pihiti. The + language of the north of the island, from Chilaw on the west coast to + Batticaloa on the east, is chiefly, and in the majority of localities + exclusively, Tamil; whilst to the south of the Dederaoya and the + Mahawelli-ganga, in the ancient divisions of Rohuna and Maya, the + vernacular is uniformly Singhalese.</p> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1410.</span>Occasionally, after long + periods of inaction, collisions took place; or the Singhalese kings + equipped expeditions against the north; but the contest was unequal; + and in spite of casual successes, "the king of the Ceylonese + Malabars," as he is styled in the <i>Rajavali</i>, held his court at + Jaffnapatam, and collected tribute from both the high and <a name= + "pg416" id="pg416"></a> the low countries, whilst the south of the + island was subdivided into a variety of petty kingdoms, the chiefs of + which, at Yapahu, at Kandy, at Gampola, at Matura, Mahagam, Matelle, + and other places[1], acknowledged the nominal supremacy of the + sovereign at Cotta, with whom, however, they were necessarily + involved in territorial quarrels, and in hostilities provoked by the + withholding of tribute.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 263; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxxvii.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1410.</span>It was during this period that + an event occurred, which is obscurely alluded to in some of the + Singhalese chronicles, but is recorded with such minute details in + several of the Chinese historical works, as to afford a reliable + illustration of the condition of the island and its monarchy in the + fifteenth century. Prior to that time the community of religion + between Ceylon and China, and the eagerness of the latter country to + extend its commerce, led to the establishment of an intercourse which + has been elsewhere described[1]; missions were constantly despatched + charged with an interchange of courtesies between their sovereigns; + theologians and officers of state arrived in Ceylon empowered to + collect information regarding the doctrines of Buddha; and envoys + were sent in return bearing royal donations of relics and sacred + books. The Singhalese monarchs, overawed by the magnitude of the + imperial power, were induced to avow towards China a sense of + dependency approaching to homage; and the gifts which they offered + are all recorded in the Chinese annals as so many "payments of + tribute." At length, in the year 1405 A.D,[2], <a name="pg417" id= + "pg417"></a> during the reign of the emperor Yung-lo[3] of the Ming + dynasty, a celebrated Chinese commander, Ching-Ho, having visited + Ceylon as the bearer of incense and offerings, to be deposited at the + shrine of Buddha, was waylaid, together with his followers, by the + Singhalese king, Wijayo Bahu VI., and with difficulty effected an + escape to his ships. To revenge this treacherous affront Ching-Ho was + despatched a few years afterwards with a considerable fleet and a + formidable military force, which the king (whom the Chinese historian + calls A-lee-ko-nae-wih) prepared to resist; but by a vigorous effort + Ho and his followers succeeded in seizing the capital, and bore off + the sovereign, together with his family, as prisoners to China. He + presented them to the emperor, who, out of compassion, ordered them + to be sent back to their country on the condition that "the wisest of + the family should be chosen king." "<i>Seay-pa-nea-na</i>"[4] was + accordingly elected, and this choice being confirmed, he was sent to + his native country, duly provided with a seal of investiture, as a + vassal of the empire under the style of Sri Prakrama Bahu + VI.,—and from that period till the reign of Teen-shun, A.D. + 1434-1448, Ceylon continued to pay an annual tribute to China.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg607">Part v. ch. iii.</a></p> + + <p>2: The narrative in the text is extracted from the + <i>Ta-tsing-yi-tung</i>, a "Topographical Account of the Manchoo + Empire," written in the seventeenth century, to a copy of which, in + the British Museum, my attention was directed by the erudite + Chinese scholar, Mr. MEADOWS, author of "<i>The Chinese and their + Rebellions</i>." The story of this Chinese expedition to Ceylon + will also be found in the <i>Se-yih-ké-foo-choo</i>, "A Description + of Western Countries," A.D. 1450; the <i>Woo heo-pecu</i>, "A + Record of the Ming Dynasty," A.D. 1522, b. lviii. p. 3, and in the + <i>Ming-she</i>, "A History of the Ming Dynasty," A.D. 1739, + cccxxvi. p. 2. For a further account of this event see <a href= + "#pg607">Part v. of this work; ch. iii.</a></p> + + <p>3: The <i>Ming-she</i> calls the Emperor "Ching-tsoo."</p> + + <p>4: So called in the Chinese original.</p> + </div> + + <p>From the beginning of the 13th century to the extinction of the + Singhalese dynasty in the 18th, the island cannot be said to have + been ever entirely freed from the presence of the Malabars. Even when + temporarily subdued, they remained with forced professions of + loyalty; Damilo soldiers were taken into pay by the Singhalese + sovereigns; the dewales of the Hindu worship were built in close + contiguity to the wiharas of Buddhism, and by frequent intermarriages + the royal line was almost as closely allied to the kings of Chola and + Pandya as to the blood of the Suluwanse.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p.261, 262. In A.D. 1187 on the death or + Mahindo V., the second in succession from the great Prakrama, the + crown devolved upon Kirti Nissanga, who was summoned from Calinga + on the Coromandel Coast. On the extinction of the recognised line + of Suluwanse in A.D. 1706, a prince from Madura, who was merely a + connection by marriage, succeeded to the throne. The King Raja + Singha, who detained Knox in captivity, A.D. 1640, was married to a + Malabar princess. In fact, the four last kings of Ceylon, prior to + its surrender to Great Britain, were pure Malabars, without a trace + of Singhalese blood.</p> + </div><a name="pg418" id="pg418"></a> + + <p><span class="side">A.D. 1505.</span>It was in this state of + exhaustion, that the Singhalese were brought into contact with + Europeans, during the reign of Dharma Prakrama IX, when the + Portuguese, who had recently established themselves in India, + appeared for the first time in Ceylon, A.D. 1505. The paramount + sovereign was then living at Cotta; and the <i>Rajavali</i> records + the event in the following terms:—"And now it came to pass that + in the Christian year 1522 A.D., in the month of April, a ship from + Portugal arrived at Colombo, and information was brought to the king, + that there were in the harbour a race of very white and beautiful + people, who wear boots and hats of iron, and never stop in one place. + They eat a sort of white stone, and drink blood; and if they get a + fish they give two or three <i>ridé</i> in gold for it; and besides, + they have guns with a noise louder than thunder, and a ball shot from + one of them, after traversing a league, will break a castle of + marble."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, Upham's version, p. 278.</p> + </div> + + <p>Before proceeding to recount the intercourse of the islanders with + these civilised visitors, and the grave results which followed, it + will be well to cast a glance over the condition of the people during + the period which preceded, and to cull from the native historians + such notices of their domestic and social position as occur in + passages intended by the Singhalese annalists to chronicle only those + events which influenced the national worship, or the exploits of + those royal personages, who earned immortality by their protection of + Buddhism.</p><a name="pg419" id="pg419"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>PART IV.</h2> + + <h3>SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS</h3> + + <h4>OF</h4> + + <h3>THE ANCIENT SINGHALESE.</h3><a name="pg420" id="pg420"></a> + <a name="pg421" id="pg421"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + + <h3>POPULATION.—CASTE.—SLAVERY AND RAJA-KARIYA.</h3> + + <p>POPULATION.—In no single instance do the chronicles of + Ceylon mention the precise amount of the population of the island, at + any particular period; but there is a sufficiency of evidence, both + historical and physical, to show that it must have been prodigious + and dense, especially in the reigns of the more prosperous kings. + Whatever limits to the increase of man artificial wants may interpose + in a civilised state and in ordinary climates are unknown in a + tropical region, where clothing is an encumbrance, the smallest + shelter a home, and sustenance supplied by the bounty of the soil in + almost spontaneous abundance. Under such propitious circumstances, in + the midst of a profusion of fruit-bearing-trees, and in a country + replenished by a teeming harvest twice, at least, in each year, with + the least possible application of labour; it may readily be conceived + that the number of the people will be adjusted mainly, if not + entirely, by the extent of arable land.</p> + + <p>The emotion of the traveller of the present time, as day after day + he traverses the northern portions of the island, and penetrates the + deep forests of the interior, is one of unceasing astonishment at the + inconceivable multitude of deserted tanks, the hollows of which are + still to be traced; and the innumerable embankments, overgrown with + timber, which indicate the sites of vast reservoirs that formerly + fertilised districts now solitary and barren. Every such tank is the + landmark of one village at least, and such are the dimensions of some + of them that in proportion <a name="pg422" id="pg422"></a> to their + area, it is probable that hundreds of villages may have been + supported by a single one of these great inland lakes.</p> + + <p>The labour necessary to construct one of these gigantic works for + irrigation is in itself an evidence of local density of population; + but their multiplication by successive kings, and the constantly + recurring record of district after district brought under cultivation + in each successive reign[1], demonstrate the steady increase of + inhabitants, and the multitude of husbandmen whose combined and + sustained toil was indispensable to keep these prodigious structures + in productive activity.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The practice of recording the formation of tanks for + irrigation by the sovereign is not confined to the chronicles of + Ceylon. The construction of similar works on the continent of India + has been commemorated in the same manner by the native historians. + The memoirs of the Rajas of Orissa show the number of tanks made + and wells dug in every reign.</p> + </div> + + <p>The <i>Rajavali</i> relates that in the year 1301 A.D. King + Prakrama III, on the eve of his death, reminded his sons, that having + conquered the Malabars, he had united under one rule the three + kingdoms of the island, Pihiti with 450,000 villages, Rohuna with + 770,000, and Maya with 250,000.[1] A village in Ceylon, it must be + observed, resembles a "town" in the phraseology of Scotland, where + the smallest collection of houses, or even a single farmstead with + its buildings is enough to justify the appellation. In the same + manner, according to the sacred ordinances which regulate the conduct + of the Buddhist priesthood, a "solitary house, if there be people, + must be regarded as a village,"[2] and all beyond it is the + forest.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i> p. 262. A century later in the reign or + Prakrama-Kotta, A.D. 1410, the <i>Rajaratnacari</i> says, there + then were 256,000 villages in the province of Matura, 495,000 in + that of Jaffna, and 790,000 in Oovah.—P. 112.</p> + + <p>2: Hardy's <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, ch. xiii. p. 133.</p> + </div> + + <p>Even assuming that the figures employed by the author of the + <i>Rajavali</i> partake of the exaggeration <a name="pg423" id= + "pg423"></a> common to all oriental narratives, no one who has + visited the regions now silent and deserted, once the homes of + millions, can hesitate to believe that when the island was in the + zenith of its prosperity, the population of Ceylon must of necessity + have been at least ten times as great as it is at the present + day.</p> + + <p>The same train of thought leads to a clearer conception of the + means by which this dense population was preserved, through so many + centuries, in spite of frequent revolutions and often recurring + invasions; as well as of the causes which led to its ultimate + disappearance, when intestine decay had wasted the organisation on + which the fabric of society rested.</p> + + <p>Cultivation, as it existed in the north of Ceylon, was almost + entirely dependent on the store of water preserved in each village + tank; and it could only be carried on by the combined labour of the + whole local community, applied in the first instance to collect and + secure the requisite supply for irrigation, and afterwards to + distribute it to the rice lands, which were tilled by the united + exertions of the inhabitants, amongst whom the crop was divided in + due proportions. So indispensable were concord and union in such + operations, that injunctions for their maintenance were sometimes + engraven on the rocks, as an inperishable exhortation, to forbearance + and harmony.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See the inscription on the rock of Mihintala, A. D. 262, + TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, Appendix, p. 90; and a similar one on a + rock at Pollanarrua, ibid., p, 92.</p> + </div> + + <p>Hence, in the recurring convulsions which overthrew successive + dynasties, and transferred the crown to usurpers, with a facile + rapidity, otherwise almost unintelligible, it is easy to comprehend + that the mass of the people had the strongest possible motives for + passive submission, and were constrained to acquiescence by an + instinctive dread of the fatal effects of prolonged + commotion.</p><a name="pg424" id="pg424"></a> + + <p>If interrupted in their industry, by the dread of such events, + they retired till the storm had blown over, and returned, after each + temporary dispersion, to resume possession of the lands and their + village tank.</p> + + <p>The desolation which now reigns over the plains which the + Singhalese formerly tilled, was precipitated by the reckless + domination of the Malabars, in the fourteenth and following + centuries. The destruction of reservoirs and tanks has been ascribed + to defective construction, and to the absence of spill-waters, and + other facilities for discharging the surplus-water, during the + prevalence of excessive rains; but independently of the fact that + vast numbers of these tanks, though utterly deserted, remain, in this + respect, almost uninjured to the present day, we have the evidence of + their own native historians, that for upwards of fifteen centuries, + the reservoirs, when duly attended to, successfully defied all the + dangers to be apprehended from inundation. Their destruction and + abandonment are ascribable, not so much to any engineering defect, as + to the disruption of the village communities, by whom they were so + long maintained. The ruin of a reservoir, when neglected and + permitted to fall into decay, was speedy and inevitable; and as the + destruction of the village tank involved the flight of all dependent + upon it, the water, once permitted to escape, carried pestilence and + miasma over the plains they had previously covered with plenty. After + such a calamity any partial return of the villagers, even where it + was not prevented by the dread of malaria, would have been + impracticable; for the obvious reason, that where the whole combined + labour of the community was not more than sufficient to carry on the + work of conservancy and cultivation, the diminished force of a few + would have been utterly unavailing, either to effect the reparation + of the watercourses, or to restore the system on which the culture of + rice depends. Thus the process of decay, instead of a gradual decline + as in <a name="pg425" id="pg425"></a> other countries, became sudden + and utter desolation in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>From such traces as are perceptible in the story of the earliest + immigrants, it is obvious that in their domestic habits and civil + life they brought with them and perpetuated in Ceylon the same + pursuits and traits which characterised the Aryan races that had + colonised the valley of the Ganges. The Singhalese Chronicles abound, + like the ancient Vedas, with allusions to agriculture and herds, to + the breeding of cattle and the culture of grain. They speak of + village communities and of their social organisation, as purely + patriarchal. Women were treated with respect and deference; and as + priestesses and queens they acquired a prominent place in the + national esteem. Rich furniture was used in dwellings and costly + textures for dress; but these were obtained from other nations, whose + ships resorted to the island, whilst its inhabitants, averse to + intercourse with foreigners, and ignorant of navigation, held the + pursuits of the merchant in no esteem.</p> + + <p><i>Caste</i>.—Amongst the aboriginal inhabitants + <i>caste</i> appears to have been unknown, although after the arrival + of Wijayo and his followers the system in all its minute + subdivisions, and slavery, both domestic and prædial, prevailed + throughout the island. The Buddhists, as dissenters, who revolted + against the arrogant pretensions of the Brahmans, embodied in their + doctrines a protest against caste under any modification. But even + after the conversion of the Singhalese to Buddhism, and their + acceptance of the faith at the hands of Mahindo, caste as a national + institution was found too obstinately established to be overthrown by + the Buddhist priesthood; and reinforced, as its supporters were, by + subsequent intercourse with the Malabars, it has been perpetuated to + the present time, as a conventional and social, though no longer as a + sacred institution. Practically, the Singhalese ignore three of the + great classes, <a name="pg426" id="pg426"></a> theoretically + maintained by the Hindus; among them there are neither Brahmans, + Vaisyas, nor Kshastryas; and at the head of the class which they + retain, they place the <i>Goi-wanse</i> or <i>Vellalas</i>, nominally + "tillers of the soil." In earlier times the institution seems to have + been recognised in its entirety, and in the glowing description given + in the <i>Mahawanso</i> of the planting of the great Bo-tree, "the + sovereign the lord of chariots directed that it should be lifted by + the four high caste tribes and by eight persons of each of the other + castes."[1] In later times the higher ranks are seldom spoken of in + the historical books but by specific titles, but frequent allusion is + made to the Chandalas, the lowest of all, who were degraded to the + office of scavengers and carriers of corpses.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xix. p. 116.</p> + + <p>2: Ibit., ch. x. p. 66. The Chandala in one of the Jatakas is + represented as "one born in the open air, his parents not being + possessed of a roof; and as he lies amongst the pots when his + mother goes to cut fire-wood, he is suckled by the bitch along with + her pups."—HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. iii. p. 80.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Slavery</i>.—The existence of slavery is repeatedly + referred to, and in the absence of any specific allusion to its + origin in Ceylon, it must be presumed to have been borrowed from + India. As the Sudras, according to the institutes of Menu, were by + the laws of caste consigned to helpless bondage, so slavery in Ceylon + was an attribute of race[1]; and those condemned to it were doomed to + toil from their birth, with no requital other than the obligation on + the part of their masters to maintain them in health, to succour them + in sickness, and apportion their burdens to their strength.[2] And + although the liberality of theoretical Buddhism threw open, even to + the lowest caste, all the privileges of the priesthood, the <a name= + "pg427" id="pg427"></a> slave alone was repulsed, on the ground that + his admission would deprive the owner of his services.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In later times, slavery was not confined to the low castes; + insolvents could be made slaves by their creditors—the chief + frequently buying the debt, and attaching the debtor to his + followers. The children of freemen, by female slaves, followed the + status of their mothers.</p> + + <p>2: HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. x. p. 482.</p> + + <p>3: HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, ch. iv. p. 18.</p> + </div> + + <p>Like other property, slaves could be possessed by the Buddhist + monasteries, and inscriptions, still existing upon the rocks of + Mihintala and Dambool, attest the capacity of the priests to receive + them as gifts, and to require that as slaves they should be exempted + from taxation.</p> + + <p>Unrelaxed in its assertion of abstract right, but mitigated in the + forms of its practical enforcement, slavery endured in Ceylon till + extinguished by the fiat of the British Government in 1845.[1] In the + northern and Tamil districts of the island, its characteristics + differed considerably from its aspect in the south and amongst the + Kandyan mountains. In the former, the slaves were employed in the + labours of the field and rewarded with a small proportion of the + produce; but amongst the pure Singhalese, slavery was domestic rather + than prædial, and those born to its duties were employed less as the + servants, than as the suite of the Kandyan chiefs. Slaves swelled the + train of their retainers on all occasions of display, and had certain + domestic duties assigned to them, amongst which was the carrying of + fire-wood, and the laying out of the corpse after death. The + strongest proof of the general mildness of their treatment in all + parts of the island, is derived from the fact, that when in 1845, + Lord Stanley, now the Earl of Derby, directed the final abolition of + the system, slavery was extinguished in Ceylon without a claim for + compensation on the part of the proprietors.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: An account of slavery in Ceylon, and the proceedings for its + suppression, will be found in PRIDHAM'S <i>Ceylon</i>, vol. i. p. + 223.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Compulsory Labour</i>.—Another institution, to the + influence and operation of which the country was indebted for the + construction of the works which diffused plenty throughout every + region, was the system of Raja-kariya, <a name="pg428" id= + "pg428"></a> by which the king had a right to employ, for public + purposes, the compulsory labour of the inhabitants. To what extent + this was capable of exaction, or under what safeguards it was + enforced in early times, does not appear from the historical books. + But on all occasions when tanks were to be formed, or canals cut for + irrigation, the <i>Mahawanso</i> alludes—almost in words of + course—to the application of Raja-kariya for their + construction[1], the people being summoned to the task by beat of + drum.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The inscription engraven on the rock at Mihintala, amongst + other regulations for enforcing the observance by the temple + tenants of the conditions on which their lands were held, declares + that "if a fault be committed by any of the cultivators; the + adequate fine shall be assessed according to usage; or in lieu + thereof, the delinquent shall be directed <i>to work at the + lake</i> in making an excavation not exceeding sixteen cubits in + circumference and one cubit deep."— TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, + &c., Appendix, p. 87.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 149.</p> + </div> + + <p>The only mention of the system which attracts particular + attention, is the honour awarded to the most pious of the kings, who, + whilst maintaining Raja-kariya as an institution, nevertheless + stigmatised it as "oppression" when applied to non-productive + objects; and on the occasion of erecting one of the most stupendous + of the monuments dedicated to the national faith, felt that the merit + of the act would be neutralised, were it to be accomplished by + "unrequited" labour.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ibid., ch. xxvii. pp. 163, 165. King Tissa, A. D. 201, in + imitation of Dutugaimunu. caused the restorations of monuments at + the capital "<i>to be made with paid labour</i>."—Ibid., ch. + xxxvi. p. 226. See ante <a href="#pg357">Vol. I. Pt. III. ch. v. p. + 357.</a></p> + </div><a name="pg429" id="pg429"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. II.</h2> + + <h3>AGRICULTURE.—IRRIGATION.—CATTLE AND CROPS.</h3> + + <p>AGRICULTURE.—Prior to the arrival of the Bengalis, and even + for some centuries after the conquest of Wijayo, before the knowledge + of agriculture had extended throughout the island, the inhabitants + appear to have subsisted to a great extent by the chase.[1] Hunting + the elk and the boar was one of the amusements of the early princes; + the "Royal Huntsmen" had a range of buildings erected for their + residence at Anarajapoora, B.C. 504[2], and the laws of the chase + generously forbade to shoot the deer except in flight.[3] Dogs were + trained to assist in the sport[4] and the oppressed aborigines, + driven by their conquerors to the forests of Rohuna and Maya, are the + subjects of frequent commendation in the pages of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, from their singular ability in the use of the + bow.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 59; ch, xiv. p. 78; ch. xxiii. p. + 142. The hunting of the hare is mentioned 161 B.C. + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 141.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid., ch. x. p. 66.</p> + + <p>3: Ibid., ch. xiv. p. 78. King Devenipiatissa, when descrying + the elk which led him to the mountain where Mahindo was seated, + exclaimed, "It is not fair to shoot him standing!" he twanged his + bowstring and followed him as he fled, See ante, <a href= + "#pg341">p. 341, n.</a></p> + + <p>4: Ibid., ch. xxviii p. 166.</p> + + <p>5: Ibid., ch. xxxiii. pp. 202, 204, &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>Before the arrival of Wijayo, B.C. 543, agriculture was unknown in + Ceylon, and grain, if grown at all, was not systematically + cultivated. The Yakkhos, the aborigines, subsisted, as the Veddahs, + their lineal descendants, live at the present day, on fruits, honey, + and the products of the chase. Rice was distributed by Kuweni to the + followers of Wijayo, but it was "rice procured from the wrecked + <a name="pg430" id="pg430"></a> ships of mariners."[l] And two + centuries later, so scanty was the production of native grain, that + Asoca, amongst the presents which he sent to his ally Devenipiatissa, + included "one hundred and sixty loads of hill paddi from + Bengal."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 49.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid., ch. xi. p. 70.</p> + </div> + + <p>A Singhalese narrative of the "Planting of the Bo-tree," an + English version of which will be found amongst the translations + prepared for Sir Alexander Johnston, mentions the fact, that rice was + still imported into Ceylon from the Coromandel coast[1] in the second + century before Christ.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: UPHAM, <i>Sacred Books of Ceylon,</i> vol. iii. p. 231.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Irrigation</i>.—It was to the Hindu kings who succeeded + Wijayo, that Ceylon was indebted for the earliest knowledge of + agriculture, for the construction of reservoirs, and the practice of + irrigation for the cultivation of rice.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A very able report on irrigation in some of the districts of + Ceylon has been recently drawn up by Mr. BAILEY, of the Ceylon + Civil Service; but the author has been led into an error in + supposing that, "it cannot be to India that we must look for the + origin of tanks and canals in Ceylon," and that the knowledge of + their construction was derived through "the Arabian and Persian + merchants who traded between Egypt and Ceylon." Mr. Bailey rests + this conclusion on the assertion that the first Indian canal of + which we have any record dates no farther back than the middle of + the fourteenth century. There was nothing in common between the + shallow canals for distributing the periodical inundation of the + Nile over the level lands of Egypt (a country in which rice was + little known), and the gigantic embankments by which hills were so + connected in Ceylon as to convert the valleys between them into + inland lakes; and there was no similarity to render the excavation + of the one a model and precedent for the construction of the other. + Probably the lake Moeris is what dwells in the mind of those who + ascribe proficiency in irrigation to the ancient Egyptians; but + although Herodotus asserts it to have been an excavation, + <i>cheiropoiêtoz kai oruktê</i> (lib. ii. 149), geologic + investigation has shown that Moeris is a natural lake created by + the local depression of that portion of the Arsinoite nome. Neither + Strabo nor Pliny, who believed it to be artificial, ascribed its + origin to anything connected with irrigation, for which, in fact, + its level would render it unsuitable. Nature had done so much for + irrigation in Egypt, that art was forestalled; and even had it been + otherwise, and had the natives of that country been adepts in the + science, or capable of teaching it, the least qualified imparters + of engineering knowledge would have been the Arab and Persian + mariners, whose lives were spent in coasting the shores of the + Indian Ocean. It is true that in Arabia itself, at a very early + period, there is the tradition of the great artificial lake of + Aram, in Yemen, about the time of Alexander the Great (SALE'S + <i>Koran</i>, Introd. p.7); and evidence still more authentic shows + that the practice of artificial irrigation was one of the earliest + occupations of the human race. The Scriptures; in enumerating the + descendants of Shem, state that "unto Eber were born two sons, and + the name of one was Peleg, for in his days the earth was divided." + (<i>Genesis,</i> ch. x. ver. 25.) In this passage according to + CYRIL C. GRAHAM, the term <i>Peleg</i> has a profounder meaning, + and the sentence should have been translated—"<i>for in his + days the earth was cut into canals" (Cambridge Essay</i>,1858.)</p> + + <p>But historical testimony exists which removes all obscurity from + the inquiry as to who were the instructors of the Singhalese. The + most ancient books of the Hindus show that the practice of + canal-making was understood in India at as early a period as in + Egypt. Canals are mentioned in the <i>Rayamana</i>, the story of + which belongs to the dimmest antiquity; and when Baratha, the + half-brother of Rama, was about to search for him in the Dekkan, + his train is described as including "labourers, with carts, + bridge-builders, carpenters, and diggers of canals." + (<i>Ramayana</i>, CARY'S Trans., vol. iii. p. 228.) The + <i>Mahawanso,</i> removes all doubt as to the person by whom the + Singhalese were instructed in forming works for irrigation, by + naming the Brahman engineer contemporary with the construction of + the earliest tanks in the fourth century before the Christian era. + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x.) Somewhat later, B.C. 262, the + inscription on the rock at Mihintala ascribes to the Malabars the + system of managing the water for the rice lands, and directs that + "according to the supply of water in the lake, the same shall be + distributed to the lands of the wihara <i>in the manner formerly + regulated by the Tamils.</i>" (<i>Notes to</i> TURNOUR'S + <i>Epitome</i>, p. 90.) To be convinced of the Tamil origin of the + tank system which subsists to the present day in Ceylon, it is only + necessary to see the tanks of the Southern Dekkan. The innumerable + excavated reservoirs or <i>colams</i> of Ceylon will be found to + correspond with the <i>culams</i> of Mysore; and the vast + <i>erays</i> formed by drawing a bund to intercept the water + flowing between two elevated ridges, exhibit the model which has + been followed at Pathavie, Kandelai, Menery, and all the huge + constructions of Ceylon, But whoever may have been the original + instructors of the Singhalese in the formation of tanks, there + seems every reason to believe that from their own subsequent + experience, and the prodigious extent to which they occupied + themselves in the formation of works of this kind, they attained a + facility unsurpassed by the people of any other country. It is a + curious circumstance in connection with this inquiry, that in the + eighth century after Christ, the King of Kashmir despatched + messengers to Ceylon to bring back workmen, whom he employed in + constructing an artificial lake. (<i>Raja-Tarangini</i>, Book iv. + sl. 505.) If it were necessary to search beyond India for the + origin of cultivation in Ceylon, the Singhalese, instead of + borrowing a system from Egypt, might more naturally have imitated + the ingenious devices of their own co-religionists in China, where + the system of irrigation as pursued in the military colonies of + that country has been a theme of admiration in every age of their + history. (See <i>Journal Asiatique,</i> 1850, vol. lvi. pp. 341, + 346.) And as these colonies were planted not only in the centre of + the empire but on its north-west extremities towards Kaschgar and + the north-east of India, where the new settlers occupied themselves + in draining marshes and leading streams to water their arable + lands, the probabilities are that their system may have been known + and copied by the people of Hindustan.</p> + </div><a name="pg431" id="pg431"></a> + + <p>The first tank in Ceylon was formed by the successor of Wijayo, + B.C. 504, and their subsequent extension to an almost incredible + number is ascribable to the influence of the Buddhist religion, + which, abhorring <a name="pg432" id="pg432"></a> the destruction of + animal life, taught its multitudinous votaries to subsist exclusively + upon vegetable food. Hence the planting of gardens, the diffusion of + fruit-trees and leguminous vegetables[1], the sowing of dry grain[2], + the formation of reservoirs and canals, and the reclamation of land + "in situations favourable for irrigation."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Beans, designated by the term of <i>Masá</i> in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, were grown in the second century before Christ, + ch, xxiii. p, 140,</p> + + <p>2: The "cultivation of a crop of hill rice" is mentioned in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> B.C. 77, ch. xxxiv. p. 208.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of this system of + water cultivation, in a country like the north of Ceylon, subject to + periodical droughts. From physical and geological causes, the mode of + cultivation in that section of the island differs essentially from + that practised in the southern division; and whilst in the latter the + frequency of the rains and abundance of rivers afford a copious + supply of water, the rest of the country is mainly dependent upon + artificial irrigation, and on the quantity of rain collected in + tanks; or of water diverted from streams and directed into + reservoirs.</p> + + <p>As has been elsewhere[1] explained, the mountain ranges which + tower along the south-western coast, and extend far towards the + eastern, serve in both monsoons to intercept the trade winds and + condense the vapours with which they are charged, thus ensuring to + those regions a plentiful supply of rain. Hence the harvests in those + portions of the island are regulated by the two monsoons, the + <i>yalla</i> in May and the <i>maha</i> in November; and seed-time is + adjusted so as to take advantage of the copious showers which fall at + those periods.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg067">Vol. I. Part I. ch. ii p. 67.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>But in the northern portions of Ceylon, owing to the absence of + mountains, this natural resource cannot be relied on. The winds in + both monsoons traverse the island without parting with a sufficiency + of moisture; <a name="pg433" id="pg433"></a> droughts are of frequent + occurrence and of long continuance; and vegetation in the low and + scarcely undulated plains is mainly dependent on dews and whatever + damp is distributed by the steady sea-breeze. In some places the + sandy soil rests upon beds of madrepore and coral rock, through which + the scanty rain percolates too quickly to refresh the soil; and the + husbandman is entirely dependent upon wells and village tanks for the + means of irrigation.</p> + + <p>In a region exposed to such vicissitudes the risk would have been + imminent and incessant, had the population been obliged to rely on + supplies of dry grain alone, the growth of which must necessarily + have been precarious, owing to the possible failure or deficiency of + the rains. Hence frequent famines would have been inevitable in those + seasons of prolonged dryness and scorching heat, when "the sky + becomes as brass and the earth as iron."</p> + + <p>What an unspeakable blessing that against such, calamities a + security should have been found by the introduction of a grain + calculated to germinate under water; and that a perennial supply of + the latter, not only adequate for all ordinary purposes, but + sufficient to guard against extraordinary emergencies of the seasons, + should have been provided by the ingenuity of the people, aided by + the bounteous care of their sovereigns. It is no matter of surprise + that the kings who devoted their treasures and their personal + energies to the formation of tanks and canals have entitled their + memory to traditional veneration, as benefactors of their race and + country. In striking contrast, it is the pithy remark of the author + of the <i>Rajavali</i>, mourning over the extinction of the Great + Dynasty and the decline of the country, that "<i>because the + fertility of the land was decreased</i> the kings who followed were + no longer of such consequence as those who went before."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 238</p> + </div><a name="pg434" id="pg434"></a> + + <p>Simultaneously with the construction of works for the advancement + of agriculture, the patriarchal village system, copied from that + which existed from the earliest ages in India[1], was established in + the newly settled districts; and each hamlet, with its governing + "headman" its artisans, its barber, its astrologer and washerman, was + taught to conduct its own affairs by its village council; to repair + its tanks and watercourses, and to collect two harvests in each year + by the combined labour of the whole village community.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p.67.</p> + </div> + + <p>Between the agricultural system of the mountainous districts and + that of the lowlands, there was at all times the same difference + which still distinguishes the tank cultivation of Neuera-kalawa and + the Wanny from the hanging rice lands of the Kandyan hills. In the + latter, reservoirs are comparatively rare, as the natives rely on the + certainty of the rains, which seldom fail at their due season in + those lofty regions. Streams are conducted by means of channels + ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along the face + of acclivities, so as to fertilise the fields below, which in the + technical phrase of the Kandyans are "<i>assoedamised</i>" for the + purpose; that is, formed into terraces, each protected by a shallow + ledge over which the superfluous water trickles, from the highest + level into that immediately below it; thus descending through all in + succession till it escapes in the depths of the valley.</p> + + <p>For the tillage of the lands with which the temples were so + largely endowed in all quarters of the island, the sacred communities + had assigned to them certain villages, a portion of whose labour was + the property of the wihara[1]: slaves were also appropriated to them, + and an instance is mentioned in the fifth century[2], of the + inhabitants of a low-caste village having been bestowed on a + monastery by the king Aggrabodhi, "in order <a name="pg435" id= + "pg435"></a> that the priests might derive their service as + slaves."[3] Sharing in a prerogative of royalty, some of the temples + had, moreover, a right to the compulsory labour of the community; and + in one of the inscriptions carved on the rock at Mihintala, the + "Raja-kariya writer" is enumerated in the list of temple officers.[4] + The temple lands were occasionally let to tenants whose rent was paid + either in "land-fees," or in kind.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxxvii. p. 247.</p> + + <p>2: Rock inscriptions at Mihintala and at Dambool.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i> ch, xlii. TURNOUR, MS. translation.</p> + + <p>4: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome, Appendix,</i> p. 88.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Ibid</i> pp. 86, 87.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Farm-stock.</i>—The only farm-stock which appears to have + been kept for tillage purposes, were buffaloes, which, then as now, + were used in treading the soft mud of the irrigated rice-fields, + preparatory to casting in the seed. Cows are alluded to in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, but never in connection with labour; and although + butter is spoken of, it is only that of the buffalo.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxvii p. 163.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Gardens</i>.—Probably the earliest enclosures attempted + in a state of incipient civilisation, were gardens for the exclusion + of wild animals from fruit trees and vegetables, when these were + first cultivated for the use of man; and to the present day, the + frequent occurrence of the termination "<i>watte</i>" in the names of + places on the map of Ceylon, is in itself an indication of the + importance attached to them by the villagers. The term "garden," + however, conveys to an European but an imperfect idea of the + character and style of these places; which in Ceylon are so similar + to the native gardens in the south of India, as to suggest a + community of origin. Their leading features are lines of the graceful + areca palms, groves of oranges, limes, jak-trees, and bread fruit; + and irregular clumps of palmyras and coconuts. Beneath these, there + is a minor growth, sometimes of cinnamon or coffee bushes; and always + a wilderness of plaintains, guavas and papaws; a few of the commoner + flowers; plots of brinjals (egg plants) and other esculents; <a name= + "pg436" id="pg436"></a> and the stems of the standard trees are + festooned with climbers, pepper vines, tomatas, and betel.</p> + + <p><i>The Coco-nut Palm</i>.—It is curious and suggestive as + regards the coco-nut, which now enters so largely into the domestic + economy of the Singhalese, that although it is sometimes spoken of in + the <i>Mahawanso</i> (but by no means so often as the palmyra), no + allusion is ever made to it as an article of diet, or an element in + the preparation of food, nor is it mentioned, before the reign of + Prakrama I., A.D. 1153[1], in the list of those fruit-trees, the + planting of which throughout the island is repeatedly recorded, as + amongst the munificent acts of the Singhalese kings.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii.</p> + </div> + + <p>As the other species of the same genus of palms are confined to + the New World[1], a doubt has been raised whether the coco-nut be + indigenous in India, or an importation. If the latter, the first + plant must have been introduced anterior to the historic age; and + whatever the period at which the tree may have been first cultivated, + a time is indicated when it was practically unknown in Ceylon by the + fact, that a statue, without date or inscription, is carved in high + relief in a niche hollowed out of a rock to the east of Galle, which + tradition says is the monument to the Kustia Raja, an Indian prince, + whose claim to remembrance is, that he <i>first</i> taught the + Singhalese the use of the coco-nut.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: BROWN'S <i>Notes</i> to TUCKEY'S <i>Expedition to the + Congo</i>, p. 456.</p> + + <p>2: The earliest mention of the coco-nut in Ceylon occurs in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, which refers to it as known at Rohuna to the + south, B. c, 161 ( ch. xxv. p. 140). "The milk of the small red + coco-nut" is stated to have been used been used by Dutugaimunu in + preparing cement for building the Ruanwellé dagoba (<i>Mah</i>. ch. + xxx. p. 169). The south-west of the island, and especially the + <i>margin of the sea</i> is still the locality in which the tree is + found in greatest abundance in Ceylon. Hither, if originally + self-sown, it must have been floated and flung ashore by the waves; + and as the north-east coast, though washed by a powerful current, + is almost altogether destitute of these palms, it is obvious that + the coco-nut; if carried by sea from some other shore, must have + been brought during the south-west monsoon from the coast near Cape + Comorin, ÆLIAN notices as one of the leading peculiarities in the + appearance of the sea coast of Ceylon, that the palm trees (by + which, as the south of the island was the place of resort, he most + probably means the coco-nut palms) grew in regular quincunxes, as + if planted by skilful hands in a well ordered garden. [Greek: "HÊ + nêsos, hên kalousi Taprobanên, echei phoinikônas men thaumastês + pephuteumenous eis stoichon, hôsper oun en tois habrois tôn + paradeisôn oi toutôn meledônoi phuteuousi ta dendra ta + skiadêphora."]—Lib. xvi. cp. 18. The comparative silence of + the <i>Mahawanso</i> in relation to the coco-nut may probably be + referable to the fact that its author resided and wrote in the + interior of the island; over which, unlike the light seeds of other + plants, its ponderous nuts could not have been distributed + accidentally, where down to the present time it has been but + partially introduced, and nowhere in any considerable number. Its + presence throughout Ceylon is always indicative of the vicinity of + man, and at a distance from the shore it appears in those places + only where it has been planted by his care. The Singhalese believe + that the coco-nut will not flourish "unless you walk under it and + talk under it:" but its proximity to human habitations is possibly + explained by the consideration that if exposed in the forest, it + would be liable, when young, to be forced down by the elephants, + who delight in its delicate leaves. See DAVY'S <i>Angler in the + Lake Districts, p.</i> 245.</p> + </div><a name="pg437" id="pg437"></a> + + <p>The mango, the jambo, and several other fruits are particularised, + but the historical books make no mention either of the pine-apple or + the plantain, which appear to have been of comparatively recent + introduction. Pulse is alluded to at an early date under the generic + designation of "Masá."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 140.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Rice and Curry.</i>—Rice in various forms is always + spoken of as the food, alike of the sovereign, the priests, and the + people; rice prepared plainly, conjee (the water in which rice is + boiled), "rice mixed with sugar and honey, and rice dressed with + clarified butter."[1] Chillies are now and then mentioned as an + additional condiment.[2] The <i>Rajavali</i> speaks of curry in the + second century before Christ[3] and the <i>Mahawanso</i> in the fifth + century after.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxxii. p. 196.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxv, p. 158; ch. xxvi. p. 160.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajavali</i>, pp. 196, 200, 202.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, TURNOUR'S MS. translation, ch. xxxix.</p> + + <p>KNOX says that curry is a Portuguese word, <i>carré</i> + (<i>Relation</i>, &c., part i. ch. iv. p. 12), but this is a + misapprehension. Professor H.H. WILSON, in a private letter to me, + says, "In Hindustan we are accustomed to consider 'curry' to be + derived from, <i>tarkari</i>, a general term for esculent + vegetables, but it is probably the English version of the Kanara + and Malayalam <i>kadi</i>; pronounced with a hard <i>r</i>, 'kari' + or 'kuri,' which means sour milk with rice boiled, which was + originally used for such compounds as curry at the present day. The + Karnata <i>majkke-kari</i> is a dish of rice, sour milk, spices, + red pepper, &c, &c."</p> + </div> + + <p>Although the taking of life is sternly forbidden in the ethical + code of Buddha, and the most prominent of the <a name="pg438" id= + "pg438"></a> obligations undertaken by the priesthood is directed to + its preservation even in the instances of insects and animalculæ, + casuistry succeeded so far as to fix the crime on the slayer, and to + exonerate the individual who merely partook of the flesh.[1] Even the + inmates of the wiharas and monasteries discovered devices for the + saving of conscience, and curried rice was not rejected in + consequence of the animal ingredients incorporated with it. The mass + of the population were nevertheless vegetarians, and so little value + did they place on animal food, that according to the accounts + furnished to EDRISI by the Arabian seamen returning from Ceylon, "a + sheep sufficient to regale an assembly was to be bought there for + half a drachm."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism,</i> ch. iv. p. 24; ch. ix. p. + 92; ch. xvi. p. 158. HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. vii. p. 327.</p> + + <p>2: EDRISI; <i>Géographie</i>, &c., tom. i. p. 73.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Betel</i>—In connection with a diet so largely composed + of vegetable food, arose the custom, which to the present day is + universal in Ceylon,—of chewing the leaves of the betel vine, + accompanied with lime and the sliced nut of the areca palm.[1] The + betel (<i>piper betel</i>), which is now universally cultivated for + this purpose, is presumed to have been introduced from some tropical + island, as it has nowhere been found indigenous in continental + India.[2] In Ceylon, its use is mentioned as early as the fifth + century before Christ, when "betel leaves" formed the present sent by + a princess to her lover.[3] In a conflict of Dutugaimunu with the + Malabars, B.C. 161, the enemy seeing on his lips the red stain of the + betel, <a name="pg439" id="pg439"></a> mistook it for blood, and + spread the false cry that the king had been slain.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of the medicinal influence of betel-chewing, + see <a href="#pg112">Part I. c. iii. § ii. p. 112.</a></p> + + <p>2: ROYLE'S <i>Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p.</i> + 85.</p> + + <p>3: B. C. 504. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. ix. p. 57. Dutugaimunu, when + building the Ruanwellé dagoba, provided for the labourers amongst + other articles "the five condiments used in mastication." This + probably refers to the chewing of betel and its accompaniments + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 175). A story is told of the wife of + a Singhalese minister, about A. D. 56, who to warn him of a + conspiracy, sent him his "betel, &c., for mastication, omitting + the chunam," hoping that coming in search of it, he might escape + his "impending fate." <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 219.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 221.</p> + </div> + + <p>Intoxicating liquors are of sufficient antiquity to be denounced + in the moral system of Buddhism. The use of toddy and drinks obtained + from the fermentation of "bread and flour" is condemned in the laity, + and strictly prohibited to the priesthood[1]; but the Arabian + geographers mention that in the twelfth century, wine, in defiance of + the prohibition, was imported from Persia, and drank by the + Singhalese after being flavoured with cardamoms.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, e., ch. x. p. 474.</p> + + <p>2: EDRISI, <i>Geographle,</i> &c., Trad. JAUBERT, tom. i. p. + 73.</p> + </div><a name="pg440" id="pg440"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. III</h2> + + <h3>EARLY COMMERCE, SHIPPING, AND PRODUCTIONS.</h3> + + <p>TRADE.—At a very early period the mass of the people of + Ceylon were essentially agricultural, and the proportion of the + population addicted to other pursuits consisted of the small number + of handicraftsmen required in a community amongst whom civilisation + and refinement were so slightly developed, that the bulk of the + inhabitants may be said to have had few wants beyond the daily + provision of food.</p> + + <p>Upon trade the natives appear to have looked at all times with + indifference. Other nations, both of the east and west of Ceylon, + made the island their halting-place and emporium; the Chinese brought + thither the wares destined for the countries beyond the Euphrates, + and the Arabians and Persians met them with their products in + exchange; but the Singhalese appear to have been uninterested + spectators of this busy traffic, in which they can hardly be said to + have taken any share. The inhabitants of the opposite coast of India, + aware of the natural wealth of Ceylon, participated largely in its + development, and the Tamils, who eagerly engaged in the pearl + fishery, gave to the gulf of Manaar the name of Salabham, "the sea of + gain."[l]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Tamils gave the same name to Chilaw, which was the + nearest town to the pearl fishery (and which Ibn Batuta calls + <i>Salawat</i>); and eventually they called the whole island + <i>Salabham</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Native Shipping.</i>—The only mention made of native + ships in the sacred writings of the Singhalese, <a name="pg441" id= + "pg441"></a> is in connection with missions, whether for the + promotion of Buddhism, or for the negotiation of marriages and + alliances with the princes of India.[1] The building of dhoneys is + adverted to as early as the first century, but they were only + intended by a devout king to be stationed along the shores of the + island, covered by day with white cloths, and by night illuminated + with lamps, in order that from them priests, as the royal almoners, + might distribute gifts and donations of food.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, App. p. 73.</p> + + <p>2: By King Maha Dailiya, A.D. 8. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. + 211; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 228; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 52.</p> + </div> + + <p>The genius of the people seems to have never inclined them to a + sea-faring life, and the earliest notice which occurs of ships for + the defence of the coast, is in connection with the Malabars who were + taken into the royal service from their skill in naval affairs.[1] A + national marine was afterwards established for this purpose, A.D. + 495, by the King Mogallana.[2] In the <i>Suy-shoo</i>, a Chinese + history of the Suy dynasty, it is stated that in A.D. 607, the king + of Ceylon "sent the Brahman Kew-mo-lo with thirty vessels, to meet + the approaching ships which conveyed an embassy from China."[3] And + in the twelfth century, when Prakrama I. was about to enter on his + foreign expeditions, "several hundreds of vessels were equipped for + that service within five months."[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B.C. 247. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi. p. 127.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xl. TURNOUR'S MS. Transl.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Suy-shoo</i>, b. lxxxi. p. 3.</p> + + <p>4: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, &c., App. p. 73.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is remarkable that the same apathy to navigation, if not + antipathy to it, still prevails amongst the inhabitants of an island, + the long sea-borde of which affords facilities for cultivating a + maritime taste, did any such exist. But whilst the natives of + Hindustan fit out sea-going vessels, and take service as sailors for + distant voyages, the Singhalese, though most expert as fishers and + boatmen, never embark in foreign vessels, and no instance <a name= + "pg442" id="pg442"></a> exists of a native ship, owned, built, or + manned by Singhalese.</p> + + <p>The boats which are in use at the present day, and which differ + materially in build at different parts of the island, appear to have + been all copied from models supplied by other countries. In the south + the curious canoes, which attract the eye of the stranger arriving at + Point de Galle by their balance-log and outrigger, were borrowed from + the islanders of the Eastern Archipelago; the more substantial canoe + called a <i>ballam</i>, which is found in the estuaries and shallow + lakes around the northern shore, is imitated from one of similar form + on the Malabar coast; and the catamaran is common to Ceylon and + Coromandel. The awkward dhoneys, built at Jaffna, and manned by + Tamils, are imitated from those at Madras; while the Singhalese + dhoney, south of Colombo, is but an enlargement of the Galle canoe + with its outrigger, so clumsily constructed that the gunwale is + frequently topped by a line of wicker-work smeared with clay, to + protect the deck front the wash of the sea.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The gunwale of the boat of Ulysses was raised by hurdles of + osiers to keep off the waves.</p> + + <p>[Greek: Phraxe de min rhipessi diamperes oisuinêsi Kumatos eilar + emen pollên d' epecheuato hulên.] <i>Od.</i> v. 256.</p> + </div> + + <p>One peculiarity in the mode of constructing the native shipping of + Ceylon existed in the remotest times, and is retained to the present + day. The practice is closely connected with one of the most + imaginative incidents in the medieval romances of the East Their + boats and canoes, like those of the Arabs and other early navigators + who crept along the shores of India, are put together without the use + of iron nails[1], the planks being secured by wooden bolts, and + stitched together with cords spun from the fibre of the + coconut.[2]</p><a name="pg443" id="pg443"></a> + + <p>PALLADIUS, a Greek of the lower empire, to whom is ascribed an + account of the nations of India, written in the fifth century[3], + adverts to this peculiarity of construction, and connects it with the + phenomenon which forms so striking an incident in one of the tales in + the <i>Arabian Nights' Entertainments</i>. In the story of the "Three + Royal Mendicants," the "Third Calender," as he is called in the old + translation, relates to the ladies of Bagdad, in whose house he is + entertained, how he and his companions lost their course, when + sailing in the Indian Ocean, and found themselves in the vicinity of + "the mountain of loadstone towards which the current carried them + with violence, and when the ships approached it they fell asunder, + and the nails and everything that was of iron flew from them towards + the loadstone."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: DELAURIER, Études sur la "<i>Relation des voyages faits par + les Arabes et les Persans dans l'Inde." Journ. Asiat.</i> tom. + xlix. p. 137. See also MALTE BRUN, <i>Hist. de Géogr.</i> tom. i. + p. 409, with the references to the Periplus Mar. Erythr., Strabo, + Procopius, &c. GIBBON, <i>Decl. and Fall</i>, vol. v. ch. + xl.</p> + + <p>2: Boats thus sewn together existed at an early period on the + coast of Arabia as well as of Ceylon. Odoric of Friuli saw them at + Ormus in the fourteenth century (<i>Hakluyt</i>, vol. ii. p. 35); + and the construction of ships without iron was not peculiar to the + Indian seas, as Homer mentions that the boat built by Ulysses was + put together with woolen pegs, [Greek: <i>gomphoisin</i>], instead + of bolts. <i>Odys</i>. v. 249.</p> + + <p>3: The tract alluded to is usually known as tne treatise <i>de + Moribus Brachmanorum</i>, and ascribed to St. Ambrose. For an + account of it see <a href="#pg538">Vol. I. Pt. v. ch. i. p. + 538.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The learned commentator, LANE, says that several Arab writers + describe this mountain of loadstone, and amongst others he instances + El Caswini, who lived in the latter half of the thirteenth + century.[1] EDRISI, the Arab geographer, likewise alludes to it; but + the invention belongs to an earlier age, and Palladius, in describing + Ceylon, says that the magnetic rock is in the adjacent islands called + Maniolæ (Maldives?), and that ships coming within the sphere of its + influence are irresistibly drawn towards it, and lose all power of + progress except in its direction. Hence it is essential, he adds, + that vessels sailing for Ceylon <i>should be fastened with wooden + instead of iron bolts</i>.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: LANE'S <i>Arabian Nights</i>, vol. i. ch. iii, p. 72, p. + 242.</p> + + <p>2: [Greek: "Esti de idikôs ta diaperônta ploia eis ekeinên tên + megalên nêson aneu sidêrou epiouriois xylinois + kataskeuasmena"]—PALLADIUS, in <i>Pseudo-Callisthenes</i>, + lib. iii. c. vii. But the fable of the loadstone mountain is older + than either the Arabian sailors or the Greeks of the lower empire. + Aristotle speaks of a magnetic mountain on the coast of India, and + Pliny repeats the story, adding that "si sint clavi in + calciamentis, vestigia avelli in altero non posse in altero + sisti."—Lib. ii. c. 98, lib. xxxvi. c. 25. Ptolemy recounts a + similar fable in his geography. Klaproth, in his <i>Lettre sur la + Boussole</i>, says that this romantic belief was first communicated + to the West from China. "Les anciens auteurs Chinois parlent aussi + de montagnes magnétiques de la mer méridionale sur les côtes de + Tonquin et de la Cochin Chine; et disent que si les vaisseaux + étrangers qui sont garnis de plaques de fer s'en approchent ils y + sont arrètés et aucun d'eux ne peut passer par ces + endroits."—KLAPROTH, <i>Lett.</i> v. p. 117, quoted by + SANTAREM, <i>Essai sur l'Histo. de Cosmogr.</i>, vol. i. p. + 182.</p> + </div><a name="pg444" id="pg444"></a> + + <p>Another peculiarity of the native craft on the west coast of + Ceylon is their construction with a prow at each extremity, a + characteristic which belongs also to the Massoula boats of Madras, as + well as to others on the south of India. It is a curious illustration + of the abiding nature of local usages when originating in necessities + and utility, that STRABO, in describing the boats in which the + traffic was carried on between Taprobane and the continent, says they + were "built with prows at each end, but without holds or + keels."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: [Greek: "Kateskeuasmenas de amphoterôthen enkoiliôn mêtrôn + chôris."]—Lib xv. c. i. s. 14. Pliny, who makes the same + statement, says the Singhalese adopted this model to avoid the + necessity of tacking in the narrow and shallow channels, between + Ceylon and the mainland of India (lib. vi. c. 24).</p> + </div> + + <p>In connection with foreign trade the <i>Mahawanso</i> contains + repeated allusions to ships wrecked upon the coast of Ceylon[1], and + amongst the remarkable events which signalised the season, already + rendered memorable by the birth of Dutugaimunu, B.C. 204, was the + "arrival on the same day of seven ships laden with golden utensils + and other goods;"[2] and as these were brought by order of the king + to Mahagam, then the capital of Rohuna, the incident is probably + referable to the foreign trade which was then carried on in the south + of the island[3] by the Chinese <a name="pg445" id="pg445"></a> and + Arabians, and in which, as I have stated, the native Singhalese took + no part.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B.C. 543. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 49: B.C. 306. Ibid. + ch. xi. p. 68, &c.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxii. p. 135.</p> + + <p>3: The first direct intimation of trading carried on by native + Singhalese, along the coast of Ceylon, occurs in the + <i>Rajavali</i>, but not till the year A.D. 1410,—the king, + who had made Cotta his capital, being represented as "loading a + vessel with goods and sending it to Jaffna, to carry on commerce + with his son."—<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 289.</p> + </div> + + <p>Still, notwithstanding their repugnance to intercourse with + strangers, the Singhalese were not destitute of traffic amongst + themselves, and their historical annals contain allusions to the mode + in which it was conducted. Their cities exhibited rows of shops and + bazaars[1], and the country was traversed by caravans much in the + same manner as the drivers of <i>tavalams</i> carry goods at the + present day between the coast and the interior.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B.C. 204, a visitor to Anarajapoora is described as + "purchasing aromatic drugs from the bazaars, and departing by the + Northern Gate" (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 139); and A.D. 8, + the King Maha Dathika "ranged shops on each side of the streets of + the capital."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 213.</p> + + <p>2: B.C. 170. <i>Mahawanso</i> ch. xxii. p. 138.</p> + </div> + + <p>Whatever merchandise was obtained in barter from foreign ships, + was by this means conveyed to the cities and the capital[1], and the + reference to carts which were accustomed to go from Anarajapoora to + the division of Malaya, lying round Adam's Peak, "to procure saffron + and ginger," implies that at that period (B.C. 165) roads and other + facilities for wheel carriages must have existed, enabling them to + traverse forests and cross the rivers.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In the reign of Elala, B.C. 204, the son of "an eminent + caravan chief" was despatched to a Brahman, who resided near the + Chetiyo mountain (Mihintala), in whose possession there were rich + articles, frankincense, sandal-wood, &c., imported from beyond + the ocean.—<i>Mahawanso</i> ch. xxiii. p. 138.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i> ch. xxviii. p, 167.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Early Exports of Ceylon.</i>—The native historians give + an account of the exports of Ceylon, which corresponds in all + particulars with the records left by the early travellers and + merchants, Greek, Roman, Arabian, Indian, and Chinese. They consisted + entirely of natural productions, aromatic drugs, gems, pearls, and + shells; and it is a strong evidence of the more advanced state of + civilisation in India at the same period that, whilst the presents + sent from the kings of Ceylon to the native <a name="pg446" id= + "pg446"></a> princes of Hindustan and the Dekkan were always of this + precious but primitive character, the articles received in return + were less remarkable for the intrinsic value of the material, than + for the workmanship bestowed upon them. Devenipiatissa sent by his + ambassadors to Asoca, B.C. 306, the eight varieties of pearls, viz., + <i>haya</i> (the horse), <i>gaja</i> (the elephant), <i>ratha</i> + (the chariot wheel), <i>maalaka</i> (the nelli fruit), <i>valaya</i> + (the bracelet), <i>anguliwelahka</i> (the ring), <i>kakudaphala</i> + (the kabook fruit), and <i>pakatika</i>, the ordinary description. He + sent sapphires, lapis lazuli[1], and rubies, a right hand chank[2], + and three bamboos for chariot poles, remarkable because their natural + marking resembled the carvings of flowers and animals.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Lapis lazuli is not found in Ceylon, and must have been + brought by the caravans from Budakshan. It is more than once + mentioned in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xi. p. 69; ch. xxx. p. + 185.</p> + + <p>2: A variety of the <i>Turbinella rapa</i> with the whorls + reversed, to which the natives attach a superstitions value; + professing that a shell so formed is worth its weight in gold.</p> + </div> + + <p>The gifts sent by the king of Magadha in return, indicate the + advanced state of the arts in Bengal, even at that early period: they + were "a chowrie (the royal fly flapper), a diadem, a sword of state, + a royal parasol, golden slippers, a crown, an anointing vase, + asbestos towels, to be cleansed by being passed through the fire, a + costly howdah, and sundry vessels of gold." Along with these was + sacred water from the Anotatto lake and from the Ganges, aromatic and + medicinal drugs, hill paddi and sandal-wood; and amongst the other + items "a virgin of royal birth and of great personal beauty."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i> ch, xi. pp. 69, 70.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Early Imports</i>.—Down to a very late period, gems, + pearls, and chank shells continued to be the only products taken away + from Ceylon, and cinnamon is nowhere mentioned in the Sacred Books as + amongst the exports of the island.[1] In return for these exports, + <a name="pg447" id="pg447"></a> slaves, chariots, and horses were + frequently transmitted from India. The riding horses and chargers, so + often spoken of[2], must necessarily have been introduced from + thence, and were probably of Arab blood; but I have not succeeded in + discovering to what particular race the "Sindhawa" horses belonged, + of which four purely white were harnessed to the state carriage of + Dutugaimunu.[3] Gold cloth[4], frankincense, and sandal-wood were + brought from India[5], as was also a species of "clay" and of + "cloud-coloured stone," which appear to have been used in the + construction of dagobas.[6] Silk[7] and vermilion[8] indicate the + activity of trade with China; and woollen cloth[9] and carpets[10] + with Persia and Kashmir.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For an account of the earliest trade in cinnamon, see + <i>post</i> <a href="#pg578">Part v. ch. ii.</a> on the Knowledge + of Ceylon possessed by the Arabians.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxii. p. 134, &c. &c.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxiii. p. 142; ch. xxxi. p. 186.</p> + + <p>4: A.D.459. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 258.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Ibid</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 138.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Ibid</i>, ch. xxix. p. 169; ch. xxx. p. 179.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxiii. p. 139; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. + 49.</p> + + <p>8: <i>Ibid</i>, ch. xxix. p. 169; <i>Rajaratnacari</i> p. + 51.</p> + + <p>9: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 177; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 269. + Woollen cloth is described as "most valuable"—an epithet + which indicates its rarity, and probably foreign origin.</p> + + <p>10: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. p. 82; ch. xv. p. 87; ch. xxv. p. + 151; carpets of wool, <i>ib</i>. ch. xxvii. p. 164.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Intercourse with Kashmir.</i>—Possibly the woollen cloths + referred to may have been shawls, and there is evidence in the + <i>Rajatarangini</i>[1], that at a very early period the possession + of a common religion led to an intercourse between Ceylon and + Kashmir, originating in the sympathies of Buddhism, but perpetuated + by the Kashmirians for the pursuit of commerce. In the fabulous + period of the narrative, a king of Kashmir is said to have sent to + Ceylon for a delicately fine cloth, embroidered with golden + footsteps.[2] In the eighth century of the Christian era, Singhalese + engineers were sent for to construct works in Kashmir[3]; and + Kashmir, according <a name="pg448" id="pg448"></a> to Troyer, took + part in the trade between Ceylon and the West.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Rajatarangini</i> resembles the <i>Mahawanso</i>, in + being a metrical chronicle of Kashmir written at various times by a + series of authors, the earliest of whom lived in the 12th century. + It has been translated into French by M. Troyer, Paris, 1840.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajatarangini</i>, b. i. sl. 294.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajatarangini</i>, b. iv. sl. 502, &c.</p> + + <p>4: "La communication entre Kachmir et Ceylan n'a pas eu lieu + seulement par les entreprises guerrières que je viens de rappeler, + mais aussi par un commerce paisible; c'est du cette ile que + venaient des artistes qu'on appelait Rakchasas à cause du + merveilleux de leur art; et qui exécutaient des ouvrages pour + l'utilité et pour l'ornement d'un pays montagneux et sujet aux + inondations. Ceci confirme ce que nous apprennent les géographes + Grecs, que Ceylan, avant et après le commencement de notre ère, + était un grand point de réunion pour le commerce de l'Orient et de + l'Occident."—<i>Rajatarangini</i>, vol. ii. p. 434.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of the trade between Ceylon and Kashmir and its progress, the + account given by Edrisi, the most renowned of the writers on eastern + geography, who wrote in the twelfth century[1], is interesting, + inasmuch as it may be regarded as a picture of this remarkable + commerce, after it had attained its highest development.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Abou-abd-allah Mahommed was a Moor of the family who reigned + over Malaga after the fall of the Kalifat of Cordova, in the early + part of the 11th century, and his patronymic of Edrisi or Al + Edrissy implies that he was descended from the princes of that race + who had previously held supreme power in what is at the present day + the Empire of Morocco. He took up his residence in Sicily under the + patronage of the Norman king, Roger II., A.D. 1154, and the work on + geography which he there composed was not only based on the + previous labours of Massoudi, Ibn Haukul, Albyrouni, and others, + but it embodied the reports of persons commissioned specially by + the king to undertake voyages for the purpose of bringing back + correct accounts of foreign countries. See REINAUD'S + <i>Introduction to the Geography of Abulfeda</i>, p. cxiii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Edrisi did not write from personal knowledge, as he had never + visited either Ceylon or India; but compiling as he did, by command + of Roger H., of Sicily, a compendium, of geographical knowledge as it + existed in his time, the information which he has systematised may be + regarded as a condensation of such facts as the eastern seamen + engaged in the Indian trade had brought back with them from + Ceylon.</p> + + <p>"In the mountains around Adam's Peak," says Edrisi, "they collect + precious stones of every description, and in the valleys they find + those diamonds by means of which they engrave the setting of stones + on rings."</p> + + <p>"The same mountains produce aromatic drugs perfumes, <a name= + "pg449" id="pg449"></a> and aloes-wood, and there too they find the + animal, the civet, which yields musk. The islanders cultivate rice, + coco-nuts, and sugar-cane; in the rivers is found rock crystal, + remarkable both for brilliancy and size, and the sea on every side + has a fishery of magnificent and priceless pearls. Throughout India + there is no prince whose wealth can compare with the King of + Serendib, his immense riches, his pearls and his jewels, being the + produce of his own dominions and seas; and thither ships of China, + and of every neighbouring country resort, bringing the wines of Irak + and Fars, which the king buys for sale to his subjects; for he drinks + wine and prohibits debauchery; whilst other princes of India + encourage debauchery and prohibit the use of wine. The exports from + Serendib consist of silk, precious stones, crystals, diamonds, and + perfumes."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Edrisi, <i>Géographie</i>, Trad. JAUBERT, tom. i. p. 73.</p> + </div><a name="pg450" id="pg450"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. IV.</h2> + + <h3>MANUFACTURES.</h3> + + <p>The silk alluded to in the last chapter must have been brought + from China for re-exportation to the West. Silk is frequently + mentioned in the <i>Mahawanso</i>[1] but never with any suggestion of + its being a native product of Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Silk is mentioned 20 B.C. <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 49. + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 139.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Coir and Cordage.</i>—EDRISI speaks of cordage made from + the fibre of the coco-nut, to prepare which, the natives of Oman and + Yemen resorted to Ceylon[1]; so that the Singhalese would appear to + have been instructed by the Arabs in the treatment of coir, and its + formation into ropes; an occupation which, at the present day, + affords extensive employment to the inhabitants of the south and + south-western coasts. Ibn Batuta describes the use of coir, for + sewing together the planking of boats, as it was practised at Zafar + in the fourteenth century[2]; and the word itself bespeaks its + Arabian origin, as ALBYROUNI, who divides the Maldives and Laccadives + into two classes, calls the one group the <i>Dyvah-kouzah</i>, or + islands that produce <i>cowries</i>; and the other the + <i>Dyvah-kanbar</i>, or islands that produce <i>coir</i>.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: EDRISI, t. i. p. 74.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Voyages</i>, &c., vol. ii. p. 207. Paris, 1854.</p> + + <p>3: ALBYROUNI, in REYNAUD, <i>Fragm. Arabes, &c.,</i> pp, 93, + 124 The Portuguese adopted the word from the Hindus, and CASTANEDA, + in <i>Hist. of the Discovery of India,</i> describes the Moors of + Sofalah sewing their boats with "<i>cayro"</i> ch. v, 14, xxx. + 75.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Dress</i>.—The dress of the people was of the simplest + <a name="pg451" id="pg451"></a> kind, and similar to that which is + worn at the present day. The bulk of the population wore scanty + cloths, without shape or seam, folded closely round the body and the + portion of the limbs which it is customary to cover; and the Chinese, + who visited the island in the seventh century, described the people + as clothed in the loose robe, still known as a "comboy," a word + probably derived from the Chinese <i>koo-pei</i>, which signifies + cotton.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg607">Part v. ch. iii.</a> on the Knowledge of + Ceylon possessed by the Chinese.</p> + </div> + + <p>The wealthier classes indulged in flowing robes, and Bujas Dasa + the king, who in the fourth century devoted himself to the study of + medicine and the cure of the sick, was accustomed, when seeking + objects for his compassion, to appear as a common person, simply + "disguising himself by gathering his cloth up between his legs."[1] + Robes with flowers[2], and a turban of silk, constituted the dress of + state bestowed on men whom the king delighted to honour.[3] Cloth of + gold is spoken of in the fifth century, but the allusion is probably + made to the kinbaub of India.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso,</i> ch. xxxvii. p.245.</p> + + <p>2: By the ordinances of Buddhism it was forbidden to the + priesthood "to adorn the body with flowers," thus showing it to + have been a practice of the laity. HARDY'S <i>Eastern + Monachism,</i> ch. iv. p.24; ch. xiii p.128.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p.139.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Ibid.</i>, ch. xxxviii. p.258.</p> + </div> + + <p>MANUAL AND MECHANICAL ARTS. <i>Weaving</i>.—The aborigines + practised the art of weaving before the arrival of Wijayo. Kuweni, + when the adventurer approached her, was "seated at the foot of a + tree, spinning thread;"[1] cotton was the ordinary material, but + "linen cloth" is mentioned in the second century before Christ.[2] + White cloths are spoken of as having been employed, in the earliest + times, in every ceremony for covering chairs on which persons of rank + were expected to be seated; whole "webs of cloth" were used to wrap + the <i>carandua</i> in which the sacred relics were enclosed[3], and + one of the <a name="pg452" id="pg452"></a> kings, on the occasion of + consecrating a dagoba at Mihintala, covered with "white cloth" the + road taken by the procession between the mountain and capital, a + distance of more than seven miles.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p.48; <i>Rajavali</i>, p.173.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xxv. p.152.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p.72.</p> + + <p>4: A.D. 8. <i>Rajavali,</i> p. 227; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. + p. 213.</p> + </div> + + <p>In later times a curious practice prevailed, which exists to the + present day;—on occasions when it is intended to make offerings + of yellow robes to the priesthood, the cotton was plucked from the + tree at daybreak, and "cleaned, spun, woven, dyed, and made into + garments" before the setting of the sun. This custom, called + <i>Catina Dhawna,</i> is first referred to in the + <i>Rajaratnacari</i> in the reign of Prakrarna I.[1], A.D. 1153.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg035">Vol. II p. 35.</a> + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp. 104, 109, 112, 135; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. + 261; HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, ch. xii. pp. 114, 121.</p> + </div> + + <p>The expression "made into garments" alludes to the custom enjoined + on the priests of having the value of the material destroyed, before + consenting to accept it as a gift, thus carrying out their vow of + poverty. The robe of Gotama Buddha was cut into thirty pieces, these + were again united, so that they "resembled the patches of ground in a + rice field;" and hence he enjoined on his followers the observance of + the same practice.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism,</i> ch. xii. p. 117. See + <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg351">Vol. I. Pt. III. ch. iv. p. + 351.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The arts of bleaching and dyeing were understood as well as that + of weaving, and the <i>Mahawanso</i>, in describing the building of + the Ruanwellé dagoba, at Anarajapoora, B.C. 161, tells of a canopy + formed of "eight thousand pieces of cloth of every hue."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 179, See also ch. xxxviii. p. + 258.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Earliest Artisans.</i>—VALENTYN, writing on the + traditional information acquired from the Singhalese themselves, + records the belief of the latter, that in the suite of the Pandyan + princess, who arrived to marry Wijayo, were artificers from Madura, + who were the first to introduce <a name="pg453" id="pg453"></a> the + knowledge and practice of handicrafts amongst the native population. + According to the story, these were goldsmiths, blacksmiths, + brass-founders, carpenters, and stone-cutters.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: VALENTYN, <i>Oud en Niew Oost-Indien</i>, chap. iv. p. + 267.</p> + </div> + + <p>The legend is given with more particularity in an historical + notice of the Chalia caste, written by Adrian Rajapaxa, one of their + chiefs, who describes these immigrants as Peskare Brahmans, who were + at first employed in weaving gold tissues for the queen, but who + afterwards abandoned that art for agriculture. A fresh company were + said to have been invited in the reign of Devenipiatissa, and were + the progenitors of "Saleas, at present called Chalias," who inhabit + the country between Galle and Colombo, and who, along with their + ostensible occupation as peelers of cinnamon, still employ themselves + in the labours of the loom.[1] All handicrafts are conventionally + regarded by the Singhalese as the occupations of an inferior class; + and a man of high caste would submit to any privation rather than + stoop to an occupation dependent on manual skill.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A History of the Chalias, by ADRIAN RAJAPAXA. <i>Asiatic + Res</i>. vol. vii. p. 440. <i>Ib</i>., vol. x. p. 82.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Pottery</i>.—One of the most ancient arts, the making of + earthenware vessels, exists at the present day in all its pristine + simplicity, and the "potter's wheel," which is kept in motion by an + attendant, whilst the hands of the master are engaged in shaping the + clay as it revolves, is the primitive device which served a similar + purpose amongst the Egyptians and Hebrews.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pottery is mentioned in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, B.C. 161, ch. + xxix. p. 173: the allusion is to "new earthen vases," and shows + that the people at that time, like the Hindus of today, avoided + where possible the repeated use of the same vessel.</p> + </div> + + <p>A "potter" is enumerated in the list of servants and tradesmen + attached to the temple on the Rock of Mihintala, A.D. 262, along with + a sandal-maker, blacksmiths, carpenters, stone-cutters, goldsmiths, + and "makers of <a name="pg454" id="pg454"></a> strainers" through + which the water for the priests was filtered, to avoid taking away + the life of animalculæ. The other artisans on the establishment were + chiefly those in charge of the buildings, lime-burners, plasterers, + white-washers, painters, and a chief builder.</p> + + <p><i>Glass</i>.—Glass, the knowledge of which existed in Egypt + and in India[1], was introduced into Ceylon at an early period; and + in the <i>Dipawanso</i>, a work older than the <i>Mahawanso</i> by a + century and a half, it is stated that Saidaitissa, the brother of + Dutugaimunu, when completing the Ruanwellé dagoba, which his + predecessor had commenced, surmounted it with a "glass pinnacle." + This was towards the end of the second century before Christ. Glass + is frequently mentioned at later periods; and a "glass mirror" is + spoken of[2] in the third century before Christ, but how made, + whether by an amalgam of quicksilver or by colouring the under + surface, is not recorded.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Dr. ROYLE'S <i>Lectures on the Arts and Manufactures of + India</i>, 1852, p. 221. PLINY says the glass of India being made + of pounded crystal, none other can compare with it. (Lib. xxxvi, c. + 66.)</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xv. p. 99, ch. xxx. p. 182.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Leather</i>.—The tanning of leather from the hide of the + buffalo was understood so far back as the second century before + Christ, and "coverings both for the back and the feet of elephants" + were then formed of it.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxv. p. 152, ch. xxix. p. 169.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Wood-carving</i>.—Carving in sandal-wood and inlaying + with ivory, of which latter material "state fans and thrones" were + constructed for the Brazen Palace[1], are amongst the mechanical arts + often alluded to; and during the period of prosperity which + signalised the era of the "Great Dynasty," there can be little doubt + that skilled artificers were brought from India to adorn the cities + and palaces of Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxvii. p. 163, 164.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Chemical Arts</i>.—A rude knowledge of chemical + manipulation <a name="pg455" id="pg455"></a> was required for the + extraction of camphor[1] and the preparation of numerous articles + specified amongst the productions of the island, aromatic oils[2], + perfumes[3], and vegetable dyes.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 133. Dr. ROYLE doubts whether + camphor was known to the Hindus at this early period, but "camphor + oil" is repeatedly mentioned in the Singhalese chronicles amongst + the articles provided for the temples.—ROYLE'S <i>Essay on + Hindoo Medicine</i>, p. 140; <i>Rajaculi</i>, p. 190.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 157.</p> + + <p>3: B.C. 161. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 180.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Sugar</i>.—Sugar was obtained not only from the Palmyra + and Kittool palms[1], but also from the cane; which, besides being a + native of India, was also indigenous in Ceylon.[2] A "sugar mill" for + expressing its juice existed in the first century before Christ in + the district of the "Seven Corles,"[3] where fifteen hundred years + afterwards a Dutch governor of the island made an attempt to restore + the cultivation of sugar.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Palm sugar," as distinguished from "cane sugar," is spoken + of in the <i>Mahawanso</i> in the second century B.C. ch. xxvii. p. + 163.</p> + + <p>2: "Cane sugar" is referred to in the <i>Mahawanso</i> B.C. 161, + ch. xxvii. p. 162, ch. xxxi. p. 192.</p> + + <p>3: A.D. 77. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 208.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Mineral Paints</i>.—Mineral preparations were made with + success. Red lead, orpiment, and vermilions are mentioned as + pigments; but as it is doubtful whether Ceylon produces quicksilver, + the latter was probably imported from. China[1] or India, where the + method of preparing it has long been known.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg029">Vol. I. Part I. ch. i. p. + 29. n.</a> Both quicksilver and vermilion are mentioned in the + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 51, as being in use in the year 20 B.C. + Vermilion is also spoken of B.C. 307 in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxvii. p. 162, c. The two passages in which <i>vermilion</i> is + spoken of in the Old Testament, Jerem. xxii. 14, and Ezek. xxiii. + 14, both refer to the painting of walls and woodwork, a purpose to + which it would be scarcely suitable, were not the article alluded + to the opaque bisulphuret of mercury; and the same remark applies + to the vermilion used by the Singhalese. The bright red obtained + from the insect coccus (the <i>vermiculus</i>, whence the original + term "vermilion" is said to be derived) would be too transparent to + be so applied.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is likewise sufficient evidence in these and a number of + other preparations, as well in the notices of perfumes, camphor, and + essential oils, to show that the Singhalese, like the Hindus, had a + very early acquaintance with chemical processes and with the practice + of <a name="pg456" id="pg456"></a> distillation, which they retain to + the present day.[1] The knowledge of the latter they probably + acquired from the Arabs or Chinese.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "I was frequently visited by one old man, a priest, who had + travelled through Bengal, Burmah, Siam, and many other countries, + and who prided himself on being able <i>to make calomel</i> much + better than the European doctors, as his preparation did not cause + the falling out of the teeth, soreness of the mouth, or salivation. + He learnt the secret from an ancient sage whom he met with in a + forest on the continent of India; and often when listening to him I + was reminded of the mysteries and crudities of the + alchemists."—HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, Lond. 1850, + ch. xxiii. p. 312.</p> + </div><a name="pg457" id="pg457"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. V.</h2> + + <h3>WORKING IN METALS.</h3> + + <p>METALS. <i>Iron</i>.—Working in metals was early understood + in Ceylon. Abundance of iron ore can be extracted from the mountains + round Adam's Peak; the black oxide is found on the eastern shore in + the state of iron-sand; and both are smelted with comparative ease by + the natives. Iron tools were in use for the dressing of stones; and + in the third century before Christ, the enclosed city of Wijittapoora + was secured by an "iron gate." [1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 152.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Steel</i>.—The manufacture of arms involved the use of + steel, the method of tempering which was derived from the Hindus, by + whom the <i>wootz</i> was prepared, of which, the genuine blades of + Damascus are shown to have been made, the beauty of their figuring + being dependent on its peculiar crystallisation. Ezekiel enumerates + amongst the Indian imports of Tyre "<i>bright iron</i>, calamus and + cassia."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: ROYLE <i>on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine</i>, p. 98. + EZEKIEL, ch. xxvii. 19.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Copper</i>.—Copper was equally in demand, but, like + silver and gold, it is nowhere alluded to as a production of the + island. In ancient, as in modern, times, therefore, the numerous + articles formed from this metal were probably imported from India. + The renowned Brazen. Palace of Anarajapoora was so named from the + quantity of copper used in its construction. Bujas Raja, A.D. 359, + covered a building at Attanagalla with "tiles made of copper, and + gilt with gold,"[1] and "two boats built of brass," were placed near + the Bo-Tree at the capital "to hold food for the priests."[2] Before + the <a name="pg458" id="pg458"></a> Christian era, armour for + elephants[3], and vessels of large dimensions, cauldrons[4], and + baths[5], were formed of copper. The same material was used for the + lamps, goblets[6], kettles, and cooking utensils of the monasteries + and wiharas.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 73.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid</i>., p. 60.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 214.</p> + + <p>4: B.C. 204. <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 190.</p> + + <p>5: A.D. 1267, <i>Rajartnacari</i>, p. 104.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp. 104, 134.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Bells</i>.—Bells were hung in the palaces[1], and + bell-metal is amongst the gifts to the temples recorded on the rock + at Pollanarrua, A.D. 1187.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi. pp. 128, 129.</p> + + <p>2: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome, &c.,</i> Appx. p. 91.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Bronze</i>.—Bronze was cast into figures of Buddha[1], + and the <i>Mahawanso</i>, describing the reign of Dhatu-Sena, A.D. + 459, makes mention of "sixteen bronze statues of virgins having the + power of locomotion."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 275. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 236; + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. l35.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 257.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Lead</i>.—Lead was used during the wars of Dutugaimunu + and Elala, and poured molten over the attacking elephants during the + siege of Wijittapoora.[1] As lead is not a native product of Ceylon, + it must have been brought thither from Ava or Malwa.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 152.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Gold and Silver.</i>—Ceylon, like the continent of India, + produces no silver and gold, save in the scantiest quantities.[1] The + historical books, in recording the splendour of the temples and their + riches, and the wealth lavished by the kings upon the priesthood, + describe in perpetually recurring terms, the multitude of ornaments + and vessels made of silver and gold. In early times the most precious + of these were received as gifts from the princes of India, and in the + second century before Christ the <i>Mahawanso</i> records the arrival + of ships in the south of the island, "laden with golden utensils." + The import of these might possibly have been a relic of the early + trade with the Phoenicians, whom Homer, in a passage quoted <a name= + "pg459" id="pg459"></a> by Strabo (l. xvi. c. 2. s. 24.), describes + as making these cups, and carrying across the sea for sale in the + great emporiums visited by these ships.[2] A variety of articles of + silver are spoken of at very early periods. Dutugaimunu, when + building the great dagoba, caused the circle of its base to be + described by "a pair of compasses made of silver, and pointed with + gold;"[3] parasols, vases, caranduas and numerous other regal or + religious paraphernalia, were made from this precious material. Gold + was applied in every possible form and combination to the decoration + and furnishing of the edifices of Buddhism;—"trees of gold with + roots of coral,"[4] flowers formed of gems with stems of silver[5], + fringes of bullion mixed with pearls; umbrellas, shields, chains, and + jewelled statuettes[6], are described with enthusiasm by the + annalists of the national worship.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Amongst the miracles which signalised the construction of the + Ruanwellé dagoba at Anarajapoora was the sudden appearance in a + locality to the north-east of the capital of "sprouts" of gold + above and below the ground, and of silver in the vicinity of Adam's + Peak.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxviii. pp. 166, 167.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxii. p. 153. [Greek]—Iliad, + xxiii. 745.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 172.</p> + + <p>4: Red coral, equal in its delicacy of tint to the highly-prized + specimens from the Mediterranean, is found in small fragments on + the sea-shore north of Point-de-Galle.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 179.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ib. p. 180.</p> + </div> + + <p>The abundance of precious stones naturally led to their being + extensively mounted in jewelry, and in addition to those found in + Ceylon, diamonds[1] and lapis lazuli [2] (which must have been + brought thither from India and Persia) are classed with the sapphire + and the topaz, which are natives of the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 61.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 182.</p> + </div> + + <p>The same passion existed then, as now, for covering the person + with ornaments; gold, silver, and gems were fashioned into rings for + the ears, the nose, the fingers, and toes, into plates for the + forehead, and chains for the neck, into armlets, and bracelets, and + anklets, and into decorations of every possible form, not only for + the women, but for men, and, above all, for the children of both + sexes. The poor, unable to indulge in the luxury of precious metals, + found substitutes in shells and glass; and the extravagance of the + taste was defended <a name="pg460" id="pg460"></a> on the ground that + their brilliancy served to avert the malignity of "the evil eye" from + the wearer to the jewel.</p> + + <p><i>Gilding</i>.—Gilding was likewise understood by the + Singhalese in all its departments, both as applied to the baser + metals and to other substances—wood-work was gilded for + preaching places[1] as was also copper for roofing, cement for + decorating walls, and stone for statuary and carving.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 60.</p> + + <p>2: Rock inscription at Pollanarrua, A.D. 187—196.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Coin</i>.—Although the Singhalese through their sacred + writings had a knowledge of coined money, and of its existence in + India from a period little subsequent to the death of Gotama + Buddha[1]; and although their annalists give the names of particular + coins in circulation[2], at various times, no Singhalese money has + yet been discovered of a date antecedent to the eleventh century. The + Chinese in the fifteenth century spoke with admiration <a name= + "pg461" id="pg461"></a> of the gold pieces struck by the kings of + Ceylon, which they found in circulation on their frequent visits to + the emporium at Galle[3]; but of these only a few very rare examples + have been preserved, one of which bears the effigy and name of + Lokaiswaira[4], who usurped the throne during a period of anarchy + about A.D. 1070. Numbers of small copper coins of the eleventh and + twelfth centuries have from time to time been dug up both in the + interior and on the coast of the island[5]. A quantity of these which + were found in 1848 by Lieutenant Evatt, when in command of a pioneer + corps near the village of Ambogamoa, were submitted to Mr. Vaux of + the British Museum, and prove to belong to the reign of Wijayo Bahu, + A.D. 1071, Prakrama I., A.D. 1153, the Queen Lilawatte, A.D. 1197, + King Sahasamallawa, A.D. 1200, Darmasoka, A.D. 1208, and Bhuwaneka + Bahu, A.D. 1303. These coins have one and all the same device on the + obverse,—a rude standing figure of the Raja holding the + <i>trisula</i> in his left hand, and a flower in the right. His dress + is a flowing robe, the folds of which are indicated rather than + imitated by the artist; and on the reverse the same figure is seated, + the name in Nagari characters being placed beside the face[6].</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Mahawanso</i> mentions the existence of coined metals + in India in the tenth year of the reign of Kalasoka, a century from + the death of Buddha, ch. iv. p. 15. According to Hardy, in the most + ancient laws of the Buddhists the distinction is recognised between + coined money and bullion,—<i>Eastern Monachism,</i> vol. vii. + p. 66.</p> + + <p>2: The coins mentioned in the <i>Mahawanso, Rajaratnacari, and + Rajavali</i> are as follows: B.C. 161, the <i>kahapanan + (Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. pp. 157, 175), which TURNOUR says was a + gold coin worth ten <i>massakan</i> or <i>massa</i>. The latter are + "the pieces of gold formerly current in Ceylon," a heap of which, + according to the <i>Rajaratnacari</i> (p. 48), was seen by King + Bhatia Tissa when he was permitted to penetrate into the chamber of + the Ruanwellé dagoba, A.D. 137. The silver massa, according to + TURNOUR, was valued at eightpence. These are repeatedly mentioned + in the <i>Rajaratnacari</i> (A.D. 201, p. 60, A.D. 234, p. 62, A.D. + 1262, p. 102, A.D. 1301, p. 107, A.D. 1462, p. 113). The + <i>Rajavali</i> speaks of "gold massa" as in circulation in the + time of Dutugaimunu, B.C. 161 (p. 201). The word <i>masa</i> in + Singhalese means "pulse," or any description of "beans;" and it + seems not improbable that the origin of the term as applied to + money may be traced to the practice in the early Indian coinage of + stamping small <i>lumps</i> of metal to give them authentic + currency. It can only be a coincidence that the Roman term for an + ingot of gold was "<i>massa</i>" (Pliny, L. xxxiii. c. 19). These + Singhalese massa were probably similar to the "punched coins," + having rude stamps without effigies, and rarely even with letters, + which have been turned up at Kanooj, Oujein, and other places in + Western India. A copper coin is likewise mentioned in the + fourteenth century, in the <i>Rajavali</i>, where it is termed + <i>carooshawpa</i>; the value of which UPHAM, without naming his + authority, says was "about a pice and a half."—p. 136.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Woo hëö pëen</i> "Records of the Ming Dynasty," A.D. 1522, + B. lxviii. p. 5. <i>Suh Wan heen tung kaou</i>, "Antiquarian + Researches," B. ccxxxvi. p. 11.</p> + + <p>4: Two gold coins of Lokaiswaira are in the collection of the + British Museum, and will be found described by Mr. VAUX in the 16th + vol. of the <i>Numismatic Chronicle</i>, p. 121.</p> + + <p>5: There is a Singhalese coin figured in DAVY'S <i>Ceylon</i>, + p. 245, the legend on which is turned upside down, but when + reversed it reads "<i>Sri Pa-re-kra-ma Bahu</i>."</p> + + <p>6: <i>Numismatic Chronicle</i>, vol. xvi. p. 124</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/461.jpg"><img src="images/461.jpg" alt= + "Coin showing the Trisula." /></a> + + <p>Coin showing the Trisula.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Kandyans, by whom these coins are frequently <a name="pg462" + id="pg462"></a> found, give the copper pieces the name of Dambedenia + <i>challies</i>, and tradition, with perfect correctness, assigns + them to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the kings of that + period are believed to have had a mint at Dambedenia.</p> + + <p>A quantity of coins similar in every respect to those dug up in + Ceylon have been found at Dipaldinia or Amarawati, on the continent + of India, near the mouth of the Kistna; a circumstance which might be + accounted for by the frequent intercourse between Ceylon and the + coast, but which is possibly referable to the fact recorded in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> that Prakrama I., after his successful expedition + against the King of Pandya, caused money to be coined in his own name + before retiring to Ceylon.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxvi. pp. 298, 299, UPHAM's + <i>Trans</i>. The circumstance is exceedingly curious of coins of + Prakrama, "identical" with those found at Dambedenia, in Ceylon, + having also been discovered at Dipaldinia, on the opposite + continent; and it goes far to confirm the accuracy of the + <i>Mahawanso</i> as to the same king having coined money in both + places. Those found in the latter locality form part of the + Mackenzie Collection, and have been figured in the <i>Asiat. + Researches</i>, xvii. 597, and afterwards by Mr. PRINSEP in the + <i>Journ. of the Asiat. Soc. of Bengal</i>, vi. 301. See also a + notice of Ceylon coins, in the <i>Journ. As. Soc. Beng.</i> iv. + 673, vi. 218; CASIE CHITTY, in the <i>Journ. of the Ceylon Asiat. + Soc.,</i> 1847, p. 9, has given an account of a hoard of copper + coins found at Calpentyn in 1839; and Mr. Justice STARKE, in the + same journal, p. 149, has given a <i>resumé</i> of the information + generally possessed as to the ancient coins of the island. + PRINSEP's paper on <i>Ceylon Coins</i> will be found in vol. i. of + the recent reprint of his <i>Essays on Indian Antiquities</i>, p. + 419. Lond. 1858.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/463.jpg"><img src="images/463.jpg" alt= + "HOOK MONEY." /></a> + + <p>HOOK MONEY.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Hook-money</i>.—No ancient silver coin has yet been + found, but specimens are frequently brought to light of the + <i>ridis</i>, pieces of twisted silver wire, which from their being + sometimes bent with a considerable curve have been called + "<i>Fish-hook money</i>." These are occasionally impressed with a + legend, and for a time the belief obtained that they were a variety + of ring-money peculiar to Ceylon.[1] Of late this error has been + <a name="pg463" id="pg463"></a> corrected; the letters where they + occur have been shown to be not Singhalese or Sanskrit, but Persian, + and the tokens themselves have been proved to belong to Laristan on + the Persian Gulf, from the chief emporium of which, Gambroon, they + were brought to Ceylon in the course of Indian commerce; chiefly by + the Portuguese, who are stated by VAN CARDAEN to have introduced them + in great quantities into Cochin and the ports of Malabar.[2] There + they were circulated so freely that an edict of Prakrama enumerates + the <i>ridi</i> amongst the coins in which the taxes were assessed on + land.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This error may be traced to the French commentator on + RIBEYRO's <i>History of Ceylon</i>, who describes the fish-hook + money in use in the kingdom of Kandy, whilst the Portuguese held + the low country, as so simple in its form that every man might make + it for himself: "Le Roy de Candy avoit aussi permis á ses peuples + de se servir d'une <i>monnoye</i> que chacun peut + fabriquer."—Ch. x. p. 81.</p> + + <p>2: "Les larins sont tout-à-fait commodes et nécessaires dans les + Indes, surtout pour acheter du poivre à Cochin, où l'on en fait + grand état."—<i>Voyage aux Indes Orientales.</i> Amsterdam, + A.D. 1716, vol. vi. p. 626.</p> + + <p>3: Rock-inscription at Dambool, A.D. 1200. The <i>Rajavali</i> + mentions the <i>ridis</i> as in circulation in Ceylon at the period + of the arrival of the Portuguese, A.D. 1505.—P. 278.</p> + </div> + + <p>In India they are called <i>larins</i>, and money in imitation of + them, struck by the princes of Bijapur and by Sivaji, the founder of + the Mahrattas, was in circulation in the Dekkan as late as the + seventeenth century.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Prof. WILSON'S <i>Remarks on Fish-hook Money, Numism. + Chronic.</i> 1854, p. 181.</p> + </div><a name="pg464" id="pg464"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VI.</h2> + + <h3>ENGINEERING.</h3> + + <p>It has already been shown[1] that the natives of Ceylon received + their earliest instruction in engineering from the Brahmans, who + attached themselves to the followers of Wijayo and his immediate + successors.[2] But whilst astonished at the vastness of conception + observable in the works executed at this early period, we are equally + struck by the extreme simplicity of the means employed by their + designers for carrying their plans into execution; and the absence of + all ingenious expedients for husbanding or effectively applying + manual labour. The earth which forms their prodigious embankments was + carried in baskets[3] by the labourers, in the same primitive fashion + which prevails to the present day. Stones were detached in the quarry + by the slow and laborious process of wedging, of which they still + exhibit the traces; and those intended for prominent positions were + carefully dressed with iron tools. For moving them no mechanical + contrivances were resorted to[4], and it can only have been by animal + power, aided by ropes and rollers, that vast <a name="pg465" id= + "pg465"></a> blocks like the great tablet at Pollanarrua were dragged + to their required positions.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg430">Vol. I. Part IV. chap. ii. p. + 430.</a></p> + + <p>2: King Pandukábhaya, B.C. 437, "built a residence for the + Brahman Jótiyo, the chief engineer."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. + p. 66.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. p. 144.</p> + + <p>4: The only instance of mechanism applied in aid of human labour + is referred to in a passage of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, which alludes + to a decree for "raising the water of the Abhaya tank by means of + machinery," in order to pour it over a dagoba during the + solemnisation of a festival, B.C. 20.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxxiv. p. 211; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 51.</p> + + <p>5: No document is better calculated to Impress the reader with a + due appreciation of the indomitable perseverance of the Singhalese + in works of engineering than the able report of Messrs. ADAMS, + CHURCHILL, and BAILEY, on the great <i>Canal from Ellahara to + Gantalawa</i>, appended to the Ceylon Calendar for 1857.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Fortifications</i>.—Of military engineering the + Singhalese had a very slight knowledge. Walled towns and + fortifications are frequently spoken of, but the ascertained + difficulty of raising, squaring, or carrying stones, points to the + inference which is justified by the expressions of the ancient + chronicles, that the walls they allude to, must have been + earthworks[1], and that the strength of their fortified places + consisted in their inaccessibility. The first recorded attempt at + fortification was made by the Malabars in the second century before + Christ for the defence of Wijitta-poora, which is described as having + been secured by walls, a fosse, and a gate.[2] Elala about the same + period built "thirty-two bulwarks" at Anarajapoora[3]; and + Dutugaimunu, in commencing to besiege him in the city, followed his + example, by throwing up a "fortification in an open plain," at a spot + well provided with wood and water.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Makalantissa, who reigned B.C. 41, "built a rampart seven + cubits high, and dug a ditch round the + capital."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 210.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 212; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. + 151.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 187.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 216; <i>Mahawanso</i> ch. xxv. p. + 152.</p> + </div> + + <p>At a later time, the Malabars, when in possession of the northern + portion of the island, formed a chain of strong "forts" from the + eastern to the western coast, and the Singhalese, in imitation of + them, occupied similar positions. The most striking example of + mediæval fortification which still survives, is the imperishable rock + of Sigiri, north-east of Dambool, to which the infamous Kassyapa + retired with his treasures, after the assassination of his father, + King Dhatu Sena, A.D. 459; when having cleared its vicinity, and + surrounded <a name="pg466" id="pg466"></a> it by a rampart, the + figures of lions with which he decorated it, obtained for it the name + of Sihagiri, the "Lion-rock." But the real defences of Sigiri were + its precipitous cliffs, and its naturally scarped walls, which it was + not necessary to strengthen by any artificial structures.</p> + + <p>Their rocky hills, and the almost impenetrable forests which + enveloped them, were in every age the chief security of the + Singhalese; and so late as the 12th century, the inscription engraved + on the rock at Dambool, in describing the strength of the national + defences under the King Kirti Nissanga, enumerates them as + "strongholds in the midst of forests, and those upon steep hills, and + the fastnesses surrounded by water."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome and Appendix</i>, p. 95.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Thorn-gates.</i>—The device, retained down to the period + of the capture of Kandy by the British, when the passes into the hill + country were defended by thick plantations of formidable thorny + trees, appears to have prevailed in the earliest times. The + protection of Mahelo, a town assailed by Dutugaimunu, B.C. 162, + consisting in its being "surrounded on all sides with the thorny + <i>dadambo</i> creeper, within which was a triple line of + fortifications."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 153. When Albuquerque attacked + Malacca in A.D. 1511, the chief who defended the place "covered the + streets with poisoned thorns, to gore the Portuguese coming in" + FARIA Y SOUZA, vol. i. p. 180. VALENTYN, in speaking of the + dominions of the King of Kandy during the Dutch occupation of the + Low Country, describes the density of the forests, "which not only + serve to divide the earldoms one from another, but, above all, tend + to the fortification of the country, on which account no one dare, + on pain of death, to thin or root out a tree, more than to permit a + passage for one man at a time, it being impossible to pass through + the rest thereof."—VALENTYN, <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien, + &c.</i>, ch. i. p. 22. KNOX gives a curious account of these + "thorn-gates." (Part ii. ch. vi. p. 45.)</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Bridges</i>.—As to bridges, Ceylon had none till the end + of the 13th century[1], and Turnour conjectures that even then they + were only formed of timber, like the Pons Sublidus at Rome. At a + later period stone <a name="pg467" id="pg467"></a> pillars were used + in pairs, on which beams or slabs were horizontally rested, in order + to form a roadway [2], in the same manner that Herodotus describes + the most ancient bridge on record, which was constructed by Queen + Nitocris, at Babylon; the planks being laid during the day and lifted + again at night, for the security of the city.[3] The principle of the + arch appears never to have been employed in bridge building. Ferries, + and the taxes on crossing by them, are alluded to down to a very late + period amongst other sources of revenue.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i> and <i>Notes</i>, p. 72. Major + Forbes says, however, there is reason to believe that the remains + of stone piers across the Kalawa-oya, on the line between + Kornegalle and Anarajapoora, are the ruins of the bridge erected by + King Maha Sen, A.D. 301.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxxv. UPHAM'S translation, pp. + 340,349; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp. 104, 131. The bridge on the + Wanny hereafter described (see vol. ii p. 474) was thus + constructed.</p> + + <p>3: Herodotus, i. 186.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxiii. pp. 136, 138, ch. xxv. p. 150; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 112.</p> + </div> + + <p>In forming the bunds of their reservoirs and of the stone dams + which they drew across the rivers that were to supply them with + water, they were accustomed, with incredible toil, infinitely + increased by the imperfection of tools and implements, to work a + raised moulding in front of the blocks of stone, so that each course + was retained in position, not alone by its own weight, but by the + difficulty of forcing it forward by pressure from behind.</p> + + <p>The conduits by which the accumulated waters were distributed, + required to be constructed under the bed of the lake, so that the + egress should be certain and equal[1], as long as any water remained + in the tank. To effect this, they were cut in many instances through + solid granite; and their ruins present singular illustrations of + determined perseverance, undeterred by the most discouraging + difficulties, and unrelieved by the slightest appliance of ingenuity + to diminish the toil of excavation.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Lake of Albano presents an example of a conduit or + "emissary" of this peculiar construction to draw off the water. It + is upwards of 6000 feet in length. A similar emissary serves a like + purpose at Lake Nemi.</p> + </div><a name="pg468" id="pg468"></a> + + <p>It cannot but exalt our opinion of a people, to find that, under + disadvantages so signal, they were capable of forming such a work as + the Kalaweva tank, between Anarajapoora and Dambool, which TURNOUR + justly says, is the greatest of the ancient works in Ceylon. This + enormous reservoir was forty miles in circumference, with an + embankment twelve miles in extent, and the spill-water, ineffectual + for the purpose designed, is "one of the most stupendous monuments of + misapplied human labour."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Mahawanso</i>, Index, p. xi. This stupendous + work was constructed A.D. 459. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. + 256.</p> + </div> + + <p>When to such inherent deficiencies were added the alarms of + frequent invasion and all the evils of almost incessant occupation by + a foreign enemy, it is only surprising that the Singhalese preserved + so long the degree of expertness in engineering to which they had + originally attained. No people in any age or country had so great + practice and experience in the construction of works for irrigation; + and so far had the renown of their excellence in this branch reached, + that in the eighth century, the king of Kashmir, Djaya-pida, "sent to + Ceylon for engineers to form a lake."[1] But after the reign of + Prakrama I., the decline was palpable and progressive. No great + works, either of ornament or utility, no temples nor inland lakes, + were constructed by his successors; and it is remarkable, that even + during his own reign, artificers were brought from the coast of India + to repair the monuments of Anarajapoora.[2] The last great work + attempted for irrigation was probably the Giant's Tank, north-east of + Aripo; but so much <a name="pg469" id="pg469"></a> had practical + science declined, that after an enormous expenditure of labour in + damming up the Moeselley river, whose waters were to have been + diverted to the lake, it was discovered that the levels were + unsuitable, and the work was abandoned in despair.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 745. <i>Rajataringini</i>, b. iv. sl. 502, 505.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, UPHAM'S transl., ch. lxxv. p. 294. This + passage in the <i>Mahawanso</i> might seem to imply that it was as + an act of retribution that Malabars, by whom the monuments had been + injured, were compelled to restore them. But in ch. lxxvii. it is + stated that they were brought from India for this purpose, because + it "had been found impracticable by other kings to renew and repair + them."—P. 305.</p> + + <p>3: For an account of the present condition of the Giant's Tank, + see Vol. II. Part x. ch. ii.</p> + </div> + + <p>The talents of the civil engineer were likewise employed in + providing for the health and comfort of their towns and the + <i>Dipawanso</i>, a chronicle earlier in point of date than the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, relates that Wasabha, who reigned between A.D. 66 + and 110, constructed a tunnel ("um-maggo") for the purpose of + supplying Anarajapoora with water.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i> vol. vii. p. 933.</p> + </div><a name="pg470" id="pg470"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VII.</h2> + + <h3>THE FINE ARTS.</h3> + + <p>MUSIC.—The science and practice of the fine arts were never + very highly developed amongst a people whose domestic refinement + became arrested at a very early stage; and whose efforts in that + direction were almost wholly confined to the exaltation of the + national faith, and the embellishment of its temples and + monuments.</p> + + <p>Their knowledge of music was derived from the Hindus, by whom its + study was regarded as of equal importance with that of medicine and + astronomy; and hence amongst the early Singhalese, along with the + other "eighteen sciences,"[1] music was taught as an essential part + of the education of a prince.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This fact is curious, seeing that at the present day the + cultivation of music belongs to one of the lowest castes in + Ceylon.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxiv.; UPHAM'S version, p. 256. An + ingenious paper on <i>Singhalese Music</i>, by Mr. Louis Nell, is + printed in the <i>Journ.</i> of the Ceylon branch of the <i>Roy. + Asiat. Soc.</i> for 1856-8; p. 200.</p> + </div> + + <p>But unlike the soft melodies of Hindustan, whose characteristic is + their gentle and soothing effect, the music of the Singhalese appears + to have consisted of sound rather than of harmony; modulation and + expression having been at all times subordinate to volume and + metrical effect.</p> + + <p>Reverberating instruments were their earliest inventions for + musical purposes, and those most frequently alluded to in their + chronicles are drums, resembling the tom-toms used in the temples to + the present day. The same variety of form prevailed then as now, and + <a name="pg471" id="pg471"></a> the <i>Rajavali</i> relates, in + speaking of the army of Dutugaimunu, that in its march, the "rattling + of the sixty-four kinds of drums made a noise resembling thunder + breaking on the rock from behind which the sun rises."[1] The band of + Devenipiatissa, B.C. 307, was called the <i>talawachara</i>, from the + multitude of drums[2]: chank-shells contributed to swell the din, + both in warfare[3] and in religious worship[4]; choristers added + their voices[5]; and the triumph of effect consisted in "the united + crash of every description, vocal as well as instrumental"[6] + Although "a full band" is explained in the <i>Mahawanso</i> to imply + a combination of "all descriptions of musicians," no flutes or wind + instruments are particularised, and the incidental mention of a harp + only occurs in the reign of Dutugaimunu, B.C. 161.[7] JOINVILLE says, + that certain musical principles were acknowledged in Ceylon at an + early period, and that pieces are to be seen in some of the old Pali + <a name="pg472" id="pg472"></a> books in regular notation; the gamut, + which was termed <i>septa souere</i>, consisting of seven notes, and + expressed not by signs, but in letters equivalent to their + pronunciation, <i>sa, ri, ga, me, qa, de, ni.</i>[8] At the present + day, harmony is still superseded by sound, the singing of the + Singhalese being a nasal whine, not unlike that of the Arabs. Flutes, + almost insusceptible of modulation, chanks, which give forth a + piercing scream, and the overpowering roll of tom-toms, constitute + the music of the temples; and all day long the women of a family will + sit round a species of timbrel, called <i>rabani</i>, and produce + from it the most monotonous, but to their ear, most agreeable noises, + by drumming with the fingers.</p> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/471.jpg"><img src="images/471.jpg" alt= + "ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND MODERN SINGHALESE TOM-TOM BEATERS." /></a> + + <p>ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND + <br /> + MODERN SINGHALESE TOM-TOM BEATERS.</p> + </div> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, pp. 217, 219. At the present day, there are + four or five varieties of drums in use:—the tom-tom or + <i>tam-a-tom</i>, properly so-called, which consists of two + cylinders placed side by side, and is beaten with two + sticks;—the <i>daelle</i>, a single cylinder struck with a + stick at one end, and with the hand at the other,—the + <i>oudaelle</i>, which is held in the left hand, and struck with + the right;—and the <i>berri</i>, which is suspended from the + beater's neck, and struck with both hands, one at each end, + precisely as a similar instrument is shown in some of the Egyptian + monuments.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xvii, p. 104.</p> + + <p>3: B.C. 161. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv, p. 154.</p> + + <p>4: B.C. 20. <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 51.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 157.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxvi. 186.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 180. The following passage in + UPHAM'S translation of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii. vol. i. p. + 274, would convey the idea that the Æolian harp was meant, or some + arrangement of strings calculated to elicit similar + sounds:—"The king Prakrama built a palace at the city of + Pollanarrua; and the stone works were carved in the shape of + flowers and creeping plants, <i>with golden networks which gave + harmonious sounds as if they were moved by the air</i>."</p> + + <p>8: JOINVILLE, <i>Asiat. Researches</i>, vol. vii. p. 488.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Painting</i>.—Painting, whether historical or + imaginative, is only mentioned in connection with the decoration of + temples, and no examples survive of sufficient antiquity to exhibit + the actual state of the art at any remote period. But enough is known + of the trammels imposed upon all art, to show that from the earliest + times, imagination and invention were prohibited by the priesthood; + and although execution and facility may have varied at different + eras, design and composition were stationary and unalterable.</p> + + <p>Like the priesthood of Egypt, those of Ceylon regulated the mode + of delineating the effigies of their divine teacher, by a rigid + formulary, with which they combined corresponding directions for the + drawing of the human figure in connection with sacred subjects. In + the relics of Egyptian painting and sculpture, we find "that the same + formal outline, the same attitudes and postures of the body, the same + conventional modes of representing the different parts, were adhered + to at the latest, as at the earliest periods. No improvements were + admitted; no attempts to copy nature or to give an air of action to + the limbs. Certain rules and certain <a name="pg473" id="pg473"></a> + models had been established by law, and the faulty conceptions of + early times were copied and perpetuated by every succeeding + artist."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: SIR GARDNER WILKINSON'S <i>Ancient Egyptians</i>, vol. iii. + ch. x. p. 87, 264.</p> + </div> + + <p>The same observations apply, almost in the same terms, to the + paintings of the Singhalese. The historical delineations of the + exploits of Gotama Buddha and of his disciples and attendants, which + at the present day cover the walls of the temples and wiharas, + follow, with rigid minuteness, pre-existing illustrations of the + sacred narratives. They appear to have been copied, with a devout + adherence to colour, costume, and detail, from designs which from + time immemorial have represented the same subjects; and emaciated + ascetics, distorted devotees, beatified simpletons, and malefactors + in torment are depicted with a painful fidelity, akin to modern + pre-Raphaelitism.</p> + + <p>Owing to this discouragement of invention, one series of pictures + is so servile an imitation of another, that design has never improved + in Ceylon; one scene is but the facsimile of a previous one, and each + may almost be regarded as an exponent of the state of the art at any + preceding period.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Egyptians and Singhalese were not, however, the only + authorities who overwhelmed invention by ecclesiastical + conventionalism. The early artists of Greece were not at liberty to + follow the bent of their own genius, or to depart from established + regulations in representing the figures of the gods. In the middle + ages, the influence of the churches, both of Rome and Byzantium, + was productive of a similar result; and although the Latins early + emancipated themselves, the painters of the Greek church, to the + present hour, labour under the identical trammels which crippled + art at Constantinople a thousand years ago. M. DIDRON, who visited + the churches and monasteries of Greece in 1839, makes the remark + that "ni le temps ni le lieu ne font rien à l'art Grec: au XVIIIe + siècle, le peintre Moréote continue et calque le peintre Vénétien + du Xe, le peintre Athonite du Ve ou VIe. Le costume des personnages + est partout et en tout temps le même, non-seulement pour la forme, + mais pour la couleur, mais pour le dessin, mais jusque pour le + nombre et l'épaisseur des plis. On ne saurait pousser plus loin + l'exactitude traditionnelle, l'esclavage du passé." <i>(Manuel d' + Iconographie Chrétienne Grecque et Latin</i>, p. ix.) The + explanation of this fact is striking. Mount Athos is the grand + manufactory of pictures for the Greek churches throughout the + world; and M. DIDRON found the artists producing, with the + servility and almost the rapidity of machinery, endless facsimiles + of pictures in rigid conformity with a recognised code of + instructions drawn up under ecclesiastical authority and entitled + [Greek: Ermêneia tês Zographikês], "The Guide for Painting," a + literal translation of which he has published. This very curious + manuscript contains minute directions for the figures, costume, and + attitude of the sacred characters, and for the preparation of many + hundreds of historical subjects required for the decoration of + churches. The artist, when solicited by M. Didron to sell "cette + bible de son art," naively refused, on the simple ground that "s'il + se dépouillait de ce livre, il ne pourrait plus rien faire; en + perdaut son Guide, il perdait son art, il perdait ses yeux et ses + mains" (<i>ib</i>. p. xxiii.). It was not till the fifteenth + century that the painters of Italy shook themselves free of the + authority of the Latin church in matters of art. The second council + of Nice arrogates to the Roman church the authority in such matters + still retained by the Greek; "non est imaginum structura pictorum + inventio sed ecclesiæ catholicæ probata legislatio et traditio." In + Spain, the sacro-pictorial law, under the title of <i>Pictor + Christianus</i>, was promulgated, in 1730, by Fray Juan de Ayala, a + monk of the order of Mercy; and such subjects are discussed as the + shape of the true cross; whether one or two angels should sit on + the stone by the sepulchre? and whether the Devil should be drawn + with horns and a tail? In the National Gallery of London there is a + painting of the Holy Family by Benozzo Gozzoli, and Sir Charles L. + Eastlake has permitted me to see a contract between the painter and + his employer A.D. 1461, in which every figure is literally "made to + order," its attitude bespoke, and its place in the composition + distinctly agreed for. One clause, however, contemplates progress, + and binds the painter to make the piece his + chef-d'oeuvre—"che detta dipentura exceda ogni buona + dipintura infino aqui facto per detto Benozzo."</p> + </div><a name="pg474" id="pg474"></a> + + <p>Hence even the most modern embellishments in the temples have an + air of remote antiquity. The colours are tempered with gum; and but + for their inferiority in drawing the human figure, as compared with + the Egyptians, and their defiance of the laws of perspective, their + inharmonious tints, coupled with the whiteness of the ground-work, + would remind one of similar peculiarities in the paintings in the + Thebaid, and the caves of Beni Hassan.</p> + + <p>Fa Hian describes in the fourth century precisely the same series + of subjects and designs which are delineated in the temples of the + present day, and taken from the transformation of Buddha. With + hundreds of these, he says, painted in appropriate colours and + executed in imitation of life, the king caused both sides of the road + to be decorated on the occasion of religious processions.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Foe Koue Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 335.</p> + </div> + + <p><a name="pg475" id="pg475"></a>Amongst the most renowned of the Singhalese masters, was the King + Detu Tissa, A.D. 330, "a skilful carver, who executed many arduous + undertakings in painting, and taught it to his subjects. He modelled + a statue of Buddha so exquisitely that he seemed to have been + inspired; and for it he made an altar, and gilt an edifice inlaid + with ivory."[1] Among the presents sent by the King of Ceylon (A.D. + 459) to the Emperor of China, the <i>Tsih foo yuen kwei</i>, a + chronicle compiled by imperial command, particularises a picture of + Buddha.[2] The colours employed in decorating their temples are mixed + in <i>tempera</i>, as were those used in the ancient paintings in + Egypt; the claim of the Singhalese to the priority of invention in + the mixture of colours with oil, is adverted to elsewhere.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 242.</p> + + <p>2: B. li. p. 7.</p> + + <p>3: See the chapter on the Fine Arts, <a href="#pg490">Vol. I. p. + 490.</a></p> + </div> + + <p><i>Sculpture</i>.—In style Singhalese sculpture was even + more conventional and less imaginative than their painting; since the + subjects to which it was confined were almost exclusively statues of + Buddha[1], and its efforts were mere repetitions of the three + orthodox attitudes of the great archetype—<i>sitting</i>, as + when in deep meditation, under the sacred Bo-tree; <i>standing</i>, + as when exhorting his multitudinous disciples; and <i>reclining</i>, + in the enjoyment of the everlasting repose of "nirwana." In each and + all of these the details are identical; the length of the ears, the + proportions of the arms, fingers, and toes; the colour of the eyes, + and the curls of the hair[2] being repeated with wearisome iteration. + To such <a name="pg476" id="pg476"></a> an extent were these + multiplied, and with an adherence so rigid to the same recognised + models, that the <i>Rajavali</i> ventures to ascribe to one king the + erection of "seventy-two thousand statues of Buddha," an obvious + error[3], but indicative, nevertheless, that the real amount must + have been prodigious, in order to obtain credence for the + exaggeration. Many other sovereigns are extolled in the national + annals, who rendered their reigns illustrious by the multiplicity of + statues which they placed in the temples. It was doubtless from this + incessant study of one and the same figure, that the artists of + Ceylon attained to a facility and superiority in producing statues of + Buddha, that rendered them famous throughout the countries of Asia, + in which his religion prevailed. The early historians of China speak + in raptures of works of this kind, obtained from Singhalese sculptors + in the fourth and fifth centuries; they were eagerly sought after by + all the surrounding nations; and one peculiarity in their execution + consisted in so treating the features, that "on standing at about ten + paces distant they appeared truly brilliant, but the lineaments + gradually disappeared on a nearer approach."[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mention is made of a figure of an elephant (<i>Rajavali</i>, + p. 242), and of a horse (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxix. TURNOUR'S + manuscript translation), and a carved bull as amongst the ruins of + Anarajapoora.</p> + + <p>2: M. ABEL REMUSAT has devoted a section of his <i>Melanges + Asiatiques</i>, 1825; vol. i. p. 100, to combating the conjecture + of Sir W. JONES in his third Dissertation on the Hindus, drawn from + the curled or rather the woolly hair represented in his statues, + that Buddha drew his descent from an African origin. (<i>Works</i>, + vol. i. p, 12.) Another ground for Sir. W. JONES'S conjecture was + the <i>large ears</i> which are usually characteristic of the + statues of Buddha. But it is curious that one of the peculiar + features ascribed to the Singhalese by the early Greek writers was + the possession of pendulous ears, possibly occasioned by their + heavy ear-rings.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 255. Most of these were built of + terra-cotta and cement covered with chunam, preparatory to being + painted. See <a href="#pg478">p. 478.</a></p> + + <p>4: <i>Wei shoo</i>, a "History of the Wei Tartar Dynasty," + written A.D. 590. B. cxiv. p. 9.</p> + </div> + + <p>The labours of the sculptor and painter were combined in producing + these images of Buddha, which are always coloured in imitation of + life, each tint of his complexion and hair being in religious + conformity with divine authority, and the ceremony of "painting of + the eyes,"[1] is always observed by the devout Buddhists as a solemn + festival.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii.; UPHAM'S version, vol. i. p. + 275.</p> + </div> + + <p>Many of the works which were thus executed were either golden[1] + or gilt, with brilliants inserted in the <a name="pg477" id= + "pg477"></a> eyes, and the draperies enriched with jewels.[2] Fa Hian + in the fourth century, speaks of a figure of Buddha upwards of + twenty-three feet in height, formed out of blue jasper, and set with + precious stones, that sparkled with singular splendour, and which + bore in its right hand a pearl of priceless value.[3] This may + possibly have been the statue of which the <i>Mahawanso</i> speaks in + like terms of admiration: "the eye formed by a jewel from the royal + head-dress, each curl of the hair by a sapphire, and the lock in the + centre of the forehead by threads of gold."[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. pp. 180, 182; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp. 47, 48; <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 237.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 258.</p> + + <p>3: "Parmi toutes les choses précieuses qu'on y voit, il y a une + image de jaspe bleu haute de deux <i>tchang</i>: tout son corps est + formé des sept choses précieuses; elle est étincellante de + splendeur et plus majestueuse qu'on ne saurait l'exprimer. Dans la + main droite elle tient une perle d'un prix + inestimable."—<i>Foe Koue Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 333.</p> + + <p>4: A.D. 459. <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 258. Another + statue of gold, with the features and members appropriately + coloured in gems, is spoken of in the second century B.C. + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 180.)</p> + </div> + + <p>Ivory also and sandal-wood[1], as well as copper and bronze, + served as materials for statues; but granite was the substance most + generally selected, except in the rare instances where the temple and + the statue together were hewn out of the living rock, on which + occasions gneiss was most generally selected. Such are the statues at + Pollanarrua, at Mihintala, and at the Aukana Wihara, near + Wijittapoora. A still more common expedient, which is employed to the + present time, was to form the figures of Buddha with pieces of burnt + clay joined together by cement; and coated with highly polished + chunam, in order to prepare the surface for the painter. In this + manner were most probably produced the "seventy-two thousand statues" + ascribed to Mihindo V.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 72.</p> + </div> + + <p>Figures of elephants were similarly formed at an early period.[1] + An image of Buddha so composed in the 12th century, is still standing + at Pollanarrua[2], and every <a name="pg478" id="pg478"></a> temple + has one or more effigies, either sedent, erect, or recumbent, + carefully modelled in cemented clay, and coloured after life.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 432. <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 74.</p> + + <p>2: Possibly the "standing figure of Buddha" mentioned in the + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 253.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Architecture</i>.—In Ceylon, as in Egypt, Assyria, and + India, the ruins which survive to attest the character of ancient + architecture are exclusively sacred, with the exception of occasional + traces of the residences of theocratic royalty; but everything has + perished which could have afforded an idea of the dwellings and + domestic architecture of the people. The cause of this is to be + traced in the perishable nature of the sun-dried clay, of which the + walls of the latter were composed. Added to this, in Ceylon there + were the pride of rank and the pretensions of the priesthood, which, + whilst they led to lavish expenditure of the wealth of the kingdom + upon palaces and monuments, and the employment of stone in the + erection of temples[1] and monasteries, forbade the people to + construct their dwellings of any other material than sun-baked + earth.[2] This practice continued to the latest period; and nothing + struck the British army of occupation with more surprise on entering + the city of Kandy, after its capture in 1815, than to find the + palaces and temples alone constructed of stone, whilst the streets + and private houses were formed of mud and thatch.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, pp. 78, 79.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 222.</p> + </div> + + <p>Though stone is abundant in Ceylon, it was but sparingly used in + the ancient buildings. Squared stones[1] were occasionally employed, + but large slabs seldom occur, except in the foundations of dagobas. + The vast quantity of material required for such structures, the cost + of quarrying and carriage, and the want of mechanical aids to raise + ponderous blocks into position, naturally led to the substitution of + bricks for the upper portion of the superstructure.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 210; VALENTYN, <i>Oud en Nieuw + Oost-Indien</i>, ch. iii. p. 45.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is evidence to show that wedges were employed <a name= + "pg479" id="pg479"></a> in detaching the blocks in the quarry, and + the amount of labour devoted to the preparation of those in which + strength, irrespective of ornament, was essential, is shown in the + remains of the sixteen hundred undressed pillars[1] which supported + the Brazen Palace at Anarajapoora, and in the eighteen hundred stone + steps, many of them exceeding ten feet in length, which led from the + base of the mountain to the very summit of Mihintala. A single piece + of granite lies at Anarajapoora hollowed into an "elephant trough," + with ornamental pilasters, which measures ten feet in length by six + wide and two deep; and amongst the ruins of Pollanarrua a still more + remarkable slab, twenty-five feet in length by six broad and two feet + thick, bears an inscription of the twelfth century, which records + that it was brought from a distance of more than thirty miles.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Rajavali</i> states that these rough pillars were + originally covered with copper, p. 222.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figrt"> + <a href="images/479.jpg"><img src="images/479.jpg" alt= + "COLUMN AT ANARAJAPOORA." /></a> + + <p>COLUMN AT + <br /> + ANARAJAPOORA.</p> + </div> + + <p>The majority of the columns at Anarajapoora are of dressed stone, + octangular and of extremely graceful proportions. They were used in + profusion to form circular colonnades around the principal dagobas, + and the vast numbers which still remain upright, are one of the + peculiar characteristics of the place, and justify the expression of + Knox, when, speaking of similar groups elsewhere, he calls them a + "world of hewn stone pillars."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Knox, <i>Relation</i>, vol. v. pt. iv. ch. ii. p. 165.</p> + </div> + + <p>Allusions in the <i>Mahawanso</i> show that extreme care was taken + in the preparation of bricks for the dagobas.[1] Major SKINNER, whose + official duties as engineer to the government have rendered him + familiar with all parts of Ceylon, assures me that the bricks in + <a name="pg480" id="pg480"></a> every ruin he has seen, including the + dagobas at Anarajapoora, Bintenne, and Pollanarrua, have been fired + with so much skill that exposure through successive centuries has but + slightly affected their sharpness and consistency.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxviii. p. 165; ch. xxix. p. 169, + &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>The sand for mortar was "pounded, sifted, and ground on a + grinding-stone;"[1] the "cloud-coloured stones,"[2] used to form the + immediate receptacle in which a sacred relic was enclosed, were said + to have been imported from India; and the "nawanita" clay, in which + these were imbedded, was believed to have been brought from the + mythical Anotattho lake in the Himalayas.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 175.</p> + + <p>2: The "cloud-coloured stone" may possibly have been marble, but + no traces of marble have been found in the ruins. Diodorus, in + describing some of the monuments of Egypt alludes to a + "party-coloured" stone, [Greek: lithon poikilon], which likewise + remains without identification.—<i>Diodorus</i>, l. i. c. + lvii.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxix. p. 169; ch. xxx. p. 179.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Dagobas</i>.—The process of building the Ruanwellé dagoba + is thus minutely described in the <i>Mahawanso</i>: "That the + structure might endure for ages, a foundation was excavated to the + depth of one hundred cubits, and the round stones were trampled by + enormous elephants, whose feet were protected by leather cases. Over + this the monarch spread the sacred clay, and on it laid the bricks, + and over them a coating of astringent cement, above this a layer of + sand-stones, and on all a plate of iron. Over this was a large + pholika (crystallised stone), then a plate of brass, eight inches + thick, embedded in a cement made of the gum of the wood-apple tree, + diluted in the water of the small red coco-nut."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxix. p. 169; ch. xxx. p. 178. The + internal structure of the Sanchi tope at Bilsah in Central India + presents the arrangement here described, <i>the bricks being laid + in mud</i>, but externally it is faced with dressed stone.</p> + </div> + + <p>The shape of these huge mounds of masonry was originally + hemispherical, being that best calculated to prevent the growth of + grass or other weeds on objects so <a name="pg481" id="pg481"></a> + sacred. Dutugaimumi, according to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, when about to + build the Ruanwellé dagoba, consulted a mason as to the most suitable + form, who, "filling a golden dish with water, and taking some in the + palm of his hand, caused a bubble in the form of a coral bead to rise + on the surface; and he replied to the king, 'In this form will I + construct it.'"[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 175. This legend as to the + origin of the semicircular form of the dagoba is at variance with + the conjecture of Major FORBES, that these vast structures were + merely an advance on the mounds of earth similar to the barrow of + Halyattes, which in the progress of the constructive arts, came to + be converted into brickwork.—<i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>, + v. i. p. 222.</p> + </div> + + <p>Two dagobas at Anarajapoora, the Abay-a-giri and Jeyta-wana-rama, + still retain their original outline,—the Ruanwellé, from age + and decay, has partly lost it,—and the Thupa-ramaya is + flattened on the top as if suddenly brought to a close, and the + Lanka-ramaya is shaped like a bell.</p> + + <p><i>Monasteries and Wiharas.</i>—According to the annals of + Ceylon the construction of dwellings for the devotees of Buddha + preceded the erection of temples for his worship. Originally the + anchorite selected a cave or some shelter in the forest as his place + of repose or meditation.[1] In the <i>Rajavali</i> Devenipiatissa is + said to have "caused caverns to be cut in the solid rock at the + sacred place of Mihintala;"[2] and these are the earliest residences + for the higher orders of the priesthood in Ceylon, of which a record + has been preserved. A less costly substitute was found in the + erection of detached huts of the rudest construction, in winch may be + traced the embryo of the Buddhist monastery; and the king Walagambahu + was the first, B.C. 89, to gather these scattered residences into + groups and "build wiharas in unbroken ranges, conceiving that thus + their repairs would be more easily effected."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i> c. xxx. p. 174.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 184.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiii. p. 207.</p> + </div><a name="pg482" id="pg482"></a> + + <p>Simplicity and retirement were at all times the characteristics of + these retreats, which rarely aspired to architectural display; and + the only recorded instance of extravagance in this particular was the + "Brazen Palace" at Anarajapoora, with its sixteen hundred columns; an + edifice which, though nominally a dwelling for the priesthood, + appears to have been in reality a vast suite of halls for their + assemblies and festivals, and a sanctuary for the safe custody of + their jewels and treasure.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xxvii. p. 103. Like the "nine-storied" + pagodas of China, the palace of "the Lowa Maya Paya" was originally + <i>nine stories</i> in height, and Fergusson, from the analogy of + Buddhist buildings in other countries, supposes that these + diminished in succession as the building arose, till the outline of + the whole assumed the form of a pyramid. <i>(Handbook of + Architecture</i>, b. i. ch. iii. p. 44.) In this he is undoubtedly + correct, and a building still existing, though in ruins, at + Pollanarrua, and known as the <i>Sat-mal-pasado</i>, or the + <i>"seven-storied palace</i>," probably built by Prakrama, about + the year 1170, serves to support his conjecture. See a description + of it, part x. ch. i, vol. ii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Allusions are occasionally made to other edifices more or less + fantastic in their design and structure, such as "an apartment built + on a single pillar,"[1] a "house of an octangular form," built in the + 12th century[2], and another of an "oval," shape[3], erected by + Prakrama I.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B.C. 504, <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. ix, p. 56; ch. lxxii. UPHAM'S + version, p. 274.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 105.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii, UPHAM'S version, p. 274.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Palaces</i>.—The royal residences as they were first + constructed, must have consisted of very few chambers, since mention + is made in the <i>Mahawanso</i> of the earliest, which contained + "many apartments," having been built by Pandukábhaya, B.C. 437.[1] + But within two centuries afterwards, Dutugaimunu conceived the + magnificent idea of the Loha Pasada, with its quadrangle one hundred + cubits square, and a thousand dormitories with ornamental windows.[2] + This palace was in its turn surpassed by the castle of Prakrama I. at + Pollanarrua, which, according to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, "was seven + stories high, consisting of five thousand rooms, lined <a name= + "pg483" id="pg483"></a> with hundreds of stone columns, and outer + halls of an oval shape, with large and small gates, staircases, and + glittering walls."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ibid., ch. x. p. 66.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid., ch. xxvii, p. 163.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii. UPHAM'S version, p. 274.</p> + </div> + + <p>In what now remains of these buildings at Anarajapoora, there is + no trace to be found of an arch, truly turned and secured by its + keystone; but at Pollanarrua there are several examples of the false + arch, produced by the progressive projection of the layers of + brick.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: FORBES'S <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon</i>, vol. i. ch. xvii. p. + 414.</p> + </div> + + <p>The finest specimens of ancient brickwork are to be seen amongst + the ruins of the latter city, where the material is compact and + smooth, and the edges sharp and unworn. The mortar shows the remains + of the pearl oyster-shells from which it was burnt, and the chunam + with which the walls were coated, still clings to some of the towers, + and retains its angularity and polish.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Expressions in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxvii. p. 104, show + that as early as the 2nd century, B.C., the Singhalese were + acquainted with this beautiful cement, which is susceptible of a + polish almost equal to marble.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of the details of external and internal decoration applied to + these buildings, descriptions are given which attest a perception of + taste, however distorted by the exaggerations of oriental design. + "Gilded tiles"[1] in their bright and sunny atmosphere, must have had + a striking effect, especially when surmounting walls decorated with + beaded mouldings, and festooned with "carvings in imitation of + creeping plants and flowers."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 73.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii. p. 274.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Carving in stone.</i>—Carving appears to have been + practised at a very early period with singular success; but in later + times it became so deteriorated, that there is little difficulty at + the present day, in pronouncing on the superiority of the specimens + remaining at Anarajapoora, over those which are to be found amongst + the ruins of the later capitals, Pollanarrua, Yapahu, or Komegalle. + The author of the <i>Mahawanso</i> dwells <a name="pg484" id= + "pg484"></a> with obvious satisfaction on his descriptions of the + "stones covered with flowers and creeping plants."[1] Animals are + constantly introduced in the designs executed on stone, and a + mythical creature, called technically <i>makara-torana</i>, is + conspicuous, especially on doorways and balustrades, with the head of + an elephant, the teeth of a crocodile, the feet of a lion, and the + tail of a fish.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii. p. 274, UPHAM'S version.</p> + </div> + + <p>At the entrance to the great wihara, at Anarajapoora, there is now + lying on the ground a semi-circular slab of granite, the ornaments of + which are designed in excellent taste, and executed with singular + skill; elephants, lions, horses, and oxen, forming the outer border; + that within consisting of a row of the "hanza," or sacred goose; a + bird that is equally conspicuous on the vast tablet, one of the + wonders of Pollanarrua, before alluded to.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A sketch of this stone will be seen in the engraving of the + Sat-mal-prasada, in the account of Pollanarrua. Part I. ch. i. vol. + ii.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/485.jpg"><img src="images/485.jpg" alt= + "SACRED GOOSE FROM THE BURMESE STANDARD." /></a> + + <p>FROM THE BURMESE STANDARD.</p> + </div> + + <p>Taken in connection with the proverbial contempt for the supposed + stolidity of the <i>goose</i>, there is something still unexplained + in the extraordinary honours paid to it by the ancients, and the + veneration in which it is held to the present day by some of the + eastern nations. The figure that occurs so frequently on Buddhist + monuments, is the Brahmanee goose (<i>casarka rutila</i>), which is + not a native of Ceylon; but from time immemorial has been an object + of veneration there and in all parts of India. Amongst the Buddhists + especially, impressed as they are with the solemn obligation of + solitary retirement for meditation, the hanza has attracted attention + by its periodical migrations, which are supposed to be directed to + the holy Lake of Manasa, in the mythical regions of the Himalaya. The + poet Kalidas, in his <i>Cloud Messenger</i>, speaks of the hanza as + "eager to set out for the <a name="pg485" id="pg485"></a> Sacred + Lake." Hence, according to the <i>Rajavali</i>, the lion was + pre-eminent amongst beasts, "the <i>hanza</i> was king over all the + feathered tribes."[1] In one of the Jatakas, which contains the + legend of Buddha's apotheosis, his hair, when suspended in the sky, + is described as resembling "the beautiful Kala hanza."[2] The goose + is, at the present day, the national emblem emblazoned on the + standard of Burmah, and the brass weights of the Burmese are + generally cut in the shape of the sacred bird, just as the Egyptians + formed their weights of stone after the same model.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 149. The <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. + 179, also speaks of the "<i>hanza</i>," as amongst the decorations + chased on the stem of a bo-tree, modelled in gold, which was + deposited by Dutugaimunu when building the Ruanwellé dagoba at + Anarajapoora in the 2nd century before Christ.</p> + + <p>2: HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. vii p. 161.</p> + + <p>3: See SYME'S <i>Embassy to Ava</i>, p. 330; YULE'S <i>Narrative + of the British Mission to Ava in 1855</i>, p. 110. I have seen a + stone in the form of a goose, found in the ruins of Nineveh, which + appears to have been used as a weight.</p> + </div> + + <p>Augustine, in his <i>Civitas Dei</i>, traces the respect for the + goose, displayed by the Romans, to their gratitude for the safety of + the capital; when the vigilance of this bird defeated the midnight + attack by the Goths. The adulation of the citizens, he says, + degenerated afterwards almost to Egyptian superstition, in the rites + instituted in honour of their preservers on that occasion.[1] But the + very fact that the geese which saved the citadel were already sacred + to Juno, and domesticated in her temple, demonstrates the error of + Augustine, and shows that they had acquired mythological eminence, + before <a name="pg486" id="pg486"></a> achieving political renown. It + must be observed, too, that the birds which rendered that memorable + service, were the ordinary white geese of Europe[2], and not the red + goose of the Nile (the [Greek: chênalôpêx] of Herodotus), which, ages + before, had been enrolled amongst the animals held sacred in Egypt, + and which formed the emblem of Seb, the father of Osiris.[3] + HORAPOLLO, endeavouring to account for this predilection of the + Egyptians (who employed the goose hieroglyphically to denote <i>a + son</i>), ascribes it to their appreciation of the love evinced by it + for its offspring, in exposing itself to divert the attention of the + fowler from its young.[4] This opinion was shared by the Greeks and + the Romans. Aristotle praises its sagacity; Ælian dilates on the + courage and cunning of the "vulpanser," and its singular attachment + to man[5]; and Ovid ranks the goose as superior to the dog in the + scale of intelligence,—</p>"Soliciti canes canibusve sagacior + anser." OVID, <i>Met</i>. xi. 399. + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "And hereupon did Rome fall almost into the superstition of + the Ægyptians that worship birds and beasts, for they + <i>henceforth</i> kept a holy day which they call the <i>goose's + feast</i>."—AUGUSTINE, <i>Civitas Dei, &c.</i> book ii. + ch. 22: Englished by F.H. Icond. 1610.</p> + + <p>2: This appears from a line of Lucretius:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Romulidarum arcis servator <i>candidus</i> anser."</p> + + <p><i>De Rer. Nat.</i> I. iv. 687.</p> + </div> + + <p>3: SIR GARDNER WILKINSON'S <i>Manners and Customs, &c.</i>, + 2nd Ser. pl. 31, fig. 2, vol. i. p. 312; vol. ii. p. 227. Mr. Birch + of the British Museum informs me that throughout the ritual or + hermetic books of the ancient Egyptians a mystical notion is + attached to the goose as one of the creatures into which the dead + had to undergo a transmigration. That it was actually worshipped is + attested by a sepulchral tablet of the 26th dynasty, about 700 + B.C., in which it is figured standing on a small chapel over which + are the hieroglyphic words, "<i>The good goose greatly + beloved;</i>" and on the lower part of the tablet the dedicator + makes an offering of fire and water to "<i>Ammon and the + Goose.</i>"—<i>Revue Archæo.</i>, vol. ii. pl. 27.</p> + + <p>4: HORAPOLLO, <i>Hieroglyphica</i>, lib. i. 23.</p> + + <p>5: ÆLIAN, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, lib. v. c. 29, 30, 50. Ælian says + that the Romans in recognition of the superior vigilance of the + goose on the occasion of the assault on the Capitol, instituted a + procession in the Forum in honour of the goose, whose watchfulness + was incorruptible; but held an annual denunciation of the inferior + fidelity of the dogs, which allowed themselves to be silenced by + meat flung to them by the Gauls.—<i>Nat. Hist.</i> lib. xii. + ch. xxxiii.</p> + </div> + + <p>The feeling appears to have spread westward at an early period; + the ancient Britons, according to Cæsar, held it impious to eat the + flesh of the goose[1], and the followers of the first crusade which + issued from <a name="pg487" id="pg487"></a> England, France, and + Flanders, adored a goat and <i>a goose</i>, which they believed to be + filled by the Holy Spirit.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Anserem gustare fas non patant."—CÆSAR, <i>Bell + Gall.</i>, lib. v. ch xii.</p> + + <p>2: MILL'S <i>Hist. of the Crusades</i>, vol. i. ch. ii. p. 75. + Forster has suggested that it was a species of goose (which + annually migrates from the Black Sea towards the south) that fed + the Israelites in the desert of Sinai, and that the "winged fowls" + meant by the word <i>salu</i>, which has been heretofore translated + "quails," were "red geese," resembling those of Egypt and India. He + renders one of the mysterious inscriptions which abound in the Wady + Mokatteb (<i>the Valley of Writings</i>), "the red geese ascend + from the sea,—lusting the people eat to repletion;" thus + presenting a striking concurrence with the passage in Numb. xi. 31, + "there went forth a wind from the Lord and brought quails + (<i>salu</i>) from the sea."—FORSTER'S <i>One Primeval + Language</i>, vol. i. p. 90.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is remarkable that the same word appears to designate the goose + in the most remote quarters of the globe. The Pali term + "<i>hanza</i>" by which it was known to the Buddhists of Ceylon, is + still the "<i>henza</i>" of the Burmese and the "<i>gangsa</i>" of + the Malays, and is to be traced in the [Greek: "chên"] of the Greeks, + the "<i>anser</i>" of the Romans, the "<i>ganso</i>" of the + Portuguese, the "<i>ansar</i>" of the Spaniards, the "<i>gans</i>" of + the Germans (who, PLINY says, called the white geese <i>ganza</i>), + the "<i>gas</i>" of the Swedes, and the "<i>gander</i>" of the + English.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HARDY observes that the ibis of the Nile is called + "<i>Abou-Hansa</i>" by the Arabs, (<i>Buddhism</i>, ch. i. p. 17); + but BRUCE (<i>Trav</i>. vol. v. p. 172) says the name is <i>Abou + Hannes</i> or <i>Father John</i>, and that the bird always appears + on St. John's day: he implies, however, that this is probably a + corruption of an ancient name now lost.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/487.jpg"><img src="images/487.jpg" alt= + "IN THE PALACE AT KANDY" /></a> + + <p>IN THE PALACE AT KANDY</p> + </div> + + <p>In the principal apartment of the royal palace at Kandy, now the + official residence of the chief civil officer in charge of the + province, the sacred bird occurs amongst the decorations, but in such + shape as to resemble the dodo rather than the Brahmanee goose.</p> + + <p>In the generality of the examples of ancient Singhalese carvings + that have come down to us, the characteristic <a name="pg488" id= + "pg488"></a> which most strongly recommends them, is their careful + preservation of the outline and form of the article decorated, + notwithstanding the richness and profusion of the ornaments applied. + The subjects engraved are selected with so much judgment, that whilst + elaborately covering the surface, they in no degree mar the + configuration. Even in later times this principle has been preserved, + and the chasings in silver and tortoise shell on the scabbards of the + swords of state, worn by the Kandyan kings and their attendants, are + not surpassed by any specimens of similar workmanship in India.</p> + + <p><i>Temples</i>.—The temples of Buddha were at first as + unpretending as the residences of the priesthood. No mention is made + of them during the infancy of Buddhism in Ceylon; at which period + caves and natural grottoes were the only places of devotion. In the + sacred books these are spoken of as "stone houses"[1] to distinguish + them from the "houses of earth"[2] and other materials used in the + construction of the first buildings for the worship of Buddha; such + temples having been originally confined to a single chamber of the + humblest dimensions, within which it became the custom at a later + period to place a statue of the divine teacher reclining in dim + seclusion, the gloom being increased to heighten the scenic effect of + the ever-burning lamps by which the chambers are imperfectly + lighted.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The King, Walagambahu, who in his exile had been living + amongst the rocks in the wilderness, ascended the throne after + defeating the Malabars (B.C. 104), and "caused <i>the of stone or + caves of the rocks</i> in which he had taken refuge to be made more + commodious."—<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 224.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 222.</p> + </div> + + <p>The construction of both these descriptions of temples was + improved in later times, but no examples remain of the ancient + chaityas or built temples in Ceylon, and those of the rock temples + still existing <a name="pg489" id="pg489"></a> exhibit a very slight + advance beyond the rudest attempts at excavation.</p> + + <p>On examining the cave temples of continental India, they appear to + exhibit three stages of progress,—first mere unadorned cells, + like those formed by Dasartha, the grandson of Asoca, in the granite + rocks of Behar, about B.C. 200; next oblong apartments with a + verandah in front, like that of Ganesa, at Cuttack; and lastly, ample + halls with colonnades separating the nave from the aisles, and + embellished externally with façades and agricultural decorations, + such as the caves of Karli, Ajunta, and Ellora.[1] But in Ceylon the + earliest rock temples were merely hollows beneath overhanging rocks, + like those still existing at Dambool, and the Aluwihara at Matelle, + in both of which advantage has been taken of the accidental shelter + of rounded boulders, and an entrance constructed by applying a façade + of masonry, devoid of all pretensions to ornament.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See FERGUSSON'S <i>Illustrations of the Rock-cut Temples of + India</i>, Lond. 1845, and <i>Handbook of Architecture</i>, ch. ii. + p. 23.</p> + </div> + + <p>The utmost effort at excavation never appears to have advanced + beyond the second stage attained in Bengal,—a small cell with a + few columns to support a verandah in front; and even of this but very + few examples now exist in Ceylon, the most favourable being the + Gal-wihara at Pollanarrua, which, according to the <i>Rajavali</i>, + was executed by Prakrama I., in the 12th century.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxvii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Taking into consideration the enthusiasm exhibited by the kings of + Ceylon, and the munificence displayed by them in the exaltation and + extension of Buddhism, their failure to emulate the labours of its + patrons in India, must be accounted for by the intractable nature of + the rocks with which they had to contend, the gneiss and <a name= + "pg490" id="pg490"></a> quartz of Ceylon being less favourable to + such works than the sandstone of Cuttack, or the trap formations of + the western ghauts.</p> + + <p><i>Oil-painting</i>.—In decorative art, carving and moulding + in chunam were the principal expedients resorted to. Of this + substance were also formed the "beads resplendent like gems;" the + "flower-ornaments" resembling gold; and the "festoons of pearls," + that are more than once mentioned in describing the interiors of the + palaces.[1] Externally, painting was applied to the dagobas alone, as + in the climate of Ceylon, exposure to the rains would have been fatal + to the duration of the colours, if only mixed in tempera; but the + Singhalese, at a very early period, were aware of the higher + qualities possessed by some of the vegetable oils. The claim of Van + Eyck to the invention of oil-painting in the 15th century, has been + shown to be untenable. Sir Charles L. Eastlake[2] has adduced the + evidence of Ætius of Diarbekir, to prove that the use of oil in + connection with art[3] was known before the 6th century; and + Dioscorides, who wrote in the age of Augustus, has been hitherto + regarded as the most ancient authority on the drying properties of + walnut, sesamum, and poppy. But the <i>Mahawanso</i> affords evidence + of an earlier knowledge, and records that in the 2nd century before + Christ, "vermilion paint mixed with tila oil,"[4] was employed in the + building of the Ruanwellé dagoba. This is, therefore, the earliest + testimony extant of the use of oil as a medium for painting, <a name= + "pg491" id="pg491"></a> and till a higher claimant appears, the + distinction of the discovery may be permitted to rest with the + Singhalese.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxvii, p. 163.</p> + + <p>2: EASTLAKE'S <i>Materials for a History of Oil Painting</i>, + ch. i. p. 18.</p> + + <p>3: Aetius [Greek: Biblion iatrikon.]</p> + + <p>4: Tila or tala is the Singhalese name for sesamum from which + the natives express the gingeli oil. SIR CHARLES L. EASTLAKE is of + opinion that "sesamum cannot be called a drying oil in the ordinary + acceptation of the term," but in this passage of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, it is mentioned as being used as a cement. A + question has been raised in favour of the claim of the Egyptians to + the use of oil in the decoration of their mummy cases, but the + probability is that they were coloured in tempera and their + permanency afterwards secured by a <i>varnish</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Style of Ornament</i>.—In decorating the temporary tee, + which was placed on the Ruanwellé dagoba, prior to its completion, + the square base was painted with a design representing vases of + flowers in the four panels, surrounded by "ornaments radiating like + the five fingers."[1] This description points to the "honeysuckle + border," which, according to Fergusson, was adopted and carried + westward by the Greeks, and eastward by the Buddhist architects.[2] + It appears upon the lat column at Allahabad, which is inscribed with + one of the edicts of Asoca, issued in the 3rd century before + Christ.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii. p. 193; ch. xxxviii. p. 258.</p> + + <p>2: FERGUSSON'S <i>Handbook of Architecture</i>, vol. i. ch. ii. + p. 7.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/491.jpg"><img src="images/491.jpg" alt= + "FROM THE CAPITAL OF A LAT" /></a> + + <p>FROM THE CAPITAL OF A LAT</p> + </div> + + <p>The spire itself was "painted with red stick-lac," probably the + same preparation of vermilion as is used at the present day on the + lacquered ware of Burmah, Siam, and China.[1] Gaudy colours appear at + all times to have been popular; yellow, from its religious + associations, pre-eminently so[2]; and red lead was applied to the + exterior of dagobas.[3] Bujas Raja, in the 4th century, painted the + walls and roof of the Brazen Palace <a name="pg492" id="pg492"></a> + blue[4], and built a sacred edifice at Anarajapoora, which from the + variety and brilliancy of the colours with which he ornamented the + exterior, was known as the Monara Paw Periwena, or Temple of the + Peacock.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A species of lacquer painting is practised with great success + at the present day in the Kandyan provinces, and especially at + Matelle, the colours being mixed with a resinous exudation + collected from a shrub called by the Singhalese Wæl-koep-petya + (<i>Croton lacciferum</i>). The coloured varnish thus prepared is + formed into films and threads chiefly by aid of the thumb-nail of + the left hand, which is kept long and uncut for the purpose. It is + then applied by heat and polished. It is chiefly employed in + ornamenting the covers of books, walking-sticks, the shafts of + spears, and the handles of fans for the priesthood. The Burmese + artists who make the japanned ware of Ava, <i>use the hand</i> in + laying on the lacquer—which there, too, as well as in China, + is the produce of a tree, the <i>Melanorhoea glabra</i> of + Wallich.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 184.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiv. p. 212.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 291. The <i>blue</i> used for this + purpose was probably a preparation of indigo; the red, vermilion; + the yellow, orpiment; and green was obtained by combining the first + and last.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 73.</p> + </div><a name="pg493" id="pg493"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. VIII.</h2> + + <h3>DOMESTIC LIFE.</h3> + + <p>CITIES.—<i>Anarajapoora</i>.—Striking evidences of the + state of civilisation in Ceylon are furnished by the descriptions + given, both by native writers and by travellers, of its cities as + they appeared prior to the 8th century of the Christian era. The + municipal organisation of Anarajapoora, in the reign of Pandukábhaya, + B.C. 437, may be gathered from the notices in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, + of the "<i>naggaraguttiko</i>," who was conservator of the city, of + the "guards stationed in the suburbs," and of the "chandalas," who + acted as scavengers and carriers of corpses. As a cemetery was + attached to the city, interment must have frequently taken place, and + the <i>nichi-chandalas</i> are specially named as the "cemetery + men;"[1] but the practice of cremation prevailed in the 2nd century + before Christ, and the body of Elala was burned on the spot where he + fell, B.C. 161.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 65, 66.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxv. p. 155.</p> + </div> + + <p>The capital at that time contained the temples of numerous + religions, besides public gardens, and baths; to which were + afterwards added, halls for dancing and music, ambulance halls, + rest-houses for travellers[1], alms-houses[2], and hospitals[3]; in + which animals, as well as men, were tenderly cared for. The "corn of + a thousand fields" was appropriated by one king for their use[4]; + another <a name="pg494" id="pg494"></a> set aside rice to feed the + squirrels which frequented his garden[5]; and a third displayed his + skill as a surgeon, in treating the diseases of elephants, horses, + and snakes.[6] The streets contained shops and bazaars[7]; and on + festive occasions, barbers and dressers were stationed at each of the + gates, for the convenience of those resorting to the city.[8]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: These rest-houses, like the Choultries of India, were + constructed by private liberality along all the leading highways + and forest roads. "Oh that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place + of wayfaring men."—<i>Jer</i>. ix. 2.</p> + + <p>2: Rock inscription at Pollanarrua, A.D. 1187.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 39; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 67; + HARDY'S <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, p. 485.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxviii. UPHAM'S version, vol. i. p. + 246.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 249.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Ibid</i>., p. 244, 245.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxiii. p. 139.</p> + + <p>8: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxviii. p. 170; ch. xxxix. p. 214.</p> + </div> + + <p>The <i>Lankawistariyaye</i>, or "Ceylon Illustrated," a Singhalese + work of the 7th century, gives a geographical summary of the three + great divisions of the island, Rohuna, Maya, and Pihiti, and dwells + with obvious satisfaction on the description of the capital of that + period. The details correspond so exactly with another fragment of a + native author, quoted by Colonel Forbes[1], that both seem to have + been written at one and the same period; they each describe the + "temples and palaces, whose golden pinnacles glitter in the sky, the + streets spanned by arches bearing flags, the side ways strewn with + black sand, and the middle sprinkled with white, and on either side + vessels containing flowers, and niches with statues holding lamps. + There are multitudes of men armed with swords, and bows and arrows. + Elephants, horses, carts, and myriads of people pass and repass, + jugglers, dancers, and musicians of all nations, with chank shells + and other instruments ornamented with gold. The distance from the + principal gate to the south gate, is four gows; and the same from the + north to the south gate. The principal streets are Moon Street, Great + King Street, Hinguruwak, and Mahawelli Streets,—the first + containing eleven thousand houses, many of them two stories in + height. The smaller streets are innumerable. The palace has large + ranges <a name="pg495" id="pg495"></a> of buildings, some of them two + and three stories high, and its subterranean apartments are of great + extent."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon,</i> vol. i. p. 235. But there is + so close a resemblance in each author to the description of the + ancient capital of the kings of Ayoudhya (Oude) that both seem to + have been copied from that portion of the Ramayana. See the passage + quoted in Mrs. Spier's <i>Life in Ancient India,</i> ch. iv. p. + 99.</p> + </div> + + <p>The native descriptions of Anarajapoora, in the 7th century, are + corroborated by the testimony of the foreign travellers who visited + it about the same period. Fa Hian says, "The city is the residence of + many magistrates, grandees, and foreign merchants; the mansions + beautiful, the public buildings richly adorned, the streets and + highways straight and level, and houses for preaching built at every + thoroughfare."[1] The <i>Leang-shu,</i> a Chinese history of the + Leang Dynasty, written between A.D. 507-509, describing the cities of + Ceylon at that period, says, "The houses had upper stories, the walls + were built of brick, and secured by double gates."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Foë-Kouë-kĭ,</i> ch, xxxviii. p. 334.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Leang-shu,</i> B, liv. p. 10.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Carriages and Horses.</i>—Carriages[1] and chariots[2] + are repeatedly mentioned as being driven through the principal + cities, and carts and waggons were accustomed to traverse the + interior of the country.[3] At the same time, the frequent allusions + to the clearing of roads through the forests, on the approach of + persons of distinction, serve to show that the passage of wheel + carriages must have been effected with difficulty[4], along tracks + prepared for the occasion, by freeing them of the jungle and + brushwood. The horse is not a native of Ceylon, and those spoken of + by the ancient writers must have been imported from India and Arabia. + White horses were especially prized, and those mentioned with + peculiar praises were of the "Sindhawo" breed, a term which may + either imply the place whence <a name="pg496" id="pg496"></a> they + were brought, or the swiftness of their speed.[5] In battle the + soldiers rode chargers[6], and a passage in the <i>Mahawanso</i> + shows that they managed them by means of a rope passed through the + nostril, which served as a bridle.[7] Cosmas Indicopleustes, who + considered the number of horses in Ceylon in the 6th century to be a + fact of sufficient importance to be recorded, adds that they were + imported from Persia, and the merchants bringing them were treated + with special favour and encouragement, their ships being exempted + from all dues and charges. Marco Polo found the export of horses from + Aden and Ormus to India going on with activity in the 13th + century.[8]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B.C. 307, <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. p. 80, 81; B.C. 204, + Ib., ch. xxi. p. 128. A carriage drawn by four horses is mentioned, + B.C. 161, <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxi. p. 186.</p> + + <p>2: B.C. 307, <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, xv. p. 84; ch xvi. p. + 103.</p> + + <p>3: B.C. 161, "a merchant of Anarajapoora proceeded with carts to + the Malaya division near Adam's Peak to buy ginger and saffon" + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxviii. p. 167); and in the 3rd century + after Christ a wheel chariot was driven from the capital to the + Kalaweva tank twenty miles N.W. of Dambool.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, + ch. xxxviii. p. 260. See <i>ante</i> <a href="#pg445">Vol. II. p. + 445.</a></p> + + <p>4: FORBES suggests that on such journeys the carriages must have + been pushed by men, as horses could not possibly have drawn them in + the hill country (vol. ii. p. 86).</p> + + <p>5: <i>Sigham</i>, swift; <i>dhawa</i>, to run; <i>Mahawanso</i>, + ch, xxiii. p. 142,186.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxii. p. 132; ch. xxiii. 142.</p> + + <p>7: The Prince Dutugaimunu, when securing the mare which + afterwards carried him in the war against Elala, "seized her by the + throat and boring her nostril with the point of his sword, secured + her with his rope."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 60.</p> + + <p>8: <i>Marco Polo</i>, ch. xx, s. ii,: ch. xl.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Domestic Furniture.</i>—Of the furniture of the private + dwellings of the Singhalese, such notices as have come down to us + serve to show that their intercourse with other Buddhist nations was + not without its influence on their domestic habits. Chairs[1], raised + seats[2], footstools[3], and metal lamps[4], were articles + comparatively unknown to the Hindus, and were obviously imitated by + the Singhalese from the East, from China, Siam, or Pegu.[5] The + custom which prevails to the present day of covering a chair with a + white cloth, as an act of courtesy in honour of a visitor, was + observed with the same formalities two thousand years ago[6]. Rich + beds[7] and woollen carpets[8] were in <a name="pg497" id= + "pg497"></a> use at the same early period, and ivory was largely + employed in inlaying the more sumptuous articles.[9] Coco-nut shells + were used for cups and ladles[10]; earthenware for jugs and drinking + cups[11]; copper for water-pots, oil-cans, and other utensils; and + iron for razors, needles, and nail-cutters.[12] The <i>pingo</i>, + formed of a lath cut from the stem of the areca, or the young + coco-nut palm, and still used as a yoke in carrying burdens, existed + at an early period[13], in the same form in which it is borne at the + present day. It is identical with the <i>asilla</i> an instrument for + the same purpose depicted on works of Grecian art[14] and on the + monuments of Egypt.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. p. 80; ch. xv. p. 84; + <i>Rajaratnacari</i> p. 134.</p> + + <p>2: Ibid., ch. xiii. p. 82.</p> + + <p>3: Ibid., xxvii. p. 164.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 182; ch. xxxii. p. 192.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Asiatic Researches,</i> vol. vi. p. 437. Chairs are shown + on the sculptures of Persepolis; and it is probably a remnant of + Grecian civilisation in Bactria that chairs are still used by the + mountaineers of Balkh and Bokhara.</p> + + <p>6: B.C. 307, King Devenipiatissa caused a chair to be so + prepared for Mahindo.</p> + + <p>7: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xv. p. 84; ch. xxiii. p. 129. A + four-post bed is mentioned B.C. 180. <i>Mahawanso.</i> ch. xxiv. p. + 148.</p> + + <p>8: Ibid., ch. xiv. p. 82.</p> + + <p>9: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxvii. p. 163.</p> + + <p>10: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxvii. p. 104.</p> + + <p>11: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xv. p. 85.</p> + + <p>12: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 134.</p> + + <p>13: <i>Ibid.,</i> p. 103. This implement is identical with the + "yoke" so often mentioned in the Old and New Testament as an emblem + of bondage and labour; and figured, with the same significance; on + Grecian sculpture gems. See <i>ante</i>. <a href="#pg114">Vol. I. + Pt. i ch iii. p. 114</a></p> + + <p>14: ARISTOTLE, <i>Rhet</i>. i 7.</p> + </div> + + <table summary="for display of two images side by side."> + <tr> + <td> + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/497a.jpg"><img src="images/497a.jpg" alt= + "EGYPTIAN YOKE." /></a> + + <p>EGYPTIAN YOKE.</p> + </div> + </td> + + <td> + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/497b.jpg"><img src="images/497b.jpg" alt= + "SINGHALESE PINGO." /></a> + + <p>SINGHALESE PINGO.</p> + </div> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p><i>Form of Government</i>—The form of government was at all + times an unmitigated despotism; the king had ministers, but only to + relieve him of personal toil, and the institution of Gam-sabes, or + village municipalities, which existed in every hamlet, however small, + was merely a miniature council of the peasants, in which they settled + all disputes about descent and proprietorship, and maintained the + organisation essential to their peculiar tillage; facilitating at the + same time the payment of dues to the crown, both in taxes and + labour.</p> + + <p><i>Revenue</i>.—The main sources of revenue were taxes, + <a name="pg498" id="pg498"></a> both on the land and its produce; and + these were avowedly so oppressive in amount, that the merit of having + reduced or suspended their assessment, was thought worthy of being + engraved on rocks by the sovereigns who could claim it. In the + inscription at the temple of Dambool, A.D. 1187, the king boasts of + having "enriched the inhabitants who had become impoverished by + inordinate taxes, and made them opulent by gifts of land, cattle, and + slaves, by relinquishing the revenues for five years, and restoring + inheritances, and by annual donations of five times the weight of the + king's person in gold, precious stones, pearls, and silver; and from + an earnest wish that succeeding kings should not again impoverish the + inhabitants of Ceylon by levying excessive imposts, he fixed the + revenue at a moderate amount, according to the fertility of the + land."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR's <i>Epitome</i> App. p. 95; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + xxxiv. p. 211</p> + </div> + + <p>There was likewise an imperial tax upon produce, originally a + tenth, but subject to frequent variation.[1] For instance, in + consideration of the ill-requited toil of felling the forest land. In + order to take a crop of dry grain, the soil being unequal to sustain + continued cultivation, the same king seeing that "those who laboured + with the bill-hook In clearing thorny jungles, earned their + livelihood distressfully," ordained that this <i>chena</i> + cultivation, as it is called, should be for ever exempted from + taxation.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Rock inscription at Pollanarrua, A.D. 1187.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Army and Navy.</i>—The military and naval forces of + Ceylon were chiefly composed of foreigners. The genius of the native + population was at all times averse to arms; from the earliest ages, + the soldiers employed by the crown were mercenaries, and to this + peculiarity may be traced the first encouragement given to the + invasion of the Malabars. These were employed both on land and by sea + In the third century before <a name="pg499" id="pg499"></a> + Christ[1]; and it was not till the eleventh century of our era, that + a marine was organised for the defence of the coast.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi. p. 127.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxxix.; TURNOUR'S MS. Transl. p. 269.</p> + </div> + + <p>The mode of raising a national force to make war against the + invaders, is described in the <i>Mahawanso[1];</i> the king issuing + commands to ten warriors to enlist each ten men, and each of this + hundred in turn to enrol ten more, and each of the new levy, ten + others, till "the whole company embodied were eleven thousand one + hundred and ten."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid</i>., ch. xxiii. p. 144.</p> + </div> + + <p>The troops usually consisted of four classes: the "riders on + elephants, the cavalry, then those in chariots, and the foot + soldiers,"[1] and this organisation continued till the twelfth + century.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 208, The use of elephants in war is + frequently adverted to in the <i>Mahawamso</i>, ch. xxv. p. + 151-155, &c.</p> + + <p>2: See the inscription on the tablet at Pollanarrua, A.D. + 1187.</p> + </div> + + <p>Their arms were "the five weapons of war," swords, spears, + javelins, bows, and arrows, and a rope with a noose, running in a + metal ring called <i>narachana.</i>[1] The archers were the main + strength of the army, and their skill and dexterity are subjects of + frequent eulogium.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch, vii 48; ch. xxv p. 155.</p> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/499.jpg"><img src="images/499.jpg" alt= + "VEDDAH DRAWING HIS BOW" /></a> + + <p>VEDDAH DRAWING HIS BOW</p> + </div> + + <p>2: One of the chiefs in the army of Dutugaimunu, B.C. 160, is + described as combining all the excellences of the craft, being at + once a "sound archer," who shot by ear, when his object was out of + sight; "a lightning archer," whose arrow was as rapid as a + thunderbolt; and a "sand-archer," who could send the shaft through + a cart filled with sand and through hides "an hundred-fold + thick."—<i>Mahawanso,</i> ch. xxiii. p. 143. In one of the + legends connected with the early life of Gotama, before he attained + the exaltation of Buddhahood, he is represented as displaying his + strength by taking "a bow which required a thousand men to bend it, + and placing it against the toe of his right foot without standing + up, he drew the string with his finger-nail."—HARDY'S + <i>Manual of Buddhism,</i> ch. vii. p. 153. It is remarkable that + at the present day this is the attitude assumed by a Veddah, when + anxious to send an arrow with more than ordinary force. The + following sketch is from a model in ebony executed by a native + carver.</p> + + <p>I am not aware that examples of this mode of drawing the bow are + to be found on any ancient monument, Egyptian, Assyrian, Grecian, + or Roman; but that it was regarded as peculiar to the inhabitants + of India is shown by the fact that ARRIAN describes it as something + remarkable in the Indians in the age of Alexander. "[Greek: + Hoplisios de tês Indôn ouk hôutos eis tropos, all oi men pezoi + autoisi toxon te echousin, isomêkes tps phoreonti to toxon, kai + touto katô epi tên gên thentes kai tps podi tps aristerps + antibantes, outôs ektoxeuousi, tên neurên epi mega opisô + apagagontes."—ARRIAN, <i>Indica</i>, lib, xvi. Arrian adds + that such was the force with which their arrows travelled that no + substance was strong enough to resist them, neither shield, + breast-plate, nor armour, all of which they penetrated. In the + account of Brazil, by Kidder and Fletcher, Philad. 1850, p. 558, + the Indians of the Amazon are said to draw the bow with the foot, + and a figure is given of a Caboclo archer in the attitude; but, + unlike the Veddah of Ceylon, the American uses both feet.</p> + </div><a name="pg500" id="pg500"></a> + + <p>The <i>Rajaratnacari</i> states that the arrows of the Malabars + were sometimes "drenched with the poison of serpents," to render + recovery impossible.[1] Against such weapons the Singhalese carried + shields, some of them covered with plates of the chank shell[2]; this + shell was also sounded in lieu of a trumpet[3], and the disgrace of + retreat is implied by the expression that it ill becomes a soldier to + "<i>allow his hair to fly behind</i>."[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 101.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 217.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxv. p. 154.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 213.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Civil Justice</i>.—Civil justice was entrusted to + provincial judges[1]; but the King Kirti Nissanga, in the great + tablet inscribed with his exploits, which still exists at + Pollanarrua, has recorded that under the belief that "robbers commit + their crimes through hunger for wealth, he gave them whatever riches + they required, thus relieving the country from the alarm of their + depredations."[2] Torture was originally recognised as a stage in the + administration of the law, and in the original organisation of the + capital in the fourth century before Christ, a place for its + infliction was established adjoining the place of execution and the + cemetery.[3] It was abolished in the third century by King + Wairatissa; but the frightful punishments of impaling and crushing by + elephants continued to the latest period of the Ceylon monarchy.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Inscriptions on the Great Tablet at Pollanarrua.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid</i>.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p.</p> + </div><a name="pg501" id="pg501"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. IX.</h2> + + <h3>ASTRONOMY, ETC.</h3> + + <p>EDUCATION.—The Brahmans, as they were the first to introduce + the practice of the mechanical arts, were also the earliest + instructors of youth in the rudiments of general knowledge. + Pandukabhaya, who was afterwards king, was "educated in every + accomplishment by Pandulo, a Brahman, who taught him along with his + own son."[1] The Buddhist priests became afterwards the national + instructors, and a passage in the <i>Rajavali</i> seems to imply that + writing was regarded as one of the distinctive accomplishments of the + priesthood, not often possessed by the laity, as it mentions that the + brother of the king of Kalany, in the second century before Christ, + had been taught to write by a tirunansi, "and made such progress that + he could write as well as the tirunansi himself."[2] The story in the + <i>Rajavali</i> of an intrigue which was discovered by "the sound of + the fall of a letter," shows that the material then in use in the + second century before Christ, was the same as at the present day, the + prepared leaf of a palm tree.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. x. p. 60.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 189.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>The most popular sovereigns were likewise the most sedulous + patrons of learning. Prakrama I. founded schools at Pollanarrua[1]; + and it is mentioned with due praise in the <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, that + the King Wijayo Bahu III., who reigned at Dambeadinia, A.D. 1240, + "established a school in every village, and charged the priests who + superintended them to take nothing from the pupils, <a name="pg502" + id="pg502"></a> promising that he himself would reward them for their + trouble."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxii. UPHAM'S version, vol. i. p. + 274.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 99.</p> + </div> + + <p>Amongst the propagators of a religion whose leading + characteristics are its subtlety and thin abstractions, it may + naturally be inferred that argument and casuistry held prominent + place in the curriculum of instruction. In the story of Mahindo, and + the conversion of the island to Buddhism, the following display of + logical acumen is ostentatiously paraded as evidence of the highly + cultivated intellect of the neophyte king.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xiv. p. 79.</p> + </div> + + <p>For the purpose of ascertaining the capacity of the gifted + monarch, Mahindo thus interrogated him:—</p> + + <p>"O king; what is this tree called?</p> + + <p>"The Ambo.</p> + + <p>"Besides this one, is there any other Ambo-tree?</p> + + <p>"There are many.</p> + + <p>"Besides this Ambo, and those other Ambo-trees, are there any + other trees on the earth?</p> + + <p>"Lord; there are many trees, but they are not Ambo-trees.</p> + + <p>"Besides the other Ambo-trees, and the trees that are not Ambo, is + there any other?</p> + + <p>"Gracious Lord, <i>this Ambo-tree.</i></p> + + <p>"Ruler of men, thou art wise!</p> + + <p>"Hast thou any relations, oh, king?</p> + + <p>"Lord, I have many.</p> + + <p>"King, are there any persons not thy relations?</p> + + <p>"There are many who are not my relations.</p> + + <p>"Besides thy relations, and those who are not thy relations, is + there, or is there not, any other human being in existence?</p> + + <p>"Lord, <i>there is myself.</i></p> + + <p>"Ruler of men, Sadhu! thou art wise."</p> + + <p>The course of education suitable for a prince in the thirteenth + century included what was technically termed the eighteen sciences: + "1. oratory, 2. general knowledge, <a name="pg503" id="pg503"></a> 3. + grammar, 4. poetry, 5. languages, 6. astronomy, 7. the art of giving + counsel, 8. the means of attaining <i>nirwana</i>[1], 9. the + discrimination of good and evil, 10. shooting with the bow, 11. + management of the elephant, 12. penetration of thoughts, 13. + discernment of invisible beings, 14. etymology, 15. history, 16. law, + 17. rhetoric, 18. physic."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Nirwana" is the state of suspended sensation, which + constitutes the eternal bliss of the Buddhist in a future + state.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i> p. 100.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Astronomy</i>.—Although the Singhalese derived from the + Hindus their acquaintance, such as it was, with the heavenly bodies + and their movements, together with their method of taking + observations, and calculating eclipses[1], yet in this list the term + "astrology" would describe better than "astronomy" the science + practically cultivated in Ceylon, which then, as now, had its + professors in every village to construct horoscopes, and cast the + nativities of the peasantry. Dutugaimunu, in the second century + before Christ, after his victory over Elala, commended himself to his + new subjects by his fatherly care in providing "a doctor, an + astronomer, and a priest, for each group of sixteen villages + throughout the kingdom;"[2] and he availed himself of the services of + the astrologer to name the proper day of the moon on which to lay the + foundation of his great religious structures.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A summary of the knowledge possessed by the early Hindus of + <i>astronomy</i> and <i>mathematical science</i> will be found in + MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE'S <i>History of India during the Hindu and + Mahomedan Periods</i>, book iii. ch. i. p. 127.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i> p. 40.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxix. p. 169-173.</p> + </div> + + <p>King Bujas Raja, A.D. 339, increased his claim to popular + acknowledgment by adding "an astrologer, a devil-dancer, and a + preacher."[1] At the present day the astronomical treatises possessed + by the Singhalese are, generally speaking, borrowed, but with + considerable variation, from the Sanskrit.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 27.</p> + + <p>2: HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. i. p. 22.</p> + </div><a name="pg504" id="pg504"></a> + + <p><i>Medicine</i>.—Another branch of royal education was + medicine. The Singhalese, from their intercourse with the Hindus, had + ample opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of this art, which was + practised in India before it was known either in Persia or Arabia; + and there is reason to believe that the distinction of having been + the discoverers of chemistry which has been so long awarded to the + Arabs, might with greater justice have been claimed for the Hindus. + In point of antiquity the works of Charak and Susruta on Surgery and + Materia Medica, belong to a period long anterior to Greber, and the + earliest writers of Arabia; and served as authorities both for them + and the Mediæval Greeks.[1] Such was their celebrity that two Hindu + physicians, Manek and Saleh, lived at Bagdad in the eighth century, + at the court of Haroun al Raschid.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See Dr. ROYLE'S <i>Essay on the Antiquity of Hindu + Medicine</i>, p. 64.</p> + + <p>2: Professor Dietz, quoted by Dr. ROYLE.</p> + </div> + + <p>One of the edicts of Asoca engraved on the second tablet at + Girnar, relates to the establishment of a system of medical + administration throughout his dominions, "as well as in the parts + occupied by the faithful race as far as Tambaparni (Ceylon), both + medical aid for men, and medical aid for animals, together with + medicaments of all sorts, suitable for animals and men."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Journal Asiat. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. vii. part. i. p. + 159.</p> + </div> + + <p>These injunctions of the Buddhist sovereign of Magadha were + religiously observed by many of the Ceylon kings. In the "register of + deeds of piety" in which Dutugaimunu, in the second century before + Christ, caused to be enrolled the numerous proofs of his devotion to + the welfare of his subjects, it was recorded that the king had + "maintained at eighteen different places, hospitals provided with + suitable diet and medicines prepared by medical practitioners for the + infirm."[1] In the second century of the Christian era, a physician + <a name="pg505" id="pg505"></a> and a surgeon were borne on the + establishments of the great monasteries[2], and even some of the + sovereigns acquired renown by the study and practice of physic. On + Bujas Raja, who became king of Ceylon, A.D. 339, the <i>Mahawanso</i> + pronounces the eulogium, that he "patronised the virtuous, + discountenanced the wicked, rendered the indigent happy, and + comforted the diseased by providing medical relief."[3] He was the + author of a work on Surgery, which is still held in repute by his + countrymen; he built hospitals for the sick and asylums for the + maimed, and the benefit of his science and skill was not confined to + his subjects alone, but was equally extended to the relief of the + lower animals, elephants, horses, and other suffering creatures.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii. p. 196.</p> + + <p>2: Rock inscription at Mihintala, A.D. 262.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxvii. p. 242-245.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Botany.</i>—The fact that the basis of their <i>Materia + Medica</i> has been chiefly derived from the vegetable kingdom, + coupled with the circumstance that their clothing and food were both + drawn from the same source, may have served to give to the Singhalese + an early and intimate knowledge of plants. It was at one time + believed that they were likewise possessed of a complete and general + botanical arrangement; but MOON, whose attention was closely directed + to this subject, failed to discover any trace of a system; and came + to the conclusion that, although well aware of the various parts of a + flower, and their apparent uses, they have never applied that + knowledge to a distribution of plants by classes or orders.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: MOON'S <i>Catalogue of Indigenous and Exotic Plants growing + in Ceylon.</i> 4to. Colombo, 1824, p. 2.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Geometry.</i>—The invention of geometry has been ascribed + to the Egyptians, who were annually obliged to ascertain the extent + to which their lands had been affected by the inundations of the + Nile, and to renew the obliterated boundaries. A similar necessity + led to like proficiency amongst the people of India and <a name= + "pg506" id="pg506"></a> Ceylon, the minute subdivision of whose lands + under their system of irrigation necessitated frequent calculations + for the definition of limits and the division of the crops.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The "<i>Suriya Sidhanta,</i>" generally assigned to the fifth + or sixth century, contains a system of Hindu trigonometry, which + not only goes beyond anything known to the Greeks, but involves + theorems that were not discovered in Europe till the sixteenth + century.—MOUNT-STUART ELPHINSTONE'S <i>India,</i> b. iii. ch. + i. p. 129.</p> + </div> + + <p><i>Lightning Conductors.</i>—In connection with physical + science, a curious passage occurs in the <i>Mahawanso</i> which gives + rise to a conjecture that early in the third century after Christ, + the Singhalese had some dim idea of the electrical nature of + lightning, and a belief, however erroneous, of the possibility of + protecting their buildings by means of conductors.</p> + + <p>The notices contained in THEOPHRASTUS and PLINY show that the + Greeks and the Romans were aware of the quality of attraction + exhibited by amber and tourmaline.[1] The Etruscans, according to the + early annalists of Borne, possessed the power of invoking and + compelling thunder storms.[2] Numa Pompilius would appear to have + anticipated Franklin by drawing lightning from the clouds; and Tullus + Hostilius, his successor, was killed by an explosion, whilst + attempting unskilfully the same experiment.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The electrical substances "lyncurium" and "theamedes" have + each been conjectured to be the "tourmaline" which, is found in + Ceylon.</p> + + <p>2: "Vel cogi fulmina vel impetrari." —PLINY, <i>Nat. + Hist.</i> lib. ii. ch. lii.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid</i>. There is an interesting paper on the subject of + the knowledge of electricity possessed by the ancients, by Dr. + FALCONER in the <i>Memoirs of the Manchester Philosophical + Society,</i> A.D. 1788, vol. iii. p. 279.</p> + </div> + + <p>CTESIAS, a contemporary of Xenophon, spent much of his life in + Persia, and says that he twice saw the king demonstrate the efficacy + of an iron sword planted in the ground in dispersing clouds, hail, + and lightning[1]; <a name="pg507" id="pg507"></a> and the knowledge + of conduction is implied by an expression of LUCAN, who makes Aruns, + the Etrurian flamen, concentrate the flashes of lightning and direct + them beneath the surface of the earth:—</p>"dispersos fulminus + ignes Colligit, et terræ mæsto cum murmure cendit." <i>Phars</i>. + lib. i. v. 606. + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PHOTIUS, who has preserved the fragment (<i>Bibl.</i> + lxxii.), after quoting the story of CTESIAS as to the iron it + question being found in a mysterious Indian lake, adds, regarding + the sword, [Greek: "phêsi oe peri autou hoti pêgnimenos en tê gê + nephous kai chalazês kai prêstêrôn estin apotropaios. Kai idein + auton tauta phêsi Basileôs dis poiêsantos."] See BAEHR'S <i>C'tesiæ + Reliquiæ,</i> &c., p. 248, 271.</p> + </div> + + <p>There is scarcely an indication in any work that has come down to + us from the first to the fifteenth century, that the knowledge of + such phenomena survived in the western world; but the books of the + Singhalese contain allusions which demonstrate that in the + <i>third</i> and in the <i>fifth</i> century it was the practice in + Ceylon to apply mechanical devices with the hope of securing edifices + from lightning.</p> + + <p>The most remarkable of these passages occurs in connection with + the following subject. It will be remembered that Dutugaimunu, by + whom the great dagoba, known as the Ruanwellé, was built at + Anarajapoora, died during the progress of the work, B.C. 137, the + completion of which he entrusted to his brother and successor + Saidaitissa.[1] The latest act of the dying king was to form "the + square capital on which the spire was afterwards to be placed[2], and + on each side of this there was a representation of the sun."[3] The + <i>Mahawanso</i> states briefly, that in obedience to his brother's + wishes, Saidaitissa "completed the pinnacle,"[4] for which the square + capital before alluded to served as a base; but the <i>Dipawanso</i>, + a chronicle older than the <i>Mahawanso</i> by a century and a half, + gives a minute account of this stage of the work, and says that this + pinnacle, which he erected between the years 137 and 119 before + Christ, was formed <i>of glass</i>.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxii. p. 198. See <i>ante</i>, + <a href="#pg358">Vol. I. Pt. III. ch. v. p. 358.</a></p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid.</i>, ch. xxxi. p. 192.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid.</i>, ch. xxxii. p. 193.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Ibid.</i>, ch. xxxiii. p. 200.</p> + + <p>5: "Karàpesi <i>khara-pindun</i> mahá thupè varuttame." For this + reference to the <i>Dipawano</i> I am indebted to Mr. DE ALWIS of + Colombo.</p> + </div><a name="pg508" id="pg508"></a> + + <p>A subsequent king, Amanda, A.D. 20, fixed a chatta (in imitation + of the white umbrella which is emblematic of royalty) on the + spire[1], and two centuries later, Sanghatissa, who reigned A.D. 234 + to 246, "caused this chatta to be gilt, and set four gems in the + centre of the four emblems of the sun, each of which cost a lac."[2] + And now follows the passage which is interesting from its reference, + however obscure, to the electrical nature of lightning. The + <i>Mahawanso</i> continues: "he in like manner placed a glass + pinnacle on the spire <i>to serve as a protection against + lightning</i>."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxv. p. 215.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid.</i>, ch. xxxvi. p. 229.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid.</i>, ch. xxxvi. p. 229. This belief in the power of + averting lightning by mechanical means, prevailed on the continent + of India as well as in Ceylon, and one of the early Bengalese + histories of the temple of Juggernauth, written between the years + A.D. 470 and A.D. 520, says that when the building was completed, + "a <i>neclchukro</i> was placed at the top of the temple to prevent + the falling of thunderbolts." In an account of the modern temple + which replaced this ancient structure, it is stated that "it bore a + loadstone at the top, which, as it drew vessels to land, was seized + and carried off two centuries ago by sailors."—<i>Asiat. + Res.</i> vol. xv. p. 327.</p> + </div> + + <p>The term "wajira-chumbatan" in the original Pali, which TURNOUR + has here rendered "a glass pinnacle," ought to be translated "a + diamond hoop," both in this passage and also in another in the same + book in which it occurs.[1] The form assumed by the upper portion of + the dagoba would therefore resemble the annexed sketch.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In describing the events in the reign of Dhaatu-Sena, the + king at whose instance and during whose reign the <i>Mahawanso</i> + was written by his uncle Mahanamo, between the years A.D. 459, 477, + the author, who was contemporary with the occurrence he relates, + says, that "at the three principal chetyos (dagobas) he made a + golden chatta and a diamond hoop (<i>wajira-chumbaton</i>) for + each."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 259. Similar + instances of gems being attached to the chattas of dagobas are + recorded in the same work, ch. xlii. and elsewhere.</p> + + <p>The original passage relative to the diamond hoop placed by + Sanghatissa runs thus in Pali, "Wisun satasahassagghé chaturócha + mahamanin majjhé chatunnan suriyánán thapápési mahipati; + <i>thupassa muddhani tatha anagghá wajira-chumbatan</i>," which Mr. + DE ALWIS translates: "The king caused to be set four gems, each of + the value of a lac, in the centre of the four emblems of the sun, + <i>and likewise an invaluable adamantine</i> (or diamond) <i>ring + on the top of the thupa.</i>" Some difficulty existed in TURNOUR'S + mind as to the rendering to be given to these two last words + "<i>wajira-chumbatan</i>." Prof. H.H. WILSON, to whom I have + submitted the sentence, says, "<i>Wajira</i> is either 'diamond,' + or 'adamant,' or 'the thunderbolt of Indra;'" and with him the most + leaned Pali scholars in Ceylon entirely concur; De Saram, the + Maha-Moodliar of the Governor's Gate, the Rev. Mr. Gogerly, Mr. De + Alwis, Pepole the Hight Priest of the Asgiria (who was TURNOUR'S + instructor in Pali), Wattegamine Unnanse of Kandy, Bulletgamone + Unnanse of Galle, Batuwantudawe, of Colombo, and De Soyza, the + translator Moodliar to the Colonial Secretary's Office. Mr. DE + ALWIS says, "The epithet <i>anagghan</i>, 'invaluable' or + 'priceless,' immediately preceding and qualifying <i>wajira</i> in + the original (but omitted by Turnour in the translation), shows + that a substance far more valuable than glass must have been + meant." "<i>Chumbatan</i>," Prof. Wilson supposed to be the Pali + equivalent to the Sanskrit <i>chumbakam</i>, "the kisser or + attractor of steel;" the question he says is whether <i>wajira</i> + is to be considered an adjective or part of a compound substantive, + whether the phrase is a <i>diamond-magnet pinnacle</i>, or + <i>conductor</i>, or a <i>conductor</i> or <i>attractor of the + thunderbolt</i>. In the latter case it would intimate that the + Singhalese had a notion of lightning conductors, Mr. DE ALWIS, + however, and Mr. GOGERLY agree that chumba<i>ka</i> is the same + both in Sanskrit and Pali, whilst chumba<i>ta</i> is a Pali + compound, which means a <i>circular prop</i> or <i>support, a + ring</i> on which something rests, or <i>a roll of cloth</i> formed + into a circle to form a stand for a vessel; so that the term must + be construed to mean <i>a diamond</i> circlet, and the passage, + transposing the order of the words, will read literally thus:</p> + <pre> + thapapesi tatha muddhani thupassa + he placed in like manner on the top of the thupo + + anagghan wajira-chumbatan. + a valuable diamond hoop. +</pre> + + <p>TURNOUR wrote his translation whilst residing at Kandy and with + the aid of the priests, who being ignorant of English could only + assist him to Singhalese equivalents for Pali words. Hence he was + probably led into the mistake of confounding <i>wajira</i>, which + signifies "diamond," or an instrument for cutting diamonds, with + the modern word <i>widura</i>, which bears the same import but is + colloquially used by the Kandyans for "glass." However, as glass as + well as the diamond is an insulator of electricity, the force of + the passage would be in no degree altered whichever of the two + substances was really particularised. TURNOUR was equally uncertain + as to the meaning of <i>chumbatan</i>, which in one instance he has + translated a "pinnacle" and in the other he has left without any + English equivalent, simply calling "wajira-chumbatan" a "chumbatan + of glass."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 259.</p> + </div><a name="pg509" id="pg509"></a> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/509.jpg"><img src="images/509.jpg" alt= + "Crown of the Dagoba." /></a> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>A. Crown of the Dagoba.</p> + + <p>B. The capital, with the sun on each of the four sides.</p> + + <p>C. The spire.</p> + + <p>D. The umbrella or chatta, gilt and surrounded by "chumbatan," a + diamond circlet.</p> + </div> + + <p>The chief interest of the story centres in the words "<i>to serve + as a protection against lightning</i>," which do not belong to the + metrical text of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, but are taken from the + explanatory notes appended to it. I have stated elsewhere, that it + was the practice of authors who wrote in Pali verse, to attach to the + text a commentary in prose, in order to illustrate the obscurities + incident to the obligations of rhythm. In this instance, <a name= + "pg510" id="pg510"></a> the historian, who was the kinsman and + intimate friend of the king, by whose order the glass pinnacle was + raised in the fifth century, probably felt that the stanza + descriptive of the placing of the first of those costly instruments + in the reign of Sanghatissa, required some elucidation, and therefore + inserted a passage in the "tika," by which his poem was accompanied, + to explain that the motive of its erection was "<i>for the purpose of + averting the dangers of lightning</i>."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The explanatory sentence in the "tika" is as follows:</p> + + <p>"Thupassa muddhani tathá naggha wajira-chumbatanti tathewa mahà + thupassa muddhani satasahasaggha nikan maha manincha patitha petwa + ta—ahettà asani upaddawa widdhanse natthan adhara walayamewn + katwa anaggha wajira-chumbatancha pujeseti atho."</p> + + <p>Mr. DE SARAY and Mr. DE AIWIS concur in translating this passage + as follows, "In like manner having placed a large gem, of a lac in + value, on the top of the great thupa, he fixed below it, <i>for the + purpose of destroying the dangers of lightning</i>, an invaluable + diamond chumbatan, having made it like a supporting ring or + circular rest." Words equivalent to those in <i>italics</i>, Mr. + TURNOUR embodies in his translation, but placed them between + brackets to denote that they wore a quotation.</p> + </div> + + <p>The two passages, taken in conjunction, leave no room for doubt + that the object in placing the diamond hoop on the dagoba, was <i>to + turn aside the stroke of the thunderbolt</i>.</p> + + <p>But the question still remains, whether, at that very early + period, the people of Ceylon had such a conception, however crude and + erroneous, of the nature of electricity, and the relative powers of + conducting and non-conducting bodies, as would induce them to place a + mistaken reliance upon the contrivance described, as one calculated + to ensure their personal safety; or whether, as religious devotees, + they presented it as a costly offering to propitiate the mysterious + power that controls the elements. The thing affixed was however so + insignificant in value, compared with the stupendous edifice to be + protected, that the latter supposition is scarcely tenable. The + dagoba itself was an offering, on the construction of which the + wealth of a kingdom had been lavished; besides which it enshrined the + holiest of all conceivable objects—portions of the deified body + of <a name="pg511" id="pg511"></a> Gotama Buddha himself; and if + these were not already secured, from the perils of lightning by their + own sanctity, their safety could scarcely be enhanced by the addition + of a diamond hoop.</p> + + <p>The conjecture is, therefore, forced on us, that the Singhalese, + in that remote era, had observed some physical facts, or learned + their existence from others, which suggested the idea that it might + be practicable, by some mechanical device, to ward off the danger of + lightning. It is just possible that having ascertained that glass or + precious stones acted as insulators of electricity, it may have + occurred to them that one or both might be employed as preservative + agents against lightning.</p> + + <p>Modern science is enabled promptly to condemn this reasoning, and + to pronounce that the expedient, so far from averting, would + fearfully add to, the peril. But in the infancy of all inquiries the + observation of effects generally precedes the comprehension of + causes, and whilst it is obvious that nothing attained by the + Singhalese in the third century anticipated the great discoveries + relative to the electric nature of lightning, which were not + announced till the seventeenth or eighteenth, we cannot but feel that + the contrivance described in the <i>Mahawanso</i> was one likely to + originate amongst an ill-informed people, who had witnessed certain + phenomena the causes of which they were unable to trace, and from + which they were incapable of deducing any accurate + conclusions.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I have been told that within a comparatively recent period it + was customary in this country, from some motive not altogether + apparent, to surmount the lightning conductors of the Admiralty and + some other Government buildings with, a <i>glass summit</i>.</p> + </div><a name="pg512" id="pg512"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. X.</h2> + + <h3>SINGHALESE LITERATURE.</h3> + + <p>The literature of the ancient Singhalese derived its character + from the hierarchic ascendency, which was fostered by their + government, and exerted a preponderant influence over the temperament + of the people. The Buddhist priesthood were the depositories of all + learning and the dispensers of all knowledge:—by the obligation + of their order the study of the classical Pali[1] was rendered + compulsory upon them[2], and the books which have come down to us + show that they were at the same time familiar with Sanskrit. They + were employed by royal command in compiling the national annals[3], + and kings at various periods not only encouraged their labours by + endowments of lands[4], but conferred distinction on such pursuits by + devoting their own attention to the cultivation of poetry[5], and the + formation of libraries.[6]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Pali</i>, which is the language of Buddist literature in + Siam, Ava, as well as in Ceylon, is, according to Dr. MILL, "no + other than the Magadha Pracrit, the classical form in ancient Behar + of that very peculiar modification of Sanscrit speech which enters + as largely into the drama of the Hindus, as did the Doric dialect + into the Attic tragedy of Ancient Greece." In 1826 MM. BURNOUF and + LASSEN published their learned "<i>Essai sur le Pali</i>," but the + most ample light was thrown upon its structure and history by the + subsequent investigations of TURNOUR, who, in the introduction to + his version of the <i>Mahawanso</i>, has embodied a disquisition on + the antiquity of Pali as compared with Sanskrit (p. xxii. + &c.).</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p, 106.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid</i>., p. 43-74</p> + + <p>4: <i>Ibid</i>., p. 113</p> + + <p>5: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 245; <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. liv., + lxxix.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 244.</p> + </div> + + <p>The books of the Singhalese are formed to-day, as they have been + for ages past, of <i>olas</i> or strips taken from the young leaves + of the Talipat or the Palmyra palm, cut before they have acquired the + dark shade and strong texture which belong to the full grown + frond.[1] <a name="pg513" id="pg513"></a> After undergoing a process + (one stage of which consists in steeping them in hot water and + sometimes in milk) to preserve their flexibility, they are submitted + to pressure to render their surface uniformly smooth. They are then + cut into stripes of two or three inches in breadth, and from one to + three feet long. These are pierced with two holes, one near each end, + through which a cord is passed, so as to secure them between two + wooden covers, lacquered and ornamented with coloured devices. The + leaves thus strung together and secured, form a book.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The leaves of the Palmyra, similarly prepared, are used for + writings of an ordinary kind, but the most valuable books are + written on the Talipat See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg110">Vol. I. Pt + I. ch. iii. p. 110.</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="figright"> + <a href="images/513.jpg"><img src="images/513.jpg" alt= + "WRITING WITH A STILE." /></a> + + <p>WRITING WITH A STILE.</p> + </div> + + <p>On these palm-leaves the custom is to write with an iron stile + held nearly upright, and steadied by a nick cut to receive it in the + thumb-nail of the left hand. The stile is sometimes richly + ornamented, shaped like an arrow, and inlaid with gold, one blade of + the feather serving as a knife to trim the leaf preparatory to + writing. The case is sometimes made of carved ivory bound with hoops + of filigreed silver.</p> + + <p>The furrow made by the pressure of the steel is rendered visible + by the application of charcoal ground with a fragrant oil[1], to the + odour of which the natives ascribe the remarkable state of + preservation in which their most sacred books are found, its aromatic + properties securing the leaves from destruction by white ants and + other insects.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: For this purpose a resin is used, called <i>dumula</i> by the + natives, who dig it up from beneath the surface of lands from which + the forest has disappeared.</p> + + <p>2: In Ceylon there are a few Buddhist books brought from Burmah, + in which the text is inscribed on plates of silver. I have seen + others on leaves of ivory, and some belonging to the Dalada Wihara, + at Kandy, are engraved on gold. The earliest grants of lands, + called <i>sannas</i>, were written on palm-leaves, but an + inscription on a rock at Dambool, which is of the date 1200 A.D., + records that King Prakrama Bahu I. made it a rule that "when + permanent grants of land were to be made to those who performed + meritorious services, such behests should not be evanescent like + lines drawn on water by being inscribed on leaves to be destroyed + by rats and white ants, but engraved on plates of copper, so as to + endure to posterity."</p> + </div><a name="pg514" id="pg514"></a> + + <p>The wiharas and monasteries of the Buddhist priesthood are the + only depositaries in Ceylon of the national literature, and in these + are to be found quantities of ola books on an infinity of subjects, + some of them, especially those relating to religion and + ecclesiastical history, being of the remotest antiquity.</p> + + <p>Works of the latter class are chiefly written in Pali. Treatises + on astronomy, mathematics, and physics are almost exclusively in + Sanskrit, whilst those on general literature, being comparatively + recent, are composed in Elu, a dialect which differs from the + colloquial Singhalese rather in style than in structure, having been + liberally enriched by incorporation from Sanskrit and Pali.[1] But of + the works which have come down to us, ancient as well as modern, so + great is the preponderance of those in Pali and Sanskrit, that the + Singhalese can scarcely be said to possess a literature in their + national dialect; and in the books they do possess, so utter is the + dearth of invention or originality, that almost all which are not + either ballads or compilations, are translations from one or other of + the two learned languages.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: TURNOUR'S Introd. to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, p. xiii. A + critical account of the Elu will be found in an able and learned + essay on the language and literature of Ceylon by Mr. J. DE ALWIS, + prefixed to his English. translation of the <i>Sidath Sangara</i>, + a grammar of Singhalese, written in the fourteenth century. + Colombo, 1852. Introd. p. xxvii. xxxvii.</p> + </div> + + <p>I. PALI.—Works in Pali are written, like those of Burmah and + Siam, not in Nagari or any peculiar character, but in the vernacular + alphabet. Of these, as might naturally be expected, the vast majority + are on subjects connected with Buddhism, and next to them in point of + number are grammars and grammatical commentaries.</p> + + <p>The original of the great Pali grammar of Kachchayano <a name= + "pg515" id="pg515"></a> is now lost, but its principles survive in + numerous treatises, and text-books written at succeeding periods to + replace it.[1] Such is the passion for versification, probably as an + assistant to memory, that nearly every Singhalese work, ancient as + well as modern, is composed in rhyme, and even the repulsive + abstractions of Syntax have found an Alvarez and been enveloped in + metrical disguise.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY, to whom I am indebted for much + valuable information on the subject of the literature current at + the present day in Ceylon, published a list in the <i>Journal of + the Ceylon Branch of the Asiatic Society</i> for 1848, in which he + gave the titles of 467 works in Pali, Sanskrit, and Elu, collected + by himself during his residence in Ceylon. Of these about 80 are in + Sanskrit, 150 in Elu (or Singhalese), and the remainder in Pali, + either with or without translations. Of the Pali book 26 are either + grammars or treatises on grammar.</p> + + <p>This catalogue of Mr. Hardy is, however, by no means to be + regarded as perfect; not only because several are omitted, but + because many are but excerpts from larger works. The titles are + seldom descriptive of the contents, but in true Oriental taste are + drawn from emblems and figures, such as "Light," "Gems," and + "Flowers." The authors' names are rarely known, and the language or + style seldom affords an indication of the age of the + composition.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of the sacred writings in Pali, the most renowned are the + <i>Pitakattayan</i>, literally "The Three Baskets," which embody the + doctrines, discourses, and discipline of the Buddhists, and so + voluminous is this collection that its contents extend to 592,000 + stanzas; and the Atthakatha or commentaries, which are as old as the + fifth century[1], contain 361,550 more. From their voluminousness, + the Pittakas are seldom to be seen complete, but there are few of the + superior temples in which one or more of the separate books may not + be found.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: They were translated into Pali from Singhalese by + Buddhaghoso, A.D. 420.—<i>Mahawanso</i>, c. xxxvii, p. + 252.</p> + </div> + + <p>The most popular portion of the Pittakas are the legendary tales, + which profess to have been related by GOTAMO BUDDHA himself, in his + <i>Sutras</i> or discourses, and were collected under the title of + <i>Pansiya-panas-jataka-pota</i>, or the "Five hundred and fifty + Births." The series is designed to commemorate events in his own + career, during the states of existence through which he passed + preparatory to his reception of the Buddhahood. In <a name="pg516" + id="pg516"></a> structure and contents it bears a striking + resemblance to the Jewish Talmud, combining, with aphorisms and + maxims, philological explanations of the divine text, stories + illustrative of its doctrines, into which not only saints and heroes, + but also animals and inanimate objects, are introduced, and not a few + of the fables that pass as Æsop's are to be found in the Jatakas of + Ceylon. There are translations into Singhalese of the greater part of + its contents, and so attractive are its narratives that the natives + will listen the livelong night to recitations from its pages.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HARDY'S <i>Buddhism</i>, ch. v. p. 98.</p> + </div> + + <p>The other Pali works[1] embrace subjects in connection with + cosmography and the Buddhist theories of the universe; the + distinctions of caste, topographical narratives, a few disquisitions + on medicine, and books which, like the Milindaprasna, or + "<i>Questions of Milinda</i>,"[2] without being canonical give an + orthodox summary of the national religion.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A lucid account of the principal Pali works in connection + with religion will be found in the Appendix to HARDY'S <i>Manual of + Buddhism</i>, p. 509, and in HARDY'S <i>Eastern Manichian</i>, pp. + 27, 315.</p> + + <p>2: The title of this popular work has given rise to a very + curious conjecture of Turnour's. It professes to contain the + dialectic controversies of Nagannoa, through whose instrumentality + Buddhism was introduced into Kashmir, with Milinda, who was the + Raja of an adjoining country, called Sagala, near the junction of + the rivers Ravi and Chenab. These dicussions must have taken place + about the year B.C. 44. Now Sagala is identical with Sangala, the + people of which, according to Arrian, made a bold resistance to the + advance of Alexander the Great beyond the Hydraotes; and it has + been supposed by Sir Alexander Burnes to have occupied the site of + Lahore. Its sovereign, therefore, who embraced the doctrines of + Buddha, was probably an Asiatic Greek, and TURNOUR suggests that + the "Yons" or "Yonicas" who, according to the Milinda-prasna, + formed his body-guard, were either Greeks or the descendants of + Greeks from Ionia.—<i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i> v. 523; + HARDY'S <i>Manual of Buddhism</i>, p. 512; REINAUD, <i>Mémoire sur + l'Inde</i>, p. 65.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the <i>chefs d'oeuvre</i> of Pali literature are their + chronicles, the <i>Dipawanso, Mahawanso,</i> and others; of these the + most important by far is the <i>Mahawanso</i> and its tikas or + commentaries. It stands at the head of the historical literature of + the East; unrivalled by anything extant in Hindustan[1], the wildness + of whose chronology <a name="pg517" id="pg517"></a> it controls; and + unsurpassed, if it be equalled, by the native annals of China or + Kashmir. So conscious were the Singhalese kings of the value of this + national monument, that its continuation was an object of royal + solicitude to successive dynasties[2] from the third to the + thirteenth century; and even in the decay of the monarchy the + compilation was performed in A.D. 1696, by an unknown hand, and, + finally, brought down to A.D. 1758 by order of one of the last of the + Kandyan kings.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: LASSEN, <i>Indis. Alt</i>., vol. ii. p. 13-15.</p> + + <p>2: COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, EDRISI, ABOU-ZEYD, and almost all the + travellers and geographers of the middle ages, have related, as a + trait of the native rulers of Ceylon, their employment of annalists + to record the history of the kingdom.—EDRISI, <i>Clim.</i> i. + sec. 8, p. 3.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of the chronicles thus carefully constructed, which exhibit in + their marvellously preserved leaves the study and elaboration of + upwards of twelve hundred years, PRINSEP, supreme as an authority, + declared that they served to "clear away the chief of difficulties in + Indian genealogies, which seem to have been intentionally falsified + by the Brahmans and thrown back into remote antiquity, in order to + confound their Buddhist rivals."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PRINSEP, in a private letter to Turnour, in 1836, speaking of + the singular value of the <i>Mahawanso</i> in collating the + chronology of India, says, "had your Buddhist chronicles been + accessible to Sir W. Jones and Wilford, they would have been + greedily seized to correct anomalies at every step."</p> + </div> + + <p>But they display in their mysterious rhymes few facts or + revelations to repay the ordinary reader for the labour of their + perusal. Written exclusively by the Buddhist priesthood, they present + the meagre characteristics of the soulless system which it is their + purpose to extol. No occurrence finds a record in their pages which + does not tend to exalt the genius of Buddhism or commemorate the acts + of its patrons: the reigns of the monarchs who erected temples for + its worship, or consecrated shrines for its relics, are traced with + tiresome precision; even where their accession <a name="pg518" id= + "pg518"></a> was achieved by usurpation and murder, their lives are + extolled for piety, provided they were characterised by liberality to + the church; whilst those alone are stigmatised as impious and + consigned to long continued torments, whose reigns are + undistinguished by acts conducive to the exaltation of the national + worship.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Asoca, "who put to death one hundred brothers," to secure the + throne to himself, is described in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. v. p. + 21, as a prince "of piety and supernatural wisdom." Even Malabar + infidels, who assassinated the Buddhist kings, are extolled as + "righteous sovereigns" (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxi. p. 127); but a + Buddhist king who caused a priest to be put to death who was + believed to be guilty of a serious crime, is consigned by the + <i>Rajavali</i> to a hell with a copper roof "so hot that the + waters of the sea are dried as they roil above + it."—<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 192.</p> + </div> + + <p>The invasions which disturbed the tranquillity of the throne, and + the schisms which rent the unity of the church, are described with + painful elaboration; but we search in vain for any instructive + notices of the people or of their pursuits, for any details of their + social condition or illustration of their intellectual progress. + Whilst the commerce of all nations was sweeping along the shores of + Ceylon, and the ships of China and Arabia were making its ports their + emporiums; the national chronicles, whose compilation was an object + of solicitude to successive dynasties, are silent regarding these + adventurous expeditions; and utterly indifferent to all that did not + affect the progress of Buddhism or minister to the interests of the + priesthood.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It has been surmised that in the intercourse which subsisted + between India and the western world by way of Alexandria and + Persia, and which did not decline till the sixth or seventh + century, the influences of Nestorian Christianity may have left + their impress on the genius and literature of Buddhism; and in the + legends of its historians one is struck by the many passages that + suggest a similarity to events recorded in the Jewish Scriptures. + The coincidence may also be accounted for by the close proximity of + a Jewish race in Afghanistan (the descendants of those carried away + into captivity by Shalmanasar) which eventually extended itself + along the west coast of India, and became the progenitors of the + Hebrew colony that still inhabits the south of the Dekkan near + Cochin, and are known as the "Black Jews of Malabar." The influence + of this immigration is perceptible in the sacred books, both of the + Brahmans and Buddhists; the laws of Menu present some striking + resemblances to the law of Moses, and it was probably from a + knowledge of the contents of the Hebrew rolls still possessed by + this remnant of the dispersion that the Buddhists borrowed the + numerous incidents which we find reproduced in the historical books + of Ceylon. Thus the aborigines, when subdued by their Bengal + invaders, were forced, like the Israelites, by their masters "to + make bricks" for the construction of their stupendous edifices + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxviii.). On the occasion of building the + great dagoba, the Ruanwellé, at Anarajapoora, B.C. 161, the + materials were all prepared at a distance, and brought ready to be + deposited in their places (<i>Mahawanso</i>, xxvii.); as on the + occasion of building the first temple at Jerusalem, "the stone was + made ready before it was brought, so that there was neither hammer, + nor axe, nor any tool of iron heard whilst it was building." The + parting of the Red Sea to permit the march of the fugitive Hebrews + has its counterpart in the exploit of the King Gaja Bahu, A.D. 109, + who, when marching his army to the coast of India, in order to + bring back the Singhalese from captivity in Sollee, "smote the + waters of the sea till they parted, so that he and his army marched + through without wetting the soles of their + feet."—<i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 59. King Maha Sen (A.D. 275), + seeking a relic, had the mantle of Buddha lowered down from heaven: + and Buddha had, previously, in designating Kasyapa as his + successor, transmitted to him his robe as Elijah let fall his + mantle upon Elisha. (<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 238; HARDY'S <i>Oriental + Monachism</i>, p. 119.) There is a resemblance too between the + apotheosis of Dutugaimunu and the translation of Elijah when "in a + chariot and horses of fire he went up into heaven" (2 Kings, ii. + 11);—according to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxii p. 199, when + the Singhalese king was dying, a chariot was seen descending from + the sky and his disembodied spirit "manifested itself standing in + the car in which he drove thrice round the great shrine, and then + bowing down to the attendant priesthood, he departed for tusita" + (the Buddhists' heaven). The ceremonial and dogmatic coincidences + are equally remarkable;—constant allusion is made to the + practice of the kings to "wash the feet of the priests and anoint + them with oil."—<i>Mahawanso</i>; ch. xxv.—xxx. In + conformity with the denunciation that the sins of the fathers were + to be visited on the children, the Jews inquired whether a "man's + parents did commit sin that he was born blind?" (John, ix. 3) and in + like manner, in the <i>Rajavali</i>, "the perjury of Wijayo (who + had repudiated his wife after swearing fidelity to her) was visited + on the person of the King Panduwaasa," his nephew, who was + afflicted with insanity in consequence <i>(Rajavali</i>, pp. + 174-178). The account in the <i>Rajaratnacari</i> of King Batiya + Tissa (B.C. 20), who was enabled to enter the Ruanwellé dagoba by + the secret passage known only to the priests, and to discover their + wealth and treasures deposited within, has a close resemblance to + the descent of Daniel and King Astyages into the temple of Bel, by + the privy entrance under the table, whereby the priests entered and + consumed the offerings made to the idol (Bel and the Dragon, + Apocryp. ch. i.-xiii.; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 45). The + inextinguishable fire which was for ever burning on the altar of + God (Leviticus, ch. vi. 13) resembles the lamps which burned for + 5000 years continually in honour of Buddha (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. + lxxxi.; <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 49); and these again had their + imitators in the lamp of Minerva, which was never permitted to go + out in the temple at Athens, and in the [Greek: luchnon asbeston], + which was for ever burning in the temple of Ammon. The miracle of + feeding the multitude by our Saviour upon a few loaves and fishes, + is repeated in the <i>Mahawanso</i>, where a divinely endowed + princess fed Pandukabhaya, B.C. 437, and five hundred of his + followers with the repast which she was taking to her father and + his reapers, the refreshment being "scarcely diminished in quantity + as if one person only had eaten therefrom."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, + ch. x. p. 62. The preparation of the high road for the procession + of the sacred bo-tree after its landing (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xix. + p. 116), and the order to clear a road through the wilderness for + the march of the king at the inauguration of Buddhism, recall the + words of the prophet, "Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make + straight a highway in the desert." (Isaiah, xl. 3.) And we are + reminded of the prophecy of Isaiah as to the kingdom of peace, in + which "the leopard shall lie down with the kid and the calf with + the lion, and a young child shall lead them," by the Singhalese + historians, in describing the religious repose of the kingdom of + Asoca under the influence of the religion of Buddha, where "the elk + and the wild hog were the guardians of the gardens and fields, and + the tiger led forth the cattle to graze and reconducted them in + safety to their pens."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. v. p. 22. The + narrative of the "judgment of Solomon," in the matter of the + contested child (1 Kings, ch. iii.), has its parallel in a story in + every respect similar in the Pansyiapanas-jataka.—ROBERT'S + <i>Orient. Illustr</i>. p. 101.</p> + </div><a name="pg519" id="pg519"></a> + + <p>II. SANSKRIT.—In Sanskrit or translations from it, the + Singhalese have preserved their principal treatises <a name="pg520" + id="pg520"></a> on physical science, cosmography, materia medica, and + surgery. From it, too, they have borrowed the limited knowledge of + astronomy, possessed by the individuals who combined with astrology + and the casting of nativities, the practice of palmistry and the + interpretation of dreams. In Sanskrit, they have treatises on music + and painting, on versification and philology; and their translations + include a Singhalese version of those portions of the + <i>Ramayana</i>, which commemorate the conquest of Lanka.</p> + + <p>III. ELU AND SINGHALESE.—There is no more striking evidence + of the intellectual inferiority of the modern, as compared with the + ancient inhabitants of Ceylon, than is afforded by the popular + literature of the latter, and the contrast it presents to the works + of former ages. Descending from the gravity of religious disquisition + and the dignity of history and science, the authors of later times + have been content to limit their efforts to works of fiction and + amusement, and to ballads and doggerel descriptions of places or + passing events.</p> + + <p>But, to the credit of the Singhalese, it must be <a name="pg521" + id="pg521"></a> said, that in their compositions, however satirical + or familiar they may be, their verses are entirely free from the + licentiousness which disfigures similar productions in India; and + that if deficient in imagination and grace, they are equally exempt + from grossness and indelicacy.</p> + + <p>The Singhalese language is so flexible that it admits of every + description of rhythm; of this the versifiers have availed themselves + to exhibit every variety of stanza and measure, and every native, + male or female, can recite numbers of their favourite ballads. Their + graver productions consist of poems in honour, not of Buddha alone, + but of deities taken from the Hindu Pantheon,—Patine, Siva, and + Ganesa, panegyrics upon almsgiving, and couplets embodying aphorisms + and morals.</p> + + <p>A considerable number of the Sutras or Discourses of Buddha have + been translated into the vernacular from Pali, but the most popular + of all are the <i>jatakas</i>, the Singhalese versions of which are + so extended, that one copy alone fills 2000 olas or palm leaves, each + twenty-nine inches in length and containing nine lines in a page.</p> + + <p>The other works in Singhalese are on subjects connected with + history, such as the <i>Rajavali</i> and <i>Rajaratnacai</i>, on + grammar and lexicography, on medicine, topography, and other + analogous subjects. But in all their productions, though invested + with the trappings of verse, there alike is an avoidance of what is + practical and true, and an absence of all that is inventive and + poetic. They contain nothing that appeals to the heart or the + affections, and their efforts of imagination aspire not to please or + to elevate, but to astonish and bewilder by exaggeration and fable. + Their poverty of resources leads to endless repetitious of the same + epithets and incidents; books are multiplied at the present day + chiefly by extracts from works of <a name="pg522" id="pg522"></a> + established popularity, and the number of qualified writers is + becoming annually less from the altered circumstances of the island + and the decline of those institutions and prospects which formerly + stimulated the ambition of the Buddhist priesthood, and inspired a + love of study and learning.</p><a name="pg523" id="pg523"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. XI.</h2> + + <h3>BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WORSHIP.[1]</h3> + + <p>It is difficult to attempt any condensed, and at the same time + perspicuous, sketch of the national religion of Ceylon—a + difficulty which arises not merely from the voluminous obscurity of + its sacred history and records; but still more from confusion in the + variety of forms under which Buddhism exhibits itself in various + localities, and the divergences of opinion which prevail as to its + tenets and belief. The antiquity of its worship is so extreme, that + doubts still hang over its origin and its chronological relations to + the religion of Brahma. Whether it took its rise in Hindustan, or in + countries farther to the West, and whether Buddhism was the original + doctrine of which Brahmanism became a corruption, or Brahmanism the + original and Buddhism an effort to restore it to its pristine + purity[2],—all these are questions which have yet to be + <a name="pg524" id="pg524"></a> adjusted by the results of Oriental + research.[3] It is, however, established by a concurrence of + historical proofs, that many centuries before the era of Christianity + the doctrines of Buddha were enthusiastically cultivated in Baha, the + <i>Magadha</i>, or country of the Magas, whose modern name is + identified with the <i>Wiharas</i> or monasteries of Buddhism. Thence + its teachers diffused themselves extensively throughout India and the + countries to the eastward;—upwards of two thousand years ago it + became the national religion of Ceylon and the Indian Archipelago; + and its tenets have been adopted throughout the vast regions which + extend from Siberia to Siam, and from the Bay of Bengal to the + western shores of the Pacific.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The details of the following chapter have been principally + taken from SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S <i>Christianity in Ceylon</i>, + ch. v.</p> + + <p>2: Those early writers on the religions of India who drew their + information exclusively from Brahmanical sources, incline to favour + the pretensions of that system as the most ancient of the two. + Klaproth, a profound authority, was of this opinion; but in later + times the translations of the Pali records and other sacred volumes + of Buddhism in Western India, Ceylon, and Nepal, have inclined the + preponderance of opinion, if not in favour of the superior + antiquity of Buddhism, at least in support of its contemporaneous + development. A summary of the arguments in favour of the superior + antiquity of Buddhism will be found in the "<i>Notes</i>," &c., + by Colonel SYKES, in the 12th volume of the <i>Asiatic + Journal</i>—and in the <i>Essai sur l'Origine des Principaux + Peuples Anciens</i>, par F.L.M. MAUPIED, chap. viii. The arguments + on the side of those who look on Brahmanism as the original, are + given by MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE in his <i>History of India</i>, + vol. i. b. ii. c. 4. An able disquisition will be found in MAX + MÜLLER's <i>History of Sanskrit Literature</i>, pp. 33, 260, + &c. Mr. GOGERLY, the most accomplished student of Buddhism in + Ceylon, says its sacred books expressly demonstrate that its + doctrines had been preached by the twenty-four Buddhas who had + lived prior to Gotama, in periods incredibly remote; but that they + had entirely disappeared at the time of Gotama's birth, so that he + re-discovered the whole, and revived an extinguished or nearly + extinct school of philosophy.—<i>Notes on Buddhism</i> by the + Rev. Mr. GOGERLY, Appendix to LEE'S Translation of Ribeyro, p. + 265.</p> + + <p>3: The celebrated temple of Somnauth was originally a Buddhist + foundation, and in the worship of Jaggernath, to whose orgies all + ranks are admitted without distinction of caste, there may still be + traced an influence of Buddhism, if not a direct Buddhistical + origin. Colonel Sykes is of opinion that the sacred tooth of Buddha + was at one time deposited and worshipped in the great Temple of + Calinga, now dedicated to Jaggernath, by the Princes of Orissa, who + in the fourth century professed the Buddhist religion. (Colonel + SYKES, <i>Notes</i>, &c., <i>Asiatic Journal</i>, vol. xii. pp. + 275; 317, 420.)</p> + + <p>4: FA HIAN declares that in the whole of India, including + Affghanistan and Bokhara, he found in the fourth century a Buddhist + people and dynasty, with traditions of its endurance for the + preceding thousand years. "As to Hindostan itself, he says, from + the time of leaving the deserts (of Jaysulmeer and Bikaneer) and + the river (Jumna) to the west, <i>all the kings of the different + kingdoms in India are firmly attached to the law of Buddha</i>, and + when they do honour to the ecclesiastics they take off their + diadems."—See also MAUPIED, <i>Essai sur l'Origine des + Principaux Peuples Anciens</i>, chap. ix. p. 209.</p> + </div> + + <p>Looking to its influence at the present day over at least three + hundred and fifty millions of human beings—exceeding one-third + of the human race—it is no exaggeration to say that the + religion of Buddha is the most widely diffused that now exists, or + that has ever existed since the creation of mankind.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg326">p. 326.</a> So ample are + the materials offered by Buddhism for antiquarian research, that + its doctrines have been sought to be identified at once with the + Asiatic philosophy and with the myths of the Scandinavians. Buddha + has been at one time conjectured to be the Woden of the Scythians; + at another the prophet Daniel, whom Nebuchadnezzar had created + master of the astrologers, or chief priest of the Magi, as the + title is rendered in the Septuagint—[Greek: Archonta Magôi]. + An antiquarian of Wales, in devising a pedigree for the Oymri, has + imported ancestors for the ancient Britons from Ceylon; and a + writer in the <i>Asiatic Researches</i>, in 1807, as a preamble to + the proof that the binomial theorem was familiar to the Hindus, has + traced Western civilisation to an irruption of philosophers from + India, identified the Druids with the Brahmans, and declared + Stonehenge to be "one of the temples of Boodh." (<i>Asiat. + Res</i>., vol. ii. p. 448.) A still more recent investigator, M. + MAUPIED, has collected, in his <i>Essai sur l'Origine des Peoples + Anciens</i>, what he considers to be the evidence that Buddhism may + be indebted for its appearance in India to the captivity of the + Jews by Salmanasar, 729 B.C.; to their dispersion by Assar-Addon at + a still more recent period; to their captivity in Babylon, 606 + B.C.: their diffusion over Media and the East, Persia, Bactria, + Thibet, and China, and the communication of their sacred book to + the nations amongst whom they thus became sojourners. He ventures + even to suggest a possible identity between the names Jehovah and + Buddha: "Les voyelles du mot Buddha sont les mêmes que celles du + mot Jéhovah, qu'on prononce aussi <i>Jouva</i>; mais d'ailleurs le + nom de Boudda a bien pu être tiré du mot <i>Jeoudda</i> Juda, le + dieu de Joudda <i>Boudda</i>."—Chap. ix. p. 235. To account + for the purer morals of Buddhism, MAUPIED has recourse to the + conjecture that they may have been influenced by the preaching of + St. Thomas at Ceylon, and Bartholomew on the continent of India. + "<i>Or il nous semble logique de conclure de teus ces faits que le + Bouddhisme, dans ses doctrines essentielles, est d'origine Juire et + Chrétienne; conséquence inattendue pour la plus de nos lecteurs + sans doute</i>."—MAUPIED, ch. ix. p. 257; ch. x. p. 263.</p> + </div><a name="pg525" id="pg525"></a> + + <p>From the earliest period of Indian tradition, the struggle between + the religion of Buddha and that of Brahma was carried on with a + fanaticism and perseverance which resulted in the ascendancy of the + Brahmans, perhaps about the commencement of the Christian era, and + the eventual expulsion some centuries later of the worship of their + rivals from Hindustan; but at what precise time the latter + catastrophe was consummated has not been recorded in the annals of + either sect.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The final overthrow of Buddhism in Bahar and its expulsion + from Hindustan took place probably between the seventh and twelfth + centuries of the Christian era. Colonel SYKES, however, extends the + period to the thirteenth or fourteenth (<i>Asiatic Journal</i>, + vol. iv. p. 334).</p> + </div> + + <p>That Buddhism thus dispersed over eastern and central Asia became + an active agent in the promotion of whatever civilisation afterwards + enlightened the races by whom its doctrines were embraced, seems to + rest upon evidence which admits of no reasonable doubt. The + introduction of Buddhism into China is ascertained to have been + contemporary <a name="pg526" id="pg526"></a> with, the early + development of the arts amongst this remarkable people, at a period + coeval, if not anterior, to the era of Christianity.[1] Buddhism + exerted a salutary influence over the tribes of Thibet; through them + it became instrumental in humanising the Moguls; and it more or less + led to the cessation of the devastating incursions by which the + hordes of the East were precipitated over the Western Empire in the + early ages of Christianity.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: MAX MÜLLER, <i>Hist. Sanskrit Literature</i>, p. 264.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Singhalese, and the nations of further Asia, are indebted to + Buddhism for an alphabet and a literature[1]; and whatever of + authentic history we possess in relation to these countries we owe to + the influence of their generic religion. Nor are its effects limited + to these objects: much of what is vigorous in the character of its + northern converts may be traced to the operation of its principles, + in the development of their peculiar idiosyncrasy, which, unlike that + of the unwarlike Singhalese, rejected sloth and effeminacy to aim at + conquest and power. Looking to the self-reliance which Buddhism + inculcates, the exaltation of intellect which it proclaims, and the + perfection of virtue and wisdom to which it points as within the + reach of every created being, it may readily be imagined, that it + must have wielded a spell of unusual potency, and one well calculated + to awaken boldness and energy in those already animated by schemes of + ambition. In Ceylon, on the contrary, owing more or less to + insulation and seclusion, Buddhism has survived for upwards of 2000 + years as unchanged in all its leading characteristics as the genius + of the people has remained torpid and inanimate under its influence. + In this respect the Singhalese are the living mummies of past ages; + and realise in their immovable characteristics the Eastern fable of + the city whose inhabitants were perpetuated in marble. If change has + in any degree supervened, it has been from the corruption of the + practice, not from any abandonment of the <a name="pg527" id= + "pg527"></a> principles, of Buddhism; and in arts, literature, and + civilisation, the records of their own history, and the ruins of + their monuments, attest their deterioration in common with that of + every other nation which has not at some time been brought under the + ennobling influences of Christianity.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See BURNOUF et LASSEN, <i>Essai sur le Pali, ou Langue Sacrée + de la Presqu'ile au-dela du Gange</i>, ch. i., &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>In alluding to the doctrines of Buddhism, as it exists at the + present day, my observations are to be understood as applying to the + aspect under which it presents itself in Ceylon, irrespective of the + numerous forms in which it has been cultivated elsewhere. Even before + the decease of the last Buddha, schisms had arisen amongst his + followers in India. Eighteen heresies are deplored in the + <i>Mahawanso</i> within two centuries from his death; and four + distinct sects, each rejoicing in the name of Buddhists, are still to + be traced amongst the remnants of his worshippers in Hindustan.[1] In + its migrations to other countries since its dispersion by the + Brahmans, Buddhism has assumed and exhibited itself in a variety of + shapes. At the present day its doctrines, as cherished among the + Jainas of Guzerat and Rajpootana[2], differ widely from its + mysteries, as administered by the Lama of Thibet; and both are + equally distinct from the metaphysical abstractions propounded by the + monks of Nepal. Its observances in Japan have undergone a still more + striking alteration from their vicinity to the Syntoos; and in China + they have been similarly modified in their contact with the + rationalism of Lao-tsen and the social demonology of the + Confucians.[3] But in each and all the distinction is in degree + rather than essence; and the general concurrence is unbroken in all + the grand essentials of the system.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Colebrooke's Essays on the Philosophy of the Hindoos</i>, + sect. v. part 5, p. 401.</p> + + <p>2: An account of the religion of the Jains or Jainas, will be + found in MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE'S <i>History of India</i>, vol. i. + b. ii. ch. 4. They arose in the sixth or seventh century, were at + their height in the eleventh, and declined in the twelfth. See also + MAX MÜLLER, <i>Hist. Sanskrit Literature</i>, p. 261, &c.</p> + + <p>3: Details of Buddhism in China and Chin-India will be found in + the erudite commentaries of KLAPROTH, REMUSAT, and LANDRESSE.</p> + </div><a name="pg528" id="pg528"></a> + + <p>Whilst Brahmanism, without denying the existence, practically + ignores the influence and power of a creating and controlling + intelligence, Buddhism, exulting in the idea of the infinite + perfectibility of man, and the achievement of the highest attainable + happiness by the unfaltering practice of every conceivable virtue, + exalts the individuals thus pre-eminently wise into absolute + supremacy over all existing beings, and attempts the daring + experiment of an <i>atheistic morality.</i>[1] Even Buddha himself is + not worshipped as a deity, or as a still existent and active agent of + benevolence and power. He is merely reverenced as a glorified + remembrance, the effulgence of whose purity serves as a guide and + incentive to the future struggles and aspirations of mankind. The + sole superiority which his doctrines admit is that of goodness and + wisdom; and Buddha having attained to this perfection by the + immaculate purity of his actions, the <a name="pg529" id="pg529"></a> + absolute subjugation of passion, and the unerring accuracy of his + unlimited knowledge, became entitled to the homage of all, and was + required to render it to none.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: M. REMUSAT announces, as the result of his researches, that + neither the Chinese; the Tartars, nor Monguls have any word in + their dialects expressive of our idea of a God.—<i>Foĕ + Kouĕ Ki</i>, p. 138; and M. BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILLAIRE adds, + that "il n'y a pas trace de l'idée de Dieu dans le Bouddhisme + entier, ni au début ni au térme."—<i>Le Bouddha</i>, &c., + Introd. p. iv. Colonel SYKES, in the xiith vol. of the <i>Asiatic + Journal</i>, pp. 263 and 376, denies that Buddhism is + <i>atheistic;</i> and adduces, in support of his views, allusions + made by FA HIAN. But the passages to which he refers present no + direct contradiction to those metaphysical subtleties by which the + Buddhistical writers have carefully avoided whilst they closely + approach the admission of belief in a deity. I am not prepared to + deny that the faith in a supreme being may not have characterised + Buddhism in its origin, as the belief in a Great First Cause in the + person of Brahma is still acknowledged by the Hindus, although + honoured by no share of their adoration. But it admits of little + doubt that neither in the discourses of its priesthood at the + present day nor in the practice of its followers in Ceylon is the + name or the existence of an omnipotent First Cause recognised in + any portion of their worship. MAUPIED has correctly described + Buddhism both in Ceylon and China as a system of refined atheism + (<i>Essai sur l'Origine des Peuples Anciens</i>, ch. x. p. 277), + and MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE gives the weight of his high authority + in the statement that "The most ancient of Báudha sects entirely + denies the being of a God; and some of those which admit the + existence of God still refuse to acknowledge him as the creator and + ruler of the world.... The theistical sect seems to prevail in + Nepaul, and the <i>atheistical to subsist in perfection in + Ceylon.</i>"—<i>History of India</i>, vol. i. pt. ii. ch. 4. + An able writer in the fourth volume of the <i>Calcutta Review</i> + has also controverted the assertion of its atheistic complexion; + but whatever truth may be developed in his views, their application + is confined to Buddhism in Hindustan and Nepal, and is utterly at + variance with the practice and received dogmas in Ceylon.</p> + </div> + + <p>Externally coinciding with Hinduism, so far as the avatar of + Buddha may be regarded as a pendant for the incarnation of Brahma, + the worship of the former is essentially distinguished from the + religion of the latter in one important particular. It does not + regard Buddha as an actual emanation or manifestation of the + divinity, but as a guide and example to teach an enthusiastic + self-reliance by means of which mankind, of themselves and by their + own unassisted exertions, are to attain to perfect virtue here and to + supreme happiness hereafter. Both systems inculcate the mysterious + doctrine of the metempsychosis; but whilst the result of successive + embodiments is to bring the soul of the Hindu nearer and nearer to + the final beatitude of absorption into the essence of Brahma, the end + and aim of the Buddhistical transmigration is to lead the purified + spirit to <i>Nirwana</i>[1], a condition between which and utter + annihilation there exists but the dim distinction of a name. Nirwana + is the <i>exhaustion</i> but not the <i>destruction</i> of existence, + the <i>close</i> but not the <i>extinction</i> of being.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Nirwana" is Sanskrit, <i>ni</i> (<i>r</i> euphon. causa) + <i>wana</i> desire. The Singhalese name "Nirwana" is also derived + from <i>newanawa</i>, to extinguish. See J. BARTHELEMY + SAINT-HILAIRE, <i>Le Bouddha</i>, 133, 177, &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>In deliberate consistency with this principle of human elevation, + the doctrines of Buddha recognise the full eligibility of every + individual born into the world for the attainment of the highest + degrees of intellectual perfection and ultimate bliss; and herein + consists its most striking departure from the Brahmanical system in + denying the superiority of the "twice born" over the rest of mankind; + in repudiating a sacerdotal supremacy of race, and in claiming for + the pure and the wise that supremacy and exaltation which the + self-glorified Brahmans would monopolise for themselves.</p><a name= + "pg530" id="pg530"></a> + + <p>Hence the supremacy of "<i>caste</i>" is utterly disclaimed in the + sacred books which contain the tenets of Buddha; and although in + process of time his followers have departed from that portion of his + precepts, still distinction of birth is nowhere authoritatively + recognised as a qualification for the priesthood. Buddha being in + fact a deification of human intellect, the philanthropy of the system + extends its participation and advantages to the whole family of + mankind, the humblest member of which is sustained by the assurance + that by virtue and endurance he may attain an equality though not an + identification with the supreme intelligence. Wisdom thus exalted as + the sole object of pursuit and veneration, the Buddhists, with + characteristic liberality, admit that the teaching of virtue is not + necessarily confined to their own professors; especially when the + ceremonial of others does not involve the taking of life. Hence in a + great degree arises the indifference of the Singhalese as to the + comparative claims of Christianity and Buddhism, and hence the + facility with which, both under the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the + British Government, they have combined the secret worship of the one + with the ostensible profession of the other. They in fact admit + Christ to have been a teacher, second only to Buddha, but inferior, + inasmuch as the latter, who was perfect in wisdom, has attained to + the bliss of Nirwana.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Sir JOHN DAVIS in his account of the Chinese, states that the + Buddhists there worship the "<i>Queen of Heaven</i>," a personage + evidently borrowed from the Roman Catholics, and that the name of + "<i>Jesus</i>" appears in the list of their divinities. (Chap. + xiv.)</p> + + <p>A curious illustration of the prevalence of this disposition to + conform to two religions was related to me in Ceylon. A Singhalese + chief came a short time since to the principal of a government + seminary at Colombo, desirous to place his son as a pupil of the + institution, and agreed, without an instant's hesitation, that the + boy should conform to the discipline of the school, which requires + the reading of the Scriptures and attendance at the hours of + worship and prayer; accounting for his ready acquiescence by an + assurance that he entertained an equal respect for the doctrines of + Buddhism and Christianity. "But how can you," said the principal, + "with your superior education and intelligence, reconcile yourself + thus to halt between two opinions, and submit to the inconsistency + of professing an equal belief in two conflicting religions?" "Do + you see," replied the subtle chief, laying his hand on the arm of + the other, and directing his attention to a canoe, with a large + spar as an outrigger lashed alongside, in which a fisherman was + just pushing off upon the lake, "do you see the style of these + boats, in which our fishermen always put to sea, and that that spar + is almost equivalent to a second canoe, which keeps the first from + upsetting? It is precisely so with myself: I add on <i>your</i> + religion to steady my <i>own, because I consider Christianity a + very safe outrigger to Buddhism.</i>"</p> + </div><a name="pg531" id="pg531"></a> + + <p>As regards the <i>structure of the universe</i>, the theories of + the Buddhists, though in a great degree borrowed from the Brahmans, + occupy a much less prominent position in their mythology, and are + less intimately identified with their system of religion. Their + attention has been directed less to physical than to metaphysical + disquisitions, and their views of cosmogony have as little of truth + as of imagination in their details. The basis of the system is a + declaration of the eternity of matter, and its submission at remote + intervals to decay and re-formation; but this and the organisation of + animal life are but the results of spontaneity and procession, not + the products of will and design on the part of an all powerful + Creator.</p> + + <p>Buddhism adopts something approaching to the mundane theory of the + Brahmans, in the multiplicity and superposition of worlds and the + division of the earth into concentric continents, each separated by + oceans of various fabulous liquids. Its notions of geography are at + once fanciful and crude; and again borrowing from the Shastras its + chronology, extends over boundless portions of time, but invests with + the authority of history only those occurrences which have taken + place since the birth of Gotama Buddha.</p> + + <p>The Buddhists believe in the existence of <i>lokas</i>, or + heavens, each differing in glory, and serving as the temporary + residences of demigods and divinities, as well as of men whose + etherialisation is but inchoate, and who have yet to visit the earth + in farther births and acquire in future transmigrations their + complete attainment of Nirwana. They believe likewise in the + existence of hells which are the abodes of demons or tormentors, and + in which the wicked undergo a purgatorial imprisonment preparatory to + an extended probation upon earth. Here <a name="pg532" id= + "pg532"></a> their torments are in proportion to their crimes, and + although not eternal, their duration extends almost to the infinitude + of eternity; those who have been guilty of the deadly sins of + parricide, sacrilege, and defiance of the faith being doomed to the + endurance of excruciating deaths, followed by instant revival and a + repetition of their tortures without mitigation and apparently + without end.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: DAVY'S <i>Account of the Interior of Ceylon</i>, p. 204.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is one of the extraordinary anomalies of the system, that + combined with these principles of self-reliance and perfectibility, + Buddhism has incorporated to a certain extent the doctrine of fate or + "necessity," under which it demonstrates that adverse events are the + general results of <i>akusala</i> or moral demerit in some previous + stage of existence. This belief, which lies at the very foundation of + their religion, the Buddhists have so adapted to the rest of the + structure as to avoid the inconsistency of making this directing + power inherent in any Supreme Being, by assigning it as one of the + attributes of matter and a law of its perpetual mutations.</p> + + <p>Like all the leading doctrines of Buddhism, however, its theories + on this subject are propounded with the usual admixture of + modification and casuistry; only a portion of men's conduct is + presumed to be exclusively controllable by <i>fate</i>—neither + moral delinquency nor virtuous actions are declared to be altogether + the products of an inevitable necessity; and whilst both the + sufferings and the enjoyments of mortals are represented as the + general consequences of merit in a previous stage of existence, even + this fundamental principle is not without its exception, inasmuch as + the vicissitudes are admitted to be partially the results of man's + actions in this life, or of the influence of others from which his + own deserts are insufficient to protect him. The main article, + however, which admits neither of modification nor evasion, is that + neither in heaven nor on earth can man escape from the <a name= + "pg533" id="pg533"></a> <i>consequences</i> of his acts; that morals + are in their essence productive causes, without the aid or + intervention of any higher authority; and hence forgiveness or + atonement are ideas utterly unknown in the despotic dogmas of + Buddha.</p> + + <p>Allusion has already been made to the subtleties entertained by + the priesthood, in connexion with the doctrine of the + <i>metempsychosis</i>, as developed in their sacred books; but the + exposition would be tedious to show the distinctions between their + theories, and the opinions of transmigration entertained by the mass + of the Singhalese Buddhists. The rewards of virtue and the punishment + of vice are supposed to be equally attainable in this world; and + according to the amount of either, which characterizes the conduct of + an individual in one stage of being, will be the elevation or + degradation into which he will be hereafter born.</p> + + <p>Thus punishment and reward become equally fixed and inevitable: + but retribution may be deferred by the intermediate exhibition of + virtue, and an offering or prostration to Buddha, or an aspiration in + favour of faith in his name, will suffice to ward off punishment for + a time, and even produce happiness in an intermediate birth; hence + the most flagitious offender, by an act of reverence in dying, may + postpone indefinitely the evil consequence of his crimes, and hence + the indifference and apparent apathy which is a remarkable + characteristic of the Singhalese who suffer death for their + offences[1].</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>Et vos barbaricos ritus, moremque sinistrum</p> + + <p>Sacrorum Druidæ positis repetistis ab armis.</p> + + <p>Solis nôsse deos, et coeli numina vobis</p> + + <p>Aut solis nesclre datum: nemora alta remoti</p> + + <p>Incolitis lucis: <i>vobis auctoribus umbræ</i></p> + + <p><i>Non tacitas Erebi sedes Ditisque profundi</i></p> + + <p><i>Pallida regna petunt: regit idem spiritus arius</i></p> + + <p><i>Orbe alio: longæ (si canitis cognita) vitæ</i></p> + + <p><i>Mors media, st. Certè populi quos despicit Arcios</i></p> + + <p><i>Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum</i></p> + + <p>Maximus haud urget leti metus, etc.</p> + </div> + + <p>LUCAN, l. i. 450 ct seq.</p> + </div> + + <p>To mankind in general Buddha came only as an adviser and a friend; + but, as regards his own priesthood, he assumes all the authority of a + lawgiver and chief. Spurning the desires and vanities of the world, + he has taught them to aspire to no other reward for their <a name= + "pg534" id="pg534"></a> labours than the veneration of the human + race, as teachers of knowledge and examples of benevolence. Taking + the abstract idea of perfect intelligence and immaculate virtue for a + divinity, Buddhism accords honour to all in proportion to their + approaches towards absolute wisdom, and as the realisation of this + perfection is regarded as almost hopeless in a life devoted to + secular cares, the priests of Buddha, on assuming their robe and + tonsure, forswear all earthly occupations; subsist on alms, not in + money, but in food; devote themselves to meditation and self-denial; + and, being thus proclaimed and recognised as the most successful + aspirants to Nirwana, they claim the homage of ordinary mortals, + acknowledge no superior upon earth, and withhold even the tribute of + a salutation from all except the members of their own religious + order.</p> + + <p>To mankind in general the injunctions of Buddha prescribe <i>a + code of morality</i> second only to that of Christianity, and + superior to every heathen system that the world has seen.[1] It + forbids the taking of life from even the humblest created animal, and + prohibits intemperance and incontinence, dishonesty and + falsehood—vices which are referable to those formidable + assailants, <i>rága</i> or concupiscence, <i>doso</i> or malignity, + and <i>moha</i>, ignorance or folly.[2] These, again, involve all + their minor modifications—hypocrisy and anger, unkindness and + pride, ungenerous suspicion, covetousness, evil wishes to others, the + betrayal of secrets, and the propagation of slander. Whilst all such + offences are forbidden, every excellence is simultaneously + enjoined—the forgiveness of injuries, the practice of charity, + a reverence for virtue, and the cherishing of the learned; submission + to discipline, veneration <a name="pg535" id="pg535"></a> for + parents, the care for one's family, a sinless vocation, contentment + and gratitude, subjection to reproof, moderation in prosperity, + submission under affliction, and cheerfulness at all times. "Those," + said Buddha, "who practise all these virtues, and are not overcome by + evil, will enjoy the perfection of happiness, and attain to supreme + renown."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Je n'hésite pas à ajouter que, sauf le Christ tout seul, il + n'est point, parmi les fondateurs de religion de figure, plus pure + ni plus touchante que celle de Bouddha. Sa vie n'a point de + tache."—<i>Le Bouddha</i>, par J. BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE, + Introd. p. v.</p> + + <p>2: The Rev. Mr. GOGERLY's <i>Notes on Buddhism</i>. LEE's + <i>Ribeyro</i>, p. 267.</p> + + <p>3: Discourse of Buddha entitled <i>Mangala</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Buddhism, it may be perceived from this sketch, is, properly + speaking, less a form of religion than a school of philosophy; and + <i>its worship</i>, according to the institutes of its founders, + consists of an appeal to the reason, rather than an attempt on the + imagination through the instrumentality of rites and parade. + "Salvation is made dependent, not upon the practice of idle + ceremonies, the repeating of prayers or of hymns, or invocations to + pretended gods, but upon moral qualifications, which constitute + individual and social happiness here, and ensure it hereafter."[1] In + later times, and in the failure of Buddhism by unassisted arguments + to ensure the observance of its precepts and the practice of its + morals, the experiment has been made to arouse the attention and + excite the enthusiasm of its followers by the adoption of ceremonies + and processions; but these are declared to be only the innovations of + priestcraft, and the Singhalese, whilst they unite in their + celebration, are impatient to explain that such practices are less + religious than secular, and that the Perrehera in particular, the + chief of their annual festivals, was introduced, not in honour of + Buddha, but as a tribute to the Kandyan kings as the patrons and + defenders of the faith.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Colonel SYKES, <i>Asiat. Journ.</i>, vol. xii. p. 266.</p> + + <p>2: FA HIAN describes the procession of Buddhists which he + witnessed in the kingdom of Khotan, and it is not a little + remarkable, that along with the image of Buddha were associated + those of the Brahmanical deities <i>Indra</i> and <i>Brahma</i>, + the <i>Lha</i> of the Thibetans and the <i>Toeyri</i> of the + Moguls.</p> + </div> + + <p>In its formula, whatever alterations Buddhism may <a name="pg536" + id="pg536"></a> have undergone in Ceylon are altogether external, and + clearly referable to its anomalous association with the worship of + its ancient rivals the Brahmans. These changes, however, are the + result of proximity and association rather than of incorporation or + adoption; and even now the process of expurgation is in progress with + a view to the restoration of the pristine purity of the faith by a + formal separation from the observances of Hinduism. The schismatic + kings and the Malabar sovereigns introduced the worship of Vishnu and + Shiva into the same temples with that of Buddha.[1] The innovation + has been perpetuated; and to the present day the statues of these + conflicting divinities are to be found within the same buildings: the + Dewales of Hinduism are erected within the same inclosure as the + Wiharas of the Buddhists; and the Kappoorales of the one religion + officiate at their altars, almost beneath the same roof with the + priests and neophytes of the other. But beyond this parade of their + emblems, the worship of the Hindu deities throughout the Singhalese + districts is entirely devoid of the obscenities and cruelty by which + it is characterised on the continent of India; and it would almost + appear as if these had been discontinued by the Brahmans in + compliment to the superior purity of the worship with which their own + had become thus fortuitously associated. The exclusive prejudices of + caste were at the same remote period partially engrafted on the + simpler and more generous discipline of Buddha; and it is only + recently that any vigorous exertions have been attempted for their + disseverance.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg378">Vol. I. Part III. ch. viii. + p. 378.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>On comparing this system with other prevailing religions which + divide with it the worship of the East, Buddhism at once vindicates + its own superiority, not only by the purity of its code of morals, + but by its freedom from the fanatical intolerance of the Mahometans + and its abhorrent rejection of the revolting rites of the Brahmanical + <a name="pg537" id="pg537"></a> faith. But mild and benevolent as are + its aspects and design, its theories have failed to realise in + practice the reign of virtue which they proclaim. Beautiful as is the + body of its doctrines, it wants the vivifying energy and soul which + are essential to ensure its ascendancy and power. Its cold philosophy + and thin abstractions, however calculated to exercise the faculties + of anchorets and ascetics, have proved insufficient of themselves to + arrest man in his career of passion and pursuit; and the bold + experiment of influencing the heart and regulating the conduct of + mankind by the external decencies and the mutual dependencies of + morality, unsustained by higher hopes and by a faith that penetrates + eternity, has proved in this instance an unredeemed and hopeless + failure. The inculcation of the social virtues as the consummation of + happiness here and hereafter, suggests an object sufficiently + attractive for the bulk of mankind; but Buddhism presents along with + it no adequate knowledge of the means which are indispensable for its + attainment. In confiding all to the mere strength of the human + intellect and the enthusiastic self-reliance and determination of the + human heart, it makes no provision for defence against those powerful + temptations before which ordinary resolution must give way; and + affords no consoling support under those overwhelming afflictions by + which the spirit is prostrated and subdued, when unaided by the + influence of a purer faith and unsustained by its confidence in a + diviner power. From the contemplation of the Buddhist all the awful + and unending realities of a future life are withdrawn—his hopes + and his fears are at once mean and circumscribed; the rewards held in + prospect by his creed are insufficient to incite him to virtue; and + its punishments too remote to deter him from vice. Thus, insufficient + for time, and rejecting eternity, the utmost triumph of his religion + is to live without fear and to die without hope.</p> + + <p>Both socially and in its effects upon individuals, the result of + the system in Ceylon has been apathy almost approaching <a name= + "pg538" id="pg538"></a> to infidelity. Even as regards the tenets of + their creed, the mass of the population exhibit the profoundest + ignorance and manifest the most irreverent indifference. In their + daily intercourse and acts, morality and virtue, so far from being + apparent as the rule, are barely discernible as the exception. + Neither hopes nor apprehensions have proved a sufficient restraint on + the habitual violation of all those precepts of charity and honesty, + of purity and truth, which form the very essence of their doctrine; + and in proportion as its tenets have been slighted by the people, its + priesthood are disregarded, and its temples neglected.</p> + + <p>No national system of religion, no prevailing superstition that + has ever fallen under my observation presents so dull a level, and is + so pre-eminently deficient in popular influences, as Buddhism amongst + the Singhalese. It has its multitude of followers, but it is a + misnomer to describe them as its <i>votaries</i>, for the term + implies a warmth and fervour unknown to a native of Ceylon. He + believes, or he thinks he believes, because he is of the same faith + with his ancestors; but he looks on the religious doctrines of the + various sects which surround him with a stolid indifference which is + the surest indication of the little importance which he attaches to + his own. The fervid earnestness of Christianity, even in its most + degenerate forms, the fanatical enthusiasm of Islam, the proud + exclusiveness of Brahma, and even the zealous warmth of other + Northern faiths, are all emotions utterly foreign and unknown to the + followers of Buddhism in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>Yet, strange to tell, under all the icy coldness of this barren + system, there burn below the unextinguished fires of another and a + darker superstition, whose flames overtop the icy summits of the + Buddhist philosophy, and excite a deeper and more reverential awe in + the imagination of the Singhalese. As the Hindus in process of time + superadded to their exalted conceptions of Brahma, and the benevolent + attributes of Vishnu, those dismal dreams and apprehensions which + embody themselves in the horrid worship of <a name="pg539" id= + "pg539"></a> Shiva, and in invocations to propitiate the destroyer; + so the followers of Buddha, unsatisfied with the vain pretensions of + unattainable perfection, struck down by their internal consciousness + of sin and insufficiency, and seeing around them, instead of the + reign of universal happiness and the apotheosis of intellect and + wisdom, nothing but the ravages of crime and the sufferings produced + by ignorance, have turned with instinctive terror to propitiate the + powers of evil, by whom alone such miseries are supposed to be + inflicted, and to <i>worship the demons</i> and tormentors to whom + their superstition is contented to attribute a circumscribed portion + of power over the earth.</p> + + <p>DEMON WORSHIP prevailed amongst the Singhalese before the + introduction of Buddhism by Mahindo. Some principle akin to it seems + to be an aboriginal impulse of uncivilised man in his first and + rudest conceptions of religion, engendered, perhaps, by the spectacle + of cruelty and pain, the visitations of suffering and death, and the + contemplation of the awful phenomena of nature—storms, + torrents, volcanoes, earthquakes, and destruction. The conciliation + of the powers which inflict such calamities, seems to precede, when + it does not supplant, the adoration of the benevolent influence to + which belong the creation, the preservation, and the bestowal of + happiness on mankind; and in the mind of the native of Ceylon this + ancient superstition has maintained its ascendancy, notwithstanding + the introduction and ostensible prevalence of Buddhism; for the + latter, whilst it admits the existence of evil spirits, has + emphatically prohibited their invocation, on the ground that any + malignant influence they may exert over man is merely the consequence + of his vices, whilst the cultivators of virtue may successfully bid + them defiance. The demons here denounced are distinct from a class of + demigods, who, under the name of <i>Yakshyos</i>, are supposed to + inhabit the waters, and dwell on the sides of Mount Meru, and are + distinguished not only for gentleness and benevolence but even by a + veneration for Buddha, who, in one of his <a name="pg540" id= + "pg540"></a> earlier transmigrations, was himself born under the form + of a Yakshyo, and, attended by similar companions, traversed the + world teaching righteousness. One section of these demigods, however, + the <i>Rakshyos</i>, are fierce and malignant, and in these respects + resemble the Yakkas or demons so much dreaded by the Singhalese, and + who, like the <i>Ghouls</i> of the Mahometans, are believed to infest + the vicinity of graveyards, or, like the dryads and hamadryads of the + ancients, to frequent favourite forests and groves, and to inhabit + particular trees, whence they sally out to seize on the passer by.[1] + The Buddhist priests connive at demon worship because their efforts + are ineffectual to suppress it, and the most orthodox Singhalese, + whilst they confess its impropriety, are still driven to resort to it + in all their fears and afflictions.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Travellers from Point de Galle to Colombo, in driving through + the long succession of gardens and plantations of coco-nuts which + the road traverses throughout its entire extent, will not fail to + observe fruit-trees of different kinds, round the stem of which + <i>a band of leaves has been fastened</i> by the owner. This is to + denote that the tree has been devoted to a demon; and sometimes to + Vishnu or the Kattregam dewol. Occasionally these dedications are + made to the temples of Buddha, and even to the Roman Catholic + altars, as to that of St. Anne of Calpentyn. This ceremony is + called <i>Gok-band-ema</i>, "the tying of the tender leaf," and its + operation is to protect the fruit from pillage till ripe enough to + be plucked and sent as an offering to the divinity to whom it has + thus been consecrated. There is reason to fear, however, that on + these occasions the devil is, to some extent, defrauded of his due, + as the custom is, after applying a few only of the finest as an + offering to the evil one, to appropriate the remainder to the use + of the owner. When coco-nut palms are so preserved, the fruit is + sometimes converted into oil and burned before the shrine of the + demon. The superstition extends throughout other parts of Ceylon; + and so long as the wreath continues to hang upon the tree, it is + presumed that no thief would venture to plunder the garden.</p> + </div> + + <p>Independent of the malignant spirits or Yakkas, who are the + authors of indefinite evil, the Singhalese have a demon or + <i>Sanne</i> for each form of disease, who is supposed to be its + direct agent and inflictor, and who is accordingly invoked for its + removal; and others, who delight in the miseries of mankind, are to + be propitiated before the arrival of any event over which their + pernicious influence might otherwise prevail. Hence, on every + domestic occurrence, as well as in every domestic calamity, the + services of the <a name="pg541" id="pg541"></a> <i>Kattadias</i> or + devil-priests are to be sought, and their ceremonies performed, + generally with observances so barbarous as to be the most revolting + evidence still extant of the uncivilised habits of the Singhalese. + Especially in cases of sickness and danger, the assistance of the + devil-dancer is implicitly relied on: an altar, decorated with + garlands, is erected within sight of the patient, and on this an + animal, frequently a cock, is to be sacrificed for his recovery. The + dying man is instructed to touch and dedicate to the evil spirit the + wild flowers, the rice, and the flesh, which have been prepared as + the <i>pidaneys</i> or offerings to be made at sunset, at midnight, + and the morning; and in the intervals the dancers perform their + incantations, habited in masks and disguises to represent the demon + which they personate, as the immediate author of the patient's + suffering. In the frenzy of these orgies, the Kattadia having feigned + the access of inspiration from the spirit he invokes, is consulted by + the friends of the afflicted, and declares the nature of his disease, + and the probability of its favourable or fatal termination. At + sunrise, the ceremony closes by an exorcism chanted to disperse the + demons who have been attracted by the rite; the devil-dancers + withdraw with the offerings, and sing, as they retire, the concluding + song of the ceremony, "that the sacrifice may be acceptable and the + life of the sufferer extended."</p> + + <p>In addition to this Yakka worship, which is essentially indigenous + in Ceylon, the natives practise the invocation of a distinct class of + demons, their conceptions of which are evidently borrowed from the + debased ceremonies of Hinduism, though in their adoption they have + rejected the grosser incidents of its ritual, and replaced them with + others less cruel, but by no means less revolting. The Capuas, who + perform ceremonies in honour of these strange gods, are of a higher + rank than the Kattadias, who conduct the incantations to the Yakkas, + and they are <a name="pg542" id="pg542"></a> more or less connected + with the Dewales and temples of Hinduism. The spirits in whose honour + these ceremonies are performed, are all foreign to Ceylon. Some, such + as Kattregam and Pattine, are borrowed from the mythology of the + Brahmans; some are the genii of fire and other elements of the + universe, and others are deified heroes; but the majority are dreaded + as the inflictors of pestilence and famine, and propitiated by rites + to avert the visitations of their malignity.</p> + + <p>The ascendancy of these superstitions, and the anomaly of their + association with the religion of Buddha, which has taken for its + deity the perfection of wisdom and benevolence, present one of the + most signal difficulties with which Christianity has had, at all + times, to contend in the effort to extend its influences throughout + Ceylon. The Portuguese priesthood discovered that, however the + Singhalese might be induced to profess the worship of Christ, they + adhered with timid tenacity to their ancient demonology. The Dutch + clergy, in their reiterated lamentations over the failure of their + efforts for conversion, have repeatedly recorded the fact, that + however readily the native population might be brought to abjure + their belief in the doctrines of Buddha, no arguments or expedients + had proved effectual to overcome their terror of the demons, or check + their propensity to resort on every emergency to the ceremonies of + the Capuas, the dismal rites of the devil-dancers.[1] The Wesleyans, + the Baptists, and other missionaries, who in later times have made + the hamlets and secluded districts of Ceylon the scene of their + unwearied labours, have found, with equal disappointment, that to the + present hour the villagers and the peasantry are as powerfully + attracted as ever by this strong superstition, bearing on their + person the charms calculated to protect them from the evil eye of the + demon, consulting the astrologers and the Capuas on every domestic + emergency, solemnizing their marriages under their auspices, <a name= + "pg543" id="pg543"></a> and requiring their presence at the birth of + their children, who, together with their mother, are not unfrequently + dedicated to the evil spirits, whom they dread.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HOUGH, <i>Hist. Christ. in India,</i> vol. iv. b. xii. ch. + v.</p> + + <p>2: HARVARD'S <i>History of the Wesleyan Mission in Ceylon</i>, + Introd., p. iii.</p> + </div> + + <p>As regards Buddhism itself, whilst there is that in the tenets and + genius of Brahmanism which proclaims an active resistance to any + other form of religion, Christianity in the southern expanse of + Ceylon has to encounter an obstacle still more embarrassing in the + habitual apathy and listless indifference of the Buddhists. + Brahmanism in its constitution and spirit is essentially exclusive + and fanatical, jealous of all conflicting faiths, and strongly + disposed to persecution. Buddhism, on the other hand, in the strength + of its self-righteousness, extends a latitudinarian liberality to + every other belief, and exhibits a Laodicean indifference towards its + own. Whilst Brahmanism is a science confided only to an initiated + priesthood; and the Vedas and the Shastras in which its precepts are + embodied are kept with jealousy from the profane eye of the people, + Buddhism, rejoicing in its universality, aspires to be the religion + of the multitude, throws open its sacred pages without restriction, + and encourages their perusal as a meritorious act of devotion. The + despotic ministers of Brahma affect to be versed only in arcana and + mystery, and to issue their dicta from oracular authority; but the + priesthood of Buddha assume no higher functions than those of + teachers of ethics, and claim no loftier title than that of "the + clergy of reason."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The sect of the <i>Lao Tsen</i>, or "Doctors of Reason," whom + LANDRESSE regards as a development of Buddhism, prevailed in Thibet + and the countries lying between China and India in the fifth and + sixth centuries; and FA HIAN always refers to them as the + "<i>Clergy of Reason</i>."—<i>Foĕ Kouĕ Ki</i>, + chap. xxxviii.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the character of the Singhalese people there is to be traced + much of the genius of their religion. The same passiveness and love + of ease which restrain from active exertion in the labours of life, + find a counterpart in the adjustment by which virtue is limited to + abstinence, and <a name="pg544" id="pg544"></a> worship to + contemplation; with only so much of actual ceremonial as may render + visible to the eye what would be otherwise inaccessible to the mind. + The same love of repose which renders sleep and insensibility the + richest blessings of this life, anticipates torpor, akin to + extinction, as the supremest felicity of the next. In common with all + other nations they deem some form of religious worship indispensable, + but, contrary to the usage of most, they are singularly indifferent + as to what that particular form is to be; leaving it passively to be + determined by the conjunction of circumstances, the accident of + locality, and the influence of friends or worldly prospects of gain. + Still, in the hands of the Christian missionary, they are by no means + the plastic substance which such a description would + suggest—capable of being moulded into any form, or retaining + permanently any casual impression—but rather a yielding fluid + which adapts its shape to that of the vessel into which it may happen + to be poured, without any change in its quality or any modification + of its character.</p> + + <p>From this unexcitable temperament of the people, combined with the + exalted morals which form the articles of their belief, result + phenomena which for upwards of three hundred years have more or less + baffled the exertions of all who have laboured for the overthrow of + their national superstition and the elevation of Christianity in its + stead. The precepts of the latter, when offered to the natives apart + from the divinity of their origin, present something in appearance so + nearly akin to their own tenets that they were slow to discern the + superiority. If Christianity requires purity and truth, temperance, + honesty and benevolence, these are already discovered to be enjoined + with at least equal impressiveness in the precepts of Buddha. The + Scripture commandment forbidding murder is supposed to be analogous + to the Buddhist prohibition to kill[1]; <a name="pg545" id= + "pg545"></a> and where the law and the Gospel alike enforce the love + of one's neighbour as the love of one's self, Buddhism insists upon + charity as the basis of worship, and calls on its own followers "to + appease anger by gentleness, and overcome evil by good."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The order of Buddha not to take away life is imperative and + unqualified as regards the priesthood; but to mankind in general it + forms one of his "<i>Sikshupada</i>," or <i>advices</i>, and admits + of modification under certain contingencies. A priest who should + take away the life of an animal, or even an insect, under any + circumstances, would be guilty of the offence denominated + <i>Pachittvya</i>, and subject to penal discipline; but to take + away human life, to be accessory to murder, or to encourage to + suicide, amounts to the sin of <i>Parajika</i>, and is visited with + permanent expulsion from the order. As regards the laity, the use + of animal food is not forbidden, provided the individual has not + himself been an agent in depriving it of life. The doctrine of + prohibition, however, although thus regulated, like many others of + the Buddhists, by subtleties and sophistry, has proved an obstacle + in the way of the Missionaries; and, coupled with the permission in + the Scriptures "to slay and eat," it has not failed to operate + prejudicially to the spread of Christianity.</p> + + <p>2: From the Singhalese book, the "<i>Dharmma Padan</i>," or + Footsteps of Religion, portions of which are translated in "<i>The + Friend</i>," Colombo, 1840.</p> + </div> + + <p>Thus the outward concurrence of Christianity in those points on + which it agrees with their own religion, has proved more embarrassing + to the natives than their perplexity as to others in which it + essentially differs; till at last, too timid to doubt and too feeble + to inquire, they cling with helpless tenacity to their own + superstition, and yet subscribe to the new faith simply by adding it + on to the old.</p> + + <p>Combined with this state of irresolution a serious obstacle to the + acceptance of reformed Christianity by the Singhalese Buddhists has + arisen from the differences and disagreements between the various + churches by whose ministers it has been successively offered to them. + In the persecution of the Roman Catholics by the Dutch, the + subsequent supercession of the Church of Holland by that of England, + the rivalries more or less apparent between the Episcopalians and + Presbyterians, and the peculiarities which separate the Baptists from + the Wesleyan Methodists—all of whom have their missions and + representatives in Ceylon—the Singhalese can discover little + more than that they are offered something still doubtful and + unsettled, in exchange for which they are pressed to surrender their + <a name="pg546" id="pg546"></a> own ancient superstition. Conscious + of their inability to decide on what has baffled the wisest of their + European teachers to reconcile, they hesitate to exchange for an + apparent uncertainty that which has been unhesitatingly believed by + generations of their ancestors, and which comes recommended to them + by all the authority of antiquity; and even when truth has been so + far successful as to shake their confidence in their national faith, + the choice of sects which has been offered to them leads to utter + bewilderment as to the peculiar form of Christianity with which they + may most confidingly replace it.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A narrative of the efforts made by the Portuguese to + introduce Christianity, and by the Dutch to establish the reformed + Religion, will be found in Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT'S <i>Christianity + in Ceylon</i>; together with an exposition of the systems adopted + by the European and American missions, and their influence on the + Hindu and Buddhist races, respectively.</p> + + <p>Those who seek to pursue the study of Buddhism, its tenets and + economies, as it exhibits itself in Ceylon, will find ample details + in the two profound works published by Mr. R. SPENCE HARDY: + <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, Lond. 1850, and <i>A Manual of Buddhism, + in its Modern Development</i>, Lond. 1853.</p> + </div><a name="pg547" id="pg547"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>PART V.</h2> + + <h3>MEDIÆVAL HISTORY.</h3><a name="pg548" id="pg548"></a> <a name= + "pg549" id="pg549"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + + <h3>CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.</h3> + + <p>Although mysterious rumours of the wealth and wonders of India had + reached the Western nations in the heroic ages, and although + travellers at a later period returning from Persia and the East had + spread romantic reports of its vastness and magnificence, it is + doubtful whether Ceylon had been heard of in Europe[1] even <a name= + "pg550" id="pg550"></a> by name till the companions of Alexander the + Great, returning from his Indian expedition, brought back accounts of + what they had been told of its elephants and ivory, its tortoises and + marine monsters.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Nothing is more strikingly suggestive of the extended renown + of Ceylon and of the different countries which maintained an + intercourse with the island, than the number and dissimilarity of + the names by which it has been known at various periods throughout + Europe and Asia. So remarkable is this peculiarity, that LASSEN has + made "the names of Taprobane" the subject of several learned + disquisitions (<i>De Taprobane Insula veter. cogn. Dissert</i>. + sec. 2, p. 5; <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i>, vol. i. p. 200, note + viii. p. 212, &c.); and BURNOUF has devoted two elaborate + essays to their elucidation, <i>Journ. Asiat</i>. 1826, vol. viii. + p. 129. <i>Ibid</i>., 1857, vol. xxxiii. p. 1.</p> + + <p>In the literature of the Brahmans, Lanka, from having been the + scene of the exploits of Rama, is as renowned as Ilion in the great + epic of the Greeks. "Taprobane," the name by which the island was + first known to the Macedonians, is derivable from the Pali "Tamba + panni." The origin of the epithet will be found in the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 56. and it is further noticed in the + present work, Vol. I. P. 1. ch. i. p. 17, and P. III. ch. ii. p. + 330.—It has likewise been referred to the Sanskrit + "<i>Tambrapani</i>;" which, according to LASSEN, means "the great + pond," or "the pond covered with the red lotus," and was probably + associated with the gigantic tanks for which Ceylon is so + remarkable. In later times Taprobane was exchanged for Simundu, + Palai-simundu, and Salike, under which names it is described by + PTOLEMY, the author of the <i>Periplus</i>, and by MARCIANUS of + Heraclæa. <i>Palai-simundu</i>, LASSEN conjectures to be derived + from the Sanskrit <i>Pali-simanta</i>, "the head of the sacred + law," from Ceylon having become the great centre of the Buddhist + faith (<i>De Taprob</i>., p. 16; <i>Indische Alter</i>. vol. i. p. + 200); and <i>Salike</i> he regards merely as a seaman's corruption + of "Sinhala or Sihala," the name chosen by the Singhalese + themselves, and signifying "the dwelling place of lions." BURNOUF + suggests whether it may not be <i>Sri-Lanka</i>, or "Lanka the + Blessed."</p> + + <p><i>Sinhala</i>, with the suffix of "diva," or "dwipa" (island), + was subsequently converted into "Silan-dwipa" and "Seren-diva," + whence the "Serendib" of the Arabian navigators and their romances; + and this in later times was contracted into Zeilan by the + Portuguese, Ceylan by the Dutch, and Ceylon by the English. + VINCENT, in his <i>Commentary on the Periplus of the Erythræan + Sea</i>, vol. ii. p. 493, has enumerated a variety of other names + borne by the island; and to all these might be further added those + assigned to it in China, in Siam, in Hindustan, Kashmir, Persia, + and other countries of the East. The learned ingenuity of BOCHART + applied a Hebrew root to expound the origin of Taprobane (<i>Geogr. + Sac.</i> lib. ii. ch. xxviii.); but the later researches of + TURNOUR, BURNOUF, and LASSEN have traced it with certainty to its + Pali and Sanskrit origin.</p> + + <p>2: GOSSELIN, in his <i>Recherches sur la Géographie des + Anciens</i>, tom. iii. p. 291, says that Onesicritus, the pilot of + Alexander's fleet, "avoit visité la Taprobane pendant un nouveau + voyage qu'il eut ordre de faire." If so, he was the first European + on record who had seen the island; but I have searched + unsuccessfully for any authority to sustain this statement of + GOSSELIN.</p> + </div> + + <p>So vague and uncertain was the information thus obtained, that + STRABO, writing upwards of two centuries later, manifests + irresolution in stating that Taprobane was an island[1]; and + POMPONIUS MELA, who wrote early in the first century of the Christian + era, quotes as probable the conjecture of HIPPARCHUS, that it was not + in reality an island, but the commencement of a south-eastern + continent[2]; an opinion which PLINY records as an error that had + prevailed previous to his own time, but which he had been enabled to + correct by the information received from the ambassador who had been + sent from Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: STRABO, l. ii. c.i.s. 14, c.v.s. 14, [Greek: einai phasi + nêson]; l. xv. c.i.s. 14. OVID was more confident, and sung + of—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>" ... Syene</p> + + <p>Aut ubi Taprobanen Indica cingit aqua."</p> + + <p><i>Epst. ex Ponto</i>, l. 80</p> + </div> + + <p>2: "Taprobanen aut grandis admodum insula aut prima pars orbis + alterius Hipparcho dicitur."—P. MELA, iii. 7. "Dubitare + poterant juniores num revera insula esset quam illi pro veterum + Taprobane habebant, si nemo eousque repertus esset qui eam + circumnavigasset: sic enim de nostra quoque Brittania dubitatum est + essetne insula antequam illam circumnavigasset + Agricola."—<i>Dissertatio de Ætate et Amtore Peripli Maris + Erythræi</i>; HUDSON, <i>Geographiæ Veter. Scrip. Grac. Min.</i>., + vol. i. p. 97.</p> + + <p>3: PLINY, 1. vi. c. 24.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the treatise <i>De Mundo</i>, which is ascribed to + ARISTOTLE[1], Taprobane is mentioned incidentally as of less size + than Britain; and this is probably the earliest historical <a name= + "pg551" id="pg551"></a> notice of Ceylon that has come down to us[2] + as the memoirs of Alexander's Indian officers, on whose <a name= + "pg552" id="pg552"></a> authority Aristotle (if he be the author of + the treatise "<i>De Mundo</i>") must have written, survive only in + fragments, preserved by the later historians and geographers.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I have elsewhere disposed of the alleged allusions of + Sanchoniathon to an island which was obviously meant for Ceylon. + (See <a href="#pg571">Note (A)</a> end of this chapter.) The + authenticity of the treatise <i>De Mundo</i>, as a production of + ARISTOTLE, is somewhat doubtful (SCHOELL, <i>Literat. Grecque</i>, + liv. iv. c. xl.); and it might add to the suspicion of its being a + modern composition, that Aristotle should do no more than mention + the name and size of a country of which Onesicritus and Nearchus + had just brought home accounts so surprising; and that he should + speak of it with confidence as an island; although the question of + its insularity remained somewhat uncertain at a much later + period.</p> + + <p>2: Fabricius, in the supplemental volume of his <i>Codex + Pseudepigraphi veteris Testamenti,</i> Hamb., A.D. 1723, says: + "Samarita, Genesis, viii. 4, tradit Noæ arcam requievisse super + montem [Greek: tês] Serendib sive Zeylan."—P. 30; and it was + possibly upon this authority that it has been stated in Kitto's + <i>Cyclopoedia of Biblical Literature,</i> vol. i. p. 199, as "a + curious circumstance that in Genesis, viii. 4, the Samaritan + Pentateuch has Sarandib, the Arabic name of Ceylon," instead of + Ararat, as the resting place of the ark. Were this true, it would + give a triumph to speculation, and serve by a single but + irresistible proof to dissipate doubt, if there were any, as to the + early intercourse between the Hebrews and that island as the + country from which Solomon drew his triennial supplies of ivory, + apes, and peacocks (1 Kings, x. 22). Assuming the correctness of + the opinion that the Samaritan Pentateuch is as old as the + separation of the tribes in the reign of Rehoboam, B. C. 975-958, + this would not only furnish a notice of Ceylon far anterior to any + existing authority; but would assign an antiquity irreconcilable + with historical evidence as to its comparatively modern name of + "Serendib." The interest of the discovery would still be + extraordinary, even if the Samaritan Pentateuch be referred to the + later date assigned to it by Frankel, who adduces evidence to show + that its writer had made use of the Septuagint. The author of the + article in the <i>Biblical Cyclopoedia</i> is however in error. + Every copy of the Samaritan Pentateuch, both those printed in the + Paris <i>Polyglot</i> and in that of Walton, as well as the five + MSS. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, which contain the eighth + chapter of Genesis, together with several collations of the Hebrew + and Samaritan text, make no mention of Sarandib, but all exhibit + the word "Ararat" in its proper place in the eighth chapter of + Genesis. "Ararat" is also found correctly in BLAYNET'S <i>Pentat, + Hebroeo-Samarit.,</i> Oxford, 1790.</p> + + <p>But there is another work in which "Sarandib" does appear in the + verse alluded to. PIETRO DELLA VALLE, in that most interesting + letter in which he describes the manner in which he obtained at + Damascus, in A.D. 1616, a manuscript of the Pentateuch on parchment + in the Hebrew language, but written in Samaritan characters; + relates that along with it he procured <i>another</i> on paper, in + which not only the letters, but the language, was + Samaritan—"che non solo è seritto con lettere Samaritane, ma + in lingua anche propria de' Samaritani, che è un misto della + Ebraica e della Caldea."—<i>Viaggi, &c.,</i> Lett. da + Aleppo, 15. di Giugno A.D. 1616.</p> + + <p>The first of these two manuscripts is the Samaritan Pentateuch, + the second is the "<i>Samaritan version</i>" of it. The author and + age of the second are alike unknown; but it cannot, in the opinion + of Frankel, date earlier than the second century, or a still later + period. (DAVISON'S <i>Biblical Criticism,</i> vol. i, ch. xv. p. + 242.) Like all ancient targums, it bears in some particulars the + character of a paraphrase; and amongst other departures from the + literal text of the original Hebrew, the translator, following the + example of Onkelos and others, has substituted modern geographical + names for some of the more ancient, such as <i>Gerizim</i> for + Mount Ebal (Deut. xxvii. 4), <i>Paneas</i> for Dan, and + <i>Ascalon</i> for Gerar; and in the 4th verse of the viiith + chapter of Genesis he has made the ark to rest "<i>upon the + mountains of Sarandib.</i>" Onkelos in the same passage has + <i>Kardu</i> in place of Ararat. See WALTON'S <i>Polyglot</i>, vol. + i. p. 31; BASTOW, <i>Bibl. Dict.</i> 1847, vol. i. p. 71.</p> + + <p>According to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, the epithet of Sihale-dwipa, + the <i>island of lions</i>, was conferred upon Ceylon by the + followers of Wijayo, B.C. 543 (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 51), + and from this was formed, by the Arabian seamen, the names + Silan-dip and Seran-dib. The occurrence of the latter word, + therefore, in the "Samaritan Pentateuch," if its antiquity be + referable to the reign of Rehoboam, would be inexplicable; whereas + no anachronism is involved by its appearance in the "Samaritan + <i>version</i>," which was not written till many centuries after + the Wijayan conquest.</p> + + <p>There is another manuscript, written on bombycine, in the + Bodleian Library, No. 345, described as an Arabic version of the + Pentateuch, written between the years 884 and 885 of the Hejira, + A.D. 1479 and 1480, and ascribed to Aba Said, son of Abul Hassan, + "in eo continetur versio Arabica Pentateuchi quæ ex textu + Hebræico-Samaritano <i>non ex versione ilia quæ dialecto quadam + peculieri Samaritanis quondam vernacula Scripta + est</i>."—<i>Cat. Orient. MSS.</i> vol. I. p. 2. In this + manuscript, also, the word <i>Sarendip</i> instead of Ararat, + occurs in the passage in Genesis descriptive of the resting of the + ark.</p> + </div> + + <p>From their compilations, however, it appears that the information + concerning Ceylon collected by the Macedonian explorers of India, was + both meagre and erroneous. ONESICRITUS, as he is quoted by Strabo and + Pliny, propagated exaggerated statements as to the dimensions of the + island[1] and the number of herbivorous cetacea[2] found in its seas; + the elephants he described as far surpassing those of continental + India both in courage and in size.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: These early errors as to the and position of Ceylon will be + found explained elsewhere. See <a href="#pg081">Vol. I. P. 1. ch. + i. p. 81.</a></p> + + <p>2: STRABO, xv. p. 691. The animal referred to by the informants + of Onesicritus was the dugong, whose form and attitudes gave rise + to the fabled mermaid. See Ælian, lib. xvi. ch. xviii., who says it + has the face of a woman and spines that resemble hair.</p> + + <p>3: PLINY, lib. vi. ch. 24.</p> + </div> + + <p>MEGASTHENES, twenty years after the death of Alexander the Great, + was accredited as an ambassador from Seleucus Nicator to the court of + Sandracottus, or Chandra-Gupta, the King of the Prasii, from whose + country Ceylon had been colonised two centuries before by the + expedition under Wijayo.[1] It was, perhaps, <a name="pg553" id= + "pg553"></a> from the latter circumstance and the communication + subsequently maintained between the insular colony and the mother + country, that Megasthenes, who never visited any part of India south + of the Ganges, and who was, probably, the first European who ever + beheld that renowned river[1], was nevertheless enabled to collect + many particulars relative to the interior of Ceylon. He described it + as being divided by a river (the Mahawelli-ganga?) into two sections, + one infested by wild beasts and elephants, the other producing gold + and gems, and inhabited by a people whom he called Palæogoni[2], a + hellenized form of <i>Pali-Putra,</i> "the sons of the Pali," the + first Prasian colonists.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: See <a href="#pg336">Vol. I. P. III. ch. iii. p. 336.</a></p> + + <p>2: ROBEBTSON'S <i>Ancient India,</i> sec. ii.</p> + + <p>3: SCHWANBECK'S <i>Megasthenes, Fragm.</i> xviii.; SOLINUS + POLYHISTOR, lii. 3; PLINY, lvi. ch. 24. ÆLIAN, in compiling his + <i>Natura Animalium,</i> has introduced the story told by + MEGASTHENES, and quoted by STRABO, of cetaceous animals in the seas + of Ceylon with heads resembling oxen and lions; and this justifies + the conjecture that other portions of the same work referring to + the island may have been simultaneously borrowed from the same + source. SCHWANBECK, apparently on this ground, has included among + the <i>Fragmenta incerta</i> those passages from ÆLIAN, lib, xvi. + ch. 17, 18, in which he says, and truly, that in Taprobane there + were no cities, but from five to seven hundred villages built of + wood, thatched with reeds, and occasionally covered with the shells + of large tortoises. The sea coast then as now was densely covered + with palm-trees (evidently coco-nut and Palmyra), and the forests + contained elephants so superior to those of India that they were + shipped in large vessels and sold to the King of Calinga (Northern + Circars). The island, he says, is so large that "those in the + maritime districts never hunted in the interior, and those in the + interior had never seen the sea."</p> + </div> + + <p>Such was the scanty knowledge regarding India communicated to + Europe by those who had followed the footsteps of conquest into that + remote region; and although eighteen centuries elapsed from the death + of Alexander the Great before another European power sought to + establish its dominion in the East, a new passion had been early + implanted, the cultivation of which was in the highest degree + favourable to the acquisition and diffusion of geographical + knowledge. In an age before the birth of history[1], the adventurous + Phoenicians, issuing from the Red Sea, in their ships, <a name= + "pg554" id="pg554"></a> had reached the shores of India, and + centuries afterwards their experienced seamen piloted the fleets of + Solomon in search of the luxuries of the East.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A compendious account of the early trade between India and + the countries bordering on the Mediterranean will be found in + PARDESSUS's <i>Collection des Lois Maritimes antérieures au XVIII^e + siècle</i>, tom. i. p. 9.</p> + + <p>2: It has been conjectured, and not without reason, that it may + possibly have been from Ceylon and certainly from Southern India + that the fleets of Solomon were returning when "once in every three + years came the ships of Tarshish, bringing gold and silver, ivory, + apes, and peacocks."—<i>I Kings</i>, x. 22, <i>II Chron.</i>, + xx. 21. An exposition of the reasons for believing that the site of + Tarshish may be recognised in the modern Point de Galle will be + found in a subsequent chapter descriptive of that ancient emporium. + See also <a href="#pg571">Note A</a> at the end of this + chapter.</p> + </div> + + <p>Egypt, under the Ptolemies, became the seat of that opulent trade + which it had been the aim of Alexander the Great to divert to it from + Syria. Berenice was built on the Red Sea, as an emporium for the + ships engaged in Indian voyages, and Alexandria excelled Tyre in the + magnitude and success of her mercantile operations.</p> + + <p>The conquest of Egypt by Augustus, so far from checking, served to + communicate a fresh impulse to the intercourse with India, whence all + that was costly and rare was collected in wanton profusion, to + minister to the luxury of Rome. A bold discovery of the same period + imparted an entirely new character to the navigation of the Indian + Ocean. The previous impediment to trade had been the necessity of + carrying it on in small vessels, that crept cautiously along the + windings of the shore, the crews being too ignorant and too timid to + face the dangers of the open sea. But the courage of an individual at + length solved the difficulty, and dissipated the alarm. Hippalus, a + seaman in the reign of Claudius, observing the steady prevalence of + the monsoons[1], which blew over the Indian Ocean alternately from + east to west, dared to trust himself to their influence, <a name= + "pg555" id="pg555"></a> and departing from the coast of Arabia, he + stretched fearlessly across the unknown deep, and was carried by the + winds to Muziris, a port on the coast of Malabar, the modern + Mangalore.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Arabic "<i>maussam</i>." I believe the root belongs to a + dialect of India, and signifies "seasons." VINCENT fixes the + discovery of the monsoons by Hippalus about the year A.D. 47, + although it admits of no doubt that the periodical prevalence of + the winds must have been known long before, if not partially taken + advantage of by the seamen of Arabia and India. <i>Periplus, + &c.</i>, vol. ii, pp. 24—57.</p> + </div> + + <p>An exploit so adventurous and so triumphant, rendered Hippalus the + Columbus of his age, and his countrymen, to perpetuate his renown, + called the winds which he had mastered by his name.[1] His discovery + gave a new direction to navigation, it altered the dimensions and + build of the ships frequenting those seas [2], and imparted so great + an impulse to trade, that within a very brief period it became a + subject of apprehension at Rome, lest the empire should be drained of + its specie to maintain the commerce with India. Silver to the value + of nearly a million and a half sterling, being annually required to + pay for the spices, gems, pearls, and silks, imported through + Egypt.[3] An extensive acquaintance was now acquired with the + sea-coast of India, and the great work of Pliny, compiled less than + fifty years after the discovery of Hippalus, serves to attest the + additional knowledge regarding Ceylon which had been collected during + the interval.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Periplus, &c.</i>, HUDSON, p. 32; PLINY, lib. vi, ch. + 26. A learned disquisition on the discovery of the monsoons will be + found in VINCENT's <i>Commerce of the Ancients</i>, vol. i. pp. 47, + 253; vol. ii. pp. 49; 467; ROBERTSON's <i>India</i>, sec. ii.</p> + + <p>2: PLINY, lib. vi. ch. 24.</p> + + <p>3: PLINY, lib. vi. ch. 26. The nature of this rich trade is + fully described by the author of the <i>Periplus of the Erythrean + Sea</i>, who was himself a merchant engaged in it.</p> + </div> + + <p>Pliny, writing in the first century, puts aside the fabulous tales + previously circulated concerning the island[1]; he gives due credit + to the truer accounts of Onesicritus and Megasthenes, and refers to + the later <a name="pg556" id="pg556"></a> works of ERATOSTHENES and + ARTEMIDORUS[2] the geographers, as to its position, its dimensions, + its cities, its natural productions, and as to the ignorance of + navigation exhibited by its inhabitants. All this, he says, was + recorded by former writers, but it had fallen to his lot to collect + information from natives of Ceylon who had visited Rome during his + own time under singular circumstances. A ship had been despatched to + the coast of Arabia to collect the Red Sea revenues, but having been + caught by the monsoon it was carried to Hippuros, the modern + Kudra-mali, in the north-west of Ceylon, near the pearl banks of + Manaar. Here the officer in command was courteously received by the + king, who, struck with admiration of the Romans and eager to form an + alliance with them, despatched an embassy to Italy, consisting of a + Raja and suite of three persons.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I have not thought it necessary to advert to the romance of + JAMBULUS, the scene of which has been conjectured, but without any + justifiable grounds, to be laid in Ceylon; and which is strangely + incorporated with the authentic work of DIODORUS SICULUS, written + in the age of Augustus. DIODORUS professes to give it as an account + of the <i>recent discovery</i> of an island to which it refers; a + fact sufficiently demonstrative of its inapplicability to Ceylon, + the existence of which had been known to the Greeks three hundred + years before. It is the story of a merchant made captive by pirates + and carried to Æthiopia, where, in compliance with a solemn rite, + he and a companion were exposed in a boat, which, after a voyage of + four months, was wafted to one of the Fortunate Islands, in the + Southern Sea, where he resided seven years, whence having been + expelled, he made his way to Palibothra, on the Ganges, and thence + returned to Greece. In the pretended account of this island given + by JAMBULUS I cannot discover a single attribute sufficient to + identify it with Ceylon. On the contrary, the traits which he + narrates of the country and its inhabitants, when they are not + manifest inventions, are obviously borrowed from the descriptions + of the continent of India, given by CTESIAS and MEGASTHENES. + PRINSEP, in his learned analysis of the Sanchi Inscription, shows + that what JAMBULUS says of the alphabet of his island agrees + minutely with the character and symbols on the ancient Buddhist + lats of Central India. <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Ben.</i>, vol. vi. p. + 476. WILFORD, in his <i>Essay on the Sacred Isles of the West, + Asiat. Res.</i> x. 150, enumerates the statements of JAMBULUS which + might possibly apply to Sumatra, but certainly not to Ceylon, an + opinion in which he had been anticipated by RAMUSIO, vol. i. p. + 176. LASSEN, in his <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i>, vol. iii. p. + 270, assigns his reasons for believing that Bali, to the east of + Java, must be the island in which JAMBULUS laid the scene of his + adventures. DIODORUS SICULUS, lib. ii. ch. lv., &c. An attempt + has also been made to establish an identity between Ceylon and the + island of Panchoea, which Diodoras describes in the Indian Sea, + between Arabia and Gedrosia (lib. v. 41, &c.); but the efforts + of an otherwise ingenious writer have been unsuccessful. See + GROVER's <i>Voice from Stonehenge</i>, P. i. p. 95.</p> + + <p>2: PLINY, lib. xxii. ch. liii. iv. ch. xxiv. vii. ch. ii.</p> + + <p>3: "Legatos quatuor misit principe eoram Rachia."—PLINY, + lib. vi. c. 24. This passage is generally understood to indicate + four ambassadors, of whom the principal was one named Rachias. + CASIE CHITTY, in a learned paper on the early <i>History of + Jaffna</i>, offers another conjecture that "Rachia" may mean + <i>Arachia</i>, a Singhalese designation of rank which exists to + the present day; and in support of his hypothesis he instances the + coincidence that "at a later period a similar functionary was + despatched by the King Bhuwaneka-Bahu VIII. as ambassador to the + court of Lisbon."—<i>Journal Ceylon Asiat. Soc.,</i> p. 74, + 1848. The event to which he refers is recorded in the + <i>Rajavali</i>: it is stated that the king of Cotta, about the + year 1540, "caused a figure of the prince his grandson to be made + of gold, and sent the same under the care of <i>Sallappoo + Arachy</i>, to be delivered to the King of Portugal. The Arachy + having arrived and delivered the presents to the King of Portugal, + obtained the promise of great assistance," + &c.—<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 286. See also VALENTYN, <i>Oud en + Nieuw Oost-Indien</i>, ch. vi.; TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 49; + RIBEYRO'S <i>History</i>, trans, by Lee, ch. v. But as the embassy + sent to the Emperor Claudius would necessarily have been deputed by + one of the kings of the Wijayan dynasty, it is more than probable + that the rank of the envoy was Indian rather than Singhalese, and + that "Rachia" means <i>raja</i> rather than <i>arachy</i>.</p> + + <p>It may, however, be observed that Rackha is a name of some + renown in Singhalese annals. Rackha was the general whom Prakrama + Bahu sent to reduce the south of Ceylon when in arms in the 12th + century (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxiii.); and it is also the name of + one of the heroes of the Paramas. WILFORD, <i>As. Res.</i>, vol. + ix. p. 41.</p> + </div><a name="pg557" id="pg557"></a> + + <p>The Singhalese king of whom this is recorded was probably + Chanda-Mukha-Siwa, who ascended the throne A.D. 44, and was deposed + and assassinated by his brother A.D. 52. He signalised his reign by + the construction of one of those gigantic tanks which still form the + wonders of the island.[1] From his envoys Pliny learned that Ceylon + then contained five hundred towns (or more properly villages), of + which the chief was Palæsimunda, the residence of the sovereign, with + a population of two hundred thousand souls.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxx. p. 218; TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, + p. 21; AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS mentions another embassy which arrived + from Ceylon in the reign of the Emperor Julian, l. xx. c. 7, and + which consequently must have been despatched by the king Upa-tissa + II. I have elsewhere remarked, that it was in this century that the + Singhalese appear to have first commenced the practice of sending + frequent embassies to distant countries, and especially to China. + (See chapter on the <a href="#pg607">Knowledge of Ceylon</a> + possessed by the Chinese.)</p> + </div> + + <p>They spoke of a lake called Megisba, of vast magnitude, and giving + rise to two rivers, one flowing by the capital and the other + northwards, towards the continent of India, which was most likely an + exaggerated account of some of the great tanks, possibly that of + Tissaweva, in the vicinity of Anarajapoora. They described the coral + which abounds in the Gulf of Manaar; and spoke of marble, with + colours like the shell of the tortoise; of pearls and precious + stones; of the luxuriance <a name="pg558" id="pg558"></a> of the + soil, the profusion of all fruits except that of the vine, the + natural wealth of the inhabitants, the mildness of the government, + the absence of vexatious laws, the happiness of the people, and the + duration of life, which was prolonged to more than one hundred years. + They spoke of a commerce with China, but it was evidently overland, + by way of India and Tartary, the country of the Seres being visible, + they said, beyond the Himalaya mountains.[1] The ambassadors + described the mode of trading among their own countrymen precisely as + it is practised by the Veddahs in Ceylon at the present day[2]; the + parties to the barter being concealed from each other, the one + depositing the articles to be exchanged in a given place, and the + other, if they agree to the terms, removing them unseen, and leaving + behind what they give in return.</p> + + <p>It is impossible to read this narrative of Pliny without being + struck with its fidelity to truth in many particulars; and even one + passage, to which exception has been taken as an imposture of the + Singhalese envoys, when they manifested surprise at the quarters in + which the sun rose and set in Italy, has been referred[3] to the + peculiar system of the Hindus, in whose maps north and south are left + and right; but it may be explained by the fact of the sun passing + overhead in Ceylon, in his transit to the northern solstice; instead + of hanging about the south, as in Italy, after acquiring some + elevation above the horizon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Ultra montes Emodos Seras quoque ab ipsis aspici notos etiam + commercio."—PLINY, lib. vi. c. 24.</p> + + <p>2: See the chapter on the Veddahs, Vol. II. Part II. ch. + iii.</p> + + <p>3: See WILFORD'S <i>Sacred Islands of the West, Asiat. Res</i>., + vol. x. p. 41.</p> + </div> + + <p>The rapid progress of navigation and discovery in the Indian seas, + within the interval of sixty or seventy years which elapsed between + the death of Pliny and the compilation of the great work of Ptolemy + is in no instance more strikingly exhibited than on comparing the + information concerning Taprobane, which is given by the latter in his + "System of Geography,"[1] with the <a name="pg559" id="pg559"></a> + meagre knowledge of the island possessed by all his predecessors. + From his position at Alexandria and his opportunites of intercourse + with mariners returning from their distant voyages, he enjoyed + unusual facilities for ascertaining facts and distances, and in proof + of his singular diligence he was enabled to lay down in his map of + Ceylon the position of eight promontories upon its coast, the mouths + of five principal rivers, four bays, and harbours; and in the + interior he had ascertained that there were thirteen provincial + divisions, and nineteen towns, besides two emporiums on the coast; + five great estuaries which he terms lakes[2], <a name="pg560" id= + "pg560"></a> two bays, and two chains of mountains, one of them + surrounding Adam's Peak, which he designates as Maloea—the name + by which the hills that environ it are known in the <i>Mahawanso</i>. + He mentions the recent change of the name to Salike (which Lassen + conjectures to be a seaman's corruption of the real name Sihala[3]); + and he notices, in passing, the fact that the natives wore their hair + then as they do at the present day, in such length and profusion as + to give them an appearance of effeminacy, "[Greek: mallois + gynaikeiois eis hapan anadedemenos]."[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PTOLEMY, <i>Geog</i>. lib. vii. c. 4, tab. xii, Asiæ. In one + important particular a recent author has done justice to the genius + and perseverance of Ptolemy, by demonstrating that although + mistaken in adopting some of the fallacious statements of his + predecessors, he has availed himself of better data by which to fix + the position of Ceylon; so that the western coast in the Ptolemaic + map coincides with the modern Ceylon in the vicinity of Colombo. + Mr. COOLEY, in his learned work on <i>Claudius Ptolemy and the + Nile</i>, Lond. 1854, has successfully shown that whilst forced to + accept those popular statements which he had no authentic data to + check, Ptolemy conscientiously availed himself of the best + materials at his command, and endeavoured to fix his distances by + means of the reports of the Greek seamen who frequented the coasts + which he described, constructing his maps by means of their + itineraries and the journals of trading voyages. But a fundamental + error pervades all his calculations, inasmuch as he assumed that + there were but 500 stadia (about fifty geographical miles) instead + of sixty miles to a degree of a great circle of the earth; thus + curtailing the globe of one sixth of its circumference. Once + apprised of this mistake, and reckoning Ptolemy's longitudes and + latitudes from Alexandria, and reducing them to degrees of 600 + stadia, his positions may be laid down on a more correct + graduation; otherwise "his Taprobane, magnified far beyond its true + dimensions, appears to extend two degrees below the equator, and to + the seventy-first meridian east of Alexandria (nearly twenty + degrees too far east), <i>whereas the prescribed reduction brings + it westward and northward till it covers the modern Ceylon</i>, the + western coasts of both coinciding at the very part near Colombo + likely to have been visited by shipping."—Pp. 47, 53, See + also SCHOELL, <i>Hist, de la Lit. Grecque</i>, l. v. c. lxx.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/559.jpg"><img src="images/559.jpg" alt= + "Position of Colombo according to Ptolemy" /></a> + </div> + + <p>2: It is observable that Ptolemy in his list distinguishes those + indentations in the coast which he described as <i>bays</i>, + [Greek: kolpos], from the estuaries, to which he gives the epithet + of "lakes," [Greek: limên]. Of the former he particularises two, + the position of which would nearly correspond with the Bay of + Trincomalie and the harbour of Colombo. Of the latter he enumerates + five, and from their position they seem to represent the peculiar + estuaries formed by the conjoint influence of the rivers and the + current, and known by the Arabs by the term of "<i>gobbs</i>." A + description of them will be found at Vol. I. Part I. ch. i. p. + 43.</p> + + <p>3: May it not have an Egyptian origin "Siela-Keh," the + <i>land</i> of <i>Siela</i>?</p> + + <p>4: The description of Taprobane given by Ptolemy proves that the + island had been thoroughly circumnavigated and examined by the + mariners who were his informants. Not having penetrated the + interior to any extent, their reports relative to it are confined + to the names of the principal tribes inhabiting the several + divisions and provinces, and the position of the metropolis and + seat of government. But respecting the coast, their notes were + evidently minute and generally accurate, and from them Ptolemy was + enabled to enumerate in succession the bays, rivers, and harbours, + together with the headlands and cities on the seaborde in + consecutive order; beginning at the northern extremity, proceeding + southward down the western coast, and returning along the east to + Point Pedro. Although the majority of the names which he supplies + are no longer susceptible of identification on the modern map, some + of them can be traced without difficulty—thus his + <i>Ganges</i> is still the Mahawelli-ganga; his <i>Maagrammum</i> + would appear, on a first glance, to be Mahagam, but as he calls it + the "metropolis," and places it beside the great river, it is + evidently Bintenne, whose ancient name was "Maha-yangana" or + "Ma-ha-welli-gam." His <i>Anurogrammum</i>, which he calls [Greek: + Basileion], "the royal residence," is obviously Anarajapoora, the + city founded by Anuradha five hundred years before Ptolemy was born + (<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 50, x. 65, &c.). It may have + borne in his time the secondary rank of a village or a town + (<i>gam</i> or <i>gramma</i>), and afterwards acquired the higher + epithet of Anuradha-<i>porra</i>, the "city" of Anuradha, after it + had grown to the dimensions of a capital. The province of the + <i>Modutti</i> in Ptolemy's list has a close resemblance in name, + though not in position, to Mantotte; the people of Rayagam Corle + still occupy the country assigned by him to the + <i>Rhogandani</i>—his <i>Naga dibii</i> are identical with + the Nagadiva of the <i>Mahawanso</i>; and the islet to which he has + given the name of <i>Bassa</i>, occupies nearly the position of the + Basses, which it has been the custom to believe were so called by + the Portuguese—"Baxos" or "Baixos," <i>sunken rocks</i>. It + is curious that the position in which he has placed the elephant + plains or feeding grounds, [Greek: elephantôn nomoi], to the + south-east of Adam's Peak, is the portion of the island about + Matura, where, down to a very recent period, the Portuguese, the + Dutch, and the English successively held their annual battues, not + only for the supply of the government studs, but for export to + India. Making due allowance for the false dimensions of the island + assumed by Ptolemy, but taking his account of the relative + positions of the headlands, rivers, harbours, and cities, the + accompanying map affords a proximate idea of his views of Taprobane + and its localities as propounded in his Geography.</p> + <hr /> + + <p><i>Post-scriptum.</i> Since the above was written, and the map + it refers to was returned to me from the engraver, I have + discovered that a similar attempt to identify the ancient names of + Ptolemy with those now attached to the supposed localities, was + made by Gosselin; and a chart so constructed will be found (No. + xiv.) appended to his <i>Recherches sur la Géographie des + Anciens</i>, t. iii. p. 303. I have been gratified to find that in + the more important points we agree; but in many of the minor ones, + the want of personal knowledge of the island involved Gosselin in + errors which the map I have prepared will, I hope, serve to + rectify.—J.E.T.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/561.jpg"><img src="images/561.jpg" alt= + "CEYLON, ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY AND PLINY" /></a> + + <p>CEYLON, ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY AND PLINY</p> + </div><a name="pg561" id="pg561"></a> + + <p>The extent and accuracy of Ptolemy's information is so surprising, + that it has given rise to surmises as to the sources whence it could + possibly have been derived.[1] But the conjecture that he was + indebted to ancient Phoenician or Tyrian authorities whom he has + failed to acknowledge, is sufficiently met by the consideration that + these were equally accessible to his predecessors. The abundance of + his materials, especially those relating to the sea-borde of India + and Ceylon, is sufficient to show that he was mainly indebted for his + facts to the adventurous merchants of Egypt and Arabia, and to works + which, like the <i>Periplus of the Erythroean Sea</i> (erroneously + ascribed to ARRIAN the historian, but written by a merchant probably + of the same name), were drawn up by practical navigators to serve as + sailing directions for seamen resorting to the Indian Ocean.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HEEREN, <i>Hist. Researches</i>, vol. ii. Appendix xii.</p> + + <p>2: LASSEN, <i>De Taprob. Ins.</i> p. 4. From the error of + Ptolemy in making the coast of Malabar extend from west to east, + whilst its true position is laid down in the <i>Periplus</i>, + VINCENT concludes that he was not acquainted with the + <i>Periplus</i>, as, anterior to the invention of printing, + cotemporaries might readily be ignorant of the productions of each + other (VINCENT, vol. ii. p. 55). Vincent assigns the composition of + the <i>Periplus</i> to the reign of Claudius or Nero, and Dodwell + to that of M. Aurelius, but Letronne more judiciously ascribes it + to the period of Severus and Caracalla, A.D. 198,210, fifty years + later than Ptolemy. The author, a Greek of Alexandria and a + merchant, never visited Ceylon, though he had been as far south as + Nelkynda (the modern Neliseram), and the account which he gives + from report of the island is meagre, and in some respects + erroneous. ARRIANI <i>Periplus Maris Eryth.;</i> HUDSON, vol. i. p. + 35; VINCENT, vol. ii. p. 493.</p> + </div><a name="pg562" id="pg562"></a> + + <p>So ample was the description of Ceylon afforded by Ptolemy, that + for a very long period his successors, AGATHEMERUS, MARCIANUS of + Heraclea, and other geographers, were severally contented to use the + facts originally collected by him.[1] And it was not till the reign + of Justinian, in the sixth century, that COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, by + publishing the narrative of Sopater, added very considerably to the + previous knowledge of the island.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: AGATHEMERUS, <i>Hudson Geog.</i>, l. ii. c. 7,8.; MARCIANUS + HERACLEOTA, <i>Periplus, Hudson,</i> p. 26. STEPHANUS BYZANTINUS, + <i>in verbo</i> "Taprobane." Instead of the expression of PTOLEMY + that Taprobane [Greek: ekaleito palai Simoundon], which MARCIANUS + had rendered [Greek: Palaisimioundou], STEPHANUS transposes the + words as if to guard against error, [Greek: palai men ekaleito + Simoundou], &c. The prior authority of PTOLEMY, however, serves + to prolong the mystery, as he calls the capital Palæsimundum.</p> + </div> + + <p>As Cosmos is the last Greek writer who treats of Taprobane[1], it + may be interesting, before passing to his <a name="pg563" id= + "pg563"></a> account of the island, to advert to what has been + recorded by the Singhalese chroniclers themselves, as to its actual + condition at the period when Cosmas described it, and thus to verify + his narrative by the test of historical evidence. It has been shown + in another chapter that between the first and the sixth centuries, + Ceylon had undergone all the miseries of frequent invasions: that in + the vicissitudes of time the great dynasty of Wijayo had expired, and + the throne had fallen into the hands of an effeminate and powerless + race, utterly unable to contend with the energetic Malabars, who + acquired an established footing in the northern parts of the island. + The south, <a name="pg564" id="pg564"></a> too wild and uncultivated + to attract these restless plunderers, and too rugged and inaccessible + to be overrun by them, was divided into a number of petty + principalities, whose kings did homage to the paramount sovereign + north of the Mahawelli-ganga. Buddhism was the national religion, but + toleration was shown to all others,—to the worship of the + Brahmans as well as to the barbarous superstition of the aboriginal + tribes. At the same time, the productive wealth of the island had + been developed to an extraordinary extent by the care of successive + kings, and by innumerable works for irrigation and agriculture + provided by their policy. Anarajapoora, the capital, had expanded + into extraordinary dimensions, it was adorned with buildings and + monuments, surpassing in magnitude those of any city in India, and + had already attracted pilgrims and travellers from China and the + uttermost countries of the East.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is another curious work which, notwithstanding certain + doubts as to its authorship, contains internal evidence entitling + it, in point of time, to take precedence of COSMAS. This is the + tract "<i>De Moribus Brachmanorum</i>", ascribed to St. Ambrose, + and which under the title [Greek: "Peri tôn têz Indiaz kai tôn + Brachmanôn"] has been also attributed to Palladius, but in all + probability it was actually the composition of neither. Early in + the fifth century Palladius was Bishop of Helenopolis, in Bithynia, + and died about A.D. 410. He spent a part of his life in Coptic + monasteries, and it is possible that during his sojourn in Egypt, + meeting travellers and merchants returning from India, he may have + caused this narrative to be taken down from the dictation of one of + them. Cave hesitates to believe that it was written by PALLADIUS, + "haud facile credem," &c. (<i>Script. Eccles. Hist. Lit.</i>); + and the learned Benedictine editors of AMBROSE have excluded it + from the works of the latter. They could scarcely have done + otherwise when the first chapter of the Latin version opens with + the declaration that it was drawn up by its author at the request + of "PALLADIUS." "Desiderium mentis tuæ Palladi opus efficere nos + compellit," &c. Neither of the two versions can be accepted as + a translation of the other, but the discrepancies are not + inconsistent, and would countenance the conjecture that the book is + the production of one and the same person. Much of the material is + borrowed from PTOLEMY and PLINY but the facts which are new could + only have been collected by persons who had visited the scenes they + describe. The compiler says he had learned from a certain scholar + of Thebes that the inhabitants of Ceylon were called + <i>Macrobii</i>, because, owing to the salubrity of the climate, + the average duration of life was 150 years. The petty kings of the + country acknowledged one paramount sovereign to whom they were + subject as satraps; this the Theban was told by others, as he + himself not allowed to visit the interior. A thousand other islands + lie adjacent to Ceylon, and in a group of these which he calls + Maniolæ (probably the Attols of the Maldives,) is found the + loadstone, which attracts iron, so that a vessel coming within its + influence, is seized and forcibly detained, and for this reason the + ships which navigate these seas are fastened with pegs of wood + instead of bolts of iron.</p> + + <p>Ceylon, according to this traveller, has five large and + navigable rivers, it rejoices in one perennial harvest, and the + flowers and the ripe fruit hang together on the same branch. There + are palm trees; both those that bear the great Indian nut, and the + smaller aromatic one (the areka). The natives subsist on milk, + rice, and fruit. The sheep produce no wool, but have long and silky + hair, and linen being unknown, the inhabitants clothe themselves in + skins, which are far from inelegantly worked.</p> + + <p>Finding some Indian merchants there who had come in a small + vessel to trade, the Theban attempted to go into the interior, and + succeeded in getting sight of a tribe whom he calls Besadæ or + Vesadæ, his description of whom is in singular conformity with the + actual condition of the Veddahs in Ceylon at the present day. "They + are," he says, "a feeble and diminutive race, dwelling in caves + under the rocks, and early accustomed to ascend precipices, with + which their country abounds, in order to gather pepper from the + climbing plants. They are of low stature, with large heads and + shaggy uncut hair."</p> + + <p>The Theban proceeds to relate that being arrested by one of the + chiefs, on the charge of having entered his territory without + permission, he was forcibly detained there for six years, + subsisting on a measure of food, issued to him daily by the royal + authority. This again presents a curious coincidence with the + detention and treatment of Knox and other captives by the kings of + Kandy in modern times. He was at last released owing to the + breaking out of hostilities between the chief who held him prisoner + and another prince, who accused the former before the supreme + sovereign of having unlawfully detained a Roman citizen, after + which he was set at liberty, out of respect to the Roman name and + authority.</p> + + <p>This curious tract was first published by CAMERABIUS, but in + 1665 Sir EDWARD BISSE, Baronet, and Clarenceux King-at-Arms, + reproduced the Greek original, supposing it to be an unpublished + manuscript, with a Latin translation. It is incorporated in one of + the MSS. of the <i>Pseudo-Callisthenes</i> recently edited by + MÜLLER, lib. iii. ch. vii. viii.; DIDOT. <i>Script Groec. Bib</i>., + vol. xxvi. Paris, 1846.</p> + </div> + + <p>With the increasing commercial intercourse between the West and + the East, Ceylon, from its central position, half way between Arabia + and China, had during the same period risen into signal importance as + a great emporium for foreign trade. The transfer of the seat of + empire from Rome to Constantinople served to revive the over-land + traffic with India; and the Persians for the first time[1] vied with + the Arabs and the merchants of Egypt, and sought to divert the + Oriental trade from the Red Sea and Alexandria to the Euphrates and + the Tigris.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: GIBBON, ch. xl.; ROBERTSON'S <i>India</i>, b.i.</p> + </div> + + <p>Already, between the first and fifth centuries, the course of that + trade had undergone a considerable change. In its infancy, and so + long as the navigation was confined to coasting adventures, the + fleets of the Ptolemies sailed no further than to the ports of Arabia + Felx[1], where they were met by Arabian vessels returning <a name= + "pg565" id="pg565"></a> from the west coast of India, bringing thence + the productions of China, shipped at the emporiums of Malabar. After + the discovery of the monsoons, and the accomplishment of bolder + voyages, the great entrepôt of commerce was removed farther south; + first, from Muziris, the modern Mangalore, to Nelkynda, now + Neliseram, and afterwards to Calicut and Coulam, or Quilon. In like + manner the Chinese, who, whilst the navigation of the Arabs and + Persians was in its infancy, had extended their voyages not only to + Malabar but to the Persian Gulf, gradually contracted them as their + correspondents ventured further south. HAMZA says, that in the fifth + century the Euphrates was navigable as high as Hira, within a few + miles of Babylon[2]; and MASSOUDI, in his <i>Meadows of Gold</i>, + states that at that time the Chinese ships ascended the river and + anchored in front of the houses there.[3] At a later period, their + utmost limit was Syraf, in Farsistan[4]; they afterwards halted first + at Muziris, next at Calicut[5], then at Coulam, now Quilon[6]; and + eventually, in the fourth and fifth centuries, the Chinese vessels + appear rarely to have sailed further west than Ceylon. Thither they + came with their silks and other commodities, those destined for + Europe being chiefly paid for in silver[7], and those intended for + barter in India were trans-shipped into smaller craft, adapted to the + Indian seas, by which they were distributed at the various ports east + and west of Cape Comorin.[8]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Aden was a Roman emporium; [Greek: Rhomaikon emporion + Adanên].—PHILOSTORGIUS, p. 28.</p> + + <p>2: HAZMA ISPAHANENSIS, p. 102; REINAUD, <i>Relation, + &c.</i>, vol. i. p. 35.</p> + + <p>3: MASSOUDI, <i>Meadows of Gold</i>, Transl. of SPRENGER, vol. + i. p. 246.</p> + + <p>4: ABOU-ZEYD, vol. i. p, 14; REINAUD <i>Discours</i>, pp. 44, + 78.</p> + + <p>5: DULAURIER, <i>Journ. Asiat.</i>, vol. xiix, p. 141; VINCENT, + vol. ii, pp. 464,507.</p> + + <p>6: ABOU-ZEYD, p. 15; REINAUD, <i>Mém. sur l'Inde</i>, p. + 201.</p> + + <p>7: PLINY, lib. vi. ch. xxvi.; <i>Periplus Mar. Erythr</i>.</p> + + <p>8: ROBERTSON, <i>Au Ind.</i>, sec. ii. Periplus of the Erythrean + Sea describes these Ceylon crafts as rigged vessels, [Greek: + histiopepoiêmenois nêusi].</p> + </div> + + <p>COSMAS was a merchant of Egypt in the reign of Justinian, who, + from the extent of his travels, acquired the title of + "Indico-pleustes." Retiring to the cloister, he devoted the remnant + of his life to the preparation of a <a name="pg566" id="pg566"></a> + work in defence of the cosmography of the Pentateuch from the errors + of the Ptolemaic astronomy.[1] He died in the year 550, before his + task was completed, and one of the last portions on which he was + employed was an account of Taprobane, taken down from the reports of + Sopater, a Greek trader whom he had met at Adule in Ethiopia, when on + his return from Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: [Greek: Christianikê Topographia], sive <i>Christianorum + Opinio de Mundo</i>. This curious book has been printed entire by + Montfaucon from a MS. in the Vatican Coll. Patr., vol. ii. p. 333. + Paris, 1706 A.D. There is only one other MS. known, which was in + Florence; and from it THEVENOT had previously extracted and + published the portion relating to India in his <i>Relation des Dic. + Voy</i>., vol. i. Paris, 1576 A.D.</p> + </div> + + <p>Sopater, in the course of business as a merchant, sailed from + Adule in the same ship with a Persian bound for Ceylon, and on his + arrival he and his fellow-traveller were presented by the officers of + the port to the king, who was probably Kumara Das, the friend and + patron of the poet Kalidas.[1] The king received them with courtesy, + and Cosmas recounts how in the course of the interview Sopater + succeeded in convincing the Singhalese monarch of the greater power + of Rome as compared with that of Persia, by exhibiting the large and + highly finished gold coin of the Roman Emperor in contrast with the + small and inelegant silver money of the Shah. This story would, + however, appear to be traditional, as Pliny relates a somewhat + similar anecdote of the ambassadors from Ceylon in the reign of + Claudius, and of the profound respect excited in their minds by the + sight of the Roman denarii.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Cosmas wrote between A.D. 545 and 550; and the voyage of + Sopater to Ceylon had been made thirty years before. Kumaara Das + reigned from A.D. 515 to A.D. 524. Vincent has noted the fact that + in his interview with the Greek he addressed him by the epithet of + Roomi, "[Greek: su Rômeu]," which is the term that has been applied + from time immemorial in India to the powers who have been + successively in possession of Constantinople, whether Roman, + Christian, or Mahommedan. Vol. ii. p. 511, &c.</p> + </div> + + <p>As Sopater was the first traveller who described Ceylon from + personal knowledge, I shall give his account of the island in the + words of Cosmas, which have not before been presented in an English + translation. "It is," he says, "a great island of the ocean lying in + the <a name="pg567" id="pg567"></a> Indian Sea, called Sielendib by + the Indians, but Taprobane by the Greeks. The stone, the hyacinth, is + found in it; it lies beyond the pepper country.[1] Around it there + are a multitude of exceedingly small islets[2], all containing fresh + water and coco-nut palms[3]; these (islands) lie as close as possible + together. The great island itself, according to the accounts of its + inhabitants, is 300 <i>gaudia</i>[4], or 900 miles long, and as many + in breadth. There are two kings ruling at opposite ends of the + island[5], one of whom possesses the hyacinth[6], and the other the + district, in which are the port <a name="pg568" id="pg568"></a> and + emporium[7], for the emporium in that place is the greatest in those + parts."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Malabar or Narghyl Arabia.</p> + + <p>2: The Maldive Islands.</p> + + <p>3: [Greek: Argellia] pro [Greek: nargellia], from + <i>narikela</i>, the Sanskrit, and <i>narghyl</i>, Arab, for the + "coco-nut palm." GILDEMESTER, <i>Script. Arab</i>. p. 36.</p> + + <p>4: "[Greek: Gaudia."] It is very remarkable that this singular + word <i>gaou</i>, in which Cosmas gives the dimensions of the + island, is in use to the present day in Ceylon, and means the + distance which a man can walk in an hour. VINCENT, in his + <i>Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients</i>, has noticed this + passage (vol. ii, p. 506), and sayt, somewhat loosely, that the + Singhalese <i>gaou</i>, which he spells "<i>ghadia</i>" is the same + as the <i>naligiae</i> of the Tamils, and equal to three-eighths of + a French league, or nearly one mile and a quarter English. This is + incorrect; a <i>gaou</i> in Ceylon expresses a somewhat + indeterminate length, according to the nature of the ground to be + traversed, a gaou across a mountainous country being less than one + measured on level ground, and a gaou for a loaded cooley is also + permitted to be shorter than for one unburthened, but on the whole + the average may be taken <i>under four miles</i>. This is worth + remarking, because it brings the statement made to Sopater by the + Singhalese in the sixth century into consistency with the + representations of the ambassadors to the Emperor Claudius in the + first, although both prove to be erroneous. It is curious that FA + HIAN, the Chinese traveller, whose zeal for Buddhism led him to + visit India and Ceylon a century and a half before Cosmas, gives an + area to the island which approaches very nearly to correctness; + although he reverses the direction in which its length exceeds its + breadth. <i>Foĕ-kouĕ-ki</i>, c. xxxvii. p. 328.</p> + + <p>5: [Greek: "Enantioiallêlôn"]. This may also mean "at war with + one another."</p> + + <p>6: This has been translated so as to mean the portion of the + island producing hyacinth stones ("la partie de l'isle où se + trouvent les jacinthes." THEVENOT). But besides that I know of no + Greek form of expression that admits of such expansion; this + construction, if accepted, would be inconsistent with + fact—for the king alluded to held the north of the island, + whereas the region producing gems is the south, and in it were also + the "emporium," and the harbour frequented by shipping and + merchants. I am disposed therefore to accept the term in its simple + sense, and to believe that it refers to one particular jewel, for + the possession of which the king of Ceylon enjoyed an enviable + renown. Cosmas, in the succeeding sentence, describes this + wonderful gem as being deposited in a temple near the capital; and + Hiouen Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, says that in the seventh + century, a ruby was elevated on a spire surmounting a temple at + Anarajapoora "dont l'éclat magnifique illumine tout le + ciel."—<i>Vie de Hiouen Thsang</i>, lib. iv. p. 199; + <i>Voyages des Pélerins Bouddhistes</i>, lib. xi. v. ii. p. 141. + MARCO POLO, in the thirteenth, century, says the "king of Ceylon is + reputed to have the grandest ruby that was ever seen, a span in + length, the thickness of a man's arm; brilliant beyond description, + and without a single flaw. It has the appearance of a glowing fire, + and its worth cannot be estimated in money. The Grand Khan Kublai + sent ambassadors to this monarch to offer for it the value of a + city, but he would not part with it for all the treasures of the + world, as it was a jewel <i>handed down by his ancestors on the + throne</i>."—<i>Trans</i>. MARSDEN, 4to. 1818. It is most + probable that the stone described by Marco Polo was not a ruby, but + an amethyst, which is found in large crystals in Ceylon, and which + modern mineralogists believe to be the "hyacinth" of the ancients. + (DANA'S <i>Mineralogy</i>, vol. ii. p. 196.) CORSALI says it was a + carbuncle (Ramusio, vol. i. p. 180); and JORDAN DE SEVERAC, about + the year 1323, repeats the story of its being a ruby so large that + it could not be grasped in the closed hand. (<i>Recueil de + Voy</i>., Soc. Geog. Paris. vol. iv. p. 50.) If this resplendent + object really exhibited the dimensions assigned to it, the + probability is that it was not a gem at all, but one of those + counterfeits of glass, in producing which STRABO relates that the + artists of Alexandria attained the highest possible perfection (1. + xvi. c. 2. sec. 25). Its luminosity by night is of course a + fiction, unless, indeed, like the emerald pillar in the temple of + Hercules at Tyre, which HERODOTUS describes as "shining brightly by + night," it was a hollow cylinder into which a lamp could be + introduced. <i>Herod</i>, ii. 44.</p> + + <p>Of the ultimate history of this renowned jewel we have no + authentic narrative; but it is stated in the Chinese accounts of + Ceylon that early in the fourteenth century an officer was sent by + the emperor to purchase a "carbuncle" of unusual lustre. "This + served as the ball on the emperor's cap, and was transmitted to + succeeding emperors on their accession as a precious heirloom, and + worn on the birthday and at the grand courts held on the first day + of the year. It was upwards of an ounce in weight, and cost 100,000 + strings of cash. Every time a grand levee was held during the + darkness of the night, the red lustre filled the palace, and it was + for this reason designated 'The Red + Palace-Illuminator.'"—<i>Tsih-ke</i>, or <i>Miscellaneous + Record</i>, quoted in the <i>Kih che-king-yuen, Mirror of + Science</i>, b. xxxiii. p. 1, 2.</p> + + <p>7: The port and harbour of Point de Galle.</p> + </div> + + <p>"The island has also a community of Christians[1], chiefly + resident Persians, with a presbyter ordained in Persia, a deacon, and + a complete ecclesiastical ritual.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Nestorians, whose "Catholicos" resided first at Ctesiphon, + and afterwards at Mosul. VINCENT, <i>Periplus</i>, &c., vol. + ii, p. 507. For an examination of the hypotheses based on this + statement of Cosmas, see Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT'S <i>History of + Christianity in Ceylon</i>, ch. i.</p> + + <p>2: [Greek: "Leitourgiat,"] literally <i>liturgy</i>; which meant + originally the pomp and ceremonial of worship as well as the form + of prayer.</p> + </div> + + <p>"The natives and their kings are of different races.[1] The + temples are numerous, and in one in particular, situated on an + eminence[2], is the great hyacinth, as large as a pine-cone, the + colour of fire, and flashing from a distance, especially when + catching the beams of the sun—a matchless sight.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: [Greek: Allophuloi].]</p> + + <p>2: Probably that at Mihintala, the sacred hill near + Anarajapoora.</p> + </div><a name="pg569" id="pg569"></a> + + <p>"As its position is central, the island is the resort of ships + from all parts of India, Persia, and Ethiopia, and, in like manner, + many are despatched from it. From the inner[1] countries; I mean + China, and other emporiums, it receives silk[2], aloes, cloves, + clove-wood, <i>chandana</i>[3], and whatever else they produce. These + it again transmits to the outer ports[4],—I mean to Male[5], + whence the pepper comes; to Calliana[6], where there is brass and + sesamine-wood, and materials for dress (for it is also a place of + great trade), and to Sindon[7], where they get musk, castor, and + <i>androstachum</i>[8], to Persia, the Homeritic coasts[9], and + Adule. Receiving in return the exports of those emporiums, Taprobane + exchanges them in the inner ports (to the east of Cape Comorin) + sending her own produce along with them to each.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: [Greek: "tôn endoterôn,"] the countries inside (that is to + the east) of Cape Comorin, as distinguished from the outer ports + ([Greek: ta exôtera]) mentioned below, which lie west of it.</p> + + <p>2: [Greek: "metaxin."] Of this foreign word, applied by the + mediæval Greeks to silk in general, as well as to raw silk, + PROCOPIUS says:—[Greek: "Ahutê de estin hê metaxa, ex hês + eiothasi tên esthêta ergazesthai, hên palai men Hellênes mêdikên, + tanun de sêrikên onomazousi."]—PROCOP. <i>Persic.</i> I. + <i>Metaxa</i>, or anciently <i>mataxa</i>, "thread," "yarn," seems + to be Latine rather than Greek. The <i>metaxarius</i> was a + "yarn-broker;" and the word having got possession of the market, + was extended to the woven stuff. The modern Greeks call silk + [Greek: metaxa.]</p> + + <p>3: [Greek: "tzandana,"] probably "sandalwood;" sometimes called + <i>agallochum.</i></p> + + <p>4: [Greek: "ta exôtera,"] those lying west of Cape Comorin.</p> + + <p>5: Malabar.</p> + + <p>6: Bombay.</p> + + <p>7: Scinde.</p> + + <p>8: [Greek: "androsthachon."]</p> + + <p>9: Southern Arabia, chiefly Hadramaut.</p> + </div> + + <p>"<i>Sielediba</i>, or Taprobane, lies seaward about five days' + sail from the mainland.[1] Then further on the continent is Marallo, + which furnishes <i>cochlea</i>[2]; then comes Kaber, which exports + '<i>alabandanum</i>;'[3] and next is the clove country, then China, + which exports silk; beyond which there is no other land, for the + ocean encircles it on the east. <i>Sielediba</i> being thus placed in + the middle as it were of India, and possessing <a name="pg570" id= + "pg570"></a> the hyacinth, receives goods from all nations, and again + distributes them, thus becoming a great emporium."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Cosmas probably means "the more distant <i>ports</i> on" the + mainland of India.</p> + + <p>2: [Greek: "kochlious,"] probably chankshells, <i>turbinella + rapa.</i> See ABOUZEYD, vol. i. p. 6.</p> + + <p>3: [Greek: "alabandanon."</p> + </div> + + <p>This description of the Indian trade by Cosmas is singularly + corroborative of the account that had previously been given by the + author of the <i>Periplus</i>; and as the Singhalese have at all + times been remarkable for their aversion to the sea, the + country-craft[1], thus mentioned by both authorities as engaged in + voyages between Ceylon and the countries east and west of Cape + Cornorin, must have been manned in part by Malabars, but chiefly by + the Arabs and Persians, who, previous to the time of Cosmas, had been + induced to settle in large numbers in Ceylon[2], attracted by the + activity of its commerce, and the extensive employment for shipping + afforded by its transit trade.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: [Greek: "topika ploia."]—<i>Periplus.</i></p> + + <p>2: REINAUD, <i>Mém. sur l'Inde</i>, p. 124. and <i>Introd.</i> + ABOULFEDA.</p> + </div> + + <p>Amongst the objects, the introduction of which was eagerly + encouraged in Ceylon, Cosmas particularises horses from Persia; the + traders in which were exempted from the payment of customs. The most + remarkable exports were elephants, which from their size and sagacity + were found to be superior to those of India for purposes of war. + Hence the renown accorded to Ceylon, as pre-eminently the birthplace + of the Asiatic race of elephants.</p>[Greek: "Mêtera Taprobanên + Asiêgeneôn elephantôn."] DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, v. 593. + + <p>Cosmas observes upon the smallness of their tusks compared with + those of Africa, and mentions the strange fact, that ivory was then + exported from Ethiopia to India, as well as to Persia and the + countries of Europe. He makes other allusions to Ceylon, but the + passages extracted above, present the bulk of his information + concerning the island.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The above translation has been made from THEVENOT's version + of Cosmas, which may differ slightly from that of MONTFAUCON, + <i>Collect. Nov. Patrum.</i> Paris, 1706, vol. ii. p.</p> + </div><a name="pg571" id="pg571"></a> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE (A).</h3> + + <p><i>Knowledge of Ceylon possessed by the Phoenicians.</i></p> + + <p>In the previous chapter, p. 526, &c., allusion has been made + to the possible resort of the Phoenicians to Ceylon in the course of + their voyages to India, but I have not thought it expedient to embody + in the text any notice of the description of the island which is + given in the Phoenician History of SANCHONIATHON, published by + Wagenfeld, at Bremen, in 1837, under the title of "<i>Sanchuniathonis + Historiarum Phoeniciæ Libri Novem Groece Versos a Philone Byblio</i>, + edidit Latinaque Versione donavit F. WAGENFELD."</p> + + <p>Sanchoniathon is alleged to have lived before the Trojan war; and + in Asiatic chronology he is said to have been a contemporary of + Semiramis. The Phoenician original perished; but its contents were + preserved in the Greek translation of Philo, a native of Byblus, a + frontier town of Phoenicia, who wrote in the first century after + Christ, and till the alleged discovery of the MS. from which + Wagenfeld professed to publish, the only portion of Philo's version + known to exist consisted of fragments preserved by Eusebius and + Porphyry. Wagenfeld's statement was, that the MS. in his possession + had been obtained from the Portuguese monastery of St. Maria de + Merinhao (the existence of which there is reason to doubt), and the + portion which he first ventured to print appeared with a preface by + Grotefend. Its genuineness was instantly impugned; a learned and + protracted controversy arose; and though Wagenfeld eventually + published <a name="pg572" id="pg572"></a> the whole of the Greek MS., + with a Latin version by himself, he was never prevailed upon to + exhibit the original parchments, alleging that he had been compelled + to restore them to the convent. The assailants of Wagenfeld accuse + him of wilful deception; but the probability is that the document + which he translated is one of those inventions of the Middle Ages, in + which history and geography were strangely confounded with + imagination and romance; and that it is an attempt to restore the + lost books of Philo Byblius, as Philo himself is more than suspected + to have invented the history which he professed to have translated + from Sanchoniathon. (See ERSCH <i>and</i> GRÜBER'S + <i>Encyclopædia</i>, 1847; MÖVER'S <i>Phoenician History</i>, vol. i. + p. 117.)</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>[336. In point of time, the notice of Ceylon given by the + Armenian Archbishop Moses of Chorene in his <i>Historia Armeniaca + et Epitome Geographiæ</i>, is entitled to precede that of Cosmos + Indico-pleustes, inasmuch as Moses has translated into Armenian the + Greek text of Pappus of Alexandria, who wrote about the end of the + fourth century. Of Taprobane he says—it is one of the largest + islands in the world, being 1100 miles in length by 1500 broad, and + reckons 1370 adjacent islands amongst its dependencies. He alludes + to its mountains and rivers, the variety of races which inhabit it, + and its production of gold, silver, gems, spices, elephants, and + tigers; and dwells on the fact, previously noticed by Agathemerus, + that the men of this country dress their hair after the fashion of + women, by braiding it in tresses on the top of their heads, "viri + regionis istius capillis muliebribus sua capita + redimiunt."—MOSES CHORENENSIS, &c., edit. Whiston, 1736, + p. 367. The most remarkable circumstance is that he alludes thus + early to the footprint on Adam's Peak, which is probably the + meaning of his expression, "<i>ibidem Satanæ lapsum narrant</i>," + t. iv.</p> + </div> + + <p>In books vii. and viii, Sanchoniathon gives an account of an + island in the Indian seas explored by Tyrian navigators, the + description of which is evidently copied from the early Greek writers + who had visited Taprobane, and the name which is assigned to it, + "<i>the Island of Rachius</i>", is borrowed from Pliny. The period of + their visit is fixed by Sanchoniathon shortly after the conquest of + Cittium, in Cyprus, by the Phoenicians; an event which occurred when + Hiram reigned at Tyre, and Solomon at Jerusalem. The narrative is + given as follows (book vii. ch. v. p. 150): "So Bartophas died the + next day, having exercised imperial authority for six years." (Ch. + v.) "And on his death they chose Joramus, the son of Bartophas, king, + whom the Tyrians styled Hierbas, and who reigned fifty-seven years. + He having collected seventy-nine long ships, sent an expedition + against Cittium." ... (Ch. vi.) "At this time, Obdalius, king of the + island of Mylite, sent all his forces to assist the Tyrians at + Cittium; and when it came to the knowledge of the barbarians who + inhabited Tenga, that the island was denuded of men and ships, they + invaded it under the command of Plusiacon, the son-in-law of + Obdalius, and having slain him and many of his people, they plundered + the country, and gave the city to the flames." (Ch. vii.) "And + Joramus directed all the eparchs in the cities and islands to make + out and send to Tyre descriptions of the inhabitants, their ships, + their arms, their horses, their scythe-bearing chariots, and their + property of all kinds; and he ordered them to send to distant + countries persons competent to draw up narratives of the same kind, + and to record them all in a book. In this manner he obtained accurate + geographical descriptions of <a name="pg573" id="pg573"></a> all the + regions to the east and the west, both islands and inland parts. But + the Æthiopians[1] represented to the king that to the south there + were great and renowned countries, densely populated, and rich in + precious things, <i>gold</i> and <i>silver</i>, pearls, gems, ebony, + pepper, elephants, <i>monkeys</i>, parrots, <i>peacocks</i>, and + innumerable other things; and that there was a peninsula so far to + the east that the inhabitants could see the sun rising out of the + sea." (Ch. viii.) "Joramus then sent messengers to Natambalus, the + king of the Babylonians, who were to say to him, 'I have heard that + the countries of the Æthiopians are numerous, and abounding in + inhabitants; they are easy of access from Babylon, but very difficult + from Tyre. If, therefore, I should determine to explore them, and you + will let my subjects have suitable ships, you shall have in return a + hundred purple cloaks.' Natambalus was willing to do so; but the + Æthiopian merchants, who resorted to Babylon, vowed that they would + take their departure if he should assist Joramus to sail to + Æthiopia." (Chap. ix.) "Subsequently Joramus addressed himself to + Irenius of Judea, and undertook that if he would let the Tyrians have + a harbour on the sea towards Æthiopia, he would assist him in the + building of a palace, in which he was then engaged; and bind himself + to supply him with materials of cedar and fir, and squared stones. + Irenius assenting, made over to Joramus the city and harbour of + Ilotha. There were a great many date trees there, but as their timber + was not suitable for constructing vessels, Joramus despatched eight + thousand camels to Ilotha, loaded with materials for ship-building, + and ordered the shipwrights to build ten ships, and he appointed + Cedarus and Jaminus and Cotilus, commanders.... They sailed from + Ilotha; but furious tempests prevented them from passing the + straits.[2] And while they were wind-bound, they remained five months + in a certain island, and having sowed wheat on the low ground, they + reaped an abundant crop. After this they sailed towards the rising + sun, and leaving the land of the Arabians they fell in with + Babylonian ships returning from Æthiopia.[3] And on the following day + they arrived at the country of the Æthiopians, which they perceived + sandy and devoid of water on the coast, but mountainous inland. They + then sailed eastward along the shore for ten days. <a name="pg574" + id="pg574"></a> There an immense region extends to the south, and the + Æthiopians dwell in numerous populous and well-circumstanced cities, + and navigate the sea. Their ships are not suited for war, and have no + sails. And having sailed thirty-six days to the southward, the + Tyrians arrived at the island of Rachius ([Greek: Rhachiou + nêson])."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Æthiopians alluded to were a company of Indian jugglers + and snake-charmers, whose arrival from Babylon is mentioned lib. + vii. ch. i.</p> + + <p>2: Of Bab-el-mandeb.</p> + + <p>3: India.</p> + </div> + + <p>(Ch. 9.) "The roadstead was in front of a level strand, bordered + with lofty trees, and coming on to blow at night, they were in the + utmost danger till sunrise: but running then to the south, they came + in sight of a safe harbour[1]; and saw many populous towns inland. On + landing, they were surrounded by the villagers, and the governor of + the place entertained them hospitably for seven days; pending the + return of a messenger whom he had despatched to the principal king, + to ask his instructions relative to the Tyrians who had anchored in + the harbour. The messenger having returned on the seventh day, the + governor sent for the Tyrians the following morning, and informed + them that they must go with him to the king, who was then residing at + Rochapatta, a large and prosperous city in the centre of the island. + In front marched several spearmen, sent by the king as a guard of + honour to the strangers; who with the clash of their spears scared + away the elephants which were numerous and dangerous because it was + their rutting time. The Tyrians marched in the centre, and Cedarus, + Cotilus, and Jaminus were carried in palanquins. The villagers as + they passed along offered them presents, and the governor brought up + the rear, where he rode on an elephant, surrounded by his body guard. + In this order of march, they on the third day came to a ford; in the + passage over which, one of the travellers was devoured by crocodiles + which swarm in the rivers. Having proceeded thus for several days, + they at length descried the city of Rochapatta, environed by lofty + mountains. And when it was known that they had arrived (for the + rumour of their approach had preceded them) the inhabitants rushed + from the city in a body to see the Tyrians; some riding on elephants, + some on asses, some in palanquins, but the greater part on foot. And + the commander having conducted them into a spacious and splendid + palace, caused the gates to be closed, that the crowd might not make + their way in; and led the Tyrians to the King Rachius, who was seated + on a beautiful couch. Presents were then interchanged.</p><a name= + "pg575" id="pg575"></a> + + <p>"To the Tyrians, who brought horses and purple robes, and seats of + cedar, the King gave in return, pearls, gold, 2000 elephants' teeth, + and much unequalled cinnamon ([Greek: kinnamô pollô te kai + diapheronti]); and he entertained them as guests for thirty days." + (Ch. xi.) "Some of the Tyrians perished in the island, one indeed by + sickness, but the others smitten by the gods. One man, picking up + some pellets of sheep's dung, drew lines on the sand, and challenged + another who happened to be looking on, to play a game with them. The + challenger held the sheep's dung, but the other, who could not find + any dung of camels (for there are no camels in that island), took + cow-dung, of which there was a great quantity, and rolling up little + balls of it, placed them on the lines. But a priest who was present + warned them to desist, because cow-dung is sacred among them, but + they only laughed. So the priest passed on, and they continued their + game, but shortly after, both fell down and expired, to the + consternation of the bystanders. One of those who died was a native + of Jerusalem." (Ch. xii.) "The sea encircles this great island of + Rachius on every side, except that to the north and west there is + <i>an isthmus which affords a passage to the opposite coast</i>. + Baaut constructed this place by heaping up mud, and her footprint is + still to be seen in the mountain ([Greek: ês kai ichnos estin en tois + orois]).</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Galle?</p> + </div> + + <p>"And the great king traced his descent from her race. The island + is six days' journey in breadth, and twelve days' journey in length. + It is populous and delightful. Its natural productions are + magnificent, and the sea furnishes fish of the finest flavour, and in + the greatest abundance, to the inhabitants of the coast. Wild beasts + are numerous in the mountains, of which elephants are the largest of + all. There is also the most fragrant of cassia ([Greek: kasia de hê + arômatikôtatê]).</p> + + <p>"They find stones containing gold in the rivers, and pearls on the + sea-shore. Four kings govern the island, all subordinate to the + paramount sovereign, to whom they pay as tribute, cassia, ivory, + gems, and pearls; for the king has gold in the greatest abundance. + The first of these kings reigns in the south, where there are herds + of elephants, of which great numbers are captured of surprising size. + In this region the shore is inhospitable, and destitute of + inhabitants, but the city, in which the governor resides, lies + inland, and is said to be large and flourishing. The second king + governs the western regions which produce cinnamon ([Greek: tôn pros + esperan tetrammenôn tôn kinnamômophorôn]); and it was there the + Tyrian ships cast <a name="pg576" id="pg576"></a> anchor. The third + rules the region towards the north, which produces pearls. He has + made a great rampart on the isthmus to control the passage of the + barbarians from the opposite coast; for they used to make incursions + in great numbers, and destroyed all the houses, temples, and + plantations they could reach, and slew such men as were near, or + could not flee to the mountains. The fourth king governs the region + to the east, producing the richest gems in surprising profusion; the + ruby, the sapphire, and diamond. All these, being the brothers of the + great king in Rochapatta, are appointed to rule over these places, + and he who is the eldest of the brothers has the supreme power, and + is called the chief and mighty ruler. He has a thousand black + elephants, and five light-coloured ones. The black are abundant, but + the fair-coloured are rare, and found nowhere except in this island, + and the black ones do homage to them. Having captured such a one, + they bring him to the king in Rochapatta, whose peculiar prerogative + it is to ride on a white elephant, this being unlawful for his + subjects. There are many fierce crocodiles in the rivers, and they + are killed by crowds of men who rush with shouts into the water, + armed with sharp stakes. And ten days after they arrived in + Rochapatta, many Tyrians joined Rachius in hunting crocodiles." (Ch. + xii.) "When the ships returned to Tyre, Joramus gave orders to erect + a pillar at the temple of Melicarthus, and to engrave on it an + account of all that had taken place. This pillar was thrown down in + the earthquake of last year, but it was not broken, so that the + narrative can even now be seen."</p> + + <p>BOOK VIII.</p> + + <p>(Ch. i) "This is the voyage which Joramus, the king of the Tyrians + ordered Joramus, the priest of Melicarthus, to recount and to engrave + on a pillar in the temple of Melicarthus, and Sydyk, the scribe, + having four copies, was directed to send them to the Sidonians, the + Byblians, the Aradians, and the Berythians. The other copies can + nowhere be found, and the pillar lies shattered in the ruins of the + temple, but the copy of the Byblians is still left in the Temple of + Baaltis, and its words are to this effect."</p> + + <p>(Ch. ii.) "Hierbas, the son of Bartophas, and king of the Tyrians, + thus addressed Joramus, the priest of Madynus, at the time when figs + were first ripe: 'Taking a book and pen, describe all the cities and + islands and colonies and the countries <a name="pg577" id= + "pg577"></a> of the barbarians, and the forces of them all, and their + ships of war and of burthen, and their scythe-armed chariots. For + when our ships of war, sailing to the island of Rachius, reached the + remotest parts eastward that we knew, the extremities of all lands, + and the nations that inhabited them, we discovered things unknown to + our ancestors. For our ancestors, sailing only to the islands and the + region extending to the west, knew nothing of the countries which we + have explored to the east: you will therefore write all these things + for the information of posterity.' When having prostrated myself + before the king, on his saying these things, and having returned to + my own house I wrote as follows:—</p> + <hr /> + + <p>(Ch. xvi) ... "To the eastward dwell the Babylonians and Medians + and Æthiopians. The city of the Babylonians is flourishing and + populous; Media produces white horses; Æthiopia is barren and arid + near the sea, and mountainous in the interior. And further to the + east is the peninsula of Rachius, whither the ships of Hierbas + sailed."</p> + <hr /> + + <p>On this narrative of Sanchoniathon it is only necessary to remark + that the allusion in ch. ix. to the assistance rendered by the + Tyrians to Irenius of Judea, when building his palace, in supplying + him with timber and squared stones, is almost literally copied from + the passage In the Old Testament (1 Kings, ix. 11), where Hiram is + stated to have furnished to Solomon "cedar trees and fir trees," for + the building of the Temple.</p> + + <p>The cession by Irenius of the city and harbour of Ilotha refers to + the resort of the Tyrians to Ezion Greber, or <i>Eloth</i>, in the + Ælanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, Ib. v. 26, whence they piloted the + ships of Solomon, which once in every three years returned with + cargoes of gold from Ophir. (Ib. v. 28.)</p> + + <p>As to the incidents and observations recorded by the Phoenician + travellers during their journey to the interior of Ceylon,—the + kings by which it was governed, the natural productions of the + various regions, the footprint on Adam's Peak, the incursions of the + Malabars, the ascendency of their religion, the absence of camels, + the abundance of elephants, and the cultivation of + cinnamon,—all these are so palpably imitated from the accounts + of Cosmas Indico-pleustes, and the voyages of Arabian mariners, that + it is almost unnecessary to point to the parallel passages from which + they are taken.</p><a name="pg578" id="pg578"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. II</h2> + + <h3>INDIAN, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN AUTHORITIES.</h3> + + <p>On closing the volume of Cosmas, we part with the last of the + Greek writers whose pages guide us through the mist that obscures the + early history of Ceylon. The religion of the Hindus is based on a + system of physical error, so incompatible with the extension of + scientific truth, that in their language the term "geography" is + unknown.[1] But still it is remarkable as an illustration of the + uninquiring character of the people, that the allusions of Indian + authors to Ceylon, an island of such magnitude, and so close to their + own country, are pre-eminent for absurdity and ignorance. Their + "Lanka" and its inhabitants are but the distortion of a reality into + a myth. ALBYROUNI, the Arabian geographer, writing in the eleventh + century, says that the Hindus at that day thought the island haunted; + their ships sailing past it, kept at a distance from its shores; and + even within the present century, it was the popular belief on the + continent of India that the interior of Ceylon was peopled by demons + and monkeys.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The Arabians began the study so late, that they, too, had to + borrow a word from the Greeks, whence their term + "<i>djagrafiya</i>."</p> + + <p>2: MOOR'S <i>Hindu Pantheon</i>, p. 318. MOOR speaks of an + educated Indian gentleman who was attached as Munshi to the staff + of Mr. North, Governor of Ceylon, in 1804, and who, on his return + to the continent, wrote a history of the island, in which he + repeats the belief current among his countryment, that "the + interior was not inhabited by human beings of the ordinary + shapes."—P. 320.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the century in which Cosmos wrote witnessed the rise of a + power whose ascendant energy diffused <a name="pg579" id="pg579"></a> + a new character over the policy and literature of the East. Scarcely + twenty years elapsed between his death and the birth, of + Mahomet—and during the two centuries that ensued, so electric + was the influence of Islam, that its supremacy was established with a + rapidity beyond parallel, from the sierras of Spain to the borders of + China. The dominions of the Khalifs exceeded in extent the utmost + empire of the Romans; and so undisputed was the sway of the new + religion, that a follower of the Prophet could travel amidst + believers of his own faith, from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, + and from the chain of the Atlas to the mountains of Tartary.</p> + + <p>Syria and Egypt were amongst its earliest conquests; and the power + thus interposed between the Greeks and their former channels of + trade, effectually excluded them from the commerce of India. The + Persians and the Arabs became its undisputed masters, and Alexandria + and Seleucia declined in importance as Bassora and Bagdad rose to the + rank of Oriental emporiums.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: ROBERTSON was of opinion, that such was the aversion of the + Persions to the sea, that "no commercial intercourse took place + between Persia and India."—<i>India</i>, s. i. p. 9. But this + is at variance with the testimony of COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, as + well as of HAMZA of Ispahan and others.</p> + </div> + + <p>Early in the sixth century, the Persians under Chosroes + Nouschirvan held a distinguished position in the East, their ships + frequented the harbours of India, and their fleet was successful in + an expedition against Ceylon to redress the wrongs done to some of + their fellow-countrymen who had settled there for purposes of + trade.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: HAMZA ISPAHANENSIS, <i>Annal</i>. vol. ii. c. 2. p. 43. + Petropol, 1848, 8vo. REINAUD, <i>Mémoire sur l' Inde</i>, p. + 124.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Arabs, who had been familiar with India before it was known to + the Greeks,[1] and who had probably availed themselves of the + monsoons long before Hippalus <a name="pg580" id="pg580"></a> + ventured to trust to them, began in the fourth and fifth centuries to + establish themselves as merchants at Cambay and Surat, at Mangalore, + Calicut, Coulam, and other Malabar ports[2], whence they migrated to + Ceylon, the government of which was remarkable for its toleration of + all religious sects[3], and its hospitable reception of + fugitives.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is an obscure sentence in PLINY which would seem to + imply that the Arabs had settled in Ceylon before the first century + of our Christian era:—"Regi cultum Liberi patris, <i>coeteris + Arabum</i>."—Lib. vi. c. 22.</p> + + <p>2: GILDEMEISTER; <i>Scriptores Arabi de Rebus Indicis</i>, p. + 40.</p> + + <p>3: EDRISI, tom. i p. 72.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is a curious circumstance, related by BELADORY, who lived at + the court of the Khalif of Bagdad in the ninth century, that an + outrage committed by Indian pirates upon some Mahometan ladies, the + daughters of traders who had died in Ceylon, and whose families the + King Daloopiatissa II., A.D. 700, was sending to their homes in the + valley of the Tigris, served as the plea under which Hadjadj, the + fanatical governor of Irak, directed the first Mahometan expedition + for subjugating the valley of the Indus.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The chief of the Indus was the Buddhist Prince Daher, whose + capital was at Daybal, near the modern Karachee. The story, as it + appears in the MS. of Beladory in the library of Leyden, has been + extracted by REINAUD in his <i>Fragmens Arabes et Persans relatifs + á l'Inde</i>, No. v. p. 161, with the following + translation:—</p> + + <p>"Sous le gouvernement de Mohammed, le roi de l'ile du Rubis + (Djezyret-Alyacout) offrit à Hadjadj des femmes musulmanes qui + avaient reçu le jour dans ses états, et dont les pères, livrés à la + profession du commerce, étaient morts. Le prince esperuit par là + gagner l'amitié de Hadjadj; mais le navire où l'on avait embarqué + ces femmes fut attaqué par une peuplade de race Meyd, des environs + de Daybal, qui était montóe sur des burques. Les Meyds enlevèrent + le navire avec ce qu'il renfermait. Dans cette extrémité, une de + ces femmes de la tribu de Yarboua, s'écria: 'Que n'es-tu la, oh + Hadjadj!' Cette nouvelle étant parvenue à Hadjadj, il répondit: 'Me + voilà.' Aussitót il envoya un députe à Dâher pour l'inviter à faire + mettre ces femmes en liberté. Mais Dâher répondit: 'Ce sont des + pirates qui ont enlevé ces femmes, et je n'ai aucune autorité sur + les ravisseurs.' Alors Hadjadj engagea Obeyd Allah, fils de Nabhan, + à faire une expédition contre Daybal."—P. 190.</p> + + <p>The "Island of Rubies" was the Persian name for Ceylon, and in + this particular instance FERISHTA confirms the identical + application of these two names, vol. ii. p. 402. See <i>Journal + Asiat</i>. vol. xlvi. p. 131, 163; REINAUD, <i>Mém. sur l'Inde</i>, + p. 180; <i>Relation des Voyages</i>, Disc. p. xli ABOULFEDA, + <i>Introd</i>. vol. i. p. ccclxxxv.; ELPHINSTONE'S <i>India</i>, b. + v. ch. i, p. 260.</p> + </div> + + <p>From the eighth till the eleventh century the Persians and Arabs + continued to exercise the same influence <a name="pg581" id= + "pg581"></a> over the opulent commerce of Ceylon which was afterwards + enjoyed by the Portuguese and Dutch in succession between A.D. 1505, + and the expulsion of the latter by the British in A.D. 1796. During + this early period, therefore, we must look for the continuation of + accounts regarding Ceylon to the literature of the Arabs and the + Persians, and more especially to the former, by whom geography was + first cultivated as a science in the eighth and ninth centuries under + the auspices of the Khalifs Almansour and Almamoun. On turning to the + Arabian treatises on geography, it will be found that the Mahometan + writers on these subjects were for the most part grave and earnest + men who, though liable equally with the imaginative Greeks to be + imposed on by their informants, exercised somewhat more caution, and + were more disposed to confine their writings to statements of facts + derived from safe authorities, or to matters which they had + themselves seen.</p> + + <p>In their hands scientific geography combined theoretic precision, + which had been introduced by their predecessors, with the extended + observation incident to the victories and enlarged dominion of the + Khalifs. Accurate knowledge was essential for the civil government of + their conquests[1]; and the pilgrimage to Mekka, indispensable once + at least in the life of every Mahometan[2], rendered the followers of + the new faith acquainted with many countries in addition to their + own.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "La science géographique, comme les autres sciences en + général, notammement l'astronomie, commença à se former chez les + Arabes, dans la dernière moitié du viii^{e} siècle, et se fixa dans + la première moitié du ix^{e}. On fit usage des itinéraires tracés + par les chefs des armées conquérantes et des tableaux dressés par + les gouveneurs de provinces; en même temps on mit à la contribution + les méthodes propagées par les Indians, les Persans, et surtout les + Grees; qui avaient apporté le plus de précision dans leurs + opérations."—REINAUD, <i>Introd. Aboulfeda, &c.,</i> p. + xl.</p> + + <p>2: REINAUD, <i>Introd. Aboulfeda,</i> p. cxxii.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid</i>., vol. i. p. xl.</p> + </div> + + <p>Hence the records of their voyages, though presenting <a name= + "pg582" id="pg582"></a> numerous exaggerations and assertions + altogether incredible, exhibit a superiority over the productions of + the Greeks and Romans. To avoid the fault of dulness, both the latter + were accustomed to enliven their topographical itineraries, not so + much by "moving accidents," and "hair-breadth 'scapes," as by + mingling fanciful descriptions of monsters and natural phenomena, + with romantic accounts of the gems and splendours of the East. Hence + from CTESIAS to Sir JOHN MANDEVILLE, every early traveller in India + had his "hint to speak," and each strove to embellish his story by + incorporating with the facts he had witnessed, improbable reports + collected from the representations of others. Such were their + excesses in this direction, that the Greeks formed a class of + "paradoxical" literature, by collecting into separate volumes the + marvels and wonders gravely related by their voyagers and + historians.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Such are the <i>Mirabiles Auscultationes</i> of ARISTOTLE, + the <i>Incredibilia</i> of PALEPHATES, the <i>Historiarum + Mirabilium Collectio</i> of ANTIGONUS CARYSTIUS, the <i>Historiæ + Mirabiles</i> of APOLLONIUS THE MEAGRE, and the Collections of + PHILEGON of Tralles, MICHAEL BELLUS, and many other Greeks of the + Lower Empire. For a succinct account of these compilers, see + WESTERMAN'S <i>Hapre [Greek: doxographoi], Scriptores Rerum + Mirabilium Græci</i> Brunswick, 1830.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Arabs, on the contrary, with sounder discretion, generally + kept their "travellers' histories" distinct from their sober + narratives, and whilst the marvellous incidents related by + adventurous seamen were received as materials for the story-tellers + and romancers, the staple of their geographical works consisted of + truthful descriptions of the countries visited, their forms of + government, their institutions, their productions, and their + trade.</p> + + <p>In illustration of this matter-of-fact character of the Arab + topographers, the most familiar example is that known by the popular + title of the <i>Voyages of the</i> <a name="pg583" id="pg583"></a> + <i>two Mahometans[1]</i>, who travelled in India and China in the + beginning of the ninth century. The book professes to give an account + of the countries lying between Bassora and Canton; and in its + unpretending style, and useful notices of commerce in those seas, it + resembles the record, which the merchant ARRIAN has left us in the + <i>Periplus</i>, of the same trade as it existed seven centuries + previously, in the hands of the Greeks. The early portion of the + book, which was written A.D. 851, was taken down, from the recital of + Soleyman, a merchant who had frequently made the voyages he + describes, at the epoch when the commerce of Bagdad, under the + Khalifs, was at the height of its prosperity. The second part was + added sixty years later, by Abou-zeyd Hassan, an amateur geographer, + of Bassora (contemporary with Massoudi), from the reports of mariners + returning from China, and is, to a great extent, an amplification of + the notices supplied by Soleyman.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It was first published by RENAUDOT in 1718, and from the + unique MS., now in the Bibliothèque impériale of Paris, and again + by REINAUD in 1845, with a valuable discourse prefixed on the + nature and extent of the Indian trade prior to the tenth + century.—<i>Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les + Persans dans l'Inde et Chine dans le IX'e Siècle, &c.</i> 2 + vols. 18mo. Paris, 1845.</p> + </div> + + <p>SOLEYMAN describes the sea of Herkend, as it lay between the + Laccadives and Maldives[1], on the west, and swept round eastward by + Cape Comorin and Adam's Bridge to Ceylon, thus enclosing the precious + fishery for pearls. In Serendib, his earliest attention was devoutly + directed to the sacred footstep on Adam's Peak; in his name for + which, "<i>Al-rohoun,"</i> we trace the Buddhist name for the + district, Rohuna, so often occurring in the <i>Mahawanso</i>.[2] This + is the earliest notice of <a name="pg584" id="pg584"></a> the + Mussulman tradition, which associates the story of Adam with Ceylon, + though it was current amongst the Copts in the fourth and fifth + centuries.[3] On all sides of the mountain, he adds, are the mines of + rubies, hyacinths, and other gems; the interior produces aloes; and + the sea the highly valued chank shells, which served the Indians for + trumpets.[4] The island was subject to two kings; and on the death of + the chief one his body was placed on a low carriage, with the head + declining till the hair swept the ground, and, as it was drawn slowly + along, a female, with a bunch of leaves, swept dust upon the + features, crying: "Men, behold your king, whose will, but yesterday, + was law! To-day, he bids farewell to the world, and the Angel of + Death has seized his spirit. Cease, any longer, to be deluded by the + shadowy pleasures of life." At the conclusion of this ceremony, which + lasted for three days, the corpse was consumed on a pyre of sandal, + camphor, and aromatic woods, and the ashes scattered to the winds.[5] + The widow of the king was sometimes burnt along with his remains, but + compliance with the custom was not held to be compulsory.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>"Divi"</i> of Ammianus Marcellinus, who along with the + Singhalese "<i>Selendivi</i>" sent ambassadors to the Emperor + Julian, l xxii. c. 7.</p> + + <p>2: A portion of the district near Tangalle is known to the + present day as "Rouna."—<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. ix. p. 57; ch. + xxii. p. 130, &c.</p> + + <p>3: See the account of Adam's Peak, Vol. II. Pt. VII. ch. ii.</p> + + <p>4: ABOU-ZEYD, <i>Relation, &c.</i>, vol. i. p. 5.</p> + + <p>5: <i>lb</i>., p. 50. The practice of burning the remains of the + kings and of persons of exalted rank, continued as long as the + native dynasty held the throne of Kandy.—See KNOX's + <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, A.D. 1681, Part iii. c. + ii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Such is the account of SOLEYMAN, but, in the second part of the + manuscript, ABOU-ZEYD, on the authority of another informant, IBN + WAHAB, who had sailed to the same countries, speaks of the pearls of + Ceylon, and adds, regarding its precious stones, that they were + obtained in part from the soil, but chiefly from those points of the + beach at which the rivers flowed into the sea and to which the gems + are carried down by the torrents from the hills.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ibid</i>., vol. i. p. 127.</p> + </div> + + <p>ABOU-ZEYD describes the frequent conventions of the heads of the + national religion, and the attendance of <a name="pg585" id= + "pg585"></a> scribes to write down from their dictation the doctrines + of Buddhism, the legends of its prophets, and the precepts of its + law. This statement has an obvious reference to the important events + recorded in the <i>Mahawanso</i>[1] of the reduction of the tenets, + orally delivered by Buddha, to their written form, as they appear in + the <i>Pittakatayan</i>; to the translation of the <i>Atthakatha</i>, + from Singhalese into Pali, in the reign of Mahanamo, A.D. 410-432; + and to the singular care displayed, at all times, by the kings and + the priesthood, to preserve authentic records of every event + connected with the national religion and its history.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxiii. p. 207; ch. xxxvii. p. 252.</p> + </div> + + <p>ABOU-ZEYD adverts to the richness of the temples of the + Singhalese, and to the colossal dimensions of their statues, and + dwells with particularity on their toleration of all religious sects + as attested by the existence there, in the ninth century, of a sect + of Manichæans, and a community of Jews.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: It was to Ceylon that the terrified worshippers of Siva + betook themselves in their flight, when Mahmoud of Ghuznee smote + the idol and overthrew the temple of Somnaut, A.D. 1025. (FERISHTA, + transl. by Briggs, vol. i. p. 71; REINAUD, <i>Introd. to</i> + ABOULFEDA, vol. i. p. cccxlix. <i>Mémoires sur l'Inde</i>, p. 270.) + Twenty years previously, when the same orthodox invader routed the + schismatic Carmathians at Moultan, the fugitive chief of the Sheahs + found an asylum in Ceylon. (REINAUD, <i>Journ. Asiat</i>., vol. + xlv. p. 283; vol. xlvi. p. 129.) The latter circumstance serves to + show that the Mahometans in Ceylon have not been uniformly Sonnees, + and it may probably throw light on a fact of much local interest + connected with Colombo. There formerly stood there, in the + Mahometan Cemetery, a stone with an ancient inscription in Cufic + characters, which no one could decipher, but which was said to + record the virtues of a man of singular virtue, who had arrived in + the island in the tenth century. About the year 1787 A.D., one of + the Dutch officials removed the stone to the spot where he was + building, "and placed it where it now stands, at one of the steps + to his door." This is the account given by Sir Alexander Johnston, + who, in 1827, sent a copy of the inscription to the Royal Asiatic + Society of London. GILDEMEISTER pronounces it to be written in + Carmathic characters, and to commemorate an Arab who died A.D. 848. + "Karmathacis quæ dicuntur literis exarata viro cuidam Arabo Mortuo, + 948 A.D. posita," <i>Script. Arabi de Rebus Indicis</i>, p. 59. A + translation of the inscription by Lee was published in <i>Trans, + Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i>, vol. i. p. 545, from which it appears that + the deceased, Khalid Ibn Abou Bakaya, distinguished himself by + obtaining "security for religion, with other advantages, in the + year 317 of the Hejira." LEE was disposed to think that this might + be the tomb of the Imaum Abu Abd Allah; who first taught the + Mahometans the route by which pilgrims might proceed from India to + the sacred footstep on Adam's Peak. But besides the discrepancy of + the names, the Imaum died in the year A.D. 953, and interred at + Shiraz, where Ibn Batata made a visit to his tomb. (<i>Travels</i>, + transl. DEFRÉMERY, &c., tom. ii. p. 79.)</p> + + <p>EDRISI, in his Geography writing in the twelfth century, + confirms the account of Abou-zeyd as to the toleration of all sects + in Ceylon, and illustrates it by the fact, that of the sixteen + officers who formed the council of the king, four were Buddhists, + four Mussulmans, four Christians, and four + Jews.—GILDEMEISTER, <i>Script. Arabi</i>, &c., p. 53; + EDRISI, 1 clim. sec. 6.</p> + </div><a name="pg586" id="pg586"></a> + + <p>Ibn Wahab, his informant, appears to have looked back with + singular pleasure to the delightful voyages which he had made through + the remarkable still-water channels, elsewhere described, which form + so peculiar a feature in the seaborde of Ceylon, and to which the + Arabs gave the obscure term of "gobbs."[1] Here months were consumed + by the mariners, amidst flowers and overhanging woods, with the + enjoyments of abundant food and exhilarating draughts of arrack + flavoured with honey. The natives of the island were devoted to + pleasure, and their days were spent in cock-fighting and games of + chance, into which they entered with so much eagerness as to wager + the joints of their fingers when all else was lost.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "<i>Aghbah</i>," Arab. For an account of those of Ceylon, see + <a href="#pg042">Vol. I. Pt I. ch. i. p. 42.</a> The idea + entertained by the Arabs of these Gobbs, will be found in a passage + from Albyrouni, given by REINAUD, <i>Fragmens Arabes</i>, &c., + 119, and <i>Journ. Asiat</i>. vol. xlv. p. 201. See also EDRISI, + <i>Geog</i>., tom. i. p. 73.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the most interesting passages in the narrative of Abou-zeyd + are those which allude to the portion of Ceylon which served as the + emporium for the active and opulent trade of which the island was + then, in every sense of the word, the centre. Gibbon, on no other + ground than its "capacious harbour," pronounces Trincomalie to be the + port which received and dismissed the fleets of the East and West.[1] + But the nautical grounds are even stronger than the historical for + regarding this as improbable;—the winds and the currents, as + well as its geographical position, render Trincomalie <a name="pg587" + id="pg587"></a> difficult of access to vessels coming from the Red + Sea or the Persian Gulf; and it is evident from the narrative of + Soleyman and Ibn Wahab, that ships availing themselves of the + monsoons to cross the Indian Ocean, crept along the shore to Cape + Comorin; and passed close by Adam's Bridge to reach their destined + ports.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. xl.</p> + + <p>2: ABOU-ZEYD, vol. i. p. 128; REINAUD, <i>Discours; &c.</i>, + pp. lx.—lxix.; <i>Introd.</i> ABOULFEDA, p. cdxii.</p> + </div> + + <p>An opinion has been advanced by Bertolacci that the entrepôt was + Mantotte, at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Manaar. Presuming + that the voyages both ways were made through the Manaar channel, he + infers that the ships of Arabia and India, rather than encounter the + long delay of waiting for the change of the monsoon to effect the + passage, would prefer to "flock to the Straits of Manaar, and those + which, from their size, could not pass the shallow water, would be + unloaded, and their merchandise trans-shipped into other vessels, as + they arrived from the opposite coast, or deposited in stores to await + an opportunity of conveyance."[1] Hence Mantotte, he concludes, was + the station chosen for such combined operations.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: BERTOLACCI'S <i>Ceylon</i>, pp. 18,19.</p> + </div> + + <p>But Bertolacci confines his remarks to the Arabian and Indian + crafts alone: he leaves out of consideration the ships of the largest + size called in the <i>Periplus</i> [Greek: kolandiophônta], which + kept up the communication between the west and east coast of India, + in the time of the Romans, and he equally overlooks the great junks + of the Chinese, which, by aid of the magnetic compass[1], made bold + passages from Java to Malabar, and from Malabar to + Oman,—vessels which (on the authority of an ancient Arabic MS.) + Reinaud says carried from four to five hundred men, with <a name= + "pg588" id="pg588"></a> arms and naphtha, to defend themselves + against the pirates of India.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The knowledge of the mariner's compass probably possessed by + the Chinese prior to the twelfth century, is discussed by KLAPROTH + in his "<i>Lettre à M. le Baron Humboldt sur l'invention de la + boussole</i>." Paris, 1834.</p> + + <p>2: See the <i>"Katab-al-adjajab</i>," probably written by + MASSOUDI. REINAUD, <i>Mémoires sur l'Inde</i>, p. 200; <i>Relation + et Discours</i>, pp. lx. lxviii.; ABOULFEDA, <i>Introd</i>. cdxii. + May not this early mention of the use of "naphtha" by the Chinese + for burning the ships of an enemy, throw some light on the + disquisitions adverted to by GIBBON, ch. lii., as to the nature of + "the <i>Greek fire</i>," so destructive to the fleets of their + assailants during the first and second siege of Constantinople in + the seventh and eighth centuries? GIBBON says that the principal + ingredient was naphtha, and that the Greek emperor learned the + secret of its composition from a Syrian who deserted from the + service of the Khalif. Did the Khalif acquire the knowledge from + the Chinese, whose ships, it appears, were armed with some + preparation of this nature in their voyages to Bassora?</p> + </div> + + <p>On this point we have the personal testimony of the Chinese + traveller Fa Hian, who at the end of the fourth century sailed direct + from Ceylon for China, in a merchant vessel so large as to + accommodate two hundred persons, and having in tow a smaller one, as + a precaution against dangers by sea[1]:—and Ibn Batuta saw, at + Calicut, in the fourteenth century, junks from China capable of + accommodating a thousand men, of whom four hundred were soldiers, and + each of these large ships was followed by three smaller.[2] With + vessels of such magnitude, it would be neither expedient nor + practicable to navigate the shallows in the vicinity of Manaar; and + besides, Mantotte, or, as it was anciently called, <i>Mahatitta</i> + or <i>Maha-totta</i>, "the great ferry," although it existed as a + port upwards of four hundred years before the Christian era, was at + no period an emporium of commerce. Being situated so close to the + ancient capital, Anarajapoora, it derived its notoriety from being + the point of arrival and departure of the Malabars who resorted to + the island; and the only trade for which it afforded facilities was + the occasional <a name="pg589" id="pg589"></a> importation of the + produce of the opposite coast of India.[3] It is not only probable, + but almost certain that during the middle ages, and especially prior + to the eleventh century, when the trade with Persia and Arabia was at + its height, Mantotte afforded the facilities indicated by Bertolacci + to the smaller craft that availed themselves of the Paumbam passage; + but we have still to ascertain the particular harbour which was the + centre of the more important commerce between China and the West. + That harbour I believe to have been Point de Galle.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Foĕ-kouĕ-ki</i>, ch. xl. p. 359). In a previous + passage, FA HIAN describes the large vessels in which the trade was + carried between Tamlook, on the Hoogly, and Ceylon:—"A cette + époque, des marchands, se mettant en mer avec de grands vaisseaux, + firent route vers le sud-ouest; et au commencement de l'hiver, le + vent étant favorable, après une navigation de quatorze nuits et + d'autant de jours, on arriva au <i>Royaume des + Lions</i>."—<i>Ibid</i>. chap. xxxvi. p. 328.</p> + + <p>2: IBN BATUTA, Lee's translation, p. 172.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 51; ch. xxv. p. 155; ch. xxxv. + p. 217.</p> + </div> + + <p>Abou-zeyd describes the rendezvous of the ships arriving from + Oman, where they met those bound for the Persian Gulf, as lying + half-way between Arabia and China. "It was the centre," he says, "of + the trade in aloes and camphor, in sandal-wood, ivory and lead."[1] + This emporium he denominates "Kalah," and when we remember that lie + is speaking of a voyage which he had not himself made, and of + countries then very imperfectly known to the people of the West, we + shall not be surprised that he calls it an island, or rather a + peninsula.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: ABOU-ZEYD, <i>Relation, &c.</i>, vol. i. p. 93; REINAUD, + <i>Disc.</i> p. lxxiv.</p> + </div> + + <p>According to him, it was at that period subject to the Maharaja of + Zabedj, the sovereign of a singular kingdom of which little is known, + but which appears to have been formed about the commencement of the + Christian era; and which, in the eighth and ninth centuries, extended + over the groups of islands south and west of Malacca, including + Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, which had become the resort of a vast + population of Indians, Chinese, and Malays.[1] The sovereign of this + opulent empire had <a name="pg590" id="pg590"></a> brought under his + dominion the territory of the King of Comar, the southern extremity + of the Dekkan[2], and at the period when Abou-zeyd wrote, he likewise + claimed the sovereignty of "Kalah."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Journ. Asiat.</i> vol. xlix. p. 206; ELPHINSTONE's + <i>India</i>, b. iii. ch. x. p. 168; REINAUD, <i>Mémoires sur + l'Inde</i>, p. 39; <i>Introd.</i> ABOULFEDA, p. cccxc. Baron + Walckenaer has ascertained, from the puranas and other Hindu + sources, that the Great Dynasty of the Maharaja continued till A.D. + 628, after which the islands were sub-divided into numerous + sovereignties. See MAJOR's <i>Introduction to the Indian Voyages in + the Fifteenth Century,</i> in the <i>Hakluyt Soc. Publ.</i> p. + xxvii.</p> + + <p>2: MASSOUDI relates the conquest of the kingdom of Comar by the + Maharaja of Zabedj, nearly in the same words as it is told by + Abou-zeyd; GILDEMEISTER, <i>Script. Arab</i>., pp. 145, 146. + REINAUD. <i>Memoires sur l'Inde</i>, p. 225.</p> + </div> + + <p>This incident is not mentioned in the Singhalese chronicles, but + their silence is not to be regarded as conclusive evidence against + its probability; the historians of the Hindus ignore the expedition + of Alexander the Great, and it is possible that those of Ceylon, + indifferent to all that did not directly concern the religion of + Buddha, may have felt little interest in the fortunes of Galle, + situated as it was at the remote extremity of the island, and in a + region that hardly acknowledged a nominal allegiance to the + Singhalese crown.</p> + + <p>The assertion of Abou-zeyd as to the sovereignty of the Maharaja + of Zabedj, at Kalah, is consistent with the statement of Soleyman in + the first portion of the work, that "the island was in subjection to + two monarchs;"[1] and this again agrees with the report of Sopater to + Cosmas Indico-pleustes, who adds that the king who possessed the + hyacinth was at enmity with the king of the country in which were the + harbour and the great emporium.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Relation</i>, vol. i. p. 6.</p> + + <p>2: [Greek: Duo ie basileis eisin en tê nêsô enantioi allêlôn, ho + eis echôn ton huakinthon, kai d eteros to meros to allo en ps esti + emporion kai hê lêinê.</p> + + <p>COSMAS INDIC.</p> + </div> + + <p>But there is evidence that the subjection of this portion of + Ceylon to the chief of the great insular empire was at that period + currently believed in the East. In the a "<i>Garsharsp-Namah</i>" a + Persian poem of the tenth century, by Asedi, a manuscript of which + was in the possession of Sir William Ouseley, the story turns on a + naval expedition, fitted out by Delak, whose dominions extended from + Persia to Palestine, and despatched at the request of the Maharaja + against Baku, the King of <a name="pg591" id="pg591"></a> Ceylon, and + in the course of the narrative, Garsharsp and his fleet reach their + destination at Kalah, and there achieve a victory over the "Shah of + Serendib."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: OUSELEY'S <i>Travels</i>, vol. i. p. 48.</p> + </div> + + <p>It must be observed, that one form of the Arabic letter K is + sounded like G, so that Kalah would be pronounced <i>Gala</i>.[1] The + identity, however, is established not merely by similarity of sound, + but by the concurrent testimony of Cosmas and the Arabian + geographers[2], as to the nature and extent of the intercourse + between China and Persia, statements which are intelligible if + referred to that particular point, but inapplicable to any other.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Kalah</i> may possibly be identical with the Singhalese + word <i>gala</i>, which means an "enclosure," and the deeply bayed + harbour of Galle would serve to justify the name. <i>Galla</i> + signifies a rock, and this derivation would be equally sustained by + the natural features of the place, and dangerous coral reefs which + obstruct the entrance to the port.</p> + + <p>2: DULAURIER, in the <i>Journal Asiatique</i> for Sept. 1846, + vol. xlix. p. 209, has brought together the authorities of + Aboulfeda, Kazwini, and others to show that Kalah be situated in + Ceylon, and he has combated the conjecture of M. Alfred Maury that + it may be identical with Kedsh in the Malay + Peninsula.—REINAUD, <i>Relation, &c. Disc.</i>, pp. + xli.—lxxxiv., <i>Introd.</i> ABOULFEDA, p. ccxviii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Coupled with these considerations, however, the identity of name + is not without its significance. It was the habit of the Singhalese + to apply to a district the name of the principal place within it; + thus Lanka, which in the epic of the Hindus was originally the + capital and castle of Ravana, was afterwards applied to the island in + general; and according to the <i>Mahawanso</i>, Tambapani, the point + of the coast where Wijayo landed, came to designate first the wooded + country that surrounded it, and eventually the whole area of + Ceylon.[1] In the same manner <i>Galla</i> served to describe not + only the harbour of that name, but the district north and east of it + to the extent of 600 square miles, and De Barros, De Couto, and + Ribeyro, the chroniclers of the Portuguese in Ceylon, record it as a + tradition of the island, that the inhabitants of that region had + acquired <a name="pg592" id="pg592"></a> the name of the locality, + and were formerly known as "Gallas."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 50.</p> + + <p>2: A notice of this tribe will be found in another place. See + Vol. II. Pt. VII. ch. ii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Galle therefore, in the earlier ages, appears to have occupied a + position in relation to trade of equal if not of greater importance + than that which attaches to it at the present day. It was the central + emporium of a commerce which in turn enriched every country of + Western Asia, elevated the merchants of Tyre to the rank of princes, + fostered the renown of the Ptolemies, rendered the wealth and the + precious products of Arabia a gorgeous mystery[1], freighted the + Tigris with "barbaric pearl and gold," and identified the merchants + of Bagdad and the mariners of Bassora with associations of adventure + and romance. Yet, strange to say, the native Singhalese appear to + have taken no part whatever in this exciting and enriching commerce; + their name is never mentioned in connection with the immigrant races + attracted by it to their shores, and the only allusions of travellers + to the indigenous inhabitants of the island are in connection with a + custom so remarkable and so peculiar as at once to identify the + tribes to whom it is ascribed with the remnant of the aboriginal race + of Veddahs, whose descendants still haunt the forests in the east of + Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: " ... intactis opulentior Thesauris Arabum, et divitis + Indiæ." HORACE.</p> + </div> + + <p>Such is the aversion of this untamed race to any intercourse with + civilised life, that when in want of the rude implements essential to + their savage economy, they repair by night to the nearest village on + the confines of their hunting-fields, and indicating by + well-understood signs and models the number and form of the articles + required, whether arrow-heads, hatchets, or cloths, they deposit an + equivalent portion of dried deer's flesh or honey near the door of + the dealer, and retire unseen to the jungles, returning by stealth + within <a name="pg593" id="pg593"></a> a reasonable time, to carry + away the manufactured articles, which they find placed at the same + spot in exchange.</p> + + <p>This singular custom has been described without variation by + numerous writers on Ceylon, both in recent and remote times. To trace + it backwards, it is narrated, nearly as I have stated it, by Robert + Knox in 1681[1]; and it is confirmed by Valentyn, the Dutch historian + of Ceylon[2]; as well as by Ribeyro, the Portuguese, who wrote + somewhat earlier.[3] Albyrouni, the geographer, who in the reign of + Mahomet of Ghuznee, A.D. 1030, described this singular feature in the + trade with the island, of which he speaks under the name of Lanka, + says that it was the belief of the Arabian mariners that the parties + with whom they held their mysterious dealings were demons or + savages.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: KNOX, <i>Historical Relation, &c.</i>, part iii. ch. i. + p. 62.</p> + + <p>2: VALENTYN, <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien</i>, ch. iii. p. + 49.</p> + + <p>3: "Lorsqu'ils ont besoin de haches on de flèches, ils font un + modèle avec des feuilles d'arbre, et vont la nuit porter ce modèle, + et la moitié d'un cerf on d'un sanglier, à la porte d'un armurier, + qui voyant le matin cette viande penduë à sa porte, sçait ce que + cela veut dire: il travaille aussi-tôt et 3 jours après il pend les + flêches ou les haches au même endroit où étoit la viande, et la + nuit suivante le Beda les vient prendre."—RIBEYRO, <i>Hist. + de Ceylan</i>, A.D. 1686, ch. xxiv. p. 179.</p> + + <p>4: "Les marins se réunissent pour dire que lorsque les navires + sont arrivés dans ces parages, quelques uns de l'équipage montent + sur des chaloupes et descendent à terre pour y déposer, soit de + l'argent, soit des objets utiles à la personne des habitans, tels + que des pagnes, du sel, etc. Le lendemain, quand ils reviennent, + ils trouvent à la place de l'argent des pagnes et du sel, une + quantité de girofle d'une valeur égale. On ajoute que ce commerce + se fait avec des génies, ou, suivant d'autres; avec des hommes + restés à l'état sauvage."—ALBYROUNI, <i>transl. by</i> + REINAUD, <i>Introd. to</i> ABOULFEDA, sec. iii. p. ccc. See also + REINAUD, <i>Mém. sur l'Inde</i>, p. 343. I have before alluded (p. + 538, <i>n</i>.) to the treatise <i>De Moribus Brachmanorum</i>, + ascribed to Palladius, one version of which is embodied in the + spurious Life of Alexander the Great, written by the + Pseudo-Callisthenes. In it the traveller from Thebes, who is the + author's informant, states, that when in Ceylon, he obtained pepper + from the Besadæ, and succeeded in getting so near them as to be + able to describe accurately their appearance, their low stature and + feeble configuration, their large heads and shaggy uncut + hair,—a description which in every particular agrees with the + aspect of the Veddahs at the present day. His expression that he + succeeded in "getting near" them, [Greek: ertasa engus tôn + kaloumenôn Besadôn] shows their propensity to conceal themselves + even when bringing the articles which they had collected in the + woods to sell.—PSEUDO-CALLISTHENES, lib. iii. ch. vii. Paris, + 1846, p. 103.</p> + </div><a name="pg594" id="pg594"></a> + + <p>Concurrent testimony, to the same effect, is found in the recital + of the Chinese Buddhist, Fa Hian, who in the third century describes, + in his travels, the same strange peculiarity of the inhabitants in + those days, whom he also designates "demons," who deposited, unseen, + the precious articles which they come down to barter with the foreign + merchants resorting to their shores.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Les marchands des autre royaumes y faisaient le commerce: + quand le temps de ce commerce était venu, les génies et les démons + ne paraissaient pas; mais ils mettaient en avant des choses + précieuses dont ils marquaient le juste prix,—s'il convenait + aux marchands, ceuxci l'acquittaient et prenaient le + marchandise."—FA HIAN, <i>Foeĕ-kouĕ-ki. Transl.</i> + RÉMUSAT, ch. xxxviii. p. 332</p> + + <p>There are a multitude of Chinese authorities to the same effect. + One of the most remarkable books in any language is a Chinese + Encyclopædia which under the title of <i>Wen-hian-thoung-khao</i>, + or "<i>Researches into ancient Monuments</i>," contains a history + of every art and science form the commencement of the empire to the + era of the author MA-TOUAN-LIN, who wrote in the thirteenth + century. M. Stanislas Julien has published in the <i>Journal + Asiatique</i> for July 1836 a translation of that portion of this + great work which has relation to Ceylon. It is there stated of the + aborigines that when "les marchands des autres royaumes y venaient + commercer, <i>ils ne laissaient pas voir leurs corps</i>, et + montraient au moyen de pierres précieuses le prix que pouvaient + valoir les merchandises. Les marchands venaient et en prenaient une + quantité équivalente à leurs marchandises."—<i>Journ. + Asiat.</i> t. xxviii. p. 402; xxiv. p. 41. I have extracts from + seven other Chinese works, written between the seventh and the + twelfth centuries, in all of which there occurs the same account of + Ceylon,—that it was formerly supposed to be inhabited by + dragons and demons, and that when "merchants from all nations come + to trade with the, they are invisible, but leave their precious + wares spread out with an indication of the value set on them, and + the Chinese take them at the prices + stipulated."—<i>Leang-shoo</i>, "History of the Leang + Dynasty," A.D. 630, b. liv. p. 13. <i>Nân-shè</i>, "History of the + Southern Empire," A.D. 650, p. xxxviii. p. 14. <i>Jung-teen</i>, + "Cyclopædia of History," A.D. 740, b. cxciii. p. 8. The + <i>Tae-pîng</i>, a "Digest of History," compiled by Imperial + command, A.D. 983, b. dccxciii. p. 9. <i>Tsih-foo-yuen-kwei</i>, + the "Great Depositary of the National Archives," A.D. 1012, b. + cccclvi. p. 21. <i>Sin-Jang-shoo</i>, "New History of the Tang + Dynasty," A.D. 1060, b. cxlvi. part ii. p. 10. <i>Wan + heen-túng-Kwan</i>, "Antiquarian Researches," A.D. 1319, b. + cccxxxviii. p. 24.</p> + </div> + + <p>The chain of evidence is rendered complete by a passage in Pliny, + which, although somewhat obscure (facts relating to the Seres being + confounded with statements regarding Ceylon), nevertheless serves to + show that the custom in question was then well known to the + Singhalese ambassadors sent to the Emperor Claudius, and was also + familiar to the Greek traders <a name="pg595" id="pg595"></a> + resorting to the island. The envoys stated, at Rome, that the habit + of the people of their country was, on the arrival of traders, to go + to "the further side of some river where wares and commodities are + laid down by the strangers, and if the natives list to make exchange, + they have them taken away, and leave other merchandise in lieu + thereof, to content the foreign merchant."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PLINY, <i>Nat. Hist</i>., lib. vi. ch. xxiv. Transl. Philemon + Holland, p. 130. This passage has been sometimes supposed to refer + to the Seræ, but a reference to the text will confirm the opinion + of MARTIANUS and SOLINUS, that Pliny applies it to the Singhalese; + and that the allusion to red hair and grey eyes, "rutilis comis" + and "cæruleis oculis" applies to some northern tribes whom the + Singhalese had seen in their overland journeys to China, "Later + travellers," says COOLEY, "have likewise had glimpses, on the + frontiers of India, of these German features; but nothing is yet + known with certainty of the tribe to which they properly + belonged."—<i>Hist. Inland and Maritime Discovery</i>, vol. + i. p. 71.</p> + </div> + + <p>The fact, thus established, of the aversion to commerce, + immemorially evinced by the southern Singhalese, and of their desire + to escape from intercourse with the strangers resorting to trade on + their coasts, serves to explain the singular scantiness of + information regarding the interior of the island which is apparent in + the writings of the Arabians and Persians, between the eighth and + thirteenth centuries. Their knowledge of the coast was extensive, + they were familiar with the lofty mountain which served as its + landmark, they dwell with admiration on its productions, and record + with particularity the objects of commerce which were to be found in + the island; but, regarding the Singhalese themselves and their social + and intellectual condition, little, if any, real information is to be + gleaned from the Oriental geographers of the middle ages.</p> + + <p>ALBATENY and MASSOUDI, the earliest of the Arabian geographers[1], + were contemporaries of Abou-zeyd, in the ninth century, and neither + adds much to the description <a name="pg596" id="pg596"></a> of + Ceylon, given in the narratives of "<i>The two Mahometans</i>." The + former assigns to the island the fabulous dimensions ascribed to it + by the Hindus, and only alludes to the ruby and the sapphire[2] as + being found in the rivers that flow from its majestic mountains. + MASSOUDI asserts that he visited Ceylon[3], and describes, from + actual knowledge, the funeral ceremonies of a king, and the + incremation of his remains; but as these are borrowed almost verbatim + from the account given by Soleyman[4], there is reason to believe + that he merely copied from Abou-zeyd the portions of the "<i>Meadows + of Gold</i>"[5] that have relation to Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Probably the earliest allusion to Ceylon by any Arabian or + Persian author, is that of Tabari, who was born in A.D. 838; but he + limits his notices to an exaggerated account of Adam's Peak, "than + which the whole world does not contain a mountain of greater + height."—OUSELLY'S <i>Travels</i>, vol i. p. 34, + <i>n</i>.</p> + + <p>2: "Le rubis rouge, et la pierre qui est couleur de ciel." + ALBATENY, quoted by Reinaud, <i>Introd</i>. ABOULFEDA p. + ccclxxxv.</p> + + <p>3: MASSOUDI in Gildemeister, <i>Script. Arab</i>. p. 154. + Gildemeister discredits the assertion of Massoudi, that he had been + in Ceylon. (<i>Ib.</i> p. 154, <i>n</i>.) He describes Kalah as an + island distinct from Serendib.</p> + + <p>4: ABOU-ZEYD, <i>Relation, &c</i>., p. 50.</p> + + <p>5: A translation of MASSOUDI'S <i>Meadows of Gold</i> in English + was begun by Dr. Sprenger for the "Oriental Translation Fund," but + it has not advanced beyond the first volume, which was published in + 1841.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the order of time, this is the place to allude to another + Arabian mariner, whose voyages have had a world-wide renown, and who, + more than any other author, ancient or modern, has contributed to + familiarise Europe with the name and wonders of Serendib. I allude to + "Sindbad of the Sea," whose voyages were first inserted by Galland, + in his French translation of the "<i>Thousand-and-one Nights</i>." + Sindbad, in his own tale, professes to have lived in the reign of the + most illustrious Khalif of the Abbassides,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Sole star of all that place and time;—</p> + + <p>And saw him, in his golden prime,</p> + + <p class="i2">The good Haroun Alraschid."</p> + </div> + + <p>But Haroun died, A.D. 808, and Sindbad's narrative is so + manifestly based on the recitals of Abou-zeyd and Massoudi, that + although the author may have lived <a name="pg597" id="pg597"></a> + shortly after, it is scarcely possible that he could have been a + contemporary of the great ruler of Bagdad.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: REINAUD notices the <i>Ketab-ala-jayb</i>, or "Book of + Wonders," of MASSOUDI, as one of the works whence the materials of + Sindbad's Voyages were drawn. (<i>Introd</i>. ABOULFEDA, vol. i. p. + lxxvii.) HOLE published in 1797 A.D. his learned <i>Remarks on the + Origin of Sindbad's Voyages</i>, and in that work, as well as in + LANGLE'S edition of Sindbad; and in the notes by LANE to his + version of the "<i>Arabian Nights' Entertainment</i>," Edrisi, + Kazwini, and many other writers are mentioned whose works contain + parallel statements. But though Edrisi and Kazwini wrote in the + twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it does not follow that the + author of Sindbad lived later than they, as both may have borrowed + their illustrations from the same early sources.</p> + </div> + + <p>One inference is clear, from the story of Sindbad, that whilst the + sea-coast of Ceylon was known to the Arabians, the interior had been + little explored by them, and was so enveloped in mystery that any + tale of its wonders, however improbable, was sure to gain credence. + Hence, what Sindbad relates of the shore and its inhabitants is + devoid of exaggeration: in his first visit the natives who received + him were Malabars, one of whom had learned Arabic, and they were + engaged in irrigating their rice lands from a tank. These are + incidents which are characteristic of the north-western coast of + Ceylon at the present day; and the commerce, for which the island was + remarkable in the ninth and tenth centuries is implied by the + expression of Sindbad, that on the occasion of his next voyage, when + bearing presents and a letter from the Khalif to the King of + Serendib, he embarked at Bassora in a ship, and with him "were many + merchants."</p> + + <p>Of the Arabian authors of the middle ages the one who dwells most + largely on Ceylon is EDRISI, born of a family who ruled over Malaga + after the fall of the Khalifs of Cordova. He was a <i>protégé</i> of + the Sicilian king, Roger the Norman, at whose desire he compiled his + Geography, A.D. 1154. But with regard to Ceylon, his pages contain + only the oft-repeated details of the height of the holy mountain, the + gems found in its ravines, the musk, the perfumes, and odoriferous + woods <a name="pg598" id="pg598"></a> which abound there.[1] He + particularises twelve cities, but their names are scarcely + identifiable with any now known.[2] The sovereign, who was celebrated + for the mildness of his rule, was assisted by a council of sixteen, + of whom four were of the national religion, four Christians, four + Mussulmans, and four Jews; and one of the chief cares of the + government was given to keeping up the historical records of the + reigns of their kings, the lives of their prophets, and the sacred + books of their law.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: EDRISI mentions, that at that period the sugar-cane was + cultivated in Ceylon.</p> + + <p>2: Marnaba, (<i>Manaar?</i>) Aghna Perescouri, + (<i>Periatorre?</i>) Aide, Mahouloun, (<i>Putlam?</i>) Hamri, + Telmadi, (<i>Talmanaar?</i>) Lendouma, Sedi; Hesli, Beresli and + Medouna (<i>Matura?</i>). "Aghna" or "Ana," as Edrisi makes it the + residence of the king, must be Anarajapoora.</p> + </div> + + <p>Ships from China and other distant countries resorted to the + island, and hither "came the wines of Irak, and Fars, which are + purchased by the king, and sold again to his subjects; for, unlike + the princes of India, who encourage debauchery but strictly forbid + wine, the King of Serendib recommends wine and prohibits debauchery." + The exports of the island he describes as silk, precious stones of + every hue, rock-crystal, diamonds, and a profusion of + perfumes.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: EDRISI, <i>Géogr.</i> Transl. de Jaubert, 4to. Paris, 1836, + t. i. p. 71, &c. Edrisi, in his "Notice of Ceylon," quotes + largely and verbatim from the work of Abou-zeyd.</p> + </div> + + <p>The last of this class of writers to whom it is necessary to + allude is KAZWINI, who lived at Bagdad in the thirteenth century, + and, from the diversified nature of his writings, has been called the + Pliny of the East. In his geographical account of India, he includes + Ceylon, but it is evident from the details into which he enters of + the customs of the court and the people, the burning of the widows of + the kings on the same pile with their husbands, that the information + he had received had been collected amongst the Brahmanical, not the + Buddhist portion of the people. This is confirmatory of the actual + condition of the people of Ceylon at the period as shown by the + native chronicles, the king being <a name="pg599" id="pg599"></a> the + Malabar Magha, who invaded the island from Caligna 1219 A.D., + overthrew the Buddhist religion, desecrated its monuments and + temples, and destroyed the edifices and literary records of the + capital.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. lxxx. <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, p. 93; + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 256. TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome, &c</i>., p. + 44.</p> + </div> + + <p>KAZWINI, as usual, dwells on the productions of the island, its + spices, and its odours, its precious woods and medical drugs, its + profusion of gems, its gold and silver work, and its pearls[1]: but + one circumstance will not fail to strike the reader as a strange + omission in these frequent enumerations of the exports of Ceylon. I + have traced them from their earliest notices by the Greeks and Romans + to the period when the commerce of the East had reached its climax in + the hands of the Persians and Arabians; the survey extends over + fifteen centuries, during which Ceylon and its productions were + familiarly known to the traders of all countries, and yet in the + pages of no author, European or Asiatic, from the earliest ages to + the close of the thirteenth century, is there the remotest allusion + to <i>Cinnamon</i> as an indigenous production, or even as an article + of commerce in Ceylon. I may add, that I have been equally + unsuccessful in finding any allusion to it in any Chinese work of + ancient date.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: KAZWINI, in Gildemeister, <i>Script. Arab</i>. p. 108.</p> + + <p>2: In the Chinese Materia Medica, "<i>Pun-tsao-kang-muh</i>," + cinnamon or cassia is described under the name of "<i>kwei</i>" but + always as a production of Southern China and of Cochin China. In + the Ming History, a production of Ceylon is mentioned under the + name of "<i>Shoo-heang</i>," or "tree-perfume;" but my informant, + Mr. Wylie, of Shanghae, is unable to identify it with cinnamon + oil.</p> + </div> + + <p>This unexpected result has served to cast a suspicion on the title + of Ceylon to be designated <i>par excellence</i> the "Cinnamon Isle," + and even with the knowledge that the cinnamon laurel is indigenous + there, it admits of but little doubt that the spice which in the + earlier ages was imported into Europe through Arabia, was obtained, + first from Africa, and afterwards from India; and that it was not + till after the twelfth or thirteenth century that its <a name="pg600" + id="pg600"></a> existence in Ceylon became known to the merchants + resorting to the island. So little was its real history known in + Europe, even at the latter period, that Phile, who composed his + metrical treatise, [Greek: Peri Zôôn Idiotêtos], for the information + of the Emperor Michael XI. (Palæologus), about the year 1310, repeats + the ancient fable of Herodotus, that cinnamon grew in an unknown + Indian country, whence it was carried by birds, from whose nests it + was abstracted by the natives of Arabia.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>[Greek:</p> + + <p>Ornis ho kinnamômos ônomasmenos</p> + + <p>To kinnamômon euren agnooumenon,</p> + + <p>Huph ou kalian organoi tois philtatois</p> + + <p>Mallon ie tois melasin Indois, autanax</p> + + <p>Arômatikên hêdonên diaplekei.]</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>PHILE, xxviii.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>VINCENT, in scrutinising the writings of the classical authors, + anterior to Cosmas, who treated of Taprobane, was surprised to + discover that no mention of cinnamon as a production of Ceylon was + to be met with in Pliny, Dioscorides, or Ptolemy, and that even the + author of the mercantile <i>Periplus</i> was silent regarding it. + (Vol. ii. p. 512.) D'Herbelot has likewise called attention to the + same fact. (<i>Bibl. Orient.</i> vol. iii. p. 308.) This omission + is not to be explained by ascribing it to mere inadvertence. The + interest of the Greeks and Romans was naturally excited to discover + the country which produced a luxury so rare as to be a suitable + gift for a king; and so costly, that a crown of cinnamon tipped + with gold was a becoming offering to the gods. But the Arabs + succeeded in preserving the secret of its origin, and the curiosity + of Europe was baffled by tales of cinnamon being found in the nest + of the Phoenix, or gathered in marshes guarded by monsters and + winged serpents. Pliny appears to have been the first to suspect + that the most precious of spices came not from Arabia, but from + Æthiopia (lib. xii. c. xlii.); and COOLEY, in an argument equally + remarkable for ingenuity and research, has succeeded in + demonstrating the soundness of this conjecture, and establishing + the fact that the cinnamon brought to Europe by the Arabs, and + afterwards by the Greeks, came chiefly from the eastern angle of + Africa, the tract around Cape Gardafui, which is marked on the + ancient maps as the <i>Regio Cinnamomifera.</i> (Journ. Roy. Georg. + Society, 1849, vol. xix. p. 166.) COOLEY has suggested in his + learned work on "<i>Ptolemy and the Nile</i>," that the name + <i>Gardafui</i> is a compound of the Somali word <i>gard</i>, "a + port," and the Arabic <i>afhaoni</i>, a generic term for aromata + and spices. It admits of no doubt that the cinnamon of Ceylon was + unknown to commerce in the sixth century of our era; although there + is evidence of a supply which, if not from China, was probably + carried in Chinese vessels at a much earlier period, in the Persian + name <i>dar chini</i>, which means "<i>Chinese wood</i>," and in + the ordinary word "cinn-amon," "<i>Chinese amomum</i>," a generic + name for aromatic spices generally. (NEES VON ESENBACH, <i>de + Cinnamono Disputatio</i>, p. 12.) Ptolemy, equally with Pliny, + placed the "Cinnamon Region" at the north-eastern extremity of + Africa, now the country of the Somaulees; and the author of the + <i>Periplus</i>, mindful of his object, in writing a guidebook for + merchant-seamen, particularises cassia amongst the exports of the + same coast; but although he enumerates the productions of Ceylon, + gems, pearls, ivory, and tortoiseshell, he is silent as to + cinnamon. Dioscorides and Galen, in common with the travellers and + geographers of the ancients, ignore its Singhalese origin, and + unite with them in tracing it to the country of the Troglodytæ. I + attach no importance to those passages in WAGENFELD'S version of + <i>Sanchoniathon</i>, in which, amongst other particulars, + obviously describing Ceylon under the name of "the island of + Rachius," which he states to have been visited by the Phoenicians; + he says, that the western province produced, the finest cinnamon + ([Greek: kinnamô pollô te kai diapheronti]), that the mountains + abounded in cassia (Greek: kasia arômatikôtatê]), and that the + minor kings paid their tribute in both, to the paramount sovereign. + (SANCHONIATHON, ed. Wagenfeld, Bremen, 1837, lib. vii. ch. xii.). + The MS. from which Wagenfeld printed, is evidently a mediæval + forgery (see <a href="#pg547">note (A) to vol. i. ch. v. p. + 547</a>). Again, it is equally strange that the writers of Arabia + and Persia preserve a similar silence as to the cinnamon of the + island, although they dwell with due admiration on its other + productions, in all of which they carried on a lucrative trade. Sir + WILLIAM OUSELEY, after a fruitless search through the writings of + their geographers and travellers, records his surprise at this + result, and mentions especially his disappointment, that Ferdousi, + who enriches his great poem with glowing descriptions of all the + objects presented by surrounding nations to the sovereigns of + Persia,—ivory, ambergris, and aloes, vases, bracelets, and + jewels,—never once adverts to the exquisite cinnamon of + Ceylon.—<i>Travels</i>, vol. i, p. 41.</p> + + <p>The conclusion deducible from fifteen centuries of historic + testimony is, that the earliest knowledge of cinnamon possessed by + the western nations was derived from China, and that it first + reached Judea and Phoenicia overland by way of Persia (Song of + Solomon, iv. 14: Revelation xviii, 13). At a later period when the + Arabs, "the merchants of Sheba," competed for the trade of Tyre, + and earned to her "the chief of all spices" (Ezekiel xvii. 22), + their supplies were drawn from their African possessions, and the + cassia of the Troglodytic coast supplanted the cinnamon of the far + East, and to a great extent excluded it from the market. The Greeks + having at length discovered the secret of the Arabs, resorted to + the same countries as their rivals in commerce, and surpassing them + in practical navigation and the construction of ships, the Sabæans + were for some centuries reduced to a state of mercantile dependence + and inferiority. In the meantime the Roman Empire declined; the + Persians under the Sassanides engrossed the intercourse with the + East, the trade of India now flowed through the Persian Gulf, and + the ports of the Red Sea were deserted. "Thus the downfall, and it + may be the extinction, of the African spice trade probably dates + from the close of the sixth century, and Malabar succeeded at once + to this branch of commerce."—COOLEY, <i>Regio + Cinnamomifera</i>, p. 14. Cooley supposes that the Malabars may + have obtained from Ceylon the cinnamon with which they supplied the + Persians; as Ibn Batuta, in the fourteenth century, saw cinnamon + trees drifted upon the shores of the island, whither they had been + carried by torrents from the forests of the interior (<i>Ibn + Batuta</i>, ch. xx. p. 182). The fact of their being found so is in + itself sufficient evidence, that down to that time no active trade + had been carried on in the article; and the earliest travellers in + the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, MARCO POLO, JOHN OF HESSE, + FRA JORDANUS and others, whilst they allude to cinnamon as one of + the chief productions of Malabar, speak of Ceylon, notwithstanding + her wealth in jewels and pearls, as if she were utterly destitute + of any spice of this kind. NICOLA DE CONTI, A.D. 1444, is the first + European writer, in whose pages I have found Ceylon described as + yielding cinnamon, and he is followed by Varthema, A.D. 1506, and + Corsali, A.D. 1515.</p> + + <p>Long after the arrival of Europeans in Ceylon, cinnamon was only + found in the forests of the interior, where it was cut and brought + away by the Chalias, the caste who, from having been originally + weavers, devoted themselves to this new employment. The Chalias are + themselves an immigrant tribe, and, according to their own + tradition, they came to the island only a very short time before + the appearance of the Portuguese. (See a <i>History of the + Chalias</i>, by ADRIAN RAJAPAKSE, <i>a Chief of the Caste, Asiat. + Reser.</i> vol. iii. p. 440.) So difficult of access were the + forests, that the Portuguese could only obtain a full supply from + them once in three years; and the Dutch, to remedy this + uncertainty, made regular plantations in the vicinity of their + forts about the year 1770 A.D., "<i>so that the cultivation of + cinnamon in Ceylon is not yet a century old</i>"—COOLEY, p. + 15. It is a question for scientific research rather than for + historical scrutiny, whether the cinnamon laurel of Ceylon, as it + exists at the present day, is indigenous to the island, or whether + it is identical with the cinnamon of Abyssinia, and may have been + carried thence by the Arabs; or whether it was brought to the + island from the adjacent continent of India; or imported by the + Chinese from islands still further to the east. One fact is + notorious at the present day, that nearly the whole of the cinnamon + grown in Ceylon is produced in a small and well-defined area + occupying the S.W. quarter of the island, which has been at all + times the resort of foreign shipping. The natives, from observing + its appearance for the first time in other and unexpected places, + believe it to be sown by the birds who carry thither the undigested + seeds; and the Dutch, for this reason, prohibited the shooting of + crows,—a precaution that would scarcely be necessary for the + protection of the plant, had they believed it to be not only + indigenous, but peculiar to the island. We ourselves were led, till + very recently, to imagine that Ceylon enjoyed a "natural monopoly" + of cinnamon.</p> + + <p>Mr. THWAITES, of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kandy, is of + opinion from his own observation, that cinnamon is indigenous to + Ceylon, as it is found, but of inferior quality, in the central + mountain range, as high as 3000 feet above the level of the + sea—and again in the sandy soil near Batticaloa on the east + coast, he saw it in such quantity as to suggest the idea that it + must be the remains of former cultivation. This statement of Mr. + Thwaites is quite in consistency with the narrative of VALENTYN + (ch. vii.), that the Dutch, on their first arrival in Ceylon, A.D. + 1601-2, took on board cinnamon at Batticaloa,—and that the + surrounding district continued to produce it in great abundance in + A.D. 1726. (Ib. ch. xv. p. 223, 224.) Still it must be observed + that its appearance in these situations is not altogether + inconsistent with the popular belief that the seeds may have been + carried there by birds.</p> + + <p>Finding that the Singhalese works accessible to me, the + <i>Mahawanso</i>, the <i>Rajavali</i>, the <i>Rajaratnacari</i>, + &c., although frequently particularising the aromatic shrubs + and flowers planted by the pious care of the native sovereigns, + made no mention of cinnamon, I am indebted to the good offices of + the Maha-Moodliar de Sarem, of Mr. De Alwis, the translator of the + <i>Sidath-Sangara</i>, and of Mr. Spence Hardy, the learned + historian of Buddhism, for a thorough, examination of such native + books as were likely to throw light on the question. Mr. Hardy + writes to me that he has not met with the word cinnamon + (<i>kurundu</i>) in any early Singhalese books; but there is + mention of a substance called "<i>paspalawata</i>" of which + cinnamon forms one of the ingredients. Mr. de Alwis has been + equally unsuccessful, although in the <i>Saraswate Nigardu</i>, an + ancient Sanskrit Catalogue of Plants, the true cinnamon is spoken + of as <i>Sinhalam</i>, a word which signifies "belonging to Ceylon" + to distinguish it from cassia, which is found in Hindustan. The + Maha-Moodliar, as the result of an investigation made by him in + communication with some of the most erudite of the Buddhist + priesthood familiar with Pali and Singhalese literature, informs me + that whilst cinnamon is alluded to in several Sanskrit works on + Medicine, such as that of Susrata, and thence copied into Pali + translations, its name has been found only in Singhalese works of + comparatively modern date, although it occurs in the treatise on + Medicine and Surgery popularly attributed to King Bujas Raja, A.D. + 339. Lankagodde, a learned priest of Galle, says that the word + <i>lawanga</i> in an ancient Pali vocabulary means cinnamon, but I + rather think this is a mistake, for <i>lawanga</i> or + <i>lavanga</i> is the Pali name for "cloves," that for cinnamon + being <i>lamago</i>.</p> + + <p>The question therefore remains in considerable obscurity. It is + difficult to understand how an article so precious could exist in + the highest perfection in Ceylon, at the period when the island was + the very focus and centre of Eastern commerce, and yet not become + an object of interest and an item of export. And although it is + sparingly used in the Singhalese cuisine, still looking at its many + religious uses for decoration and incense, the silence of the + ecclesiastical writers as to its existence is not easily accounted + for.</p> + + <p>The explanation may possibly be, that cinnamon, like coffee, was + originally a native of the east angle of Africa; and that the same + Arabian adventurers who carried coffee to Yemen, where it + flourishes to the present day, may have been equally instrumental + in introducing cinnamon into India and Ceylon. In India its + cultivation, probably from natural causes, proved unsuccessful; but + in Ceylon the plant enjoyed that rare combination of soil, + temperature, and climate, which ultimately gave to its qualities + the highest possible development.</p> + </div><a name="pg601" id="pg601"></a> + + <p>The first authentic notice which we have of Singhalese cinnamon + occurs in the voyages of Ibn Batuta the Moor, <a name="pg602" id= + "pg602"></a> who, impelled by religious enthusiasm, set out from his + native city Tangiers, in the year 1324, and devoted <a name="pg603" + id="pg603"></a> twenty-eight years to a pilgrimage, the record of + which has entitled him to rank amongst the most remarkable travellers + of any age or country.</p> + + <p>On his way to India, he visited, in Shiraz, the tomb of the Imaum + Abu Abd Allah, "who made known the way from India to the mountain of + Serendib." As this saint died in the year of the <i>Hejira</i> 331, + his story serves to fix the origin of the Mahometan pilgrimages to + Adam's Peak, in the early part of the tenth century. When steering + for the coast of India, from the Maldives, Ibn Batuta was carried by + the south-west monsoon towards the northern portion of Ceylon, which + was then (A.D. 1347) in the hands of the Malabars, the Singhalese + sovereign having removed his capital southward to Gampola. The Hindu + chief of Jaffna was at this time in possession of a fleet in "which + he occasionally transported <a name="pg604" id="pg604"></a> his + troops against the Mahometans on other parts of the coast;" where the + Singhalese chroniclers relate that the Tamils at this time had + erected forts at Colombo, Negombo, and Chilaw.</p> + + <p>Ibn Batuta was permitted to land at Battala (Putlam) and found the + shore covered with "cinnamon wood," which "the merchants of Malabar + transport without any other price than a few articles of clothing + which are given as presents to the king. This may be attributed to + the circumstance that it is brought down by the mountain torrents, + and left in great heaps upon the shore."</p> + + <p>This passage is interesting, though not devoid of obscurity, for + cinnamon is not known to grow farther north than Chilaw, nor is there + any river in the district of Putlam which could bear the designation + of a "mountain torrent." Along the coast further south the cinnamon + district commences, and the current of the sea may have possibly + carried with it the uprooted laurels described in the narrative. The + whole passage, however, demonstrates that at that time, at least, + Ceylon had no organised trade in the spice.</p> + + <p>The Tamil chieftain exhibited to Ibn Batuta his wealth in + "pearls," and under his protection he made the pilgrimage to the + summit of Adam's Peak accompanied by four jyogees who visited the + foot-mark every year, "four Brahmans, and ten of the king's + companions, with fifteen attendants carrying provisions." The first + day he crossed a river, (the estuary of Calpentyn?) on a boat made of + reeds, and entered the city of Manar Mandali; probably the site of + the present Minneri Mundal. This was the "extremity of the territory + of the infidel king," whence Ibn Batuta proceeded to the port of + Salawat (Chilaw), and thence (turning inland) he reached the city of + the Singhalese sovereign at Gampola, then called Ganga-sri-pura, + which he contracts into Kankar or Ganga.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: As he afterwards writes, Galle "Kale."</p> + </div><a name="pg605" id="pg605"></a> + + <p>He describes accurately the situation of the ancient capital, in a + valley between two hills, upon a bend of the river called, "the + estuary of rubies." The emperor he names "Kina," a term I am unable + to explain, as the prince who then reigned was probably + Bhuwaneka-bahu IV., the first Singhalese monarch who held his court + at Gampola.</p> + + <p>The king on feast days rode on a white elephant, his head adorned + with very large rubies, which are found in his country, imbedded in + "a white stone abounding in fissures, from which they cut it out and + give it to the polishers." Ibn Batuta enumerates three varieties, + "the red, the yellow, and the cornelian;" but the last must mean the + sapphire, the second the topaz; and the first refers, I apprehend, to + the amethyst; for in the following passage, in describing the + decorations of the head of the white elephant, he speaks of "seven + rubies, each of which was larger than a hen's egg," and a saucer made + of a ruby as broad as the palm of the hand.</p> + + <p>In the ascent from Gampola to Adam's Peak, he speaks of the + monkeys with beards like a man (<i>Presbytes ursinus</i>, or <i>P. + cephalopterus</i>), and of the "fierce leech," which lurks in the + trees and damp grass, and springs on the passers by. He describes the + trees with leaves that never fall, and the "red roses" of the + rhododendrons which still characterise that lofty region. At the foot + of the last pinnacle which crowns the summit of the peak, he found a + minaret named after Alexander the Great[1]; steps hewn out of the + rock, and "iron pins to which chains are appended" to assist the + pilgrims in their ascent; a well filled with fish, and last of all, + on <a name="pg606" id="pg606"></a> the loftiest point of the + mountain, the sacred foot-print of the First Man, into the hollow of + which the pilgrims drop their offerings of gems and gold.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: In oriental tradition, Alexander is believed to have visited + Ceylon in company with the "philosopher Bolinus," by whom De Sacy + believes that the Arabs meant Apollonius of Tyana. There is a + Persian poem by ASHREP, the <i>Zaffer Namah Skendari</i>, which + describes the conqueror's voyage to Serendib, and his devotions at + the foot-mark of Adam, for reaching which, he and Bolinus caused + steps to be hewn in the rock, and the ascent secured by rivets and + chains.—See OUSELEY'S <i>Travels</i>, vol. i. p. 58.</p> + </div> + + <p>In descending the mountain, Ibn Batuta passed through the village + of Kalanga, near which was a tomb, said to be that of Abu Abd Allah + Ibn Khalif[1]; he visited the temple of Dinaur (Devi-Neuera, or + Dondera Head), and returned to Putlam by way of Kale (Galle), and + Kolambu (Colombo), "the finest and largest city in Serendib."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Abu Abd Allah was the first who led the Mahometan pilgrims to + Ceylon. The tomb alluded to was probably a <i>cenotaph</i> in his + honour; as Ibn Batuta had previously visited his tomb at + Shiraz.</p> + </div><a name="pg607" id="pg607"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. III.</h2> + + <h3>CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE.</h3> + + <p>Although the intimate knowledge of Ceylon acquired by the Chinese + at an early period, is distinctly ascribable to the sympathy and + intercourse promoted by community of religion, there is traditional, + if not historical evidence that its origin, in a remote age, may be + traced to the love of gain and their eagerness for the extension of + commerce. The Singhalese ambassadors who arrived at Rome in the reign + of the Emperor Clandius, stated that their ancestors had reached + China by traversing India and the Himalayan mountains long before + ships had attempted the voyage by sea[1], and as late as the fifth + century of the Christian era, the King of Ceylon[2], in an address + delivered by his envoy to the Emperor of China, shows that both + routes were then in use.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: PLINY, b. vi. ch. xxiv.</p> + + <p>2: Maha Naama, A.D. 428; <i>Sung-shoo</i>, a "History of the + Northern Sung Dynasty," b. xcvii, p. 5.</p> + + <p>3: It was probably the knowledge of the overland route that led + the Chinese to establish their military colonies in Kashgar, + Yarkhand and the countries lying between their own frontier and the + north-east boundary of India.—<i>Journ. Asiat.</i> 1. vi. p. + 343. An embassy from China to Ceylon, A.D. 607, was entrusted to + <i>Chang-Tsuen</i>, "Director of the Military + Lands."—<i>Suy-shoo</i>; b. lxxxi. p. 3.</p> + </div> + + <p>It is not, however, till after the third century of the Christian + era that we find authentic records of such journeys in the literature + of China. The Buddhist pilgrims, who at that time resorted to India, + published on their return itineraries and descriptions of the distant + countries they had visited, and officers, both military and civil, + brought back memoirs and statistical statements for the information + of the government and the guidance of commerce.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: REINAUD, <i>Mémoir sur l'Inde</i>, p. 9. STANISLAS JULIEN, + preface to his translation of <i>Hiouen-Thsang</i>, Paris, 1853, p. + 1. A bibliographical notice of the most important Chinese works + which contain descriptions of India, by M.S. JULIEN, will be found + in the <i>Journ. Asiat.</i> for October, 1832, p. 264.</p> + </div><a name="pg608" id="pg608"></a> + + <p>It was reasonable to anticipate that in such records information + would be found regarding the condition of Ceylon as it presented + itself from time to time to the eyes of the Chinese; but + unfortunately numbers of the original works have long since perished, + or exist only in extracts preserved in dynastic histories and + encyclopædias, or in a class of books almost peculiar to China, + called "tsung-shoo," consisting of excerpts reproduced from the most + ancient writers. M. Stanislas Julien discovered in the + <i>Pien-i-tien</i>, ("a History of Foreign Nations," of which there + is a copy in the Imperial Library of Paris,) a collection of + fragments from Chinese authors who had treated of Ceylon; but as the + intention of that eminent Sinologue to translate them[1] has not yet + been carried into effect, they are not available to me for + consultation. In this difficulty I turned for assistance to China; + and through the assiduous kindness of Mr. Wylie, of the London + Mission at Shanghai, I have received extracts from twenty-four + Chinese writers between the fifth and eighteenth centuries, from + which and from translations of Chinese travels and topographies made + by Remusat, Klaproth, Landresse, Pauthier, Stanislas Julien, and + others, I have been enabled to collect the following facts relative + to the knowledge of Ceylon possessed by the Chinese in the middle + ages.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Journ. Asiat.</i> t. xxix. p. 39. M. Stanislas Julien is + at present engaged in the translation of the <i>Si-yu-ki</i>, or + "Mémoires des Contrées Occidentales," the eleventh chapter of which + contains an account of Ceylon in the eighth century.</p> + + <p>2: The Chinese works referred to in the following pages + are.—<i>Sung-shoo</i>, the "History of the Northern Sung + Dynasty," A.D. 417-473, by CHIN-YŎ, written about A.D. + 487,—<i>Wei-shoo</i>, "a History of the Wei Tartar Dynasty," + A.D. 386-556, by WEI-SHOW, A.D. 590.—<i>Foĕ-Kouĕ + Ki</i>, an "Account of the Buddhist Kingdoms," by + CH[)Y]-FĂ-HIAN, A.D. 399-414, French transl., by Rémusat, + Klaproth, and Landresse. Paris, 1836.—<i>Leang-shoo</i>, + "History of the Leang Dynasty," A.D. 502-557, by YAOU-SZE-LEEN, + A.D. 630.—<i>Suy-shoo</i>, "History of the Suy Dynasty," A.D. + 581-617, by WEI-CHING, A.D. 633.—HIOUEN-THSANG. His Life and + Travels, A.D. 645, French, transl., by Stanislas Julien. Paris, + 1853.—<i>Nan-shè</i>, "History of the Southern Empire," A.D. + 317-589, by LE-YEN-SHOW, A.D. 650,—<i>Tung-tëen</i>, + "Cyclopædia of History," by TOO-YEW, A.D. 740.—KÉ-NËĔ + <i>si-yĭh hing-Ching</i>, "Itinerary of KÉ-NËĔ's Travels + in the Western Regions," from A.D. 964-979.—<i>Tae-ping + yu-lan</i>, "The Tae-ping Digest of History," compiled by Imperial + Command, A.D. 983.—<i>Tsĭh-foo yuen-Kwei</i>, "Great + Depository of the National Archives," compiled by Imperial Command, + A.D. 1012.—<i>Sin-Tang-shoo</i>, "A New History of the Tang + Dynasty," A.D. 618-906, by GOW-YANG-SEW and SING-KÉ, A.D. + 1060.—<i>Tung-che</i>, "National Annals," by CHING-TSEAOU, + A.D. 1150.—<i>Wăn-hëén tung-kaou</i>, "Antiquarian + Researches," by MA-TWAN-LIN, A.D. 1319. Of this remarkable work + there is an admirable analysis by Klaproth in the <i>Asiatic + Journal</i> for 1832, vol. xxxv. p. 110, and one still more + complete in the <i>Journal Asiatique</i>, vol. xxi. p. 3. The + portion relating to Ceylon has been translated into French by M. + Pauthier in the <i>Journal Asiatique</i> for April, 1836, and again + by M. Stanislas Julien in the same Journal for July, 1836, t. xxix, + p. 36.—<i>Yŭh-hae</i>, "The Ocean of Gems," by + WANG-YANG-LIN, A.D. 1338.—<i>Taou-e cheleŏ</i>, "A + General Account of Island Foreigners," by WANG-TA-YOUEN, A.D. + 1350.—<i>Tsĭh-ké</i>, "Miscellaneous Record;" written at + the end of the Yuen dynasty, about the close of the fourteenth + century.—<i>Po-wŭh yaou-lan</i>, "Philosophical + Examiner;" written during the Ming dynasty, about the beginning of + the fifteenth century.—<i>Se-yĭh-ke foo-choo</i>, "A + Description of Western Countries," A.D. 1450. This is the important + work of which M. Stanislas Julien has recently published the first + volume of his French translation, <i>Mémoires des Contrées + Occidentales</i>, Paris, 1857; and of which he has been so obliging + as to send me those sheets of the second volume, now preparing for + the press, which contain the notices of Ceylon by HIOUEN-THSANG. + They, however, add very little to the information already given in + the <i>Life and Travels of + Hiouen-Thsang.—Woo-heŏ-pëen</i>, "Records of the Ming + Dynasty," by CHING-HEAOU, A.D. 1522.—<i>Sŭh-wan-hëen + tung-kaou</i>, "Supplement to the Antiquarian Researches," by + WANG-KÉ, A.D. 1603.—<i>Sŭh-Hung këen-luh</i>, + "Supplement to the History of the Middle Ages," by SHAOU-YUEN-PING, + A.D. 1706.—<i>Ming-she</i>, "History of the Ming Dynasty," + A.D. 1638-1643, by CHANG-TING-YŬH, A.D. + 1739.—<i>Ta-tsing yĭh-tung</i>, "A Topographical Account + of the Manchoo Dynasty," of which there is a copy in the British + Museum.</p> + </div><a name="pg609" id="pg609"></a> + + <p>Like the Greek geographers, the earliest Chinese authorities + grossly exaggerated the size of Ceylon: they represented it as lying + "cross-wise" in the Indian Ocean[1], and extending in width from east + to west one third more than in depth from north to south.[2] They + were struck by the altitude of its hills, and, above all, by the + lofty crest of Adam's Peak, which served as the land-mark for ships + approaching the island. They speak reverentially of the sacred + foot-mark[3] impressed <a name="pg610" id="pg610"></a> by the first + created man, who, in their mythology, bears the name of Pawn-koo; and + the gems which are found upon the mountain they believe to be his + "crystallised tears, which accounts for their singular lustre and + marvellous tints."[4] The country they admired for its fertility and + singular beauty; the climate they compared to that of Siam[5], with + slight alterations of seasons; refreshing showers in every period of + the year, and the earth consequently teeming with fertility.[6]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Taou-e ché-lëŏ</i>, quoted in the <i>Hae-kwŏ-too + che</i>, Foreign Geography, b. xviii. p. 15.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Leang-shoo</i>, b. liv. p. 10; <i>Nan-shè</i>, b. lxxiii. + p. 13; <i>Tung-tëen</i>, b. clxxxviii. p. 17.</p> + + <p>3: The Chinese books repeat the popular belief that the hollow + of the sacred footstep contains water "which does not dry up all + the year round;" and that invalids recover by drinking from the + well at the foot of the mountain; into which "the sea-water enters + free from salt." <i>Taou-e ché-lëŏ</i>, quoted in the + <i>Hae-kwŏ-toô-ché</i>, or Foreign Geography, b. xxviii. p. + 15.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Po-wŭh Yaou-lan</i>, b. xxxiii. p. 1. WANG-KE, + <i>Sŭ-Wan-hëentung-kaou</i>, b. ccxxxvi. p. 19.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Tung-tëen</i>, b. clxxxviii. p. 17. <i>Tae-ping</i>, b. + dcclxxxvii p. 5.</p> + + <p>6: <i>Leang-shoo</i>, b. liv. p. 10.</p> + </div> + + <p>The names by which Ceylon was known to them were either adapted + from the Singhalese, as nearly as the Chinese characters would supply + equivalents for the Sanskrit and Pali letters, or else they are + translations of the sense implied by each designation. Thus, Sinhala + was either rendered "<i>Seng-kia-lo</i>,"[1] or + "<i>Sze-tseu-kwŏ</i>," the latter name as well as the original, + meaning "the kingdom of lions."[2] The classical Lanka is preserved + in the Chinese "<i>Lang-kea</i>" and "<i>Lang-ya-seu</i>" In the + epithet "<i>Chĭh-too</i>," the <i>Red Land</i>[3], we have a + simple rendering of the Pali <i>Tambapanni</i>, the "Copper-palmed," + from the colour of the soil.[4] <i>Paou-choo</i>[5] is a translation + of the Sanskrit Ratna-dwipa, the "Island of Gems," and + <i>Tsĭh-e-lan, Seĭh-lan</i>, and <i>Se-lung</i>, are all + modern modifications of the European "Ceylon."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Hiouen-Thsang</i>, b. iv. p. 194. Transl. M.S. Julien.</p> + + <p>2: This, M. Stanislas Julien says, should be "the kingdom of + <i>the lion</i>," in allusion to the mythical ancestry of + Wijayo.—<i>Journ. Asiat</i>, tom. xxix. p. 37. And in a note + to the tenth book of HIOUEN-THSANG'S <i>Voyages des Pélerins + Bouddhistes</i>, vol. ii. p. 124, he says one name for Ceylon in + Chinese is "Tchi-sse-tseu" "(le royaume de celui qui) a pris un + lion."</p> + + <p>3: <i>Suy-shoo</i>, b. lxxx. p. 3. In the <i>Se-yĭh-ké + foo-choo</i>, or "Descriptions of Western Countries," Ceylon is + called <i>Woo-yew-kw[(o]</i>, "the sorrowless kingdom."</p> + + <p>4: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. vii. p. 50.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Se-yĭh-ké foo-choo</i>, quoted in the + <i>Haè-kwŏ-too che</i>, or "Foreign Geography," l. xviii. p. + 15; HIOUEN-THSANG; <i>Voyages des Péler. Boudd</i>. lib. xi. vol. + ii. p. 125; 130 n.</p> + </div><a name="pg611" id="pg611"></a> + + <p>The ideas of the Chinese regarding the mythical period of + Singhalese history, and the first peopling of the island, are + embodied in a very few sentences which are repeated throughout the + series of authors, and with which we are made familiar in the + following passage from FĂ HIAN:—" Sze-tseu-kwŏ, the + kingdom of lions[1], was inhabited originally not by men but by + demons and dragons.[2] Merchants were attracted to the island, by the + prospect of trade; but the demons remained unseen, merely exposing + the precious articles which they wished to barter: with a price + marked for each, at which the foreign traders were at liberty to take + them, depositing the equivalents indicated in exchange. From the + resort of these dealers, the inhabitants of other countries, hearing + of the attractions of the island, resorted to it in large numbers, + and thus eventually a great kingdom was formed."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Wan-hëen tung-kaou</i>, b. cccxxxviii. p. 24.</p> + + <p>2: The Yakkhos and Nagas ("devils" and "serpents") of the + <i>Mahawanso</i>.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Foĕ-Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 333. Transl. + RÉMUSAT. This account of Ceylon is repeated almost verbatim in the + <i>Tung-tëen</i>, and in numerous other Chinese works, with the + addition that the newly-formed kingdom of Sinhala, + "Sze-tseu-kwŏ," took its name from the "skill of the natives + in training lions."—B. cxciii. pp. 8, 9; <i>Tae-ping</i>, b. + dccxciii. p. 9; <i>Sin-Tang-shoo</i>, b. cxlvi. part ii. p. 10. A + very accurate translation of the passage as it is given by + MA-TOUAN-LIN is published by M. Stanislas Julien in the <i>Journ. + Asiat.</i> for July, 1836, tom. xxix. p. 36.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Chinese were aware of two separate races, one occupying the + northern and the other the southern extremity of the island, and were + struck with the resemblance of the Tamils to the Hoo, a people of + Central Asia, and of the Singhalese to the Leaou, a mountain tribe of + Western China.[1] The latter they describe as having "large ears, + long eyes, purple faces, black bodies, moist and strong hands and + feet, and living to one hundred years and upwards.[2] Their hair was + worn long and flowing, not only by the women but by the men." In + these details there are particulars that <a name="pg612" id= + "pg612"></a> closely resemble the description of the natives of the + island visited by Jambulus, as related in the story told by + Diodorus.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Too-Hiouen</i>, quoted in the <i>Tung-tëen</i>, b. cxciii. + p. 8.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Taou-e ché-lëŏ</i>, quoted in the <i>Hae-kwŏ-too + ché</i>, or "Foreign Geography," b. xviii p. 15.</p> + + <p>3: DIODORUS SICULUS, lib. ii. ch. liii. See <i>ante</i>, + <a href="#pg153">Vol. I. P. v. ch. 1. p. 153.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The Chinese in the seventh century found the Singhalese dressed in + a costume which appears to be nearly identical with that of the + present day.[1] Both males and females had their hair long and + flowing, but the heads of children were closely shaven, a practice + which still partially prevails. The jackets of the girls were + occasionally ornamented with gems.[2] "The men," says the + <i>Tung-tëen</i>, "have the upper part of the body naked, but cover + their limbs with a cloth, called <i>Kan-man,</i> made of + <i>Koo-pei</i>, 'Cotton,' a word in which we may recognise the term + 'Comboy,' used to designate the cotton cloth universally worn at the + present day by the Singhalese of both sexes in the maritime + provinces.[3] For their vests, the kings and nobles made use of a + substance <a name="pg613" id="pg613"></a> which is described as + 'cloud cloth,'[4] probably from its being very transparent, and + gathered (as is still the costume of the chiefs of Kandy) into very + large folds. It was fastened with golden cord. Men of rank were + decorated with earrings. The dead were burned, not buried." And the + following passage from the <i>Sŭh-wan-hëen tung-kaou</i>, or the + "Supplement to Antiquarian Researches," is strikingly descriptive of + what may be constantly witnessed in Ceylon;—"the females who + live near the family of the dead assemble in the house, beat their + breasts with both hands, howl and weep, which constitutes their + appropriate rite."[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Leang-shoo</i>, b. liv. p. 10; <i>Nan-shè</i>, b. lxxviii. + pp. 13, 14.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Nan-shè</i>, A.D. 650, b. lxxviii. p. 13; + <i>Leang-shoo</i>, A.D. 670; b. liv. p. 11. Such is still the dress + of the Singhalese females.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/612.jpg"><img src="images/612.jpg" alt= + "A MOODLIAR AND HIS WIFE." /></a> + + <p>A MOODLIAR AND HIS WIFE.</p> + </div> + + <p>3: <i>Tung-tëen</i>, b. clxxxviii. p. 17; <i>Nan-shè</i>, b. + lxxviii. p. 13; <i>Sin-tang-shoo</i>, b. cxcviii p. 25. See + <a href="#pg450">p. iv. ch. iv, vol. i. p. 450.</a></p> + + <p>4: The Chinese term is "yun-hae-poo."—<i>Leang-shoo</i>, + b. liv. p. 10.</p> + + <p>5: B. ccxxxvi. p. 19.</p> + </div> + + <p>The natural riches of Ceylon, and its productive capabilities, + speedily impressed the Chinese, who were bent upon the discovery of + outlets for their commerce, with the conviction of its importance as + an emporium of trade. So remote was the age at which strangers + frequented it, that in the "<i>Account of Island Foreigners,"</i> + written by WANG-TA-YUEN[1] in the fourteenth century, it is stated + that the origin of trade in the island was coeval with the visit of + Buddha, who, "taking compassion on the aborigines, who were poor and + addicted to robbery, turned their disposition to virtue, by + sprinkling the land with sweet dew, which caused it to produce red + gems, and thus gave them wherewith to trade," and hence it became the + resort of traders from every country.[2] Though aware of the + unsuitability of the climate to ripen wheat, the Chinese were struck + with admiration at the wonderful appliances of the Singhalese for + irrigation, and the cultivation of rice.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Taou-e ché-lëŏ</i>, quoted in the Foreign Geography, + b. xviii. p. 15.</p> + + <p>2: The rapid peopling of Ceylon at a very remote age is + accounted for in the following terms in a passage of MA-TWAN-LIN, + as translated by M. Stanislas Julien;—"Les habitants des + autres royaumes entendirent parler de ce pays fortuné; c'est + pourquoi ils y accoururent à l'envi."—<i>Journ. Asiat.</i> t. + xxix. p. 42.</p> + + <p>3: Records of the Ming Dynasty, by CHING-HEAOU, b. lxviii. p. + 5.</p> + </div> + + <p>According to the <i>Tung-tëen</i>, the intercourse between + <a name="pg614" id="pg614"></a> them and the Singhalese, began during + the Eastern Tsin dynasty, A.D. 317—419[1]; and one remarkable + island still retains a name which is commemorative of their presence. + Salang, to the north of Penang, lay in the direct course of the + Chinese junks on their way to and from Ceylon, through the Straits of + Malacca, and, in addition to its harbour, was attractive from its + valuable mines of tin. Here the Chinese fleets called on both + voyages; and the fact of their resort is indicated by the popular + name "Ajung-Selan," or "Junk-Ceylon;" by which the place is still + known, <i>Ajung</i>, in the language of the Malays, being the term + for "large shipping," and <i>Selan</i>, their name for Ceylon.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Tung-tëen</i>, A.D. 740, b. clxxxviii. p. 17.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Sincapore Chronicle</i>, 1836.</p> + </div> + + <p>The port in Ceylon which the Chinese vessels made their + rendezvous, was Lo-le (Galle), "where," it is said, "ships anchor, + and people land."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: WANG-KE, <i>Suh-wan-hëen tung-kaou</i>, b. ccxxxvi p. 19.</p> + </div> + + <p>Besides rice, the vegetable productions of the island enumerated + by the various Chinese authorities were aloes-wood, sandal-wood[1], + and ebony; camphor[2], areca-nuts, beans, sesamum, coco-nuts (and + arrack distilled from the coco-nut palm) pepper, sugar-cane, myrrh, + frankincense, oil and drugs.[3] An odoriferous extract, called by the + Chinese <i>Shoo-heang</i>, is likewise particularised, but it is not + possible now to identify it.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The mention of sandal-wood is suggestive. It does not, so far + as I could ever learn, exist in Ceylon; yet it is mentioned with + particular care amongst its exports in the Chinese books. Can it be + that, like the calamander, or Coromandel-wood, which is rapidly + approaching extinction, sandal-wood was extirpated from the island + by injudicious cutting, unaccompanied by any precautions for the + reproduction of the tree?</p> + + <p>2: <i>Nan-shè</i>, b. lxxviii. p. 13.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Suh-Hung keën-luh</i>, b. xlii. p. 52.</p> + </div> + + <p>Elephants and ivory were in request; and the only manufactures + alluded to for export were woven cotton[1], gold ornaments, and + jewelry; including models of the shrines in which were deposited the + sacred relics of <a name="pg615" id="pg615"></a> Buddha.[2] Statues + of Buddha were frequently sent as royal presents, and so great was + the fame of Ceylon for their production in the fourth and fifth + centuries, that according to the historian of the Wei Tartar dynasty, + A.D. 386-556, people "from the countries of Central Asia, and the + kings of those nations, emulated each other in sending artisans to + procure copies, but none could rival the productions of Nan-té.[3] On + standing about ten paces distant they appeared truly brilliant, but + the lineaments gradually disappeared on a nearer approach."[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Tsih-foo yuen-kwei</i>, A.D. 1012, b. dcccclxxi. p. 15. At + a later period "Western cloth" is mentioned among the exports of + Ceylon, but the reference must be to cloth previously imported + either from India or Persia.—<i>Ming-she History of the Ming + Dynasty,</i> A.D. 1368—1643, b. cccxxvi. p. 7.</p> + + <p>2: A model of the shrine containing the sacred tooth was sent to + the Emperor of China in the fifth century by the King of Ceylon; + "<i>Chacha Mo-ho-nan,"</i> a name which appears to coincide with + Raja Maha Nama, who reigned A.D. + 410—433.—<i>Shunshoo</i>, A.D. 487, b. xlvii. p. 6.</p> + + <p>3: Nan-té was a Buddhist priest, who in the year A.D. 456 was + sent on an embassy to the Emperor of China, and was made the bearer + of three statues of his own making.—<i>Tsĭh-foo + yuen-kwei,</i> b. li. p. 7.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Wei-shoo,</i> A.D. 590, b. cxiv. p. 9.</p> + </div> + + <p>Pearls, corals, and crystals were eagerly sought after; but of all + articles the gems of Ceylon were in the greatest request. The + business of collecting and selling them seems from the earliest time + to have fallen into the hands of the Arabs, and hence they bore in + China the designation of "Mahometan stones."[1] They consisted of + rubies, sapphires, amethysts, carbuncles (the "red precious stone, + the lustre of which serves instead of a lamp at night")[2]; and + topazes of four distinct tints, "those the colour of wine; the + delicate tint of young goslings, the deep amber, like bees'-wax, and + the pale tinge resembling the opening bud of the pine."[3] It will + not fail to be observed that throughout all these historical and + topographical works of the Chinese, extending over a period of twelve + centuries, from the year A.D. 487, there is no mention <a name= + "pg616" id="pg616"></a> whatever of <i>cinnamon</i> as a production + of Ceylon; although cassia, described under the name of kwei, is + mentioned as indigenous in China and Cochin-China. In exchange for + these commodities the Chinese traders brought with them silk, + variegated lute strings, blue porcelain, enamelled dishes and cups, + and quantities of copper cash wanted for adjusting the balances of + trade.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Tsih-ke,</i> quoted in the Chinese <i>Mirror of + Sciences,</i> b. xxxiii. p. 1.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Po-wŭh yaou-lan,</i> b. xxxiii. p. 2.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Ibid</i>.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Suy-shoo</i>, "History of the Suy Dynasty," A.D. 633, b. + lxxxi. p. 3.</p> + </div> + + <p>Of the religion of the people, the earliest account recorded by + the Chinese is that of FĂ HIAN, in the fourth century[1], when + Buddhism was signally in the ascendant. But in the century which + followed, travellers returning from Ceylon brought back accounts of + the growing power of the Tamils, and of the consequent eclipse of the + national worship. The <i>Yung-tëen</i> and the <i>Tae-ping</i> + describe at that early period the prevalence of Brahmanical customs, + but coupled with "greater reverence for the Buddhistical faith."[2] + In process of time, however, they are forced to admit the gradual + decline of the latter, and the attachment of the Singhalese kings to + the Hindu ritual, exhibiting an equal reverence to the ox and to the + images of Buddha.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Foĕ-Kouĕ Ki</i>, ch. xxxviii.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Tae-ping</i>, b. dccxciii, p. 9.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Woo-hëŏ-pëen</i>, "Records of the Ming Dynasty," b. + lxviii. p. 4; <i>Tung-nëĕ</i>, b. cxcvi. pp. 79, 80.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Chinese trace to Ceylon the first foundation of monasteries, + and of dwelling-houses for the priests, and in this they are + corroborated by the <i>Mahawanso</i>.[1] From these pious + communities, the Emperors of China were accustomed from time to time + to solicit transcripts of theological works[2], and their envoys, + returning from such missions, appear to have brought glowing accounts + of the Singhalese temples, the costly shrines for <a name="pg617" id= + "pg617"></a> relics, and the fervid devotion of the people to the + national worship.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xv. p. 99; ch. xx. p. 123. In the + Itinerary of KÉ-NËĔ's <i>Travels in the Western Kingdoms in + the tenth Century</i> he mentions having seen a monastery of + Singhalese on the continent of India.—KÉ-NËĔ, + <i>Se-yĭh hing-ching</i>, A.D. 964—976.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Tae-ping</i>, b. dcclxxxvii. p. 5.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Taou-e ché-lëŏ</i>. "Account of Island Foreigners," + quoted in the "<i>Foreign Geography</i>" b. xviii. p. 15. + <i>Se-yĭ-ke foo-choo</i>. Ib. "At daybreak every morning the + people are summoned, and exhorted to repeat the passages of Buddha, + in order to remove ignorance and open the minds of the multitude. + Discourses are delivered upon the principles of vacancy (nirwana?) + and abstraction from all material objects, in order that truth + maybe studied in solitude and silence, and the unfathomable point + of principle attained free from the distracting influences of sound + or smell."—<i>Tsĭh-foo yaen-kwei</i>, A.D. 1012, b. + dcccclxi. p. 5.</p> + </div> + + <p>The cities of Ceylon in the sixth century are stated, in the + "<i>History of the Leang Dynasty</i>," to have been encompassed by + walls built of brick, with double gates, and the houses within were + constructed with upper stories.[1] The palace of the king, at + Anarajapoora, in the eleventh century, was sufficiently splendid to + excite the admiration of these visitants, "the precious articles with + which it was decorated being reflected in the thoroughfares."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Leang-shoo</i>, A.D. 630, b. liv. p 11.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Tsĭh-foo yaen-kwei</i>, b. dcccclxi. p. 5.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Chinese authors, like the Greeks and Arabians, are warm in + their praises of the patriotism of the Singhalese sovereigns, and + their active exertions for the improvement of the country, and the + prosperity of the people.[1] On state occasions, the king, "carried + on an elephant, and accompanied by banners, streamers, and tom-toms, + rode under a canopy[2], attended by a military guard."[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Ibid.</p> + + <p>2: The "chatta," or umbrella, emblematic of royalty.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Leang-shoo</i>. b. liv. p. 10.</p> + </div> + + <p>Throughout all the Chinese accounts, from the very earliest + period, there are notices of the manners of the Singhalese, and even + minute particulars of their domestic habits, which attest a continued + intercourse and an intimate familiarity between the people of the two + countries.[1] In this important feature the narratives of <a name= + "pg618" id="pg618"></a> the Arabs, who, with the exception of the + pilgrimage made with difficulty to Adam's Peak, appear to have known + only the sea-coast and the mercantile communities established there, + exhibit a marked difference when compared with those of the Chinese; + as the latter, in addition to their trading operations in the south + of the island, made their way into the interior, and penetrated to + the cities in the northern districts. The explanation is to be found + in the identity of the national worship attracting as it did the + people of China to the sacred island, which had become the great + metropolis of their common faith, and to the sympathy and hospitality + with which the Singhalese welcomed the frequent visits of their + distant co-religionists.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: This is apparent from the fact that their statements are not + confined to descriptions of the customs and character of the male + Singhalese, but exhibit internal evidence that they had been + introduced to their families, and had had opportunities of noting + peculiarities in the customs of the females. They describe their + dress, their mode of tying their hair, their treatment of infants + and children, the fact that the women as well as the men were + addicted to chewing betel, and that they did not sit down to meals + with their husbands, but "retired to some private apartments to eat + their food."</p> + </div> + + <p>This interchange of courtesies was eagerly encouraged by the + sovereigns of the two countries. The emperors of China were + accustomed to send ambassadors, both laymen and theologians, to + obtain images and relics of Buddha, and to collect transcripts of the + sacred books, which contained the exposition of his + doctrines[1];—and the kings of Ceylon despatched embassies in + return, authorised to reciprocate these religious sympathies and do + homage to the imperial majesty of China.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Hiouen-Thsang</i>, Introd. STANISLAS JULIEN, p. 1.</p> + </div> + + <p>The historical notices of the island by the Chinese relative to + the period immediately preceding the fourteenth century, are meagre, + and confined to a native tradition that "about 400 years after the + establishment of the kingdom, the Great Dynasty fell into decay, when + there was but one man of wisdom and virtue belonging to the royal + house to whom the people became attached: the monarch thereupon + caused him to be thrown into prison; but the lock opened of its own + accord, and the king thus satisfied of his sacred character did not + venture to take his life, but drove <a name="pg619" id="pg619"></a> + him into banishment to India (Tëen chuh), whence, after marrying a + royal princess, he was recalled to Ceylon on the death of the tyrant, + where he reigned twenty years, and was succeeded by his son, + <i>Po-kea Ta-To</i>."[l] In this story may probably be traced the + extinction of the "Great Dynasty" of Ceylon, on the demise of + Maha-Sen, and the succession of the Sulu-wanse, or Lower Dynasty, in + the person of Kitsiri Maiwan, A.D. 301, whose son, Detu Tissa, may + possibly be the <i>Po-kea Ta-to</i> of the Chinese Chronicle.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Leang-shoo</i>, "History of the Leang Dynasty," b. liv. p. + 10.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Mahawanso</i>, c. xxxvii. p 242. TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, + &c., p. 24.</p> + </div> + + <p>The visit of Fa Hian, the zealous Buddhist pilgrim, in the fifth + century of our era, has been already frequently adverted to.[1] He + landed in Ceylon A.D. 412, and remained for two years at + Anarajapoora, engaged in transcribing the sacred books. Hence his + descriptions are confined almost exclusively to the capital; and he + appears to have seen little of the rest of the island. He dwells with + delight on the magnificence of the Buddhist buildings, the richness + of their jewelled statues, and the prodigious dimensions of the + dagobas, one of which, from its altitude and solidity, was called the + "<i>Mountain without fear</i>."[2] But what most excited his + admiration was his finding no less than 5000 Buddhist priests at the + capital, 2000 in a single monastery on a mountain (probably + Mihintala), and between 50,000 and 60,000 dispersed throughout the + rest of the island.[3] Pearls and gems were the wealth of Ceylon; and + from the latter the king derived a royalty of three out of every ten + discovered.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Foĕ-Kouĕ Ki</i>, or "Description of Buddhist + Kingdoms," by FA-HIAN, has been translated by Rémusat, and edited + by Klaproth and Landresse, 4to. Paris, 1836.</p> + + <p>2: In Chinese, <i>Woo-wei</i>.</p> + + <p>3: <i>Foĕ-Kouĕ Ki</i>, c. xxxviii. pp. 333, 334.</p> + + <p>4: <i>Ibid.</i>, c. xxxvii. p. 328.</p> + </div> + + <p>The earliest embassy from Ceylon recorded in the Chinese[1] annals + at the beginning of the fifth century, <a name="pg620" id= + "pg620"></a> appears to have proceeded overland by way of India, and + was ten years before reaching the capital of China. It was the bearer + of "a jade-stone image of Buddha, exhibiting every colour in purity + and richness, in workmanship unique, and appearing to be beyond human + art[2]."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 405. Gibbon alludes with natural surprise to his + discovery of the fact, that prior to the reign of Justinian, the + "monarch of China had actually received an embassy from the Island + of Ceylon."—<i>Decline and Fall</i>, c. xl.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Leang-shoo,</i> A.D. 630, b. liv. p. 13. The ultimate fate + of this renowned work of art is related in the <i>Leang-shoo,</i> + and several other of the Chinese chronicles. Throughout the | Tsin + and Sung dynasties it was preserved in the Wa-kwan monastery at + Nankin, along with five other statues and three paintings which + were esteemed chefs-d'oeuvre. The jade-stone image was at length + destroyed in the time of Tung-hwan, of the Tse dynasty; first, the + arm was broken off, and eventually the body taken to make hair-pins + and armlets for the emperor's favourite consort Pwan. + <i>Nân-shè,</i> b. lxxviii. p. 13. <i>Tung-tëen,</i> b. cxciii. p. + 8. <i>Tae-ping,</i> &c., b. dcclxxxvii. p. 6.</p> + </div> + + <p>During the same century there were four other embassies from + Ceylon. One A.D. 428, when the King Cha-cha Mo-ho-nan (Raja Maha + Naama) sent an address to the emperor, which will be found in the + history of the Northern Sung dynasty[1], together with a "model of + the shrine of the tooth," as a token of fidelity;—two in A.D. + 430 and A.D. 435; and a fourth A.D. 456, when five priests, of whom + one was Nanté, the celebrated sculptor, brought as a gift to the + emperor a "three-fold image of Buddha."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Sung-shoo,</i> A.D. 487, b. xcvii. p. 5.</p> + + <p>2: Probably one in each of the three orthodox + attitudes,—sitting in meditation, standing to preach, and + reposing in "nirwana." <i>Wei-shoo,</i> "History of the Wei Tartar + Dynasty," A.D. 590, b. cxiv. p. 9.</p> + </div> + + <p>According to the Chinese annalists, the kings of Ceylon, in the + sixth century, acknowledged themselves vassals of the Emperor of + China, and in the year 515, on the occasion of Kumara Das raising the + chatta, an envoy was despatched with tribute to China, together with + an address, announcing the royal accession, in which the king + intimates that he "had been desirous to go in person, but was + deterred by fear of winds and waves."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Leang-shoo,</i> b. liv. p. 10. <i>Y[(u]h-hae,</i> "Ocean + of Gems," A.D. 1331, b. clii. p. 33. The latter authority announces + in like terms two other embassies with tribute to China, one in + A.D. 523, and another in the reign of Kirti Sena, A.D. 527. The + <i>Tsih-foo yuen-kwei</i> mentions a similar mission in A.D. 531, + b. dcccclxviii. p. 20.</p> + </div><a name="pg621" id="pg621"></a> + + <p>But although all these embassies are recorded in the Chinese + chronicles as so many instances of acknowledged subjection, there is + every reason to believe that the magniloquent terms in which they are + described are by no means to be taken in a literal sense, and that + the offerings enumerated were merely in recognition of the privilege + of commercial intercourse subsisting between the two nations: but as + the Chinese <i>literati</i> affect a lofty contempt for commerce, all + allusion to trade is omitted; and beyond an incidental remark in some + works of secondary importance, the literature of China observes a + dignified silence on the subject.</p> + + <p>Only one embassy is mentioned in the seventh century, when + Dalu-piatissa despatched "a memorial and offerings of native + productions;"[1] but there were four in the century following[2], + after which there occurs an interval of above five hundred years, + during which the Chinese writers are singularly silent regarding + Ceylon; but the Singhalese historians incidentally mention that + swords and musical instruments were then imported from China, for the + use of the native forces, and that Chinese soldiers took service in + the army of Prakrama III. A.D. 1266.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 670. <i>Tsĭh-foo yuen-kwei</i>, b. dcccclxx. p. 16. + It was in the early part of this century, during a period of + intestine commotion, when the native princes were overawed by the + Malabars, that <i>Hiouen-Thsang</i> met on the coast of India + fugitives from Ceylon, from whom he derived his information as to + the internal condition of the island, A.D. 629—633. See + Transl. by STANISLAS JULIEN, "<i>La Vie de Hiouen-Thsang</i>," + Paris, 1853, pp. 192—198.</p> + + <p>2: A.D. 711, A.D. 746, A.D. 750, and A.D. 762. <i>Tsĭh-foo + yuen-kwei,</i> b. dcccclxxi. p. 17. On the second occasion (A.D. + 746) the king, who despatched the embassy, is described as sending + as his envoy a "Brahman priest, the anointed graduate of the + threefold repository, bearing as offerings head-ornaments of gold, + precious neck-pendants, a copy of the great Prajna Sutra, and forty + webs of fine cotton cloth."</p> + + <p>3: See the <i>Kawia-sakara</i>, written about A.D. 1410.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the only records of + intercourse relate to the occasional despatch of public officers by + the emperor of China to collect gems <a name="pg622" id="pg622"></a> + and medical drugs, and on three successive occasions during the + earlier part of the Yuen dynasty, envoys were empowered to negotiate + the purchase of the sacred alms-dish of Buddha.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "In front of the image of Buddha there is a sacred bowl which + is neither made of jade, nor copper, nor iron; it is of a purple + colour and glossy, and when struck it sounds like glass. At the + commencement of the Yuen dynasty, three separate envoys were sent + to obtain it."—<i>Taou-e che-leo</i> "Account of Island + Foreigners," A.D. 1350, quoted in the "<i>Foreign Geography</i>", + b. xviii. p. 15. This statement of the Chinese authorities + corroborates the story told by MARCO POLO, possibly from personal + knowledge, that "the Grand Khan Kublai sent ambassadors to Ceylon + with a request that the king would yield to him possession of 'the + great ruby' in return for the 'value of a + city.'"—(<i>Travels,</i> ch. xix.) The MS. of MARCO POLO, + which contains the Latin version of his Travels, is deposited in + the Imperial Library of Paris, and it is remarkable that a passage + in it, which seems to be wanting in the Italian and other MSS., + confirms this account of the Chinese annalists, and states that the + alms-dish of Buddha was at length yielded by the King of Ceylon as + a gift to Kublai Khan, and carried with signal honour to China. + MARCO POLO describes the scene as something within his own + knowledge:—"Quando autem magnus Kaan scivit quod isti + ambaxiatores redibant cum reliquis istis, et erant prope terram ubi + ipse tune erat, scilicet in Cambalu (Pekin), fecit mitti bandum + quod omnes de terra obviarent reliquis istis (quia credebat quod + essent reliquiæ de Adam) et istud fuit A.D. 1284."</p> + </div> + + <p>The beginning of the fifteenth century was, however, signalised by + an occurrence, the details of which throw light over the internal + condition of the island, at a period regarding which the native + historians are more than usually obscure. At this time the glory of + Buddhism had declined, and the political ascendency of the Tamils had + enabled the Brahmans to taint the national worship by an infusion of + Hindu observances. The <i>Se-yih-ke foo-choo,</i> or "Description of + Western Countries," says that in 1405 A.D. the reigning king, + A-lee-koo-nae-wurh (Wijaya-bahu VI.), a native of Sollee, and "an + adherent of the heterodox faith, so far from honouring Buddha, + tyrannised over his followers."[1] He maltreated strangers resorting + to the island, and plundered their vessels, "so that the envoys from + other lands, in passing to and fro, were much annoyed by him."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: B. xviii. p. 15.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ming-she</i>, b. cccxxvi, p. 7.</p> + </div> + + <p>In that year a mission from China, sent with incense <a name= + "pg623" id="pg623"></a> and offerings to the shrine of the tooth, was + insulted and waylaid, and with difficulty effected an escape from + Ceylon.[1] According to the <i>Ming-she</i>, or History of the Ming + Dynasty, "the Emperor <i>Ching-tsoo</i>, indignant at this outrage on + his people; and apprehensive lest the influence of China in other + countries besides Ceylon had declined during the reign of his + predecessors, sent <i>Ching-Ho</i>, a soldier of distinction, with a + fleet of sixty-two ships and a large military escort, on an + expedition to visit the western kingdoms, furnished with proper + credentials and rich presents of silk and gold. Ching-Ho touched at + Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java, Cambodia, Siam, and other places, + proclaiming at each the Imperial edict, and conferring Imperial + gifts." If any of the princes refused submission, they were subdued + by force; and the expedition returned to China in A.D. 1407, + accompanied by envoys from the several nations, who came to pay court + to the Emperor.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Se-yĭh-ke foo-choo</i>, b. xviii. p. 15. This Chinese + invasion of Ceylon has been already adverted to in the sketch of + the domestic history of the island, Vol. I. Part IV. ch xii. p. + 417.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the following year Ching-Ho, having been despatched on a + similar mission to Ceylon, the king, A-lee-ko-nae-wah, decoyed his + party into the interior, threw up stockades with a view to their + capture, in the hope of a ransom, and ordered soldiers to the coast + to plunder the Chinese junks. But Ching-Ho, by a dexterous movement, + avoided the attack, and invested the capital[1], made a prisoner of + the king, succeeded in conveying him on board his fleet, and carried + him captive to China, together with his queen, his children, his + officers of state, and his attendants. He brought away with him + spoils, which were long afterwards exhibited in the Tsing-hae + monastery at Nankin[2], and one of the commentaries on the + <i>Si-yu-ke</i> of Hiouen Thseng, states that amongst the articles + carried away, was the sacred tooth of <a name="pg624" id="pg624"></a> + Buddha.[3] "In the sixth month of the year 1411," says the author of + the <i>Ming-Shè</i>, "the prisoners were presented at court. The + Chinese ministers pressed for their execution, but the emperor, in + pity for their ignorance, set them at liberty, but commanded them to + select a virtuous man from the same family to occupy the throne. All + the captives declared in favour of Seay-pa-nae-na, whereupon an envoy + was sent with a seal to invest him with the royal dignity, as a + vassal of the empire," and in that capacity he was restored to + Ceylon, the former king being at the same time sent back to the + island.[4] It would be difficult to identify the names in this story + with the kings of the period, were it not stated in another + chronicle, the <i>Woo-hëŏ-pëen</i>, or Record of the Ming + Dynasty, that Seay-pa-nae-na was afterwards named <i>Pu-la-ko-ma + Ba-zae La-cha</i>, in which it is not difficult to recognise "Sri + Prakrama Bahu Raja," the sixth of his name, who transferred the seat + of government from Gampola to Cotta, and reigned from A.D. 1410 to + 1462.[5]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Gampola.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Sŭh-Wan-hëen tung-kaou</i>, book ccxxxvi p. 12.</p> + + <p>3: See <a href="#pg626">note at the end of this chapter.</a></p> + + <p>4: <i>Ming-shè,</i> b. cccxxvi. p. 5. M. STANISLAS JULIEN + intimates that the forthcoming volume of his version of the + <i>Si-yu-ki</i> will contain the eleventh book, in which an account + will be given of the expedition of Ching Ho.—<i>Mémoires sur + les Contrées Occidentales</i>, tom. i. p. 26. In anticipation of + its publication, M. JULIEN has been so obliging as to make for me a + translation of the passage regarding Ceylon, but it proves to be an + annotation of the fifteenth century, which, by the inadvertence of + transcribers, has become interpolated in the text of + <i>Hiouen-Thsang</i>. It contains, however, no additional facts or + statements beyond the questionable one before alluded to, that the + sacred tooth of Buddha was amongst the spoils carried to Pekin by + Ching Ho.</p> + + <p>5: <i>Woo-hëŏ-pëen</i>, b. lxviii p. 5. See also the + <i>Ta-tsing yĭh-tung</i>, a topographical account of the + Manchoo empire, a copy of which is among the Chinese books in the + British Museum. In the very imperfect version of the + <i>Rajavali</i>, published by Upham, this important passage is + rendered unintelligible by the want of fidelity of the translator, + who has transformed the conqueror into a "Malabar," and ante-dated + the event by a century. (<i>Rajavali</i>, p. 263.) I am indebted to + Mr. De Alwis, of Colombo, for a correct translation of the + original, which is as follows: "In the reign of King Wijayo-bahu, + the King of Maha (great) China landed in Ceylon with an army, + pretending that he was bringing tribute; King Wijayo-bahu, + believing his professions (because it had been customary in the + time of King Prakrama-bahu for foreign countries to pay tribute to + Ceylon), acted incautiously, and he was treacherously taken + prisoner by the foreign king. His four brothers were killed, and + with them fell many people, and the king himself was carried + captive to China." DE COUTO, in his continuation of DE BARROS, has + introduced the story of the capture of the king by the Chinese; but + he has confounded the dates, mystified the facts, and altered the + name of the new sovereign to Pandar, which is probably only a + corruption of the Singhalese <i>Banda</i>, "a prince."—DE + COUTO, <i>Asia, &c</i>., dec. v. lib. i. c. vi. vol. ii. part + i. p. 51. PURCHAS says: "The Singhalese language is thought to have + been left there by the Chinois, some time Lord of + Zeilan."—<i>Pilgrimage</i>, c. xviii. p. 552. The adventures + of Ching Ho, in his embassy to the nations of the Southern Ocean, + have been made the ground-work of a novel, the <i>Se-yung-ke</i>, + which contains an enlarged account of his exploits in Ceylon; but + fact is so overlaid with fiction that the passages are not worth + extracting.</p> + </div> + + <p>For fifty years after this untoward event the subjection of Ceylon + to China appears to have been <a name="pg625" id="pg625"></a> humbly + and periodically acknowledged; tribute was punctually paid to the + emperor, and on two occasions, in 1416 A.D., and 1421 A.D., the kings + of Ceylon were the bearers of it in person.[1] In 1430 A.D., at a + period of intestine commotion, "Ching-Ho issued a proclamation for + the pacification of Ceylon," and, at a somewhat later period, edicts + were promulgated by the Emperor of China for the government of the + island.[2] In 1459 A.D., however, the series of humiliations appears + to have come abruptly to a close; for, "in that year," says the + <i>Ming-shè</i>, "the King of Ceylon for the last time sent an envoy + with tribute, and after that none ever came again."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Ming-shè</i>, b. vii. pp. 4, 8.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Ibid</i>., b. cccxxvii. p. 7.</p> + </div> + + <p>On their arrival in Ceylon early in the sixteenth century[1], the + Portuguese found many evidences still existing of the intercourse and + influence of the Chinese. They learned that at a former period they + had established themselves in the south of the island; and both De + Barros and De Couto ventured to state that the Singhalese were so + called from the inter-marriage of the Chinese with the Gallas or + Chalias, the caste who in great numbers still inhabit the country to + the north of Point de Galle.[2] But the conjecture is erroneous, the + derivation of Singhala is clearly traced to the Sanskrit <a name= + "pg626" id="pg626"></a> "<i>Singha</i>;" besides which, in the + alphabet of the Singhalese, <i>n</i> and <i>g</i> combine to form a + single and insoluble letter.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: A.D. 1565.</p> + + <p>2: "Serem os Chijis senhores da costa Choromandel, parte do + Malabar e desta Ilha Ceilão. Na qual Ilha leixáram huma lingua, a + que elles chamam Chingálla, e aos proprios póvos Chingallas, + principalmente os que vivem da ponta de Gálle por diante na face da + terra contra o Sul, e Oriente: e por ser pegada neste Cabo Gálle, + chamou á outra gente, que vivia do meio da ilha pera cima, aos que + aqui habitavam <i>Chingilla</i> e á lingua delles tambem, <i>quasi + como se dissessem lingua ou gente dos Chijo de Galle"</i>—DE + BARROS, <i>Asia, &c.</i>, Dec. iii. lib. ii. c. i. DE COUTO'S + account is as follows: "E como os Chins formam os primeiros que + navegáram pelo Oriente, tendo noticia da canella, acudíram muitos + 'juncos' aquella Ilha a carregar della, e dalli a levaram aos + portos de Persia, e da Arabia donde passou á Europa—de que se + deixaram ficar muitos Chins na terra, e se misturáram por + casamentos com os naturaes; <i>dantre quem nascêram huns mistços + que se ficaram chamando Cim-Gallás; ajuntando o nome dos naturaes, + que eram Gallas aos dos Chins</i>, que vieram por tempos a ser tão + famosos, que deram o seu nome a todos os da Ilha."—<i>Asia, + &c.</i> Dec. v. lib. ch. v.</p> + </div> + + <p>In process of time, every trace disappeared of the former presence + of the Chinese in Ceylon—embassies ceased to arrive from the + "Flowery Kingdom," Chinese vessels deserted the harbours of the + island, pilgrims no longer repaired to the shrines of Buddha; and + even the inscriptions became obliterated in which the imperial + offerings to the temples were recorded on the rocks.[1] The only + mementos which remain at the present day to recall their ancient + domestication in the island, is the occasional appearance in the + mountain villages of an itinerant vender of sweetmeats, or a hut in + the solitary forest near some cave, from which an impoverished + Chinese renter annually gathers the edible nest of the swallow.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Sŭh-Wan-heen tung-kaou</i>, book ccxxxvi. p. 12.</p> + </div> + <hr /> + + <h3>NOTE.</h3> + + <p>As it may be interesting to learn the opinions of the Chinese at + the present day regarding Ceylon, the following account of the island + has been translated for me by Dr. Lockhart, of Shanghae, from a + popular work on geography, written by the late lieutenant-governor of + the province of Fokhien, assisted by <a name="pg627" id="pg627"></a> + some foreigners. The book is called Ying-hwăn-che-ke, or "The + General Account of the Encircling Ocean."</p> + + <p>"Seĭh-lan is situated in Southern India, and is a large + island in the sea, on the south-east coast, its circumference being + about 1000 le (300 miles), having in the centre lofty mountains; on + the coast the land is low and marshy. The country is characterised by + much rain and constant thunder. The hills and valleys are beautifully + ornamented with flowers and trees of great variety and beauty, the + cries of the animals rejoicing together fill the air with gladness, + and the landscape abounds with splendour. In the forests are many + elephants, and the natives use them instead of draught oxen or + horses. The people are all of the Buddhistic religion; it is said + that Buddha was born here: he was born with an excessive number of + teeth. The grain is not sufficient for the inhabitants, and they + depend for food on the various districts of India. Gems are found in + the hills, and pearls on the sea coast; the cinnamon that is produced + in the country is excellent, and much superior to that of Kwang-se. + In the middle of the Ming dynasty, the Portuguese seized upon + Seĭh-lan and established marts on the sea coast, which by + schemes the Hollanders took from them. In the first year of Kia-King + (1795), the English drove out the Hollanders and took possession of + the sea coast. At this time the people of Seĭh-lan, on account + of their various calamities or invasions, lost heart. Their city on + the coast, called Colombo, was attacked by the English, and the + inhabitants were dispersed or driven away; then the whole island fell + into the hands of the English, who eventually subjected it. The + harbour for rendezvous on the coast is called Ting-ko-ma-lé."</p> + + <p>To this the Chinese commentator adds, on the authority of a work, + from which he quotes, entitled, "A Treatise on the Diseases of all + the Kingdoms of the Earth:"—</p> + + <p>"The Kingdom of Seĭh-lan was anciently called Lang-ya-sew; + the passage from Soo-mun-ta-che (Sumatra), with a favourable wind, is + twelve days and nights; the country is extensive, and the people + numerous, and the products abundant, but inferior to Kiva-wa (Java). + In the centre are lofty mountains, which yield the A-kŭh (crow + and pigeon) gems; after every storm of rain they are washed down from + the hills, and gathered among the sand. From Chang-tsun, Lin-yih in + the extreme west, can be seen. In the foreign language, <a name= + "pg628" id="pg628"></a> the high mountain is called Seĭh-lan; + hence the name of the island. It is said Buddha (Shĭh-ka) came + from the island of Ka-lon (the gardens of Buddha), and ascended this + mountain, on which remains the trace of his foot. Below the hill + there is a monastery, in which they preserve the nëe-pwan (a + Buddhistic phrase, signifying the world; literally rendered, his + defiling or defiled vessel) and the Shay-le-tsze, or relics of + Buddha.</p> + + <p>"In the sixth year of his reign (1407), Yung-lŏ, of the Ming + dynasty, sent an ambassador extraordinary, Ching-Ho and others, to + transmit the Imperial mandate to the King A-lĕe-jŏ-nai-wah, + ordering him to present numerous and valuable offerings and banners + to the monastery, and to erect a stone tablet, and rewarding him by + his appointment as tribute bearer; A-lĕe-jŏ-nai-wurh + ungratefully refusing to comply, they seized him, in order to bring + him to terms, and chose from among his nearest of kin A-pa-nae-na, + and set him on the throne. For fourteen years, Tëen-ching, Kwa-wa + (Java), Mwan-che-kea, Soo-mun-ta-che (Sumatra), and other countries, + sent tribute in the tenth year of Chin-tung, and the third year of + Teen-shun they again sent tribute."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: There is here some confusion in the chronology; as Teen-shun + reigned before Ching-tung.</p> + </div> + + <p>"I have heard from an American, A-pe-le[1], that Seĭh-lan was + the original country of Teen-chuh (India), and that which is now + called Woo-yin-too was Teen-chŭh, but in the course of time the + names have become confused. According to the records of the later Han + dynasty, Teen-chŭh was considered the Shin-tŭh, and that + the name is not that of an island, but of the whole country. I do not + know what proof there is for A-pe-le's statement."</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Mr. Abeel, an American missionary.</p> + </div><a name="pg629" id="pg629"></a> + <hr /> + + <h2>CHAP. IV.</h2> + + <h3>CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE MOORS, GENOESE, AND VENETIANS.</h3> + + <p>The rapid survey of the commerce of India during the middle ages, + which it has been necessary to introduce into the preceding + narrative, will also serve to throw light on a subject hitherto but + imperfectly investigated.</p> + + <p>The most remarkable of the many tribes which inhabit Ceylon are + the Mahometans, or, as they are generally called on the island, the + "Moor-men," energetic and industrious communities of whom are found + on all parts of the coast, but whose origin, adventures, and arrival + are amongst the historical mysteries of Ceylon.</p> + + <p>The meaningless designation of "Moors," applied to them, is the + generic term by which it was customary at one time, in Europe, to + describe a Mahometan, from whatsoever country he came, as the word + Gentoo[1] was formerly applied in England to the inhabitants of + Hindustan, without distinction of race. The practice probably + originated from the Spaniards having given that name to the followers + of the Prophet, who, traversing Morocco, overran the peninsula in the + seventh and eighth centuries.[2] The epithet was borrowed by the + Portuguese, who, after their discovery <a name="pg630" id= + "pg630"></a> of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, bestowed it + indiscriminately upon the Arabs and their descendants, whom, in the + sixteenth century, they found established as traders in every port on + the Asian and African coast, and whom they had good reason to regard + as their most formidable competitors for the commerce of the + East.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The practice originated with the Portuguese, who applied to + any unconverted native of India the term <i>gentio</i>, "idolator" + or "barbarian."</p> + + <p>2: The Spanish word "<i>Moro</i>" and the Portuguese, + "<i>Mouro</i>" may be traced either to the "Mauri," the ancient + people of Mauritania, now Morocco, or to the modern name of + "Moghrib," by which the inhabitants, the Moghribins, designate + their country.</p> + </div> + + <p>Particular events have been assumed as marking the probable date + of their first appearance in Ceylon. Sir Alexander Johnston, on the + authority of a tradition current amongst their descendants, says, + that "the first Mahometans who settled there were driven from Arabia + in the early part of the eighth century, and established themselves + at Jaffna, Manaar, Koodramali, Putlam, Colombo, Barberyn, Point de + Galle, and Trincomalie."[1] The Dutch authorities, on the other hand, + hold that the Moors were Moslemin only by profession, that by birth + they were descendants of a mean and detestable Malabar caste, who in + remote times had been converted to Islam through intercourse with the + Arabs of Bassora and the Red Sea; that they had frequented the coasts + of India as seamen, and then infested them as pirates; and that their + first appearance in Ceylon was not earlier than the century preceding + the landing of the Portuguese.[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Trans. Roy. Asiat. Society</i>, 1827, A.D. vol. i. 538. + The Moors, who were the informants of Sir Alexander Johnston, + probably spoke on the equivocal authority of the + <i>Tohfut-ul-mujahideen</i>, which is generally, but erroneously, + described as a narrative of the settlement of the Mahometans in + Malabar. Its second chapter gives an account of "the manner in + which the Mahometan religion was first propagated" there; and + states that its earliest apostles were a Sheikh and his companions, + who touched at Cranganore about 822 A.D., when on their journey as + pilgrims to the sacred foot-print on Adam's Peak. (ROWLANDSON, + <i>Orient. Transl. Fund</i>, pp. 47. 55.) But the introduction of + the new faith into this part of India was subsequent to the arrival + of the Arabs themselves, who had long before formed establishments + at numerous places on the coast.</p> + + <p>2: VALENTYN, ch. xv. p. 214.</p> + </div> + + <p>The truth, however, is, that there were Arabs in Ceylon ages + before the earliest date named in these <a name="pg631" id= + "pg631"></a> conjectures[1]; they were known there as traders + centuries before Mahomet was born, and such was their passion for + enterprise, that at one and the same moment they were pursuing + commerce in the Indian Ocean[2], and manning the galleys of Marc + Antony in the fatal sea-fight at Actium.[3] The author of the + <i>Periplus</i> found them in Ceylon about the first Christian + century, Cosmas Indico-pleustes in the sixth; and they had become so + numerous in China in the eighth, as to cause a tumult at Canton.[4] + From the tenth till the fifteenth century, the Arabs, as merchants, + were the undisputed masters of the East; they formed commercial + establishments in every country that had productions to export, and + their vessels sailed between every sea-port from Sofala to + Bab-el-Mandeb, and from Aden to Sumatra.[5] The "Moors," who at the + present day inhabit the coasts of Ceylon, are the descendants of + these active adventurers; they are not purely Arabs in blood, but + descendants from Arabian ancestors by intermarriage with the native + races who embraced the religion of the Prophet.[6] <a name="pg632" + id="pg632"></a> The Singhalese epithet of "<i>Marak-kala-minisu</i>" + or "Mariners," describes at once their origin and occupation; but + during the middle ages, when Ceylon was the Tyre of Asia, these + immigrant traders became traders in all the products of the island, + and the brokers through whose hands they passed in exchange for the + wares of foreign countries. At no period were they either + manufacturers or producers in any department; their genius was purely + commercial, and their attention was exclusively devoted to buying and + selling what had been previously produced by the industry and + ingenuity of others. They were dealers in jewelry, connoisseurs in + gems, and collectors of pearls; and whilst the contented and + apathetic Singhalese in the villages and forests of the interior + passed their lives in the cultivation of their rice-lands, and sought + no other excitement than the pomp and ceremonial of their temples; + the busy and ambitious Mahometans on the coast built their warehouses + at the ports, crowded the harbours with their shipping, and collected + the wealth and luxuries of the island, its precious stones, its + dye-woods, its spices and ivory, to be forwarded to China and the + Persian Gulf.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE, on the authority of Agatharchidos + (as quoted by Diodorus and Photius), says, that "from all that + appears in that author, we should conclude that two centuries + before the Christian era, the trade (between India and the ports of + Sabæa) was entirely in the hands of the Arabs."—<i>Hist. + India</i>, b. iii. c. x. p. 167.</p> + + <p>2: Pliny, b. vi. c. 22.</p> + + <p>3:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <p>"Omnis eo terrore Ægyptus et Indi</p> + + <p>Omnes Arabes vertebant terga Sabæi."</p> + </div> + + <p>VIRGIL, <i>Æn.</i> viii. 705.</p> + + <p>4: ABOU-ZEYD, vol. i. p. xlii. cix.</p> + + <p>5: VINCENT, vol. ii. p. 451. The Moors of Ceylon are identical + in race with "the Mopillees of the Malabar coast."—McKENZIE, + <i>Asiat. Res.</i>, vol. vi. p. 430.</p> + + <p>6: In a former work, "<i>Christianity in Ceylon</i>," I was led, + by incorrect information, to describe a section of the Moors as + belonging to the sect of the Shiahs, and using the Persian language + in the service of their mosques (c. i. note, p. 34). There is + reason to believe that at a former period there were Mahometans in + Ceylon to whom this description would apply; but at the present day + the Moors throughout the island are, I believe, universally + Sonnees, belonging to one of the four orthodox sects called + <i>Shafees</i>, and using Arabic as their ritual dialect. Their + vernacular is Tamil, mixed with a number of Arabic words; and all + their religious books, except the Koran, are in that dialect. Casie + Chitty, the erudite District Judge of Chilaw, writes to me that + "the Moors of Ceylon believe themselves to be of the posterity of + Hashem; and, according to one tradition, their progenitors were + driven from Arabia by Mahomet himself, as a punishment for their + cowardice at the battle of Ohod. But according to another version, + they fled from the tyranny of the Khalif Abu al Malek ben Merivan, + in the early part of the eighth century. Their first settlement in + India was formed at Kail-patam, to the east of Cape Comorin, whence + that place is still regarded as the 'father-land of the + Moors.'"</p> + + <p>Another of their traditions is, that their first landing-place + in Ceylon was at Barberyn, south of Caltura, in the 402nd year of + the Hejira, (A.D. 1024.) These legends would seem to refer to the + arrival of some important section of the Moors, but not to the + first appearance of this remarkable people in Ceylon. The <i>Ceylon + Gazetteer</i>, Cotta, 1834, p. 254, contains a valuable paper by + Casie Chitty on "the Manners and Customs of the Moors of + Ceylon."</p> + </div> + + <p>MARCO POLO, in the thirteenth century, found the Moors in + uncontested possession of this busy and lucrative trade, and BARBOSA, + in his account of the island, A.D. 1519, says, that not only were + they to be found in every sea-port and city, conducting and + monopolising its commerce, but Moors from the coast of Malabar were + continually arriving to swell their numbers, allured by the + facilities of commerce and the unrestrained freedom enjoyed <a name= + "pg633" id="pg633"></a> under the government.[1] In process of time + their prosperity invested them with political influence, and in the + decline of the Singhalese monarchy they took advantage of the + feebleness of the king of Cotta, to direct armed expeditions against + parts of the coast, to plunder the inhabitants, and supply themselves + with elephants and pearls.[2] They engaged in conspiracies against + the native princes; and Wijayo Bahu VII., who was murdered in 1534, + was slain by a turbulent Moorish leader called Soleyman, whom his + eldest son and successor had instigated to the crime.[3]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: "Molti Mori Malabari vengono à stantiare in questa isola per + esser in grandissima libertà, oltra tutte le commodita e delitie + del mondo," etc.—ODOARDO BARBOSA, <i>Sommario delle Indie + Orientale</i>, in <i>Ramusio</i>, vol. i. p. 313.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 274.</p> + + <p>3: Ib., p. 284. PORCACCHI, in his <i>Isolario</i>, written at + Venice A.D. 1576, thus records the traditional reputation of the + Moors of Ceylon:—"I Mori ch' habitano hoggi la Taprobana + fanno grandissimi traffichi, nauigando per tutto: et piu anchora + vengono da diverse parte molte mercantie, massimamente dal paese di + Cambaia, con coralli, cinabrio, et argento vivo. Ma son questi Mori + perfidi et ammazzono spesse, volte i lor Re; et ne creano degli + altri."—Page 188.</p> + </div> + + <p>The appearance of the Portuguese in Ceylon at this critical + period, served not only to check the career of the Moors, but to + extinguish the independence of the native princes; and looking to the + facility with which the former had previously superseded the + Malabars, and were fast acquiring an ascendency over the Singhalese + chiefs, it is not an unreasonable conjecture that, but for this + timely appearance of a Christian power in the Island, Ceylon, instead + of a possession of the British crown, might at the present day have + been a Mahometan kingdom, under the rule of some Arabian + adventurer.</p> + + <p>But although the position of the Arabs in relation to the commerce + of the East underwent no unfavourable change prior to the arrival of + the Portuguese in the Indian seas, numerous circumstances combined in + the early part of the sixteenth century to bring other European + nations into communication with the East.</p><a name="pg634" id= + "pg634"></a> + + <p>The productions of India, whether they passed by the Oxus to the + Caspian, or were transported in caravans from the Tigris to the + shores of the Black Sea, were poured into the magazines of + Constantinople, the merchants of which, previous to the fall of the + Lower Empire, were the most opulent in the world. During the same + period, Egypt commanded the trade of the Red Sea; and received, + through Aden, the luxuries of the far East, with which she supplied + the Moorish princes of Spain, and the countries bordering on the + Mediterranean.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: ODOARDO BARBOSA, In Ramusio, vol. i. p. 292. BALDELLI BONI, + <i>Relazione dell' Europa e dell' Asia,</i> lib. ix. ch. xlvii + FARIA Y SOUSA; <i>Portug. Asia,</i> part i. ch. viii.</p> + </div> + + <p>Even when the dominion of the Khalifs was threatened by the rising + power of the Turks, and long after the subsidence of the commotions + and vicissitudes which marked the period of the Crusades, part of + this lucrative commerce was still carried to Alexandria, by the Nile + and its canals. The Genoese and Venetians, each eager to engross the + supply of Europe, sought permission from the Emperors to form + establishments on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. + The former advanced their fortified factories as far eastward as + Tabriz, to meet the caravans returning from the Persian Gulf[1], and + the latter, in addition to the formation of settlements at Tyre, + Beyrout, and Acre[2], acquired after the fourth crusade, succeeded + (in defiance of the interdict of the Popes against trading with the + infidel) in negotiating a treaty with the Mamelukes for a share in + the trade of Alexandria.[3] It was through Venice that England and + the western nations <a name="pg635" id="pg635"></a> obtained the + delicacies of India and China, down to the period when the overland + route and the Red Sea were deserted for the grander passage by the + Cape of Good Hope.[4]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: GIBBON, <i>Decl. and Fall,</i> ch. lxiii.</p> + + <p>2: DARU, <i>Hist. de Venise</i> lib. xix. vol. iv. p. 74. + MACPHERSON'S <i>Annals of Commerce,</i> vol. i. p. 370.</p> + + <p>3: So impatient were the Venetians to grasp the trade of + Alexandria that Marino Sanuto, about the year 1321 A.D., + endeavoured to excite a new crusade in order to wrest it from the + Sultan of Egypt by force of arms, <i>Secreta Fidelium Crucis,</i> + in BONGARS, <i>Gesta Dei per Francos,</i> Hanau, 1611. ADAM SMITH, + <i>Wealth of Nations,</i> b. iv. ch, vii DARU, <i>Hist. de + Venise,</i> lib. xix, vol. iv, p. 88.</p> + + <p>4: GIBBON, <i>Decl. and Fall</i>, ch. lx. The last of the + Venetion "argosies" which reached the shores of England was cast + away on the Isle of Wight, A.D. 1587.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another great event which stimulated the commercial activity of + the Italians in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, was the + extraordinary progress of the Mongols, who in an incredibly short + space of time absorbed Central Asia into one powerful empire, + overthrew the ancient monarchy of China, penetrated to the heart of + Russia, and directed their arms with equal success both against + Poland and Japan. The popes and the sovereigns of Europe, alike + alarmed for their dominions and their faith, despatched ambassadors + to the Great Khan; the mission resulted in allaying apprehension for + the further advance of their formidable neighbours towards the west, + and the vigilant merchants of Venice addressed themselves to effect + an opening for trade in the new domains of the Tartar princes.</p> + + <p>It is to this commercial enterprise that we are indebted for the + first authentic information regarding China and India, that reached + Europe after the silence of the middle ages; and the voyages of the + Venetians, in some of which the realities of travel appear as + extra-ordinary as the incidents of romance, contain accounts of + Ceylon equally interesting and reliable.</p> + + <p>MARCO POLO, who left Venice as a youth, in the year 1271, and + resided seventeen years at the court of Kubla Khan, was the first + European who penetrated to China Proper; whence he embarked in A.D. + 1291, at Fo-Kien, and passing through the Straits of Malacca, rested + at Ceylon, on his homeward route by Ormuz.</p> + + <p>He does not name the port in Ceylon at which he <a name="pg636" + id="pg636"></a> landed, but he calls the king <i>Sender-naz,</i> a + name which may possibly be identified with the Malay Chandra-banu, + who twice invaded the island during the reign of Pandita + Prakrama-bahu III.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Pandita Prakrama Bahoo III. was also called Kalikalla + Saahitya Sargwajnya,—TURNOUR'S <i>Epitome</i>, p. 44.</p> + </div> + + <p>He repeats the former exaggerated account as to the dimensions of + Ceylon; he says that it was believed to have been anciently larger + still, and he shows incidentally that as early as the thirteenth + century, the Arab sailors possessed charts of the island which they + used in navigating the Indian seas.[1] Then, as now, the universal + costume of the Singhalese was the cotton "comboy," worn only on the + lower half of the body[2], their grains were sesamum and rice; their + food the latter with milk and flesh-meat; and their drink coco-nut + toddy, which Marco calls "wine drawn from the trees." He dwells with + rapture on the gems and costly stones, and, above all, on the great + ruby, a span long, for which Kubla Khan offered the value of a city. + With singular truth he says, "the people are averse to a military + life, abject and timid, and when they have occasion to employ + soldiers, they procure them from other countries in the vicinity of + the Mahometans." From this it would seem that six hundred years ago, + it was the practice in Ceylon, as it is at the present day, to + recruit the forces of the island from the Malays.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: I have seen with the sailors of the Maldives, who resort to + Ceylon at the present day, charts evidently copied from very + ancient originals.</p> + + <p>2: See the drawing, <a href="#pg612">page 612.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>The next Venetian whose travels qualified him to speak of Ceylon + was the Minorite friar ODORIC, of Portenau in Friuli[1], who, setting + out from the Black Sea in 1318, traversed the Asian continent to + China, and returned to Italy after a journey of twelve years. In + Ceylon he was struck by the number of serpents, <a name="pg637" id= + "pg637"></a> and the multitude of wild animals, lions (leopards?), + bears, and elephants. "In it he saw the mountain on which Adam for + the space of 500 years mourned the death of Abel, and on which his + tears and those of Eve formed, as men believed, a fountain;" but this + Odoric discovered to be a delusion, as he saw the spring gushing from + the earth, and its waters "flowing over jewels, but abounding with + leeches and blood-suckers." The natives were permitted by the king to + collect the gems; and in doing so they smear their bodies with the + juice of lemons to protect them from the leeches. The wild creatures, + they said, however dangerous to the inhabitants of the island, were + harmless to strangers. In that island Odoric saw "birds with two + heads," which possibly implies that he saw the hornbill[2], whose + huge and double casque may explain the expression.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Itinerarium</i> Fratris ODORICI de Foro Julii de + Portu-Vahonis.</p> + + <p>2: <i>Buceros Pica</i>. See <i>ante</i>, <a href="#pg167">Part + II. ch. ii. p. 167.</a></p> + </div> + + <p>In the succeeding century[1] the most authentic account of Ceylon + is given by NICOLO DI CONTI, another Venetian, who, though of noble + family, had settled as a <a name="pg638" id="pg638"></a> merchant at + Damascus, whence he had travelled over Persia, India, the Eastern + Archipelago, and China. Returning by way of Arabia and the Red Sea, + in 1444, he fell into danger amongst some fanatical Mahometans, and + was compelled to renounce the faith of a Christian, less from regard + for his own safety than apprehension for that of his children and + wife. For this apostacy he besought the pardon of Pope Eugenius IV., + who absolved him from guilt on condition that he should recount his + adventures to the apostolic secretary, Poggio Bracciolini, by whom + they have been preserved in his dissertation on "<i>The Vicissitudes + of Fortune</i>."[2]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: Among the writers on India in the 14th century, A.D. 1323, + was the Dominican missionary JOURDAIN CATALANI, or "Jordan de + Severac," regarding whose title of <i>Bishop of Colombo</i>, + "Episcopus Columbensis," it is somewhat uncertain whether his see + was in Ceylon, or at Coulam (Quilon), on the Malabar coast. The + probability in favour of the latter is sustained by the fact of the + very limited accounts of the island contained in his + <i>Mirabilia</i>, a work in which he has recorded his observations + on the Dekkan. <i>Cinnamon he describes as a production of + Malabar</i>, and Ceylon he extols only for its gems, pre-eminent + among which were two rubies, one worn by the king, suspended round + his neck, and the other which, when grasped in the hand could not + be covered, by the fingers, "Non credo mundum habere universum + tales duo lapides, nec tanti pretii." The MS. of Fra. JORDANUS'S + <i>Mirabilia</i> has been printed in the <i>Recueil des Voyages</i> + of the Société Géogr. of Paris, vol. i. p. 49. GIOVANNI DE + MARIGNOLA, a Florentine and Legate of Clement VI., landed in Ceylon + in 1349 A.D., at which time the legitimate king was driven away and + the supreme power left in the hands of a eunuch whom he calls + <i>Coja-Joan</i>, "pessimus Saracenus." The legate's attention was + chiefly directed to "the mountain opposite Paradise."—DOBNER, + <i>Monum. Histor. Boemiæ.</i> Pragæ, 1764-85.</p> + + <p>JOHN OF HESSE in his "Itinerary" (in which occurs the date A.D. + 1398) says, "Adsunt et in quâdam insulâ nomine Taprobanes viri + crudelissimi et moribus asperi: permagnas habent aures, et illas + plurimis gemmis ornare dicuntur. <i>Hi carnes humanas pro summis + deliciis comedunt</i>."—JOHANNIS DE HESSE, Presbyteri + <i>Itinerarium</i>, etc.</p> + + <p>2: <i>De Varietate Fortunæ</i>, Basil, 1538. An admirable + translation of the narrative of DI CONTI has recently been made by + R.H. Major, Esq., for the Hakluyt Society. London, 1857.</p> + </div> + + <p>Di Conti is, I believe, the first European who speaks of cinnamon + as a production of Ceylon. "It is a tree," he says, "which grows + there in abundance, and which very much resembles our thick willows, + excepting that the branches do not grow upwards, but spread + horizontally; the leaves are like those of the laurel, but somewhat + larger; the bark of the branches is thinnest and best, that of the + trunk thick and inferior in flavour. The fruit resembles the berries + of the laurel; the Indians extract from it an odoriferous oil, and + the wood, after the bark has been stripped from it, is used by them + for fuel."[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: POGGIO makes Nicolo di Conti say that the island contains a + lake, in the middle of which is a city three miles in + circumference; but this is evidently an amplification of his own, + borrowed from the passage in which Pliny (whom Poggio elsewhere + quotes) alludes to the fabulous Lake Megisba.—PLINY, lib. vi. + ch. xxiv.</p> + </div> + + <p>The narrative of Di Conti, as it is printed by Ramusio, from a + Portuguese version, contains a passage not found in Poggio, in which + it is alleged that a river of Ceylon, called Arotan, has a fish + somewhat like the torpedo, but whose touch, instead of electrifying, + produces a fever so long as it is held in the hand, relief being + instantaneous on letting it go.[1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: DI CONTI in <i>Ramusio</i>, vol. i. p. 344. There are two + other Italian travellers of this century who touched at Ceylon; one + a "GENTLEMAN OF FLORENCE," whose story is printed by Ramusio (but + without the author's name), who accompanied Vasco de Gama, in the + year 1479, in his voyage to Calicut, and who speaks of the trees + "che fanno la canella in molta perfettione."—Vol. i. p. 120. + The other is GIROLAMO DI SANTO STEFANO, a Genoese, who, in pursuit + of commerce, made a journey to India which he described on his + return in 1499, in a letter inserted by Ramusio in his collection + of voyages. He stayed but one day in the island, and saw only its + coco-nuts, jewels, and cinnamon.—Vol. i. p. 345.</p> + </div><a name="pg639" id="pg639"></a> + + <p>The sixteenth century was prolific in navigators, the accounts of + whose adventures served to diffuse throughout Europe a general + knowledge of Ceylon, at least as it was known superficially before + the arrival of the Portuguese. Ludovico Barthema, or Varthema, a + Bolognese[1], remained at a port on the west coast[2] for some days + in 1506. The four kings of the island being busily engaged in civil + war[3], he found it difficult to land, but he learned that permission + to search for jewels at the foot of Adam's Peak might be obtained by + the payment of five ducats, and restoring as a royalty all gems over + ten carats. Fruit was delicious and abundant, especially artichokes + and oranges[4], but rice was so insufficiently cultivated that the + sovereigns of the island were dependent for their supplies upon the + King of Narsingha, on the continent of India.[5] This statement of + Barthema is without qualification; there can be little doubt that it + applied chiefly to the southern parts of the island, and that the + north was still able to produce food sufficient for the wants of the + inhabitants.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Itinerario de</i> LUDOVICO DE VARTHEMA, <i>Bolognese, no + lo Egypto, ne la Suria, ne la Arabia Deserta e Felice, ne la + Persia, ne la India, e ne la, Æthiopia—la fede el vivere e + costume de tutte le prefatte provincie.</i> Roma. 1511, A.D.</p> + + <p>2: Probably Colombo.</p> + + <p>3: These conflicts and the actors in them are described in the + <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 274.</p> + + <p>4: "Carzofoli megliori che li nostri, melangoli dolci, li + megiiori credo, che siano nel mondo."—<i>Varthema</i>, pt. + xxvii.</p> + + <p>5: "In questo paese non nasce riso; ma ne li viene da terra + ferma. Li re de quella isola sono tributarii d'il re de Narsinga + per repetto del riso."—<i>Itin</i>., pt. xxvii. See also + BARBOSA, in <i>Ramusio</i>, vol. i p. 312.</p> + </div> + + <p>Barthema found the supply of cinnamon small, and so precarious + that the cutting took place but once in three years. The Singhalese + were at that time ignorant of <a name="pg640" id="pg640"></a> the use + of gunpowder[1], and their arms were swords and lance-heads mounted + on shafts of bamboo; "with these they fought, but their battles were + not bloody." The Moors were in possession of the trade, and the king + sent a message to Varthema and his companions, expressive of his + desire to purchase their commodities; but in consequence of a hint + that payment would be regulated by the royal discretion, the Italians + weighed anchor at nightfall and bade a sudden adieu to Ceylon.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: The <i>Rajavali</i>, p. 279, describes the wonder of the + Singhalese on witnessing for the first time the discharge of a + cannon by the Portuguese who had landed at Colombo, A.D. 1517. "A + ball shot from one of them, after flying some leagues, will break a + castle of marble, or even of iron."</p> + </div> + + <p>Early in the sixteenth century, ODOARDO BARBOSA, a Portuguese + captain, who had sailed in the Indian seas, compiled a <i>summary</i> + of all that was then known concerning the countries of the East[1], + with which the people of Portugal had been brought into connection by + their recent discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope. + Writing partly from personal observation, but chiefly from + information obtained from the previous accounts of Di Conti, Barthema + and Corsali[2], he speaks of that "grandest and most lovely island, + which the Moors of Arabia, Persia, and Syria call Zeilam, but the + Indians, <i>Tenarisim</i>, or the <i>land of delights</i>." Its ports + were crowded with Moors, who monopolised commerce, and its + inhabitants, whose complexions were fair and their stature robust and + stately, were altogether devoted to pleasure and indifferent to + arms.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: <i>Il Sommario delle Inde Orientale di</i> ODOARDO BARBOSA, + Lisbon, 1519. A sketch of the life of BARBOSA is given in + CRAWFURD'S <i>Dictionary of the Indian Islands</i>, p. 39.</p> + + <p>2: Two letters written by ANDREA CORSALI, a Florentine, dated + from Cochin, A.D. 1515, and addressed to the Grand Duke Julian de + Medicis.</p> + </div> + + <p>Barbosa appears to have associated chiefly with the Moors, whose + character and customs he describes almost as they exist at the + present day. He speaks of their heads, covered with the finest + handkerchiefs; of their ear-rings, so heavy with jewels that they + hang down to <a name="pg641" id="pg641"></a> their shoulders; of the + upper parts of their bodies exposed, but the lower portions enveloped + in silks and rich cloths, secured by an embroidered girdle. He + describes their language as a mixture of Arabic and Malabar, and + states that numbers of their co-religionists from the Indian coast + resorted constantly to Ceylon, and established themselves there as + traders, attracted by the delights of the climate, and the luxury and + abundance of the island, but above all by the unlimited freedom which + they enjoyed under its government. The duration of life was longer in + Ceylon than in any country of India. With a profusion of fruits of + every kind, and of animals fit for food, grain alone was deficient; + rice was largely imported from the Coromandel coast, and sugar from + Bengal.</p> + + <p>Di Conti and Barthema had ascertained the existence of cinnamon as + a production of the island, but Barbosa was the first European who + asserted its superiority over that of all other countries. Elephants + captured by order of the King, were tamed, trained, and sold to the + princes of India, whose agents arrived annually in quest of them. The + pearls of Manaar and the gems of Adam's Peak were the principal + riches of Ceylon. The cats-eye, according to Barbosa, was as highly + valued as the ruby by the dealers in India; and the rubies themselves + were preferred to those of Pegu on account of their density[1]; but, + compared with those of Ava, they were inferior in colour, a defect + which the Moors were skilled in correcting by the of fire.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: CESARE DE FREDERICI, a Venetian merchant, whose travels in + India, A.D. 1563, have been translated by HICKOCKE, says of Zeilan, + that, "they find there some rubies, but I have sold rubies well + there that I brought with me from Pegu."—In Hakluyt, vol. i. + p. 226.</p> + </div> + + <p>The residence of the King was at "Colmucho" (Colombo), whither + vessels coming for elephants, cinnamon, <a name="pg642" id= + "pg642"></a> and gems brought fine cloths from Cambay, together with + saffron, coral, quicksilver, vermilion, and specie, and above all + silver, which was more in demand than all the rest.</p> + + <p>Such is the sum of intelligence concerning Ceylon recorded by the + Genoese and Venetians during the three centuries in which they were + conversant with the commerce of India. Their interest in the island + had been rendered paramount by the events of the first Crusades, but + it was extinguished by the discovery of the passage round the Cape of + Good Hope. In the period which intervened the word <i>traveller</i> + may be said to have been synonymous with merchant[1], and when the + occupation of the latter was withdrawn, the adventures of the other + were suspended. The vessels of the strangers, in a very few years + after their first appearance in the Indian seas, began to divert from + its accustomed channel, the stream of commerce which for so many ages + had flowed in the direction of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf; and + the galleons of Portugal superseded the caravans of Arabia and the + argosies of Venice.</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: CÆSAR, FREDERICK opens the account of his wanderings in + India, A.D. 1563, as follows:—"Having for the space of + eighteen years continually coasted and travelled in many countries + beyond the Indies, <i>wherein I have had both good and ill success + in my travels"</i> &c. He may be regarded as the last of the + merchant voyagers of Venice, His book was translated into English + almost simultaneously with its appearance in Italian, under the + title of "<i>The Voyages and Travaile of M. Cæsar Fredrick, + Merchant of Venice, into the East Indies, and beyond the + Indies,</i> written at sea, in the Hercules of London, the 25th + March, 1588, and translated out of Italian by Mr. THOMAS HICKOCKE, + Lond, 4to. 1588." The author, who left Venice in 1563, crossed over + from Cape Comorin to Chilaw, to be present at the fishery of + pearls, which he describes almost as it is practised at the present + time. The divers engaged in it were all Christians (see + <i>Christianity in Ceylon,</i> ch. i. p. 11), under the care of + friars of the order of St. Paul. Colombo was then a hold of the + Portuguese, but without "walles or enemies;" and thence "to see how + they gather the sinnamon, or take it from the tree that it groweth + on (because the time that I was there, was the season that they + gather it, in the moneth of Aprill) I, to satisfie my desire, went + into a wood three miles from the citie, although in great danger, + the Portugals being in arms, and in the field with the king of the + country." Here he gives with great accuracy the particulars of the + process of peeling cinnamon, as it is still practised by the + Chalias.</p> + </div><a name="pg643" id="pg643"></a> + + <p>In his dismay the Sultan of Egypt threatened to demolish the + sacred remains of Jerusalem, should the infidels of Europe persist in + annihilating the trade of the Desert. Stimulated by the Doge, he + attacked the Portuguese merchantmen in the Indian seas, and destroyed + a convoy off the coast of Cochin; an outrage for which Albuquerque + meditated a splendid revenge by an expedition to plunder Mecca and + Medina, and to consummate the desolation of Egypt by diverting the + Nile to the Red Sea, across Nubia or Abyssinia![1]</p> + + <div class="footnote"> + <p>1: DARU, <i>Hist, de Venise,</i> lib. xix. p. 114. RAYNAL, + <i>Hist. des Deux Indes</i>, vol. i. p. 156. FARIA Y SOUZA, + <i>Portug. Asia</i>, pt. i. ch. viii. vol i. pp. 64, 83, 107, + 137.</p> + </div> + + <p>But the catastrophe was inevitable; the rich freights of India and + China were carried round the "Cape of Storms," and no longer slowly + borne on the Tigris and the Nile. The harbours of Ormus and of + Bassora became deserted; and on the shores of Asia Minor, where the + commerce of Italy had intrenched itself in castles of almost feudal + pretension, the rivalries of Genoa and Venice were extinguished in + the same calamitous decay.</p> + + <p>END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.</p><a name="pg644" id="pg644"></a> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13552 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/13552-h/images/001.jpg b/13552-h/images/001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4eda7ce --- /dev/null +++ b/13552-h/images/001.jpg diff --git a/13552-h/images/012.jpg b/13552-h/images/012.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c9eb18f --- /dev/null +++ b/13552-h/images/012.jpg diff --git a/13552-h/images/043.jpg b/13552-h/images/043.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..670adf5 --- /dev/null +++ b/13552-h/images/043.jpg diff --git a/13552-h/images/044.jpg b/13552-h/images/044.jpg Binary files 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