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diff --git a/old/1349-h/1349-h.htm b/old/1349-h/1349-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30f8839 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1349-h/1349-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,29930 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Russia, by Donald Mackenzie Wallace</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold;'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Russia, by Donald Mackenzie Wallace</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Russia</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Donald Mackenzie Wallace</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June, 1998 [eBook #1349]<br /> +[Most recently updated: April 12, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Donald Lainson and David Widger</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em;margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUSSIA ***</div> + + <h1> + RUSSIA + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + by Donald Mackenzie Wallace + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Copyright 1905 + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XXIX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0032"> CHAPTER XXXII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER XXXIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER XXXIV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER XXXV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0036"> CHAPTER XXXVI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0037"> CHAPTER XXXVII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0038"> CHAPTER XXXVIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0039"> CHAPTER XXXIX </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p> + Preface <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER I <br /> TRAVELLING IN RUSSIA <br /> Railways—State + Interference—River Communications—Russian "Grand <br /> Tour"—The + Volga—Kazan—Zhigulinskiya Gori—Finns and Tartars—The + <br /> Don—Difficulties of Navigation—Discomforts—Rats—Hotels + and <br /> Their Peculiar Customs—Roads—Hibernian Phraseology + <br /> Explained—Bridges—Posting—A Tarantass—Requisites + for <br /> Travelling—Travelling in Winter—Frostbitten—Disagreeable + <br /> Episodes—Scene at a Post-Station. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER II <br /> IN THE NORTHERN FORESTS <br /> Bird's-eye View of Russia—The + Northern Forests—Purpose of <br /> my Journey—Negotiations—The + Road—A Village—A Peasant's <br /> House—Vapour-Baths—Curious + Custom—Arrival. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER III <br /> VOLUNTARY EXILE <br /> Ivanofka—History of the + Place—The Steward of the Estate—Slav and <br /> Teutonic + Natures—A German's View of the Emancipation—Justices of the + <br /> Peace—New School of Morals—The Russian Language—Linguistic + Talent of <br /> the Russians—My Teacher—A Big Dose of + Current History. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER IV <br /> THE VILLAGE PRIEST <br /> Priests' Names—Clerical + Marriages—The White and the Black Clergy—Why <br /> the + People do not Respect the Parish Priests—History of the White + <br /> Clergy—The Parish Priest and the Protestant Pastor—In + What Sense <br /> the Russian People are Religious—Icons—The + Clergy and Popular <br /> Education—Ecclesiastical Reform—Premonitory + Symptoms of Change—Two <br /> Typical Specimens of the Parochial + Clergy of the Present Day. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER V <br /> A MEDICAL CONSULTATION <br /> Unexpected Illness—A + Village Doctor—Siberian Plague—My <br /> Studies—Russian + Historians—A Russian Imitator of Dickens—A ci-devant <br /> + Domestic Serf—Medicine and Witchcraft—A Remnant of Paganism—Credulity + <br /> of the Peasantry—Absurd Rumours—A Mysterious Visit + from St. <br /> Barbara—Cholera on Board a Steamer—Hospitals—Lunatic + Asylums—Amongst <br /> Maniacs. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER VI <br /> A PEASANT FAMILY OF THE OLD TYPE <br /> Ivan Petroff—His + Past Life—Co-operative Associations—Constitution of <br /> a + Peasant's Household—Predominance of Economic Conceptions over + those <br /> of Blood-relationship—Peasant Marriages—Advantages + of Living in Large <br /> Families—Its Defects—Family + Disruptions and their Consequences. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER VII <br /> THE PEASANTRY OF THE NORTH <br /> Communal Land—System + of Agriculture—Parish Fetes—Fasting—Winter <br /> + Occupations—Yearly Migrations—Domestic Industries—Influence + <br /> of Capital and Wholesale Enterprise—The State <br /> Peasants—Serf-dues—Buckle's + "History of Civilisation"—A precocious <br /> Yamstchik—"People + Who Play Pranks"—A Midnight Alarm—The Far North. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER VIII <br /> THE MIR, OR VILLAGE COMMUNITY <br /> Social and + Political Importance of the Mir—The Mir and the Family <br /> + Compared—Theory of the Communal System—Practical Deviations + from the <br /> Theory—The Mir a Good Specimen of Constitutional + Government of the <br /> Extreme Democratic Type—The Village + Assembly—Female Members—The <br /> Elections—Distribution + of the Communal Land. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER IX <br /> HOW THE COMMUNE HAS BEEN PRESERVED, AND WHAT IT IS TO + EFFECT IN THE <br /> FUTURE <br /> Sweeping Reforms after the Crimean War—Protest + Against the Laissez <br /> Faire Principle—Fear of the Proletariat—English + and Russian Methods of <br /> Legislation Contrasted—Sanguine + Expectations—Evil Consequences of <br /> the Communal System—The + Commune of the Future—Proletariat of the <br /> Towns—The + Present State of Things Merely Temporary. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER X <br /> FINNISH AND TARTAR VILLAGES <br /> A Finnish Tribe—Finnish + Villages—Various Stages of <br /> Russification—Finnish Women—Finnish + Religions—Method of "Laying" <br /> Ghosts—Curious Mixture of + Christianity and Paganism—Conversion of <br /> the Finns—A + Tartar Village—A Russian Peasant's Conception of <br /> + Mahometanism—A Mahometan's View of Christianity—Propaganda—The + <br /> Russian Colonist—Migrations of Peoples During the Dark Ages. + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XI <br /> LORD NOVGOROD THE GREAT <br /> Departure from Ivanofka + and Arrival at Novgorod—The Eastern Half of <br /> the Town—The + Kremlin—An Old Legend—The Armed Men of Rus—The <br /> + Northmen—Popular Liberty in Novgorod—The Prince and the + Popular <br /> Assembly—Civil Dissensions and Faction-fights—The + Commercial Republic <br /> Conquered by the Muscovite Tsars—Ivan + the Terrible—Present Condition <br /> of the Town—Provincial + Society—Card-playing—Periodicals—"Eternal <br /> + Stillness." <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XII <br /> THE TOWNS AND THE MERCANTILE CLASSES <br /> General + Character of Russian Towns—Scarcity of Towns in Russia—Why + <br /> the Urban Element in the Population is so Small—History of + <br /> Russian Municipal Institutions—Unsuccessful Efforts to + Create a <br /> Tiers-etat—Merchants, Burghers, and Artisans—Town + Council—A Rich <br /> Merchant—His House—His Love of + Ostentation—His Conception of <br /> Aristocracy—Official + Decorations—Ignorance and Dishonesty of the <br /> Commercial + Classes—Symptoms of Change. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XIII <br /> THE PASTORAL TRIBES OF THE STEPPE <br /> A Journey to + the Steppe Region of the Southeast—The Volga—Town <br /> and + Province of Samara—Farther Eastward—Appearance of the <br /> + Villages—Characteristic Incident—Peasant Mendacity—Explanation + of the <br /> Phenomenon—I Awake in Asia—A Bashkir Aoul—Diner + la Tartare—Kumyss—A <br /> Bashkir Troubadour—Honest + Mehemet Zian—Actual Economic Condition of <br /> the Bashkirs + Throws Light on a Well-known Philosophical Theory—Why <br /> a + Pastoral Race Adopts Agriculture—The Genuine Steppe—The + <br /> Kirghiz—Letter from Genghis Khan—The Kalmyks—Nogai + Tartars—Struggle <br /> between Nomadic Hordes and Agricultural + Colonists. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XIV <br /> THE MONGOL DOMINATION <br /> The Conquest—Genghis + Khan and his People—Creation and Rapid <br /> Disintegration of the + Mongol Empire—The Golden Horde—The Real <br /> Character of + the Mongol Domination—Religious Toleration—Mongol System + <br /> of Government—Grand Princes—The Princes of Moscow—Influence + of the <br /> Mongol Domination—Practical Importance of the + Subject. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XV <br /> THE COSSACKS <br /> Lawlessness on the Steppe—Slave-markets + of the Crimea—The Military <br /> Cordon and the Free Cossacks—The + Zaporovian Commonwealth Compared with <br /> Sparta and with the + Mediaeval Military Orders—The Cossacks of the Don, <br /> of the + Volga, and of the Ural—Border Warfare—The Modern Cossacks—Land + <br /> Tenure among the Cossacks of the Don—The Transition from + Pastoral to <br /> Agriculture Life—"Universal Law" of Social + Development—Communal versus <br /> Private Property—Flogging + as a Means of Land-registration. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XVI <br /> FOREIGN COLONISTS ON THE STEPPE <br /> The Steppe—Variety + of Races, Languages, and Religions—The German <br /> Colonists—In + What Sense the Russians are an Imitative <br /> People—The + Mennonites—Climate and Arboriculture—Bulgarian <br /> + Colonists—Tartar-Speaking Greeks—Jewish <br /> Agriculturists—Russification—A + Circassian Scotchman—Numerical <br /> Strength of the Foreign + Element. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XVII <br /> AMONG THE HERETICS <br /> The Molokanye—My + Method of Investigation—Alexandrof-Hai—An Unexpected <br /> + Theological Discussion—Doctrines and Ecclesiastical Organisation + of <br /> the Molokanye—Moral Supervision and Mutual Assistance—History + of the <br /> Sect—A False Prophet—Utilitarian Christianity—Classification + of <br /> the Fantastic Sects—The "Khlysti"—Policy of the + Government towards <br /> Sectarianism—Two Kinds of Heresy—Probable + Future of the Heretical <br /> Sects—Political Disaffection. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XVIII <br /> THE DISSENTERS <br /> Dissenters not to be Confounded + with Heretics—Extreme Importance <br /> Attached to Ritual + Observances—The Raskol, or Great Schism in the <br /> Seventeenth + Century—Antichrist Appears!—Policy of Peter the Great <br /> + and Catherine II.—Present Ingenious Method of Securing Religious + <br /> Toleration—Internal Development of the Raskol—Schism + among the <br /> Schismatics—The Old Ritualists—The + Priestless People—Cooling of the <br /> Fanatical Enthusiasm and + Formation of New Sects—Recent Policy of <br /> the Government + towards the Sectarians—Numerical Force and Political <br /> + Significance of Sectarianism. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XIX <br /> CHURCH AND STATE <br /> The Russian Orthodox Church—Russia + Outside of the Mediaeval Papal <br /> Commonwealth—Influence of the + Greek Church—Ecclesiastical History of <br /> Russia—Relations + between Church and State—Eastern Orthodoxy and the <br /> Russian + National Church—The Synod—Ecclesiastical Grumbling—Local + <br /> Ecclesiastical Administration—The Black Clergy and the + Monasteries—The <br /> Character of the Eastern Church Reflected in + the History of Religious <br /> Art—Practical Consequences—The + Union Scheme. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XX <br /> THE NOBLESSE <br /> The Nobles In Early Times—The + Mongol Domination—The Tsardom of <br /> Muscovy—Family + Dignity—Reforms of Peter the Great—The Nobles Adopt <br /> + West-European Conceptions—Abolition of Obligatory Service—Influence + of <br /> Catherine II.—The Russian Dvoryanstvo Compared with the + French Noblesse <br /> and the English Aristocracy—Russian Titles—Probable + Future of the <br /> Russian Noblesse. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXI <br /> LANDED PROPRIETORS OF THE OLD SCHOOL <br /> Russian + Hospitality—A Country-House—Its Owner Described—His + Life, <br /> Past and Present—Winter Evenings—Books—-Connection + with the Outer <br /> World—The Crimean War and the Emancipation—A + Drunken, Dissolute <br /> Proprietor—An Old General and his Wife—"Name + Days"—A Legendary <br /> Monster—A Retired Judge—A + Clever Scribe—Social Leniency—Cause of <br /> Demoralisation. + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXII <br /> PROPRIETORS OF THE MODERN SCHOOL <br /> A Russian + Petit Maitre—His House and Surroundings—Abortive Attempts + <br /> to Improve Agriculture and the Condition of the Serfs—A + Comparison—A <br /> "Liberal" Tchinovnik—His Idea of Progress—A + Justice of the Peace—His <br /> Opinion of Russian Literature, + Tchinovniks, and Petits Maitres—His <br /> Supposed and Real + Character—An Extreme Radical—Disorders in <br /> the + Universities—Administrative Procedure—Russia's Capacity for + <br /> Accomplishing Political and Social Evolutions—A Court + Dignitary in his <br /> Country House. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXIII <br /> SOCIAL CLASSES <br /> Do Social Classes or Castes + Exist in Russia?—Well-marked Social <br /> Types—Classes + Recognised by the Legislation and the Official <br /> Statistics—Origin + and Gradual Formation of these Classes—Peculiarity <br /> in the + Historical Development of Russia—Political Life and Political + <br /> Parties. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXIV <br /> THE IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION AND THE OFFICIALS <br /> + The Officials in Norgorod Assist Me in My Studies—The Modern + Imperial <br /> Administration Created by Peter the Great, and Developed + by his <br /> Successors—A Slavophil's View of the Administration—The + Administration <br /> Briefly Described—The Tchinovniks, or + Officials—Official Titles, and <br /> Their Real Significance—What + the Administration Has Done for Russia in <br /> the Past—Its + Character Determined by the Peculiar Relation between <br /> the + Government and the People—Its Radical Vices—Bureaucratic + <br /> Remedies—Complicated Formal Procedure—The Gendarmerie: + My Personal <br /> Relations with this Branch of the Administration; + Arrest and Release—A <br /> Strong, Healthy Public Opinion the Only + Effectual Remedy for Bad <br /> Administration. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXV <br /> MOSCOW AND THE SLAVOPHILS <br /> Two Ancient Cities—Kief + Not a Good Point for Studying Old Russian <br /> National Life—Great + Russians and Little Russians—Moscow—Easter Eve <br /> in the + Kremlin—Curious Custom—Anecdote of the Emperor <br /> + Nicholas—Domiciliary Visits of the Iberian Madonna—The + Streets of <br /> Moscow—Recent Changes in the Character of the + City—Vulgar Conception <br /> of the Slavophils—Opinion + Founded on Personal Acquaintance—Slavophil <br /> Sentiment a + Century Ago—Origin and Development of the Slavophil <br /> Doctrine—Slavophilism + Essentially Muscovite—The Panslavist <br /> Element—The + Slavophils and the Emancipation. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXVI <br /> ST. PETERSBURG AND EUROPEAN INFLUENCE <br /> St. + Petersburg and Berlin—Big Houses—The "Lions"—Peter the + Great—His <br /> Aims and Policy—The German Regime—Nationalist + Reaction—French <br /> Influence—Consequent Intellectual + Sterility—Influence of the <br /> Sentimental School—Hostility + to Foreign Influences—A New Period of <br /> Literary Importation—Secret + Societies—The Catastrophe—The Age of <br /> Nicholas—A + Terrible War on Parnassus—Decline of Romanticism and <br /> + Transcendentalism—Gogol—The Revolutionary Agitation of 1848—New + <br /> Reaction—Conclusion. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXVII <br /> THE CRIMEAN WAR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES <br /> The + Emperor Nicholas and his System—The Men with Aspirations and the + <br /> Apathetically Contented—National Humiliation—Popular + Discontent <br /> and the Manuscript Literature—Death of Nicholas—Alexander + II.—New <br /> Spirit—Reform Enthusiasm—Change in the + Periodical Literature—The <br /> Kolokol—The Conservatives—The + Tchinovniks—First Specific <br /> Proposals—Joint-Stock + Companies—The Serf Question Comes to the Front. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXVIII <br /> THE SERFS <br /> The Rural Population in Ancient + Times—The Peasantry in the Eighteenth <br /> Century—How Was + This Change Effected?—The Common Explanation <br /> Inaccurate—Serfage + the Result of Permanent Economic and Political <br /> Causes—Origin + of the Adscriptio Glebae—Its Consequences—Serf <br /> + Insurrection—Turning-point in the History of Serfage—Serfage + in <br /> Russia and in Western Europe—State Peasants—Numbers + and Geographical <br /> Distribution of the Serf Population—Serf + Dues—Legal and Actual Power <br /> of the Proprietors—The + Serfs' Means of Defence—Fugitives—Domestic <br /> Serfs—Strange + Advertisements in the Moscow Gazette—Moral Influence of <br /> + Serfage. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XXIX </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXIX <br /> THE EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS <br /> The Question + Raised—Chief Committee—The Nobles of the Lithuanian <br /> + Provinces—The Tsar's Broad Hint to the Noblesse—Enthusiasm + in the <br /> Press—The Proprietors—Political Aspirations—No + Opposition—The <br /> Government—Public Opinion—Fear of + the Proletariat—The Provincial <br /> Committees—The + Elaboration Commission—The Question Ripens—Provincial <br /> + Deputies—Discontent and Demonstrations—The Manifesto—Fundamental + <br /> Principles of the Law—Illusions and Disappointment of the + <br /> Serfs—Arbiters of the Peace—A Characteristic Incident—Redemption—Who + <br /> Effected the Emancipation? <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXX <br /> THE LANDED PROPRIETORS SINCE THE EMANCIPATION <br /> + Two Opposite Opinions—Difficulties of Investigation—The + Problem <br /> Simplified—Direct and Indirect Compensation—The + Direct Compensation <br /> Inadequate—What the Proprietors Have + Done with the Remainder of <br /> Their Estates—Immediate Moral + Effect of the Abolition of Serfage—The <br /> Economic Problem—The + Ideal Solution and the Difficulty of Realising <br /> It—More + Primitive Arrangements—The Northern Agricultural Zone—The + <br /> Black-earth Zone—The Labour Difficulty—The + Impoverishment of <br /> the Noblesse Not a New Phenomenon—Mortgaging + of Estates—Gradual <br /> Expropriation of the Noblesse-Rapid + Increase in the Production and <br /> Export of Grain—How Far this + Has Benefited the Landed Proprietors. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXI <br /> THE EMANCIPATED PEASANTRY <br /> The Effects of + Liberty—Difficulty of Obtaining Accurate <br /> Information—Pessimist + Testimony of the Proprietors—Vague Replies of <br /> the Peasants—My + Conclusions in 1877—Necessity of Revising Them—My <br /> + Investigations Renewed in 1903—Recent Researches by Native + Political <br /> Economists—Peasant Impoverishment Universally + Recognised—Various <br /> Explanations Suggested—Demoralisation + of the Common People—Peasant <br /> Self-government—Communal + System of Land Tenure—Heavy <br /> Taxation—Disruption of + Peasant Families—Natural Increase of <br /> Population—Remedies + Proposed—Migration—Reclamation of Waste <br /> Land—Land-purchase + by Peasantry—Manufacturing Industry—Improvement of <br /> + Agricultural Methods—Indications of Progress. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0032"> CHAPTER XXXII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXII <br /> THE ZEMSTVO AND THE LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT <br /> + Necessity of Reorganising the Provincial Administration—Zemstvo + Created <br /> in 1864—My First Acquaintance with the Institution—District + and <br /> Provincial Assemblies—The Leading Members—Great + Expectations Created <br /> by the Institution—These Expectations + Not Realised—Suspicions and <br /> Hostility of the Bureaucracy—Zemstvo + Brought More Under Control of the <br /> Centralised Administration—What + It Has Really Done—Why It Has Not <br /> Done More—-Rapid + Increase of the Rates—How Far the Expenditure <br /> Is Judicious—Why + the Impoverishment of the Peasantry Was <br /> Neglected—Unpractical, + Pedantic Spirit—Evil Consequences—Chinese and <br /> Russian + Formalism—Local Self-Government of Russia Contrasted with That + <br /> of England—Zemstvo Better than Its Predecessors—Its + Future. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER XXXIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXIII <br /> THE NEW LAW COURTS <br /> Judicial Procedure in the + Olden Times—Defects and Abuses—Radical <br /> Reform—The + New System—Justices of the Peace and Monthly Sessions—The + <br /> Regular Tribunals—Court of Revision—Modification of + the Original <br /> Plan—How Does the System Work?—Rapid + Acclimatisation—The Bench—The <br /> Jury—Acquittal of + Criminals Who Confess Their Crimes—Peasants, <br /> Merchants, and + Nobles as Jurymen—Independence and Political <br /> Significance of + the New Courts. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER XXXIV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXIV <br /> REVOLUTIONARY NIHILISM AND THE REACTION <br /> The + Reform-enthusiasm Becomes Unpractical and Culminates in <br /> Nihilism—Nihilism, + the Distorted Reflection of Academic Western <br /> Socialism—Russia + Well Prepared for Reception of Ultra-Socialist <br /> Virus—Social + Reorganisation According to Latest Results of <br /> Science—Positivist + Theory—Leniency of Press-censure—Chief <br /> Representatives + of New Movement—Government Becomes Alarmed—Repressive <br /> + Measures—Reaction in the Public—The Term Nihilist Invented—The + <br /> Nihilist and His Theory—Further Repressive Measures—Attitude + of Landed <br /> Proprietors—Foundation of a Liberal Party—Liberalism + Checked by Polish <br /> Insurrection—Practical Reform Continued—An + Attempt at Regicide Forms <br /> a Turning-point of Government's Policy—Change + in Educational <br /> System—Decline of Nihilism. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER XXXV </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXV <br /> SOCIALIST PROPAGANDA, REVOLUTIONARY AGITATION, AND + TERRORISM <br /> Closer Relations with Western Socialism—Attempts + to Influence <br /> the Masses—Bakunin and Lavroff—"Going in + among the People"—The <br /> Missionaries of Revolutionary + Socialism—Distinction between Propaganda <br /> and Agitation—Revolutionary + Pamphlets for the Common People—Aims <br /> and Motives of the + Propagandists—Failure of Propaganda—Energetic <br /> + Repression—Fruitless Attempts at Agitation—Proposal to + Combine <br /> with Liberals—Genesis of Terrorism—My Personal + Relations with the <br /> Revolutionists—Shadowers and Shadowed—A + Series of Terrorist Crimes—A <br /> Revolutionist Congress—Unsuccessful + Attempts to Assassinate <br /> the Tsar—Ineffectual Attempt at + Conciliation by Loris <br /> Melikof—Assassination of Alexander II.—The + Executive Committee <br /> Shows Itself Unpractical—Widespread + Indignation and Severe <br /> Repression—Temporary Collapse of the + Revolutionary Movement—A New <br /> Revolutionary Movement in + Sight. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0036"> CHAPTER XXXVI </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXVI <br /> INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS AND THE PROLETARIAT <br /> Russia + till Lately a Peasant Empire—Early Efforts to Introduce Arts and + <br /> Crafts—Peter the Great and His Successors—Manufacturing + Industry <br /> Long Remains an Exotic—The Cotton Industry—The + Reforms of Alexander <br /> II.—Protectionists and Free Trade—Progress + under High Tariffs—M. <br /> Witte's Policy—How Capital Was + Obtained—Increase of Exports—Foreign <br /> Firms Cross the + Customs Frontier—Rapid Development of Iron Industry—A <br /> + Commercial Crisis—M. Witte's Position Undermined by Agrarians and + <br /> Doctrinaires—M. Plehve a Formidable Opponent—His + Apprehensions of <br /> Revolution—Fall of M. Witte—The + Industrial Proletariat <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0037"> CHAPTER XXXVII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXVII <br /> THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT IN ITS LATEST PHASE + <br /> Influence of Capitalism and Proletariat on the Revolutionary <br /> + Movement—What is to be Done?—Reply of Plekhanof—A New + Departure—Karl <br /> Marx's Theories Applied to Russia—Beginnings + of a Social Democratic <br /> Movement—The Labour Troubles of + 1894-96 in St. Petersburg—The Social <br /> Democrats' Plan of + Campaign—Schism in the Party—Trade-unionism and <br /> + Political Agitation—The Labour Troubles of 1902—How the + Revolutionary <br /> Groups are Differentiated from Each Other—Social + Democracy and <br /> Constitutionalism—Terrorism—The + Socialist Revolutionaries—The <br /> Militant Organisation—Attitude + of the Government—Factory <br /> Legislation—Government's + Scheme for Undermining Social <br /> Democracy—Father Gapon and His + Labour Association—The Great Strike in <br /> St. Petersburg—Father + Gapon goes over to the Revolutionaries. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0038"> CHAPTER XXXVIII </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXXVIII <br /> TERRITORIAL EXPANSION AND FOREIGN POLICY <br /> + Rapid Growth of Russia—Expansive Tendency of Agricultural Peoples—The + <br /> Russo-Slavonians—The Northern Forest and the Steppe—Colonisation—The + <br /> Part of the Government in the Process of Expansion—Expansion + towards <br /> the West—Growth of the Empire Represented in a + Tabular Form—Commercial <br /> Motive for Expansion—The + Expansive Force in the Future—Possibilities <br /> of Expansion in + Europe—Persia, Afghanistan, and India—Trans-Siberian <br /> + Railway and Weltpolitik—A Grandiose Scheme—Determined + Opposition of <br /> Japan—Negotiations and War—Russia's + Imprudence Explained—Conclusion. <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0039"> CHAPTER XXXIX </a> + </p> + <p> + THE PRESENT SITUATION <br /> Reform or Revolution?—Reigns of + Alexander II. and Nicholas II. <br /> Compared and Contrasted—The + Present Opposition—Various Groups—The <br /> + Constitutionalists—Zemski Sobors—The Young Tsar Dispels + <br /> Illusions—Liberal Frondeurs—Plehve's Repressive Policy—Discontent + <br /> Increased by the War—Relaxation and Wavering under Prince + <br /> Mirski—Reform Enthusiasm—The Constitutionalists + Formulate their <br /> Demands—The Social Democrats—Father + Gapon's Demonstration—The <br /> Socialist-Revolutionaries—The + Agrarian Agitators—The <br /> Subject-Nationalities—Numerical + Strength of the Various Groups—All <br /> United on One Point—Their + Different Aims—Possible Solutions of the <br /> Crisis—Difficulties + of Introducing Constitutional Regime—A Strong Man <br /> Wanted—Uncertainty + of the Future. <br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + The first edition of this work, published early in January, 1877, + contained the concentrated results of my studies during an uninterrupted + residence of six years in Russia—from the beginning of 1870 to the + end of 1875. Since that time I have spent in the European and Central + Asian provinces, at different periods, nearly two years more; and in the + intervals I have endeavoured to keep in touch with the progress of events. + My observations thus extend over a period of thirty-five years. + </p> + <p> + When I began, a few months ago, to prepare for publication the results of + my more recent observations and researches, my intention was to write an + entirely new work under the title of "Russia in the Twentieth Century," + but I soon perceived that it would be impossible to explain clearly the + present state of things without referring constantly to events of the + past, and that I should be obliged to embody in the new work a large + portion of the old one. The portion to be embodied grew rapidly to such + proportions that, in the course of a few weeks, I began to ask myself + whether it would not be better simply to recast and complete my old + material. With a view to deciding the question I prepared a list of the + principal changes which had taken place during the last quarter of a + century, and when I had marshalled them in logical order, I recognised + that they were neither so numerous nor so important as I had supposed. + Certainly there had been much progress, but it had been nearly all on the + old lines. Everywhere I perceived continuity and evolution; nowhere could + I discover radical changes and new departures. In the central and local + administration the reactionary policy of the latter half of Alexander + II.'s reign had been steadily maintained; the revolutionary movement had + waxed and waned, but its aims were essentially the same as of old; the + Church had remained in its usual somnolent condition; a grave agricultural + crisis affecting landed proprietors and peasants had begun, but it was + merely a development of a state of things which I had previously + described; the manufacturing industry had made gigantic strides, but they + were all in the direction which the most competent observers had + predicted; in foreign policy the old principles of guiding the natural + expansive forces along the lines of least resistance, seeking to reach + warm-water ports, and pegging out territorial claims for the future were + persistently followed. No doubt there were pretty clear indications of + more radical changes to come, but these changes must belong to the future, + and it is merely with the past and the present that a writer who has no + pretensions to being a prophet has to deal. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances it seemed to me advisable to adopt a middle + course. Instead of writing an entirely new work I determined to prepare a + much extended and amplified edition of the old one, retaining such + information about the past as seemed to me of permanent value, and at the + same time meeting as far as possible the requirements of those who wish to + know the present condition of the country. + </p> + <p> + In accordance with this view I have revised, rearranged, and supplemented + the old material in the light of subsequent events, and I have added five + entirely new chapters—three on the revolutionary movement, which has + come into prominence since 1877; one on the industrial progress, with + which the latest phase of the movement is closely connected; and one on + the main lines of the present situation as it appears to me at the moment + of going to press. + </p> + <p> + During the many years which I have devoted to the study of Russia, I have + received unstinted assistance from many different quarters. Of the friends + who originally facilitated my task, and to whom I expressed my gratitude + in the preface and notes of the early editions, only three survive—Mme. + de Novikoff, M. E. I. Yakushkin, and Dr. Asher. To the numerous friends + who have kindly assisted me in the present edition I must express my + thanks collectively, but there are two who stand out from the group so + prominently that I may be allowed to mention them personally: these are + Prince Alexander Grigorievitch Stcherbatof, who supplied me with + voluminous materials regarding the agrarian question generally and the + present condition of the peasantry in particular, and M. Albert Brockhaus, + who placed at my disposal the gigantic Russian Encyclopaedia recently + published by his firm (Entsiklopeditcheski Slovar, Leipzig and St. + Petersburg, 1890-1904). This monumental work, in forty-one volumes, is an + inexhaustible storehouse of accurate and well-digested information on all + subjects connected with the Russian Empire, and it has often been of great + use to me in matters of detail. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the last chapter of this edition I must claim the reader's + indulgence, because the meaning of the title, "the present situation," + changes from day to day, and I cannot foresee what further changes may + occur before the work reaches the hands of the public. + </p> + <p> + LONDON, 22nd May, 1905. + </p> + <p> + RUSSIA <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <h3> + TRAVELLING IN RUSSIA + </h3> + <p> + Railways—State Interference—River Communications—Russian + "Grand Tour"—The Volga—Kazan—Zhigulinskiya Gori—Finns + and Tartars—The Don—Difficulties of Navigation—Discomforts—Rats—Hotels + and Their Peculiar Customs—Roads—Hibernian Phraseology + Explained—Bridges—Posting—A Tarantass—Requisites + for Travelling—Travelling in Winter—Frostbitten—Disagreeable + Episodes—Scene at a Post-Station. + </p> + <p> + Of course travelling in Russia is no longer what it was. During the last + half century a vast network of railways has been constructed, and one can + now travel in a comfortable first-class carriage from Berlin to St. + Petersburg or Moscow, and thence to Odessa, Sebastopol, the Lower Volga, + the Caucasus, Central Asia, or Eastern Siberia. Until the outbreak of the + war there was a train twice a week, with through carriages, from Moscow to + Port Arthur. And it must be admitted that on the main lines the passengers + have not much to complain of. The carriages are decidedly better than in + England, and in winter they are kept warm by small iron stoves, assisted + by double windows and double doors—a very necessary precaution in a + land where the thermometer often descends to 30 degrees below zero. The + train never attains, it is true, a high rate of speed—so at least + English and Americans think—but then we must remember that Russians + are rarely in a hurry, and like to have frequent opportunities of eating + and drinking. In Russia time is not money; if it were, nearly all the + subjects of the Tsar would always have a large stock of ready money on + hand, and would often have great difficulty in spending it. In reality, be + it parenthetically remarked, a Russian with a superabundance of ready + money is a phenomenon rarely met with in real life. + </p> + <p> + In conveying passengers at the rate of from fifteen to thirty miles an + hour, the railway companies do at least all that they promise; but in one + very important respect they do not always strictly fulfil their + engagements. The traveller takes a ticket for a certain town, and on + arriving at what he imagines to be his destination, he may find merely a + railway-station surrounded by fields. On making inquiries, he discovers, + to his disappointment, that the station is by no means identical with the + town bearing the same name, and that the railway has fallen several miles + short of fulfilling the bargain, as he understood the terms of the + contract. Indeed, it might almost be said that as a general rule railways + in Russia, like camel-drivers in certain Eastern countries, studiously + avoid the towns. This seems at first a strange fact. It is possible to + conceive that the Bedouin is so enamoured of tent life and nomadic habits + that he shuns a town as he would a man-trap; but surely civil engineers + and railway contractors have no such dread of brick and mortar. The true + reason, I suspect, is that land within or immediately beyond the municipal + barrier is relatively dear, and that the railways, being completely beyond + the invigorating influence of healthy competition, can afford to look upon + the comfort and convenience of passengers as a secondary consideration. + Gradually, it is true, this state of things is being improved by private + initiative. As the railways refuse to come to the towns, the towns are + extending towards the railways, and already some prophets are found bold + enough to predict that in the course of time those long, new, straggling + streets, without an inhabited hinterland, which at present try so severely + the springs of the ricketty droshkis, will be properly paved and kept in + decent repair. For my own part, I confess I am a little sceptical with + regard to this prediction, and I can only use a favourite expression of + the Russian peasants—daï Bog! God grant it may be so! + </p> + <p> + It is but fair to state that in one celebrated instance neither engineers + nor railway contractors were directly to blame. From St. Petersburg to + Moscow the locomotive runs for a distance of 400 miles almost as "the + crow" is supposed to fly, turning neither to the right hand nor to the + left. For twelve weary hours the passenger in the express train looks out + on forest and morass, and rarely catches sight of human habitation. Only + once he perceives in the distance what may be called a town; it is Tver + which has been thus favoured, not because it is a place of importance, but + simply because it happened to be near the bee-line. And why was the + railway constructed in this extraordinary fashion? For the best of all + reasons—because the Tsar so ordered it. When the preliminary survey + was being made, Nicholas I. learned that the officers entrusted with the + task—and the Minister of Ways and Roads in the number—were + being influenced more by personal than technical considerations, and he + determined to cut the Gordian knot in true Imperial style. When the + Minister laid before him the map with the intention of explaining the + proposed route, he took a ruler, drew a straight line from the one + terminus to the other, and remarked in a tone that precluded all + discussion, "You will construct the line so!" And the line was so + constructed—remaining to all future ages, like St. Petersburg and + the Pyramids, a magnificent monument of autocratic power. + </p> + <p> + Formerly this well-known incident was often cited in whispered philippics + to illustrate the evils of the autocratic form of government. Imperial + whims, it was said, over-ride grave economic considerations. In recent + years, however, a change seems to have taken place in public opinion, and + some people now assert that this so-called Imperial whim was an act of + far-seeing policy. As by far the greater part of the goods and passengers + are carried the whole length of the line, it is well that the line should + be as short as possible, and that branch lines should be constructed to + the towns lying to the right and left. Evidently there is a good deal to + be said in favour of this view. + </p> + <p> + In the development of the railway system there has been another disturbing + cause, which is not likely to occur to the English mind. In England, + individuals and companies habitually act according to their private + interests, and the State interferes as little as possible; private + initiative does as it pleases, unless the authorities can prove that + important bad consequences will necessarily result. In Russia, the onus + probandi lies on the other side; private initiative is allowed to do + nothing until it gives guarantees against all possible bad consequences. + When any great enterprise is projected, the first question is—"How + will this new scheme affect the interests of the State?" Thus, when the + course of a new railway has to be determined, the military authorities are + among the first to be consulted, and their opinion has a great influence + on the ultimate decision. The natural consequence is that the railway-map + of Russia presents to the eye of the strategist much that is quite + unintelligible to the ordinary observer—a fact that will become + apparent even to the uninitiated as soon as a war breaks out in Eastern + Europe. Russia is no longer what she was in the days of the Crimean War, + when troops and stores had to be conveyed hundreds of miles by the most + primitive means of transport. At that time she had only 750 miles of + railway; now she has over 36,000 miles, and every year new lines are + constructed. + </p> + <p> + The water-communication has likewise in recent years been greatly + improved. On the principal rivers there are now good steamers. + Unfortunately, the climate puts serious obstructions in the way of + navigation. For nearly half of the year the rivers are covered with ice, + and during a great part of the open season navigation is difficult. When + the ice and snow melt the rivers overflow their banks and lay a great part + of the low-lying country under water, so that many villages can only be + approached in boats; but very soon the flood subsides, and the water falls + so rapidly that by midsummer the larger steamers have great difficulty in + picking their way among the sandbanks. The Neva alone—that queen of + northern rivers—has at all times a plentiful supply of water. + </p> + <p> + Besides the Neva, the rivers commonly visited by the tourist are the Volga + and the Don, which form part of what may be called the Russian grand tour. + Englishmen who wish to see something more than St. Petersburg and Moscow + generally go by rail to Nizhni-Novgorod, where they visit the great fair, + and then get on board one of the Volga steamers. For those who have + mastered the important fact that Russia is not a country of fine scenery, + the voyage down the river is pleasant enough. The left bank is as flat as + the banks of the Rhine below Cologne, but the right bank is high, + occasionally well wooded, and not devoid of a certain tame + picturesqueness. Early on the second day the steamer reaches Kazan, once + the capital of an independent Tartar khanate, and still containing a + considerable Tartar population. Several metchets (as the Mahometan houses + of prayer are here termed), with their diminutive minarets in the lower + part of the town, show that Islamism still survives, though the khanate + was annexed to Muscovy more than three centuries ago; but the town, as a + whole, has a European rather than an Asiatic character. If any one visits + it in the hope of getting "a glimpse of the East," he will be grievously + disappointed, unless, indeed, he happens to be one of those imaginative + tourists who always discover what they wish to see. And yet it must be + admitted that, of all the towns on the route, Kazan is the most + interesting. Though not Oriental, it has a peculiar character of its own, + whilst all the others—Simbirsk, Samara, Saratof—are as + uninteresting as Russian provincial towns commonly are. The full force and + solemnity of that expression will be explained in the sequel. + </p> + <p> + Probably about sunrise on the third day something like a range of + mountains will appear on the horizon. It may be well to say at once, to + prevent disappointment, that in reality nothing worthy of the name of + mountain is to be found in that part of the country. The nearest + mountain-range in that direction is the Caucasus, which is hundreds of + miles distant, and consequently cannot by any possibility be seen from the + deck of a steamer. The elevations in question are simply a low range of + hills, called the Zhigulinskiya Gori. In Western Europe they would not + attract much attention, but "in the kingdom of the blind," as the French + proverb has it, "the one-eyed man is king"; and in a flat region like + Eastern Russia these hills form a prominent feature. Though they have + nothing of Alpine grandeur, yet their well-wooded slopes, coming down to + the water's edge—especially when covered with the delicate tints of + early spring, or the rich yellow and red of autumnal foliage—leave + an impression on the memory not easily effaced. + </p> + <p> + On the whole—with all due deference to the opinions of my patriotic + Russian friends—I must say that Volga scenery hardly repays the + time, trouble and expense which a voyage from Nizhni to Tsaritsin demands. + There are some pretty bits here and there, but they are "few and far + between." A glass of the most exquisite wine diluted with a gallon of + water makes a very insipid beverage. The deck of the steamer is generally + much more interesting than the banks of the river. There one meets with + curious travelling companions. The majority of the passengers are probably + Russian peasants, who are always ready to chat freely without demanding a + formal introduction, and to relate—with certain restrictions—to + a new acquaintance the simple story of their lives. Often I have thus + whiled away the weary hours both pleasantly and profitably, and have + always been impressed with the peasant's homely common sense, good-natured + kindliness, half-fatalistic resignation, and strong desire to learn + something about foreign countries. This last peculiarity makes him + question as well as communicate, and his questions, though sometimes + apparently childish, are generally to the point. + </p> + <p> + Among the passengers are probably also some representatives of the various + Finnish tribes inhabiting this part of the country; they may be + interesting to the ethnologist who loves to study physiognomy, but they + are far less sociable than the Russians. Nature seems to have made them + silent and morose, whilst their conditions of life have made them shy and + distrustful. The Tartar, on the other hand, is almost sure to be a lively + and amusing companion. Most probably he is a peddler or small trader of + some kind. The bundle on which he reclines contains his stock-in-trade, + composed, perhaps, of cotton printed goods and especially bright-coloured + cotton handkerchiefs. He himself is enveloped in a capacious greasy + khalát, or dressing-gown, and wears a fur cap, though the thermometer may + be at 90 degrees in the shade. The roguish twinkle in his small piercing + eyes contrasts strongly with the sombre, stolid expression of the Finnish + peasants sitting near him. He has much to relate about St. Petersburg, + Moscow, and perhaps Astrakhan; but, like a genuine trader, he is very + reticent regarding the mysteries of his own craft. Towards sunset he + retires with his companions to some quiet spot on the deck to recite + evening prayers. Here all the good Mahometans on board assemble and stroke + their beards, kneel on their little strips of carpet and prostrate + themselves, all keeping time as if they were performing some new kind of + drill under the eve of a severe drill-sergeant. + </p> + <p> + If the voyage is made about the end of September, when the traders are + returning home from the fair at Nizhni-Novgorod, the ethnologist will have + a still better opportunity of study. He will then find not only + representatives of the Finnish and Tartar races, but also Armenians, + Circassians, Persians, Bokhariots, and other Orientals—a motley and + picturesque but decidedly unsavoury cargo. + </p> + <p> + However great the ethnographical variety on board may be, the traveller + will probably find that four days on the Volga are quite enough for all + practical and aesthetic purposes, and instead of going on to Astrakhan he + will quit the steamer at Tsaritsin. Here he will find a railway of about + fifty miles in length, connecting the Volga and the Don. I say advisedly a + railway, and not a train, because trains on this line are not very + frequent. When I first visited the locality, thirty years ago, there were + only two a week, so that if you inadvertently missed one train you had to + wait about three days for the next. Prudent, nervous people preferred + travelling by the road, for on the railway the strange jolts and + mysterious creakings were very alarming. On the other hand the pace was so + slow that running off the rails would have been merely an amusing episode, + and even a collision could scarcely have been attended with serious + consequences. Happily things are improving, even in this outlying part of + the country. Now there is one train daily, and it goes at a less funereal + pace. + </p> + <p> + From Kalatch, at the Don end of the line, a steamer starts for Rostoff, + which is situated near the mouth of the river. The navigation of the Don + is much more difficult than that of the Volga. The river is extremely + shallow, and the sand-banks are continually shifting, so that many times + in the course of the day the steamer runs aground. Sometimes she is got + off by simply reversing the engines, but not unfrequently she sticks so + fast that the engines have to be assisted. This is effected in a curious + way. The captain always gives a number of stalwart Cossacks a free passage + on condition that they will give him the assistance he requires; and as + soon as the ship sticks fast he orders them to jump overboard with a stout + hawser and haul her off! The task is not a pleasant one, especially as the + poor fellows cannot afterwards change their clothes; but the order is + always obeyed with alacrity and without grumbling. Cossacks, it would + seem, have no personal acquaintance with colds and rheumatism. + </p> + <p> + In the most approved manuals of geography the Don figures as one of the + principal European rivers, and its length and breadth give it a right to + be considered as such; but its depth in many parts is ludicrously out of + proportion to its length and breadth. I remember one day seeing the + captain of a large, flat-bottomed steamer slacken speed, to avoid running + down a man on horseback who was attempting to cross his bows in the middle + of the stream. Another day a not less characteristic incident happened. A + Cossack passenger wished to be set down at a place where there was no + pier, and on being informed that there was no means of landing him, coolly + jumped overboard and walked ashore. This simple method of disembarking + cannot, of course, be recommended to those who have no local knowledge + regarding the exact position of sand-banks and deep pools. + </p> + <p> + Good serviceable fellows are those Cossacks who drag the steamer off the + sand-banks, and are often entertaining companions. Many of them can relate + from their own experience, in plain, unvarnished style, stirring episodes + of irregular warfare, and if they happen to be in a communicative mood + they may divulge a few secrets regarding their simple, primitive + commissariat system. Whether they are confidential or not, the traveller + who knows the language will spend his time more profitably and pleasantly + in chatting with them than in gazing listlessly at the uninteresting + country through which he is passing. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, these Don steamers carry a large number of free passengers + of another and more objectionable kind, who do not confine themselves to + the deck, but unceremoniously find their way into the cabin, and prevent + thin-skinned travellers from sleeping. I know too little of natural + history to decide whether these agile, bloodthirsty parasites are of the + same species as those which in England assist unofficially the Sanitary + Commissioners by punishing uncleanliness; but I may say that their + function in the system of created things is essentially the same, and they + fulfil it with a zeal and energy beyond all praise. Possessing for my own + part a happy immunity from their indelicate attentions, and being + perfectly innocent of entomological curiosity, I might, had I been alone, + have overlooked their existence, but I was constantly reminded of their + presence by less happily constituted mortals, and the complaints of the + sufferers received a curious official confirmation. On arriving at the end + of the journey I asked permission to spend the night on board, and I + noticed that the captain acceded to my request with more readiness and + warmth than I expected. Next morning the fact was fully explained. When I + began to express my thanks for having been allowed to pass the night in a + comfortable cabin, my host interrupted me with a good-natured laugh, and + assured me that, on the contrary, he was under obligations to me. "You + see," he said, assuming an air of mock gravity, "I have always on board a + large body of light cavalry, and when I have all this part of the ship to + myself they make a combined attack on me; whereas, when some one is + sleeping close by, they divide their forces!" + </p> + <p> + On certain steamers on the Sea of Azof the privacy of the sleeping-cabin + is disturbed by still more objectionable intruders; I mean rats. During + one short voyage which I made on board the Kertch, these disagreeable + visitors became so importunate in the lower regions of the vessel that the + ladies obtained permission to sleep in the deck-saloon. After this + arrangement had been made, we unfortunate male passengers received + redoubled attention from our tormentors. Awakened early one morning by the + sensation of something running over me as I lay in my berth, I conceived a + method of retaliation. It seemed to me possible that, in the event of + another visit, I might, by seizing the proper moment, kick the rat up to + the ceiling with such force as to produce concussion of the brain and + instant death. Very soon I had an opportunity of putting my plan into + execution. A significant shaking of the little curtain at the foot of the + berth showed that it was being used as a scaling-ladder. I lay perfectly + still, quite as much interested in the sport as if I had been waiting, + rifle in hand, for big game. Soon the intruder peeped into my berth, + looked cautiously around him, and then proceeded to walk stealthily across + my feet. In an instant he was shot upwards. First was heard a sharp knock + on the ceiling, and then a dull "thud" on the floor. The precise extent of + the injuries inflicted I never discovered, for the victim had sufficient + strength and presence of mind to effect his escape; and the gentleman at + the other side of the cabin, who had been roused by the noise, protested + against my repeating the experiment, on the ground that, though he was + willing to take his own share of the intruders, he strongly objected to + having other people's rats kicked into his berth. + </p> + <p> + On such occasions it is of no use to complain to the authorities. When I + met the captain on deck I related to him what had happened, and protested + vigorously against passengers being exposed to such annoyances. After + listening to me patiently, he coolly replied, entirely overlooking my + protestations, "Ah! I did better than that this morning; I allowed my rat + to get under the blanket, and then smothered him!" + </p> + <p> + Railways and steamboats, even when their arrangements leave much to be + desired, invariably effect a salutary revolution in hotel accommodation; + but this revolution is of necessity gradual. Foreign hotelkeepers must + immigrate and give the example; suitable houses must be built; servants + must be properly trained; and, above all, the native travellers must learn + the usages of civilised society. In Russia this revolution is in progress, + but still far from being complete. The cities where foreigners most do + congregate—St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa—already possess + hotels that will bear comparison with those of Western Europe, and some of + the more important provincial towns can offer very respectable + accommodation; but there is still much to be done before the West-European + can travel with comfort even on the principal routes. Cleanliness, the + first and most essential element of comfort, as we understand the term, is + still a rare commodity, and often cannot be procured at any price. + </p> + <p> + Even in good hotels, when they are of the genuine Russian type, there are + certain peculiarities which, though not in themselves objectionable, + strike a foreigner as peculiar. Thus, when you alight at such an hotel, + you are expected to examine a considerable number of rooms, and to inquire + about the respective prices. When you have fixed upon a suitable + apartment, you will do well, if you wish to practise economy, to propose + to the landlord considerably less than he demands; and you will generally + find, if you have a talent for bargaining, that the rooms may be hired for + somewhat less than the sum first stated. You must be careful, however, to + leave no possibility of doubt as to the terms of the contract. Perhaps you + assume that, as in taking a cab, a horse is always supplied without + special stipulation, so in hiring a bedroom the bargain includes a bed and + the necessary appurtenances. Such an assumption will not always be + justified. The landlord may perhaps give you a bedstead without extra + charge, but if he be uncorrupted by foreign notions, he will certainly not + spontaneously supply you with bed-linen, pillows, blankets, and towels. On + the contrary, he will assume that you carry all these articles with you, + and if you do not, you must pay for them. + </p> + <p> + This ancient custom has produced among Russians of the old school a kind + of fastidiousness to which we are strangers. They strongly dislike using + sheets, blankets, and towels which are in a certain sense public property, + just as we should strongly object to putting on clothes which had been + already worn by other people. And the feeling may be developed in people + not Russian by birth. For my own part, I confess to having been conscious + of a certain disagreeable feeling on returning in this respect to the + usages of so-called civilised Europe. + </p> + <p> + The inconvenience of carrying about the essential articles of bedroom + furniture is by no means so great as might be supposed. Bedrooms in Russia + are always heated during cold weather, so that one light blanket, which + may be also used as a railway rug, is quite sufficient, whilst sheets, + pillow-cases, and towels take up little space in a portmanteau. The most + cumbrous object is the pillow, for air-cushions, having a disagreeable + odour, are not well suited for the purpose. But Russians are accustomed to + this encumbrance. In former days—as at the present time in those + parts of the country where there are neither railways nor macadamised + roads—people travelled in carts or carriages without springs and in + these instruments of torture a huge pile of cushions or pillows is + necessary to avoid contusions and dislocations. On the railways the jolts + and shaking are not deadly enough to require such an antidote; but, even + in unconservative Russia, customs outlive the conditions that created + them; and at every railway-station you may see men and women carrying + about their pillows with them as we carry wraps. A genuine Russian + merchant who loves comfort and respects tradition may travel without a + portmanteau, but he considers his pillow as an indispensable article de + voyage. + </p> + <p> + To return to the old-fashioned hotel. When you have completed the + negotiations with the landlord, you will notice that, unless you have a + servant with you, the waiter prepares to perform the duties of valet de + chambre. Do not be surprised at his officiousness, which seems founded on + the assumption that you are three-fourths paralysed. Formerly, every + well-born Russian had a valet always in attendance, and never dreamed of + doing for himself anything which could by any possibility be done for him. + You notice that there is no bell in the room, and no mechanical means of + communicating with the world below stairs. That is because the attendant + is supposed to be always within call, and it is so much easier to shout + than to get up and ring the bell. + </p> + <p> + In the good old times all this was quite natural. The well-born Russian + had commonly a superabundance of domestic serfs, and there was no reason + why one or two of them should not accompany their master when his Honour + undertook a journey. An additional person in the tarantass did not + increase the expense, and considerably diminished the little unavoidable + inconveniences of travel. But times have changed. In 1861 the domestic + serfs were emancipated by Imperial ukaz. Free servants demand wages; and + on railways or steamers a single ticket does not include an attendant. The + present generation must therefore get through life with a more modest + supply of valets, and must learn to do with its own hands much that was + formerly performed by serf labour. Still, a gentleman brought up in the + old conditions cannot be expected to dress himself without assistance, and + accordingly the waiter remains in your room to act as valet. Perhaps, too, + in the early morning you may learn in an unpleasant way that other parts + of the old system are not yet extinct. You may hear, for instance, + resounding along the corridors such an order as—"Petrusha! Petrusha! + Stakán vodý!" ("Little Peter, little Peter, a glass of water!") shouted in + a stentorian voice that would startle the Seven Sleepers. + </p> + <p> + When the toilet operations are completed, and you order tea—one + always orders tea in Russia—you will be asked whether you have your + own tea and sugar with you. If you are an experienced traveller you will + be able to reply in the affirmative, for good tea can be bought only in + certain well-known shops, and can rarely be found in hotels. A huge, + steaming tea-urn, called a samovar—etymologically, a "self-boiler"—will + be brought in, and you will make your tea according to your taste. The + tumbler, you know of course, is to be used as a cup, and when using it you + must be careful not to cauterise the points of your fingers. If you should + happen to have anything eatable or drinkable in your travelling basket, + you need not hesitate to take it out at once, for the waiter will not feel + at all aggrieved or astonished at your doing nothing "for the good of the + house." The twenty or twenty-five kopeks that you pay for the samovar—teapot, + tumbler, saucer, spoon, and slop-basin being included under the generic + term pribor—frees you from all corkage and similar dues. + </p> + <p> + These and other remnants of old customs are now rapidly disappearing, and + will, doubtless, in a very few years be things of the past—things to + be picked up in out-of-the-way corners, and chronicled by social + archaeology; but they are still to be found in towns not unknown to + Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + Many of these old customs, and especially the old method of travelling, + may be studied in their pristine purity throughout a great part of the + country. Though railway construction has been pushed forward with great + energy during the last forty years, there are still vast regions where the + ancient solitudes have never been disturbed by the shrill whistle of the + locomotive, and roads have remained in their primitive condition. Even in + the central provinces one may still travel hundreds of miles without ever + encountering anything that recalls the name of Macadam. + </p> + <p> + If popular rumour is to be trusted, there is somewhere in the Highlands of + Scotland, by the side of a turnpike, a large stone bearing the following + doggerel inscription: + </p> + <p> + "If you had seen this road before it was made, You'd lift up your hands + and bless General Wade." + </p> + <p> + Any educated Englishman reading this strange announcement would naturally + remark that the first line of the couplet contains a logical + contradiction, probably of Hibernian origin; but I have often thought, + during my wanderings in Russia, that the expression, if not logically + justifiable, might for the sake of vulgar convenience be legalised by a + Permissive Bill. The truth is that, as a Frenchman might say, "there are + roads and roads"—roads made and roads unmade, roads artificial and + roads natural. Now, in Russia, roads are nearly all of the unmade, natural + kind, and are so conservative in their nature that they have at the + present day precisely the same appearance as they had many centuries ago. + They have thus for imaginative minds something of what is called "the + charm of historical association." The only perceptible change that takes + place in them during a series of generations is that the ruts shift their + position. When these become so deep that fore-wheels can no longer fathom + them, it becomes necessary to begin making a new pair of ruts to the right + or left of the old ones; and as the roads are commonly of gigantic + breadth, there is no difficulty in finding a place for the operation. How + the old ones get filled up I cannot explain; but as I have rarely seen in + any part of the country, except perhaps in the immediate vicinity of + towns, a human being engaged in road repairing, I assume that beneficent + Nature somehow accomplishes the task without human assistance, either by + means of alluvial deposits, or by some other cosmical action only known to + physical geographers. + </p> + <p> + On the roads one occasionally encounters bridges; and here, again, I have + discovered in Russia a key to the mysteries of Hibernian phraseology. An + Irish member once declared to the House of Commons that the Church was + "the bridge that separated the two great sections of the Irish people." As + bridges commonly connect rather than separate, the metaphor was received + with roars of laughter. If the honourable members who joined in the + hilarious applause had travelled much in Russia, they would have been more + moderate in their merriment; for in that country, despite the laudable + activity of the modern system of local administration created in the + sixties, bridges often act still as a barrier rather than a connecting + link, and to cross a river by a bridge may still be what is termed in + popular phrase "a tempting of Providence." The cautious driver will + generally prefer to take to the water, if there is a ford within a + reasonable distance, though both he and his human load may be obliged, in + order to avoid getting wet feet, to assume undignified postures that would + afford admirable material for the caricaturist. But this little bit of + discomfort, even though the luggage should be soaked in the process of + fording, is as nothing compared to the danger of crossing by the bridge. + As I have no desire to harrow unnecessarily the feelings of the reader, I + refrain from all description of ugly accidents, ending in bruises and + fractures, and shall simply explain in a few words how a successful + passage is effected. + </p> + <p> + When it is possible to approach the bridge without sinking up to the knees + in mud, it is better to avoid all risks by walking over and waiting for + the vehicle on the other side; and when this is impossible, a preliminary + survey is advisable. To your inquiries whether it is safe, your yamstchik + (post-boy) is sure to reply, "Nitchevo!"—a word which, according to + the dictionaries, means "nothing" but which has, in the mouths of the + peasantry, a great variety of meanings, as I may explain at some future + time. In the present case it may be roughly translated. "There is no + danger." "Nitchevo, Barin, proyedem" ("There is no danger, sir; we shall + get over"), he repeats. You may refer to the generally rotten appearance + of the structure, and point in particular to the great holes sufficient to + engulf half a post-horse. "Ne bos', Bog pomozhet" ("Do not fear. God will + help"), replies coolly your phlegmatic Jehu. You may have your doubts as + to whether in this irreligious age Providence will intervene specially for + your benefit; but your yamstchik, who has more faith or fatalism, leaves + you little time to solve the problem. Making hurriedly the sign of the + cross, he gathers up his reins, waves his little whip in the air, and, + shouting lustily, urges on his team. The operation is not wanting in + excitement. First there is a short descent; then the horses plunge wildly + through a zone of deep mud; next comes a fearful jolt, as the vehicle is + jerked up on to the first planks; then the transverse planks, which are + but loosely held in their places, rattle and rumble ominously, as the + experienced, sagacious animals pick their way cautiously and gingerly + among the dangerous holes and crevices; lastly, you plunge with a horrible + jolt into a second mud zone, and finally regain terra firma, conscious of + that pleasant sensation which a young officer may be supposed to feel + after his first cavalry charge in real warfare. + </p> + <p> + Of course here, as elsewhere, familiarity breeds indifference. When you + have successfully crossed without serious accident a few hundred bridges + of this kind you learn to be as cool and fatalistic as your yamstchik. + </p> + <p> + The reader who has heard of the gigantic reforms that have been repeatedly + imposed on Russia by a paternal Government may naturally be astonished to + learn that the roads are still in such a disgraceful condition. But for + this, as for everything else in the world, there is a good and sufficient + reason. The country is still, comparatively speaking, thinly populated, + and in many regions it is difficult, or practically impossible, to procure + in sufficient quantity stone of any kind, and especially hard stone fit + for road-making. Besides this, when roads are made, the severity of the + climate renders it difficult to keep them in good repair. + </p> + <p> + When a long journey has to be undertaken through a region in which there + are no railways, there are several ways in which it may be effected. In + former days, when time was of still less value than at present, many + landed proprietors travelled with their own horses, and carried with them, + in one or more capacious, lumbering vehicles, all that was required for + the degree of civilisation which they had attained; and their requirements + were often considerable. The grand seigneur, for instance, who spent the + greater part of his life amidst the luxury of the court society, naturally + took with him all the portable elements of civilisation. His baggage + included, therefore, camp-beds, table-linen, silver plate, a batterie de + cuisine, and a French cook. The pioneers and part of the commissariat + force were sent on in advance, so that his Excellency found at each + halting-place everything prepared for his arrival. The poor owner of a few + dozen serfs dispensed, of course, with the elaborate commissariat + department, and contented himself with such modest fare as could be packed + in the holes and corners of a single tarantass. + </p> + <p> + It will be well to explain here, parenthetically, what a tarantass is, for + I shall often have occasion to use the word. It may be briefly defined as + a phaeton without springs. The function of springs is imperfectly + fulfilled by two parallel wooden bars, placed longitudinally, on which is + fixed the body of the vehicle. It is commonly drawn by three horses—a + strong, fast trotter in the shafts, flanked on each side by a light, + loosely-attached horse that goes along at a gallop. The points of the + shafts are connected by the duga, which looks like a gigantic, badly + formed horseshoe rising high above the collar of the trotter. To the top + of the duga is attached the bearing-rein, and underneath the highest part + of it is fastened a big bell—in the southern provinces I found two, + and sometimes even three bells—which, when the country is open and + the atmosphere still, may be heard a mile off. The use of the bell is + variously explained. Some say it is in order to frighten the wolves, and + others that it is to avoid collisions on the narrow forest-paths. But + neither of these explanations is entirely satisfactory. It is used chiefly + in summer, when there is no danger of an attack from wolves; and the + number of bells is greater in the south, where there are no forests. + Perhaps the original intention was—I throw out the hint for the + benefit of a certain school of archaeologists—to frighten away evil + spirits; and the practice has been retained partly from unreasoning + conservatism, and partly with a view to lessen the chances of collisions. + As the roads are noiselessly soft, and the drivers not always vigilant, + the dangers of collision are considerably diminished by the ceaseless + peal. + </p> + <p> + Altogether, the tarantass is well adapted to the conditions in which it is + used. By the curious way in which the horses are harnessed it recalls the + war-chariot of ancient times. The horse in the shafts is compelled by the + bearing-rein to keep his head high and straight before him—though + the movement of his ears shows plainly that he would very much like to put + it somewhere farther away from the tongue of the bell—but the side + horses gallop freely, turning their heads outwards in classical fashion. I + believe that this position is assumed not from any sympathy on the part of + these animals for the remains of classical art, but rather from the + natural desire to keep a sharp eye on the driver. Every movement of his + right hand they watch with close attention, and as soon as they discover + any symptoms indicating an intention of using the whip they immediately + show a desire to quicken the pace. + </p> + <p> + Now that the reader has gained some idea of what a tarantass is, we may + return to the modes of travelling through the regions which are not yet + supplied with railways. + </p> + <p> + However enduring and long-winded horses may be, they must be allowed + sometimes, during a long journey, to rest and feed. Travelling long + distances with one's own horses is therefore necessarily a slow operation, + and is now quite antiquated. People who value their time prefer to make + use of the Imperial Post organisation. On all the principal lines of + communication there are regular post-stations, at from ten to twenty miles + apart, where a certain number of horses and vehicles are kept for the + convenience of travellers. To enjoy the privilege of this arrangement, one + has to apply to the proper authorities for a podorozhnaya—a large + sheet of paper stamped with the Imperial Eagle, and bearing the name of + the recipient, the destination, and the number of horses to be supplied. + In return, a small sum is paid for imaginary road-repairs; the rest of the + sum is paid by instalments at the respective stations. + </p> + <p> + Armed with this document you go to the post-station and demand the + requisite number of horses. Three is the number generally used, but if you + travel lightly and are indifferent to appearances, you may content + yourself with a pair. The vehicle is a kind of tarantass, but not such as + I have just described. The essentials in both are the same, but those + which the Imperial Government provides resemble an enormous cradle on + wheels rather than a phaeton. An armful of hay spread over the bottom of + the wooden box is supposed to play the part of seats and cushions. You are + expected to sit under the arched covering, and extend your legs so that + the feet lie beneath the driver's seat; but it is advisable, unless the + rain happens to be coming down in torrents, to get this covering + unshipped, and travel without it. When used, it painfully curtails the + little freedom of movement that you enjoy, and when you are shot upwards + by some obstruction on the road it is apt to arrest your ascent by giving + you a violent blow on the top of the head. + </p> + <p> + It is to be hoped that you are in no hurry to start, otherwise your + patience may be sorely tried. The horses, when at last produced, may seem + to you the most miserable screws that it was ever your misfortune to + behold; but you had better refrain from expressing your feelings, for if + you use violent, uncomplimentary language, it may turn out that you have + been guilty of gross calumny. I have seen many a team composed of animals + which a third-class London costermonger would have spurned, and in which + it was barely possible to recognise the equine form, do their duty in + highly creditable style, and go along at the rate of ten or twelve miles + an hour, under no stronger incentive then the voice of the yamstchik. + Indeed, the capabilities of these lean, slouching, ungainly quadrupeds are + often astounding when they are under the guidance of a man who knows how + to drive them. Though such a man commonly carries a little harmless whip, + he rarely uses it except by waving it horizontally in the air. His + incitements are all oral. He talks to his cattle as he would to animals of + his own species—now encouraging them by tender, caressing epithets, + and now launching at them expressions of indignant scorn. At one moment + they are his "little doves," and at the next they have been transformed + into "cursed hounds." How far they understand and appreciate this curious + mixture of endearing cajolery and contemptuous abuse it is difficult to + say, but there is no doubt that it somehow has upon them a strange and + powerful influence. + </p> + <p> + Any one who undertakes a journey of this kind should possess a well-knit, + muscular frame and good tough sinews, capable of supporting an unlimited + amount of jolting and shaking; at the same time he should be well inured + to all the hardships and discomforts incidental to what is vaguely termed + "roughing it." When he wishes to sleep in a post-station, he will find + nothing softer than a wooden bench, unless he can induce the keeper to put + for him on the floor a bundle of hay, which is perhaps softer, but on the + whole more disagreeable than the deal board. Sometimes he will not get + even the wooden bench, for in ordinary post-stations there is but one room + for travellers, and the two benches—there are rarely more—may + be already occupied. When he does obtain a bench, and succeeds in falling + asleep, he must not be astonished if he is disturbed once or twice during + the night by people who use the apartment as a waiting-room whilst the + post-horses are being changed. These passers-by may even order a samovar, + and drink tea, chat, laugh, smoke, and make themselves otherwise + disagreeable, utterly regardless of the sleepers. Then there are the other + intruders, smaller in size but equally objectionable, of which I have + already spoken when describing the steamers on the Don. Regarding them I + desire to give merely one word of advice: As you will have abundant + occupation in the work of self-defence, learn to distinguish between + belligerents and neutrals, and follow the simple principle of + international law, that neutrals should not be molested. They may be very + ugly, but ugliness does not justify assassination. If, for instance, you + should happen in awaking to notice a few black or brown beetles running + about your pillow, restrain your murderous hand! If you kill them you + commit an act of unnecessary bloodshed; for though they may playfully + scamper around you, they will do you no bodily harm. + </p> + <p> + Another requisite for a journey in unfrequented districts is a knowledge + of the language. It is popularly supposed that if you are familiar with + French and German you may travel anywhere in Russia. So far as the great + cities and chief lines of communication are concerned, this may be true, + but beyond that it is a delusion. The Russian has not, any more than the + West-European, received from Nature the gift of tongues. Educated Russians + often speak one or two foreign languages fluently, but the peasants know + no language but their own, and it is with the peasantry that one comes in + contact. And to converse freely with the peasant requires a considerable + familiarity with the language—far more than is required for simply + reading a book. Though there are few provincialisms, and all classes of + the people use the same words—except the words of foreign origin, + which are used only by the upper classes—the peasant always speaks + in a more laconic and more idiomatic way than the educated man. + </p> + <p> + In the winter months travelling is in some respects pleasanter than in + summer, for snow and frost are great macadamisers. If the snow falls + evenly, there is for some time the most delightful road that can be + imagined. No jolts, no shaking, but a smooth, gliding motion, like that of + a boat in calm water, and the horses gallop along as if totally + unconscious of the sledge behind them. Unfortunately, this happy state of + things does not last all through the winter. The road soon gets cut up, + and deep transverse furrows (ukhaby) are formed. How these furrows come + into existence I have never been able clearly to comprehend, though I have + often heard the phenomenon explained by men who imagined they understood + it. Whatever the cause and mode of formation may be, certain it is that + little hills and valleys do get formed, and the sledge, as it crosses over + them, bobs up and down like a boat in a chopping sea, with this important + difference, that the boat falls into a yielding liquid, whereas the sledge + falls upon a solid substance, unyielding and unelastic. The shaking and + jolting which result may readily be imagined. + </p> + <p> + There are other discomforts, too, in winter travelling. So long as the air + is perfectly still, the cold may be very intense without being + disagreeable; but if a strong head wind is blowing, and the thermometer + ever so many degrees below zero, driving in an open sledge is a very + disagreeable operation, and noses may get frostbitten without their owners + perceiving the fact in time to take preventive measures. Then why not take + covered sledges on such occasions? For the simple reason that they are not + to be had; and if they could be procured, it would be well to avoid using + them, for they are apt to produce something very like seasickness. Besides + this, when the sledge gets overturned, it is pleasanter to be shot out on + to the clean, refreshing snow than to be buried ignominiously under a pile + of miscellaneous baggage. + </p> + <p> + The chief requisite for winter travelling in these icy regions is a + plentiful supply of warm furs. An Englishman is very apt to be imprudent + in this respect, and to trust too much to his natural power of resisting + cold. To a certain extent this confidence is justifiable, for an + Englishman often feels quite comfortable in an ordinary great coat when + his Russian friends consider it necessary to envelop themselves in furs of + the warmest kind; but it may be carried too far, in which case severe + punishment is sure to follow, as I once learned by experience. I may + relate the incident as a warning to others: + </p> + <p> + One day in mid-winter I started from Novgorod, with the intention of + visiting some friends at a cavalry barracks situated about ten miles from + the town. As the sun was shining brightly, and the distance to be + traversed was short, I considered that a light fur and a bashlyk—a + cloth hood which protects the ears—would be quite sufficient to keep + out the cold, and foolishly disregarded the warnings of a Russian friend + who happened to call as I was about to start. Our route lay along the + river due northward, right in the teeth of a strong north wind. A wintry + north wind is always and everywhere a disagreeable enemy to face; let the + reader try to imagine what it is when the Fahrenheit thermometer is at 30 + degrees below zero—or rather let him refrain from such an attempt, + for the sensation produced cannot be imagined by those who have not + experienced it. Of course I ought to have turned back—at least, as + soon as a sensation of faintness warned me that the circulation was being + seriously impeded—but I did not wish to confess my imprudence to the + friend who accompanied me. When we had driven about three-fourths of the + way we met a peasant-woman, who gesticulated violently, and shouted + something to us as we passed. I did not hear what she said, but my friend + turned to me and said in an alarming tone—we had been speaking + German—"Mein Gott! Ihre Nase ist abgefroren!" Now the word + "abgefroren," as the reader will understand, seemed to indicate that my + nose was frozen off, so I put up my hand in some alarm to discover whether + I had inadvertently lost the whole or part of the member referred to. It + was still in situ and entire, but as hard and insensible as a bit of wood. + </p> + <p> + "You may still save it," said my companion, "if you get out at once and + rub it vigorously with snow." + </p> + <p> + I got out as directed, but was too faint to do anything vigorously. My fur + cloak flew open, the cold seemed to grasp me in the region of the heart, + and I fell insensible. + </p> + <p> + How long I remained unconscious I know not. When I awoke I found myself in + a strange room, surrounded by dragoon officers in uniform, and the first + words I heard were, "He is out of danger now, but he will have a fever." + </p> + <p> + These words were spoken, as I afterwards discovered, by a very competent + surgeon; but the prophecy was not fulfilled. The promised fever never + came. The only bad consequences were that for some days my right hand + remained stiff, and for a week or two I had to conceal my nose from public + view. + </p> + <p> + If this little incident justifies me in drawing a general conclusion, I + should say that exposure to extreme cold is an almost painless form of + death; but that the process of being resuscitated is very painful indeed—so + painful, that the patient may be excused for momentarily regretting that + officious people prevented the temporary insensibility from becoming "the + sleep that knows no waking." + </p> + <p> + Between the alternate reigns of winter and summer there is always a short + interregnum, during which travelling in Russia by road is almost + impossible. Woe to the ill-fated mortal who has to make a long + road-journey immediately after the winter snow has melted; or, worse + still, at the beginning of winter, when the autumn mud has been petrified + by the frost, and not yet levelled by the snow! + </p> + <p> + At all seasons the monotony of a journey is pretty sure to be broken by + little unforeseen episodes of a more or less disagreeable kind. An axle + breaks, or a wheel comes off, or there is a difficulty in procuring + horses. As an illustration of the graver episodes which may occur, I shall + make here a quotation from my note-book: + </p> + <p> + Early in the morning we arrived at Maikop, a small town commanding the + entrance to one of the valleys which run up towards the main range of the + Caucasus. On alighting at the post-station, we at once ordered horses for + the next stage, and received the laconic reply, "There are no horses." + </p> + <p> + "And when will there be some?" + </p> + <p> + "To-morrow!" + </p> + <p> + This last reply we took for a piece of playful exaggeration, and demanded + the book in which, according to law, the departure of horses is duly + inscribed, and from which it is easy to calculate when the first team + should be ready to start. A short calculation proved that we ought to get + horses by four o'clock in the afternoon, so we showed the station-keeper + various documents signed by the Minister of the Interior and other + influential personages, and advised him to avoid all contravention of the + postal regulations. + </p> + <p> + These documents, which proved that we enjoyed the special protection of + the authorities, had generally been of great service to us in our dealings + with rascally station-keepers; but this station-keeper was not one of the + ordinary type. He was a Cossack, of herculean proportions, with a + bullet-shaped head, short-cropped bristly hair, shaggy eyebrows, an + enormous pendent moustache, a defiant air, and a peculiar expression of + countenance which plainly indicated "an ugly customer." Though it was + still early in the day, he had evidently already imbibed a considerable + quantity of alcohol, and his whole demeanour showed clearly enough that he + was not of those who are "pleasant in their liquor." After glancing + superciliously at the documents, as if to intimate he could read them were + he so disposed, he threw them down on the table, and, thrusting his + gigantic paws into his capacious trouser-pockets, remarked slowly and + decisively, in something deeper than a double-bass voice, "You'll have + horses to-morrow morning." + </p> + <p> + Wishing to avoid a quarrel we tried to hire horses in the village, and + when our efforts in that direction proved fruitless, we applied to the + head of the rural police. He came and used all his influence with the + refractory station-keeper, but in vain. Hercules was not in a mood to + listen to officials any more than to ordinary mortals. At last, after + considerable trouble to himself, our friend of the police contrived to + find horses for us, and we contented ourselves with entering an account of + the circumstances in the Complaint Book, but our difficulties were by no + means at an end. As soon as Hercules perceived that we had obtained horses + without his assistance, and that he had thereby lost his opportunity of + blackmailing us, he offered us one of his own teams, and insisted on + detaining us until we should cancel the complaint against him. This we + refused to do, and our relations with him became what is called in + diplomatic language "extremement tendues." Again we had to apply to the + police. + </p> + <p> + My friend mounted guard over the baggage whilst I went to the police + office. I was not long absent, but I found, on my return, that important + events had taken place in the interval. A crowd had collected round the + post-station, and on the steps stood the keeper and his post-boys, + declaring that the traveller inside had attempted to shoot them! I rushed + in and soon perceived, by the smell of gunpowder, that firearms had been + used, but found no trace of casualties. My friend was tramping up and down + the little room, and evidently for the moment there was an armistice. + </p> + <p> + In a very short time the local authorities had assembled, a candle had + been lit, two armed Cossacks stood as sentries at the door, and the + preliminary investigation had begun. The Chief of Police sat at the table + and wrote rapidly on a sheet of foolscap. The investigation showed that + two shots had been fired from a revolver, and two bullets were found + imbedded in the wall. All those who had been present, and some who knew + nothing of the incident except by hearsay, were duly examined. Our + opponents always assumed that my friend had been the assailant, in spite + of his protestations to the contrary, and more than once the words + pokyshenie na ubiistvo (attempt to murder) were pronounced. Things looked + very black indeed. We had the prospect of being detained for days and + weeks in the miserable place, till the insatiable demon of official + formality had been propitiated. And then? + </p> + <p> + When things were thus at their blackest they suddenly took an unexpected + turn, and the deus ex machinâ appeared precisely at the right moment, just + as if we had all been puppets in a sensation novel. There was the usual + momentary silence, and then, mixed with the sound of an approaching + tarantass, a confused murmur: "There he is! He is coming!" The "he" thus + vaguely and mysteriously indicated turned out to be an official of the + judicial administration, who had reason to visit the village for an + entirely different affair. As soon as he had been told briefly what had + happened he took the matter in hand and showed himself equal to the + occasion. Unlike the majority of Russian officials he disliked lengthy + procedure, and succeeded in making the case quite clear in a very short + time. There had been, he perceived, no attempt to murder or anything of + the kind. The station-keeper and his two post-boys, who had no right to be + in the traveller's room, had entered with threatening mien, and when they + refused to retire peaceably, my friend had fired two shots in order to + frighten them and bring assistance. The falsity of their statement that he + had fired at them as they entered the room was proved by the fact that the + bullets were lodged near the ceiling in the wall farthest away from the + door. + </p> + <p> + I must confess that I was agreeably surprised by this unexpected turn of + affairs. The conclusions arrived at were nothing more than a simple + statement of what had taken place; but I was surprised at the fact that a + man who was at once a lawyer and a Russian official should have been able + to take such a plain, commonsense view of the case. + </p> + <p> + Before midnight we were once more free men, driving rapidly in the clear + moonlight to the next station, under the escort of a fully-armed + Circassian Cossack; but the idea that we might have been detained for + weeks in that miserable place haunted us like a nightmare. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <h3> + IN THE NORTHERN FORESTS + </h3> + <p> + Bird's-eye View of Russia—The Northern Forests—Purpose of my + Journey—Negotiations—The Road—A Village—A + Peasant's House—Vapour-Baths—Curious Custom—Arrival. + </p> + <p> + There are many ways of describing a country that one has visited. The + simplest and most common method is to give a chronological account of the + journey; and this is perhaps the best way when the journey does not extend + over more than a few weeks. But it cannot be conveniently employed in the + case of a residence of many years. Did I adopt it, I should very soon + exhaust the reader's patience. I should have to take him with me to a + secluded village, and make him wait for me till I had learned to speak the + language. Thence he would have to accompany me to a provincial town, and + spend months in a public office, whilst I endeavoured to master the + mysteries of local self-government. After this he would have to spend two + years with me in a big library, where I studied the history and literature + of the country. And so on, and so on. Even my journeys would prove tedious + to him, as they often were to myself, for he would have to drive with me + many a score of weary miles, where even the most zealous diary-writer + would find nothing to record beyond the names of the post-stations. + </p> + <p> + It will be well for me, then, to avoid the strictly chronological method, + and confine myself to a description of the more striking objects and + incidents that came under my notice. The knowledge which I derived from + books will help me to supply a running commentary on what I happened to + see and hear. + </p> + <p> + Instead of beginning in the usual way with St. Petersburg, I prefer for + many reasons to leave the description of the capital till some future + time, and plunge at once into the great northern forest region. + </p> + <p> + If it were possible to get a bird's-eye view of European Russia, the + spectator would perceive that the country is composed of two halves widely + differing from each other in character. The northern half is a land of + forest and morass, plentifully supplied with water in the form of rivers, + lakes, and marshes, and broken up by numerous patches of cultivation. The + southern half is, as it were, the other side of the pattern—an + immense expanse of rich, arable land, broken up by occasional patches of + sand or forest. The imaginary undulating line separating those two regions + starts from the western frontier about the 50th parallel of latitude, and + runs in a northeasterly direction till it enters the Ural range at about + 56 degrees N.L. + </p> + <p> + Well do I remember my first experience of travel in the northern region, + and the weeks of voluntary exile which formed the goal of the journey. It + was in the summer of 1870. My reason for undertaking the journey was this: + a few months of life in St. Petersburg had fully convinced me that the + Russian language is one of those things which can only be acquired by + practice, and that even a person of antediluvian longevity might spend all + his life in that city without learning to express himself fluently in the + vernacular—especially if he has the misfortune of being able to + speak English, French, and German. With his friends and associates he + speaks French or English. German serves as a medium of communication with + waiters, shop keepers, and other people of that class. It is only with + isvoshtchiki—the drivers of the little open droshkis which fulfil + the function of cabs—that he is obliged to use the native tongue, + and with them a very limited vocabulary suffices. The ordinal numerals and + four short, easily-acquired expressions—poshól (go on), na právo (to + the right), na lyévo (to the left), and stoi (stop)—are all that is + required. + </p> + <p> + Whilst I was considering how I could get beyond the sphere of + West-European languages, a friend came to my assistance, and suggested + that I should go to his estate in the province of Novgorod, where I should + find an intelligent, amiable parish priest, quite innocent of any + linguistic acquirements. This proposal I at once adopted, and accordingly + found myself one morning at a small station of the Moscow Railway, + endeavouring to explain to a peasant in sheep's clothing that I wished to + be conveyed to Ivanofka, the village where my future teacher lived. At + that time I still spoke Russian in a very fragmentary and confused way—pretty + much as Spanish cows are popularly supposed to speak French. My first + remark therefore being literally interpreted, was—"Ivanofka. Horses. + You can?" The point of interrogation was expressed by a simultaneous + raising of the voice and the eyebrows. + </p> + <p> + "Ivanofka?" cried the peasant, in an interrogatory tone of voice. In + Russia, as in other countries, the peasantry when speaking with strangers + like to repeat questions, apparently for the purpose of gaining time. + </p> + <p> + "Ivanofka," I replied. + </p> + <p> + "Now?" + </p> + <p> + "Now!" + </p> + <p> + After some reflection the peasant nodded and said something which I did + not understand, but which I assumed to mean that he was open to consider + proposals for transporting me to my destination. + </p> + <p> + "Roubles. How many?" + </p> + <p> + To judge by the knitting of the brows and the scratching of the head, I + should say that that question gave occasion to a very abstruse + mathematical calculation. Gradually the look of concentrated attention + gave place to an expression such as children assume when they endeavour to + get a parental decision reversed by means of coaxing. Then came a stream + of soft words which were to me utterly unintelligible. + </p> + <p> + I must not weary the reader with a detailed account of the succeeding + negotiations, which were conducted with extreme diplomatic caution on both + sides, as if a cession of territory or the payment of a war indemnity had + been the subject of discussion. Three times he drove away and three times + returned. Each time he abated his pretensions, and each time I slightly + increased my offer. At last, when I began to fear that he had finally + taken his departure and had left me to my own devices, he re-entered the + room and took up my baggage, indicating thereby that he agreed to my last + offer. + </p> + <p> + The sum agreed upon would have been, under ordinary circumstances, more + than sufficient, but before proceeding far I discovered that the + circumstances were by no means ordinary, and I began to understand the + pantomimic gesticulation which had puzzled me during the negotiations. + Heavy rain had fallen without interruption for several days, and now the + track on which we were travelling could not, without poetical license, be + described as a road. In some parts it resembled a water-course, in others + a quagmire, and at least during the first half of the journey I was + constantly reminded of that stage in the work of creation when the water + was not yet separated from the dry land. During the few moments when the + work of keeping my balance and preventing my baggage from being lost did + not engross all my attention, I speculated on the possibility of inventing + a boat-carriage, to be drawn by some amphibious quadruped. Fortunately our + two lean, wiry little horses did not object to being used as aquatic + animals. They took the water bravely, and plunged through the mud in + gallant style. The telega in which we were seated—a four-wheeled + skeleton cart—did not submit to the ill-treatment so silently. It + creaked out its remonstrances and entreaties, and at the more difficult + spots threatened to go to pieces; but its owner understood its character + and capabilities, and paid no attention to its ominous threats. Once, + indeed, a wheel came off, but it was soon fished out of the mud and + replaced, and no further casualty occurred. + </p> + <p> + The horses did their work so well that when about midday we arrived at a + village, I could not refuse to let them have some rest and refreshment—all + the more as my own thoughts had begun to turn in that direction. + </p> + <p> + The village, like villages in that part of the country generally, + consisted of two long parallel rows of wooden houses. The road—if a + stratum of deep mud can be called by that name—formed the + intervening space. All the houses turned their gables to the passerby, and + some of them had pretensions to architectural decoration in the form of + rude perforated woodwork. Between the houses, and in a line with them, + were great wooden gates and high wooden fences, separating the courtyards + from the road. Into one of these yards, near the farther end of the + village, our horses turned of their own accord. + </p> + <p> + "An inn?" I said, in an interrogative tone. + </p> + <p> + The driver shook his head and said something, in which I detected the word + "friend." Evidently there was no hostelry for man and beast in the + village, and the driver was using a friend's house for the purpose. + </p> + <p> + The yard was flanked on the one side by an open shed, containing rude + agricultural implements which might throw some light on the agriculture of + the primitive Aryans, and on the other side by the dwelling-house and + stable. Both the house and stable were built of logs, nearly cylindrical + in form, and placed in horizontal tiers. + </p> + <p> + Two of the strongest of human motives, hunger and curiosity, impelled me + to enter the house at once. Without waiting for an invitation, I went up + to the door—half protected against the winter snows by a small open + portico—and unceremoniously walked in. The first apartment was + empty, but I noticed a low door in the wall to the left, and passing + through this, entered the principal room. As the scene was new to me, I + noted the principal objects. In the wall before me were two small square + windows looking out upon the road, and in the corner to the right, nearer + to the ceiling than to the floor, was a little triangular shelf, on which + stood a religious picture. Before the picture hung a curious oil lamp. In + the corner to the left of the door was a gigantic stove, built of brick, + and whitewashed. From the top of the stove to the wall on the right + stretched what might be called an enormous shelf, six or eight feet in + breadth. This is the so-called palati, as I afterwards discovered, and + serves as a bed for part of the family. The furniture consisted of a long + wooden bench attached to the wall on the right, a big, heavy, deal table, + and a few wooden stools. + </p> + <p> + Whilst I was leisurely surveying these objects, I heard a noise on the top + of the stove, and, looking up, perceived a human face, with long hair + parted in the middle, and a full yellow beard. I was considerably + astonished by this apparition, for the air in the room was stifling, and I + had some difficulty in believing that any created being—except + perhaps a salamander or a negro—could exist in such a position. I + looked hard to convince myself that I was not the victim of a delusion. As + I stared, the head nodded slowly and pronounced the customary form of + greeting. + </p> + <p> + I returned the greeting slowly, wondering what was to come next. + </p> + <p> + "Ill, very ill!" sighed the head. + </p> + <p> + "I'm not astonished at that," I remarked, in an "aside." "If I were lying + on the stove as you are I should be very ill too." + </p> + <p> + "Hot, very hot?" I remarked, interrogatively. + </p> + <p> + "Nitchevo"—that is to say, "not particularly." This remark + astonished me all the more as I noticed that the body to which the head + belonged was enveloped in a sheep-skin! + </p> + <p> + After living some time in Russia I was no longer surprised by such + incidents, for I soon discovered that the Russian peasant has a marvellous + power of bearing extreme heat as well as extreme cold. When a coachman + takes his master or mistress to the theatre or to a party, he never thinks + of going home and returning at an appointed time. Hour after hour he sits + placidly on the box, and though the cold be of an intensity such as is + never experienced in our temperate climate, he can sleep as tranquilly as + the lazzaroni at midday in Naples. In that respect the Russian peasant + seems to be first-cousin to the polar bear, but, unlike the animals of the + Arctic regions, he is not at all incommoded by excessive heat. On the + contrary, he likes it when he can get it, and never omits an opportunity + of laying in a reserve supply of caloric. He even delights in rapid + transitions from one extreme to the other, as is amply proved by a curious + custom which deserves to be recorded. + </p> + <p> + The reader must know that in the life of the Russian peasantry the weekly + vapour-bath plays a most important part. It has even a certain religious + signification, for no good orthodox peasant would dare to enter a church + after being soiled by certain kinds of pollution without cleansing himself + physically and morally by means of the bath. In the weekly arrangements it + forms the occupation for Saturday afternoon, and care is taken to avoid + thereafter all pollution until after the morning service on Sunday. Many + villages possess a public or communal bath of the most primitive + construction, but in some parts of the country—I am not sure how far + the practice extends—the peasants take their vapour-bath in the + household oven in which the bread is baked! In all cases the operation is + pushed to the extreme limit of human endurance—far beyond the utmost + limit that can be endured by those who have not been accustomed to it from + childhood. For my own part, I only made the experiment once; and when I + informed my attendant that my life was in danger from congestion of the + brain, he laughed outright, and told me that the operation had only begun. + Most astounding of all—and this brings me to the fact which led me + into this digression—the peasants in winter often rush out of the + bath and roll themselves in the snow! This aptly illustrates a common + Russian proverb, which says that what is health to the Russian is death to + the German. + </p> + <p> + Cold water, as well as hot vapour, is sometimes used as a means of + purification. In the villages the old pagan habit of masquerading in + absurd costumes at certain seasons—as is done during the carnival in + Roman Catholic countries with the approval, or at least connivance, of the + Church—still survives; but it is regarded as not altogether sinless. + He who uses such disguises places himself to a certain extent under the + influence of the Evil One, thereby putting his soul in jeopardy; and to + free himself from this danger he has to purify himself in the following + way: When the annual mid-winter ceremony of blessing the waters is + performed, by breaking a hole in the ice and immersing a cross with + certain religious rites, he should plunge into the hole as soon as + possible after the ceremony. I remember once at Yaroslavl, on the Volga, + two young peasants successfully accomplished this feat—though the + police have orders to prevent it—and escaped, apparently without + evil consequences, though the Fahrenheit thermometer was below zero. How + far the custom has really a purifying influence, is a question which must + be left to theologians; but even an ordinary mortal can understand that, + if it be regarded as a penance, it must have a certain deterrent effect. + The man who foresees the necessity of undergoing this severe penance will + think twice before putting on a disguise. So at least it must have been in + the good old times; but in these degenerate days—among the Russian + peasantry as elsewhere—the fear of the Devil, which was formerly, if + not the beginning, at least one of the essential elements, of wisdom, has + greatly decreased. Many a young peasant will now thoughtlessly disguise + himself, and when the consecration of the water is performed, will stand + and look on passively like an ordinary spectator! It would seem that the + Devil, like his enemy the Pope, is destined to lose gradually his temporal + power. + </p> + <p> + But all this time I am neglecting my new acquaintance on the top of the + stove. In reality I did not neglect him, but listened most attentively to + every word of the long tale that he recited. What it was all about I could + only vaguely guess, for I did not understand more than ten per cent of the + words used, but I assumed from the tone and gestures that he was relating + to me all the incidents and symptoms of his illness. And a very severe + illness it must have been, for it requires a very considerable amount of + physical suffering to make the patient Russian peasant groan. Before he + had finished his tale a woman entered, apparently his wife. + </p> + <p> + To her I explained that I had a strong desire to eat and drink, and that I + wished to know what she would give me. By a good deal of laborious + explanation I was made to understand that I could have eggs, black bread, + and milk, and we agreed that there should be a division of labour: my + hostess should prepare the samovar for boiling water, whilst I should fry + the eggs to my own satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + In a few minutes the repast was ready, and, though not very delicate, was + highly acceptable. The tea and sugar I had of course brought with me; the + eggs were not very highly flavoured; and the black rye-bread, strongly + intermixed with sand, could be eaten by a peculiar and easily-acquired + method of mastication, in which the upper molars are never allowed to + touch those of the lower jaw. In this way the grating of the sand between + the teeth is avoided. + </p> + <p> + Eggs, black bread, milk, and tea—these formed my ordinary articles + of food during all my wanderings in Northern Russia. Occasionally potatoes + could be got, and afforded the possibility of varying the bill of fare. + The favourite materials employed in the native cookery are sour cabbage, + cucumbers, and kvass—a kind of very small beer made from black + bread. None of these can be recommended to the traveller who is not + already accustomed to them. + </p> + <p> + The remainder of the journey was accomplished at a rather more rapid pace + than the preceding part, for the road was decidedly better, though it was + traversed by numerous half-buried roots, which produced violent jolts. + From the conversation of the driver I gathered that wolves, bears, and + elks were found in the forest through which we were passing. + </p> + <p> + The sun had long since set when we reached our destination, and I found to + my dismay that the priest's house was closed for the night. To rouse the + reverend personage from his slumbers, and endeavour to explain to him with + my limited vocabulary the object of my visit, was not to be thought of. On + the other hand, there was no inn of any kind in the vicinity. When I + consulted the driver as to what was to be done, he meditated for a little, + and then pointed to a large house at some distance where there were still + lights. It turned out to be the country-house of the gentleman who had + advised me to undertake the journey, and here, after a short explanation, + though the owner was not at home, I was hospitably received. + </p> + <p> + It had been my intention to live in the priest's house, but a short + interview with him on the following day convinced me that that part of my + plan could not be carried out. The preliminary objections that I should + find but poor fare in his humble household, and much more of the same + kind, were at once put aside by my assurance, made partly by pantomime, + that, as an old traveller, I was well accustomed to simple fare, and could + always accommodate myself to the habits of people among whom my lot + happened to be cast. But there was a more serious difficulty. The priest's + family had, as is generally the case with priests' families, been rapidly + increasing during the last few years, and his house had not been growing + with equal rapidity. The natural consequence of this was that he had not a + room or a bed to spare. The little room which he had formerly kept for + occasional visitors was now occupied by his eldest daughter, who had + returned from a "school for the daughters of the clergy," where she had + been for the last two years. Under these circumstances, I was constrained + to accept the kind proposal made to me by the representative of my absent + friend, that I should take up my quarters in one of the numerous + unoccupied rooms in the manor-house. This arrangement, I was reminded, + would not at all interfere with my proposed studies, for the priest lived + close at hand, and I might spend with him as much time as I liked. + </p> + <p> + And now let me introduce the reader to my reverend teacher and one or two + other personages whose acquaintance I made during my voluntary exile. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <h3> + VOLUNTARY EXILE + </h3> + <p> + Ivanofka—History of the Place—The Steward of the Estate—Slav + and Teutonic Natures—A German's View of the Emancipation—Justices + of the Peace—New School of Morals—The Russian Language—Linguistic + Talent of the Russians—My Teacher—A Big Dose of Current + History. + </p> + <p> + This village, Ivanofka by name, in which I proposed to spend some months, + was rather more picturesque than villages in these northern forests + commonly are. The peasants' huts, built on both sides of a straight road, + were colourless enough, and the big church, with its five pear-shaped + cupolas rising out of the bright green roof and its ugly belfry in the + Renaissance style, was not by any means beautiful in itself; but when seen + from a little distance, especially in the soft evening twilight, the whole + might have been made the subject of a very pleasing picture. From the + point that a landscape-painter would naturally have chosen, the foreground + was formed by a meadow, through which flowed sluggishly a meandering + stream. On a bit of rising ground to the right, and half concealed by an + intervening cluster of old rich-coloured pines, stood the manor-house—a + big, box-shaped, whitewashed building, with a verandah in front, + overlooking a small plot that might some day become a flower-garden. To + the left of this stood the village, the houses grouping prettily with the + big church, and a little farther in this direction was an avenue of + graceful birches. On the extreme left were fields, bounded by a dark + border of fir-trees. Could the spectator have raised himself a few hundred + feet from the ground, he would have seen that there were fields beyond the + village, and that the whole of this agricultural oasis was imbedded in a + forest stretching in all directions as far as the eye could reach. + </p> + <p> + The history of the place may be told in a few words. In former times the + estate, including the village and all its inhabitants, had belonged to a + monastery, but when, in 1764, the Church lands were secularised by + Catherine, it became the property of the State. Some years afterwards the + Empress granted it, with the serfs and everything else which it contained, + to an old general who had distinguished himself in the Turkish wars. From + that time it had remained in the K—— family. Some time between + the years 1820 and 1840 the big church and the mansion-house had been + built by the actual possessor's father, who loved country life, and + devoted a large part of his time and energies to the management of his + estate. His son, on the contrary, preferred St. Petersburg to the country, + served in one of the public offices, loved passionately French plays and + other products of urban civilisation, and left the entire management of + the property to a German steward, popularly known as Karl Karl'itch, whom + I shall introduce to the reader presently. + </p> + <p> + The village annals contained no important events, except bad harvests, + cattle-plagues, and destructive fires, with which the inhabitants seem to + have been periodically visited from time immemorial. If good harvests were + ever experienced, they must have faded from the popular recollection. Then + there were certain ancient traditions which might have been lessened in + bulk and improved in quality by being subjected to searching historical + criticism. More than once, for instance, a leshie, or wood-sprite, had + been seen in the neighbourhood; and in several households the domovoi, or + brownie, had been known to play strange pranks until he was properly + propitiated. And as a set-off against these manifestations of evil powers, + there were well-authenticated stories about a miracle-working image that + had mysteriously appeared on the branch of a tree, and about numerous + miraculous cures that had been effected by means of pilgrimages to holy + shrines. + </p> + <p> + But it is time to introduce the principal personages of this little + community. Of these, by far the most important was Karl Karl'itch, the + steward. + </p> + <p> + First of all I ought, perhaps, to explain how Karl Schmidt, the son of a + well-to-do Bauer in the Prussian village of Schonhausen, became Karl + Karl'itch, the principal personage in the Russian village of Ivanofka. + </p> + <p> + About the time of the Crimean War many of the Russian landed proprietors + had become alive to the necessity of improving the primitive, traditional + methods of agriculture, and sought for this purpose German stewards for + their estates. Among these proprietors was the owner of Ivanofka. Through + the medium of a friend in Berlin he succeeded in engaging for a moderate + salary a young man who had just finished his studies in one of the German + schools of agriculture—the institution at Hohenheim, if my memory + does not deceive me. This young man had arrived in Russia as plain Karl + Schmidt, but his name was soon transformed into Karl Karl'itch, not from + any desire of his own, but in accordance with a curious Russian custom. In + Russia one usually calls a man not by his family name, but by his + Christian name and patronymic—the latter being formed from the name + of his father. Thus, if a man's name is Nicholas, and his father's + Christian name is—or was—Ivan, you address him as Nikolai + Ivanovitch (pronounced Ivan'itch); and if this man should happen to have a + sister called Mary, you will address her—even though she should be + married—as Marya Ivanovna (pronounced Ivanna). + </p> + <p> + Immediately on his arrival young Schmidt had set himself vigorously to + reorganise the estate and improve the method of agriculture. Some ploughs, + harrows, and other implements which had been imported at a former period + were dragged out of the obscurity in which they had lain for several + years, and an attempt was made to farm on scientific principles. The + attempt was far from being completely successful, for the serfs—this + was before the Emancipation—could not be made to work like regularly + trained German labourers. In spite of all admonitions, threats, and + punishments, they persisted in working slowly, listlessly, inaccurately, + and occasionally they broke the new instruments from carelessness or some + more culpable motive. Karl Karl'itch was not naturally a hard-hearted man, + but he was very rigid in his notions of duty, and could be cruelly severe + when his orders were not executed with an accuracy and punctuality that + seemed to the Russian rustic mind mere useless pedantry. The serfs did not + offer him any open opposition, and were always obsequiously respectful in + their demeanour towards him, but they invariably frustrated his plans by + their carelessness and stolid, passive resistance. + </p> + <p> + Thus arose that silent conflict and that smouldering mutual enmity which + almost always result from the contact of the Teuton with the Slav. The + serfs instinctively regretted the good old times, when they lived under + the rough-and-ready patriarchal rule of their masters, assisted by a + native "burmister," or overseer, who was one of themselves. The burmister + had not always been honest in his dealings with them, and the master had + often, when in anger, ordered severe punishments to be inflicted; but the + burmister had not attempted to make them change their old habits, and had + shut his eyes to many little sins of omission and commission, whilst the + master was always ready to assist them in difficulties, and commonly + treated them in a kindly, familiar way. As the old Russian proverb has it, + "Where danger is, there too is kindly forgiveness." Karl Karl'itch, on the + contrary, was the personification of uncompassionate, inflexible law. + Blind rage and compassionate kindliness were alike foreign to his system + of government. If he had any feeling towards the serfs, it was one of + chronic contempt. The word durak (blockhead) was constantly on his lips, + and when any bit of work was well done, he took it as a matter of course, + and never thought of giving a word of approval or encouragement. + </p> + <p> + When it became evident, in 1859, that the emancipation of the serfs was at + hand, Karl Karl'itch confidently predicted that the country would + inevitably go to ruin. He knew by experience that the peasants were lazy + and improvident, even when they lived under the tutelage of a master, and + with the fear of the rod before their eyes. What would they become when + this guidance and salutary restraint should be removed? The prospect + raised terrible forebodings in the mind of the worthy steward, who had his + employer's interests really at heart; and these forebodings were + considerably increased and intensified when he learned that the peasants + were to receive by law the land which they occupied on sufferance, and + which comprised about a half of the whole arable land of the estate. This + arrangement he declared to be a dangerous and unjustifiable infraction of + the sacred rights of property, which savoured strongly of communism, and + could have but one practical result: the emancipated peasants would live + by the cultivation of their own land, and would not consent on any terms + to work for their former master. + </p> + <p> + In the few months which immediately followed the publication of the + Emancipation Edict in 1861, Karl Karl'itch found much to confirm his most + gloomy apprehensions. The peasants showed themselves dissatisfied with the + privileges conferred upon them, and sought to evade the corresponding + duties imposed on them by the new law. In vain he endeavoured, by + exhortations, promises, and threats, to get the most necessary part of the + field-work done, and showed the peasants the provision of the law + enjoining them to obey and work as of old until some new arrangement + should be made. To all his appeals they replied that, having been freed by + the Tsar, they were no longer obliged to work for their former master; and + he was at last forced to appeal to the authorities. This step had a + certain effect, but the field-work was executed that year even worse than + usual, and the harvest suffered in consequence. + </p> + <p> + Since that time things had gradually improved. The peasants had discovered + that they could not support themselves and pay their taxes from the land + ceded to them, and had accordingly consented to till the proprietor's + fields for a moderate recompense. "These last two years," said Karl + Karl'itch to me, with an air of honest self-satisfaction, "I have been + able, after paying all expenses, to transmit little sums to the young + master in St. Petersburg. It was certainly not much, but it shows that + things are better than they were. Still, it is hard, uphill work. The + peasants have not been improved by liberty. They now work less and drink + more than they did in the times of serfage, and if you say a word to them + they'll go away, and not work for you at all." Here Karl Karl'itch + indemnified himself for his recent self-control in the presence of his + workers by using a series of the strongest epithets which the combined + languages of his native and of his adopted country could supply. "But + laziness and drunkenness are not their only faults. They let their cattle + wander into our fields, and never lose an opportunity of stealing firewood + from the forest." + </p> + <p> + "But you have now for such matters the rural justices of the peace," I + ventured to suggest. + </p> + <p> + "The justices of the peace!" . . . Here Karl Karl'itch used an inelegant + expression, which showed plainly that he was no unqualified admirer of the + new judicial institutions. "What is the use of applying to the justices? + The nearest one lives six miles off, and when I go to him he evidently + tries to make me lose as much time as possible. I am sure to lose nearly a + whole day, and at the end of it I may find that I have got nothing for my + pains. These justices always try to find some excuse for the peasant, and + when they do condemn, by way of exception, the affair does not end there. + There is pretty sure to be a pettifogging practitioner prowling about—some + rascally scribe who has been dismissed from the public offices for + pilfering and extorting too openly—and he is always ready to whisper + to the peasant that he should appeal. The peasant knows that the decision + is just, but he is easily persuaded that by appealing to the Monthly + Sessions he gets another chance in the lottery, and may perhaps draw a + prize. He lets the rascally scribe, therefore, prepare an appeal for him, + and I receive an invitation to attend the Session of Justices in the + district town on a certain day. + </p> + <p> + "It is a good five-and-thirty miles to the district town, as you know, but + I get up early, and arrive at eleven o'clock, the hour stated in the + official notice. A crowd of peasants are hanging about the door of the + court, but the only official present is the porter. I enquire of him when + my case is likely to come on, and receive the laconic answer, 'How should + I know?' After half an hour the secretary arrives. I repeat my question, + and receive the same answer. Another half hour passes, and one of the + justices drives up in his tarantass. Perhaps he is a glib-tongued + gentleman, and assures me that the proceedings will commence at once: 'Sei + tchas! sei tchas!' Don't believe what the priest or the dictionary tells + you about the meaning of that expression. The dictionary will tell you + that it means 'immediately,' but that's all nonsense. In the mouth of a + Russian it means 'in an hour,' 'next week,' 'in a year or two,' 'never'—most + commonly 'never.' Like many other words in Russian, 'sei tchas' can be + understood only after long experience. A second justice drives up, and + then a third. No more are required by law, but these gentlemen must first + smoke several cigarettes and discuss all the local news before they begin + work. + </p> + <p> + "At last they take their seats on the bench—a slightly elevated + platform at one end of the room, behind a table covered with green baize—and + the proceedings commence. My case is sure to be pretty far down on the + list—the secretary takes, I believe, a malicious pleasure in + watching my impatience—and before it is called the justices have to + retire at least once for refreshments and cigarettes. I have to amuse + myself by listening to the other cases, and some of them, I can assure + you, are amusing enough. The walls of that room must be by this time + pretty well saturated with perjury, and many of the witnesses catch at + once the infection. Perhaps I may tell you some other time a few of the + amusing incidents that I have seen there. At last my case is called. It is + as clear as daylight, but the rascally pettifogger is there with a + long-prepared speech, he holds in his hand a small volume of the codified + law, and quotes paragraphs which no amount of human ingenuity can make to + bear upon the subject. Perhaps the previous decision is confirmed; perhaps + it is reversed; in either case, I have lost a second day and exhausted + more patience than I can conveniently spare. And something even worse may + happen, as I know by experience. Once during a case of mine there was some + little informality—someone inadvertently opened the door of the + consulting-room when the decision was being written, or some other little + incident of the sort occurred, and the rascally pettifogger complained to + the Supreme Court of Revision, which is a part of the Senate. The case was + all about a few roubles, but it was discussed in St. Petersburg, and + afterwards tried over again by another court of justices. Now I have paid + my Lehrgeld, and go no more to law." + </p> + <p> + "Then you must expose yourself to all kinds of extortion?" + </p> + <p> + "Not so much as you might imagine. I have my own way of dispensing + justice. When I catch a peasant's horse or cow in our fields, I lock it up + and make the owner pay a ransom." + </p> + <p> + "Is it not rather dangerous," I inquired, "to take the law thus into your + own hands? I have heard that the Russian justices are extremely severe + against any one who has recourse to what our German jurists call + Selbsthulfe." + </p> + <p> + "That they are! So long as you are in Russia, you had much better let + yourself be quietly robbed than use any violence against the robber. It is + less trouble, and it is cheaper in the long run. If you do not, you may + unexpectedly find yourself some fine morning in prison! You must know that + many of the young justices belong to the new school of morals." + </p> + <p> + "What is that? I have not heard of any new discoveries lately in the + sphere of speculative ethics." + </p> + <p> + "Well, to tell you the truth, I am not one of the initiated, and I can + only tell you what I hear. So far as I have noticed, the representatives + of the new doctrine talk chiefly about Gumannost' and Tchelovetcheskoe + dostoinstvo. You know what these words mean?" + </p> + <p> + "Humanity, or rather humanitarianism and human dignity," I replied, not + sorry to give a proof that I was advancing in my studies. + </p> + <p> + "There, again, you allow your dictionary and your priest to mislead you. + These terms, when used by a Russian, cover much more than we understand by + them, and those who use them most frequently have generally a special + tenderness for all kinds of malefactors. In the old times, malefactors + were popularly believed to be bad, dangerous people; but it has been + lately discovered that this is a delusion. A young proprietor who lives + not far off assures me that they are the true Protestants, and the most + powerful social reformers! They protest practically against those + imperfections of social organisation of which they are the involuntary + victims. The feeble, characterless man quietly submits to his chains; the + bold, generous, strong man breaks his fetters, and helps others to do the + same. A very ingenious defence of all kinds of rascality, isn't it?" + </p> + <p> + "Well, it is a theory that might certainly be carried too far, and might + easily lead to very inconvenient conclusions; but I am not sure that, + theoretically speaking, it does not contain a certain element of truth. It + ought at least to foster that charity which we are enjoined to practise + towards all men. But perhaps 'all men' does not include publicans and + sinners?" + </p> + <p> + On hearing these words Karl Karl'itch turned to me, and every feature of + his honest German face expressed the most undisguised astonishment. "Are + you, too, a Nihilist?" he inquired, as soon as he had partially recovered + his breath. + </p> + <p> + "I really don't know what a Nihilist is, but I may assure you that I am + not an 'ist' of any kind. What is a Nihilist?" + </p> + <p> + "If you live long in Russia you'll learn that without my telling you. As I + was saying, I am not at all afraid of the peasants citing me before the + justice. They know better now. If they gave me too much trouble I could + starve their cattle." + </p> + <p> + "Yes, when you catch them in your fields," I remarked, taking no notice of + the abrupt turn which he had given to the conversation. + </p> + <p> + "I can do it without that. You must know that, by the Emancipation Law, + the peasants received arable land, but they received little or no + pasturage. I have the whip hand of them there!" + </p> + <p> + The remarks of Karl Karl'itch on men and things were to me always + interesting, for he was a shrewd observer, and displayed occasionally a + pleasant, dry humour. But I very soon discovered that his opinions were + not to be accepted without reserve. His strong, inflexible Teutonic nature + often prevented him from judging impartially. He had no sympathy with the + men and the institutions around him, and consequently he was unable to see + things from the inside. The specks and blemishes on the surface he + perceived clearly enough, but he had no knowledge of the secret, + deep-rooted causes by which these specks and blemishes were produced. The + simple fact that a man was a Russian satisfactorily accounted, in his + opinion, for any kind of moral deformity; and his knowledge turned out to + be by no means so extensive as I had at first supposed. Though he had been + many years in the country, he knew very little about the life of the + peasants beyond that small part of it which concerned directly his own + interests and those of his employer. Of the communal organisation, + domestic life, religious beliefs, ceremonial practices, and nomadic habits + of his humble neighbours, he knew little, and the little he happened to + know was far from accurate. In order to gain a knowledge of these matters + it would be better, I perceived, to consult the priest, or, better still, + the peasants themselves. But to do this it would be necessary to + understand easily and speak fluently the colloquial language, and I was + still very far from having, acquired the requisite proficiency. + </p> + <p> + Even for one who possesses a natural facility for acquiring foreign + tongues, the learning of Russian is by no means an easy task. Though it is + essentially an Aryan language like our own, and contains only a slight + intermixture of Tartar words,—such as bashlyk (a hood), kalpak (a + night-cap), arbuz (a water-melon), etc.—it has certain sounds + unknown to West-European ears, and difficult for West-European tongues, + and its roots, though in great part derived from the same original stock + as those of the Graeco-Latin and Teutonic languages, are generally not at + all easily recognised. As an illustration of this, take the Russian word + otets. Strange as it may at first sight appear, this word is merely + another form of our word father, of the German vater, and of the French + pere. The syllable ets is the ordinary Russian termination denoting the + agent, corresponding to the English and German ending er, as we see in + such words as—kup-ets (a buyer), plov-ets (a swimmer), and many + others. The root ot is a mutilated form of vot, as we see in the word + otchina (a paternal inheritance), which is frequently written votchina. + Now vot is evidently the same root as the German vat in Vater, and the + English fath in father. Quod erat demonstrandum. + </p> + <p> + All this is simple enough, and goes to prove the fundamental identity, or + rather the community of origin, of the Slav and Teutonic languages; but it + will be readily understood that etymological analogies so carefully + disguised are of little practical use in helping us to acquire a foreign + tongue. Besides this, the grammatical forms and constructions in Russian + are very peculiar, and present a great many strange irregularities. As an + illustration of this we may take the future tense. The Russian verb has + commonly a simple and a frequentative future. The latter is always + regularly formed by means of an auxiliary with the infinitive, as in + English, but the former is constructed in a variety of ways, for which no + rule can be given, so that the simple future of each individual verb must + be learned by a pure effort of memory. In many verbs it is formed by + prefixing a preposition, but it is impossible to determine by rule which + preposition should be used. Thus idu (I go) becomes poidu; pishu (I write) + becomes napishu; pyu (I drink) becomes vuipyu, and so on. + </p> + <p> + Closely akin to the difficulties of pronunciation is the difficulty of + accentuating the proper syllable. In this respect Russian is like Greek; + you can rarely tell a priori on what syllable the accent falls. But it is + more puzzling than Greek, for two reasons: firstly, it is not customary to + print Russian with accents; and secondly, no one has yet been able to lay + down precise rules for the transposition of the accent in the various + inflections of the same word, Of this latter peculiarity, let one + illustration suffice. The word ruka (hand) has the accent on the last + syllable, but in the accusative (ruku) the accent goes back to the first + syllable. It must not, however, be assumed that in all words of this type + a similar transposition takes place. The word beda (misfortune), for + instance, as well as very many others, always retains the accent on the + last syllable. + </p> + <p> + These and many similar difficulties, which need not be here enumerated, + can be mastered only by long practice. Serious as they are, they need not + frighten any one who is in the habit of learning foreign tongues. The ear + and the tongue gradually become familiar with the peculiarities of + inflection and accentuation, and practice fulfils the same function as + abstract rules. + </p> + <p> + It is commonly supposed that Russians have been endowed by Nature with a + peculiar linguistic talent. Their own language, it is said, is so + difficult that they have no difficulty in acquiring others. This common + belief requires, as it seems to me, some explanation. That highly educated + Russians are better linguists than the educated classes of Western Europe + there can be no possible doubt, for they almost always speak French, and + often English and German also. The question, however, is whether this is + the result of a psychological peculiarity, or of other causes. Now, + without venturing to deny the existence of a natural faculty, I should say + that the other causes have at least exercised a powerful influence. Any + Russian who wishes to be regarded as civilised must possess at least one + foreign language; and, as a consequence of this, the children of the upper + classes are always taught at least French in their infancy. Many + households comprise a German nurse, a French tutor, and an English + governess; and the children thus become accustomed from their earliest + years to the use of these three languages. Besides this, Russian is + phonetically very rich and contains nearly all the sounds which are to be + found in West-European tongues. Perhaps on the whole it would be well to + apply here the Darwinian theory, and suppose that the Russian Noblesse, + having been obliged for several generations to acquire foreign languages, + have gradually developed a hereditary polyglot talent. + </p> + <p> + Several circumstances concurred to assist me in my efforts, during my + voluntary exile, to acquire at least such a knowledge of the language as + would enable me to converse freely with the peasantry. In the first place, + my reverend teacher was an agreeable, kindly, talkative man, who took a + great delight in telling interminable stories, quite independently of any + satisfaction which he might derive from the consciousness of their being + understood and appreciated. Even when walking alone he was always + muttering something to an imaginary listener. A stranger meeting him on + such occasions might have supposed that he was holding converse with + unseen spirits, though his broad muscular form and rubicund face militated + strongly against such a supposition; but no man, woman, or child living + within a radius of ten miles would ever have fallen into this mistake. + Every one in the neighbourhood knew that "Batushka" (papa), as he was + familiarly called, was too prosaical, practical a man to see things + ethereal, that he was an irrepressible talker, and that when he could not + conveniently find an audience he created one by his own imagination. This + peculiarity of his rendered me good service. Though for some time I + understood very little of what he said, and very often misplaced the + positive and negative monosyllables which I hazarded occasionally by way + of encouragement, he talked vigorously all the same. Like all garrulous + people, he was constantly repeating himself; but to this I did not object, + for the custom—however disagreeable in ordinary society—was + for me highly beneficial, and when I had already heard a story once or + twice before, it was much easier for me to assume at the proper moment the + requisite expression of countenance. + </p> + <p> + Another fortunate circumstance was that at Ivanofka there were no + distractions, so that the whole of the day and a great part of the night + could be devoted to study. My chief amusement was an occasional walk in + the fields with Karl Karl'itch; and even this mild form of dissipation + could not always be obtained, for as soon as rain had fallen it was + difficult to go beyond the verandah—the mud precluding the + possibility of a constitutional. The nearest approach to excitement was + mushroom-gathering; and in this occupation my inability to distinguish the + edible from the poisonous species made my efforts unacceptable. We lived + so "far from the madding crowd" that its din scarcely reached our ears. A + week or ten days might pass without our receiving any intelligence from + the outer world. The nearest post-office was in the district town, and + with that distant point we had no regular system of communication. Letters + and newspapers remained there till called for, and were brought to us + intermittently when some one of our neighbours happened to pass that way. + Current history was thus administered to us in big doses. + </p> + <p> + One very big dose I remember well. For a much longer time than usual no + volunteer letter-carrier had appeared, and the delay was more than usually + tantalising, because it was known that war had broken out between France + and Germany. At last a big bundle of a daily paper called the Golos was + brought to me. Impatient to learn whether any great battle had been + fought, I began by examining the latest number, and stumbled at once on an + article headed, "Latest Intelligence: the Emperor at Wilhelmshohe!!!" The + large type in which the heading was printed and the three marks of + exclamation showed plainly that the article was very important. I began to + read with avidity, but was utterly mystified. What emperor was this? + Probably the Tsar or the Emperor of Austria, for there was no German + Emperor in those days. But no! It was evidently the Emperor of the French. + And how did Napoleon get to Wilhelmshohe? The French must have broken + through the Rhine defences, and pushed far into Germany. But no! As I read + further, I found this theory equally untenable. It turned out that the + Emperor was surrounded by Germans, and—a prisoner! In order to solve + the mystery, I had to go back to the preceding numbers of the paper, and + learned, at a sitting, all about the successive German victories, the + defeat and capitulation of Macmahon's army at Sedan, and the other great + events of that momentous time. The impression produced can scarcely be + realised by those who have always imbibed current history in the + homeopathic doses administered by the morning and evening daily papers. + </p> + <p> + By the useful loquacity of my teacher and the possibility of devoting all + my time to my linguistic studies, I made such rapid progress in the + acquisition of the language that I was able after a few weeks to + understand much of what was said to me, and to express myself in a vague, + roundabout way. In the latter operation I was much assisted by a peculiar + faculty of divination which the Russians possess in a high degree. If a + foreigner succeeds in expressing about one-fourth of an idea, the Russian + peasant can generally fill up the remaining three-fourths from his own + intuition. + </p> + <p> + As my powers of comprehension increased, my long conversations with the + priest became more and more instructive. At first his remarks and stories + had for me simply a philological interest, but gradually I perceived that + his talk contained a great deal of solid, curious information regarding + himself and the class to which he belonged—information of a kind not + commonly found in grammatical exercises. Some of this I now propose to + communicate to the reader. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <h3> + THE VILLAGE PRIEST + </h3> + <p> + Priests' Names—Clerical Marriages—The White and the Black + Clergy—Why the People do not Respect the Parish Priests—History + of the White Clergy—The Parish Priest and the Protestant Pastor—In + What Sense the Russian People are Religious—Icons—The Clergy + and Popular Education—Ecclesiastical Reform—Premonitory + Symptoms of Change—Two Typical Specimens of the Parochial Clergy of + the Present Day. + </p> + <p> + In formal introductions it is customary to pronounce in a more or less + inaudible voice the names of the two persons introduced. Circumstances + compel me in the present case to depart from received custom. The truth + is, I do not know the names of the two people whom I wish to bring + together! The reader who knows his own name will readily pardon one-half + of my ignorance, but he may naturally expect that I should know the name + of a man with whom I profess to be acquainted, and with whom I daily held + long conversations during a period of several months. Strange as it may + seem, I do not. During all the time of my sojourn in Ivanofka I never + heard him addressed or spoken of otherwise than as "Batushka." Now + "Batushka" is not a name at all. It is simply the diminutive form of an + obsolete word meaning "father," and is usually applied to all village + priests. The ushka is a common diminutive termination, and the root Bat is + evidently the same as that which appears in the Latin pater. + </p> + <p> + Though I do not happen to know what Batushka's family name was, I can + communicate two curious facts concerning it: he had not possessed it in + his childhood, and it was not the same as his father's. + </p> + <p> + The reader whose intuitive powers have been preternaturally sharpened by a + long course of sensation novels will probably leap to the conclusion that + Batushka was a mysterious individual, very different from what he seemed—either + the illegitimate son of some great personage, or a man of high birth who + had committed some great sin, and who now sought oblivion and expiation in + the humble duties of a parish priest. Let me dispel at once all delusions + of this kind. Batushka was actually as well as legally the legitimate son + of an ordinary parish priest, who was still living, about twenty miles + off, and for many generations all his paternal and maternal ancestors, + male and female, had belonged to the priestly caste. He was thus a Levite + of the purest water, and thoroughly Levitical in his character. Though he + knew by experience something about the weakness of the flesh, he had never + committed any sins of the heroic kind, and had no reason to conceal his + origin. The curious facts above stated were simply the result of a + peculiar custom which exists among the Russian clergy. According to this + custom, when a boy enters the seminary he receives from the Bishop a new + family name. The name may be Bogoslafski, from a word signifying + "Theology," or Bogolubof, "the love of God," or some similar term; or it + may be derived from the name of the boy's native village, or from any + other word which the Bishop thinks fit to choose. I know of one instance + where a Bishop chose two French words for the purpose. He had intended to + call the boy Velikoselski, after his native place, Velikoe Selo, which + means "big village"; but finding that there was already a Velikoselski in + the seminary, and being in a facetious frame of mind, he called the new + comer Grandvillageski—a word that may perhaps sorely puzzle some + philologist of the future. + </p> + <p> + My reverend teacher was a tall, muscular man of about forty years of age, + with a full dark-brown beard, and long lank hair falling over his + shoulders. The visible parts of his dress consisted of three articles—a + dingy-brown robe of coarse material buttoned closely at the neck and + descending to the ground, a wideawake hat, and a pair of large, heavy + boots. As to the esoteric parts of his attire, I refrained from making + investigations. His life had been an uneventful one. At an early age he + had been sent to the seminary in the chief town of the province, and had + made for himself the reputation of a good average scholar. "The seminary + of that time," he used to say to me, referring to that part of his life, + "was not what it is now. Nowadays the teachers talk about humanitarianism, + and the boys would think that a crime had been committed against human + dignity if one of them happened to be flogged. But they don't consider + that human dignity is at all affected by their getting drunk, and going to—to—to + places that I never went to. I was flogged often enough, and I don't think + that I am a worse man on that account; and though I never heard then + anything about pedagogical science that they talk so much about now, I'll + read a bit of Latin yet with the best of them. + </p> + <p> + "When my studies were finished," said Batushka, continuing the simple + story of his life, "the Bishop found a wife for me, and I succeeded her + father, who was then an old man. In that way I became a priest of + Ivanofka, and have remained here ever since. It is a hard life, for the + parish is big, and my bit of land is not very fertile; but, praise be to + God! I am healthy and strong, and get on well enough." + </p> + <p> + "You said that the Bishop found a wife for you," I remarked. "I suppose, + therefore, that he was a great friend of yours." + </p> + <p> + "Not at all. The Bishop does the same for all the seminarists who wish to + be ordained: it is an important part of his pastoral duties." + </p> + <p> + "Indeed!" I exclaimed in astonishment. "Surely that is carrying the system + of paternal government a little too far. Why should his Reverence meddle + with things that don't concern him?" + </p> + <p> + "But these matters do concern him. He is the natural protector of widows + and orphans, especially among the clergy of his own diocese. When a parish + priest dies, what is to become of his wife and daughters?" + </p> + <p> + Not perceiving clearly the exact bearing of these last remarks, I ventured + to suggest that priests ought to economise in view of future + contingencies. + </p> + <p> + "It is easy to speak," replied Batushka: "'A story is soon told,' as the + old proverb has it, 'but a thing is not soon done.' How are we to + economise? Even without saving we have the greatest difficulty to make the + two ends meet." + </p> + <p> + "Then the widow and daughters might work and gain a livelihood." + </p> + <p> + "What, pray, could they work at?" asked Batushka, and paused for a reply. + Seeing that I had none to offer him, he continued, "Even the house and + land belong not to them, but to the new priest." + </p> + <p> + "If that position occurred in a novel," I said, "I could foretell what + would happen. The author would make the new priest fall in love with and + marry one of the daughters, and then the whole family, including the + mother-in-law, would live happily ever afterwards." + </p> + <p> + "That is exactly how the Bishop arranges the matter. What the novelist + does with the puppets of his imagination, the Bishop does with real beings + of flesh and blood. As a rational being he cannot leave things to chance. + Besides this, he must arrange the matter before the young man takes + orders, because, by the rules of the Church, the marriage cannot take + place after the ceremony of ordination. When the affair is arranged before + the charge becomes vacant, the old priest can die with the pleasant + consciousness that his family is provided for." + </p> + <p> + "Well, Batushka, you certainly put the matter in a very plausible way, but + there seem to be two flaws in the analogy. The novelist can make two + people fall in love with each other, and make them live happily together + with the mother-in-law, but that—with all due respect to his + Reverence, be it said—is beyond the power of a Bishop." + </p> + <p> + "I am not sure," said Batushka, avoiding the point of the objection, "that + love-marriages are always the happiest ones; and as to the mother-in-law, + there are—or at least there were until the emancipation of the serfs—a + mother-in-law and several daughters-in-law in almost every peasant + household." + </p> + <p> + "And does harmony generally reign in peasant households?" + </p> + <p> + "That depends upon the head of the house. If he is a man of the right + sort, he can keep the women-folks in order." This remark was made in an + energetic tone, with the evident intention of assuring me that the speaker + was himself "a man of the right sort"; but I did not attribute much + importance to it, for I have occasionally heard henpecked husbands talk in + this grandiloquent way when their wives were out of hearing. Altogether I + was by no means convinced that the system of providing for the widows and + orphans of the clergy by means of mariages de convenance was a good one, + but I determined to suspend my judgment until I should obtain fuller + information. + </p> + <p> + An additional bit of evidence came to me a week or two later. One morning, + on going into the priest's house, I found that he had a friend with him—the + priest of a village some fifteen miles off. Before we had got through the + ordinary conventional remarks about the weather and the crops, a peasant + drove up to the door in his cart with a message that an old peasant was + dying in a neighbouring village, and desired the last consolations of + religion. Batushka was thus obliged to leave us, and his friend and I + agreed to stroll leisurely in the direction of the village to which he was + going, so as to meet him on his way home. The harvest was already + finished, so that our road, after emerging from the village, lay through + stubble-fields. Beyond this we entered the pine forest, and by the time we + had reached this point I had succeeded in leading the conversation to the + subject of clerical marriages. + </p> + <p> + "I have been thinking a good deal on this subject," I said, "and I should + very much like to know your opinion about the system." + </p> + <p> + My new acquaintance was a tall, lean, black-haired man, with a sallow + complexion and vinegar aspect—evidently one of those unhappy mortals + who are intended by Nature to take a pessimistic view of all things, and + to point out to their fellows the deep shadows of human life. I was not at + all surprised, therefore, when he replied in a deep, decided tone, "Bad, + very bad—utterly bad!" + </p> + <p> + The way in which these words were pronounced left no doubt as to the + opinion of the speaker, but I was desirous of knowing on what that opinion + was founded—more especially as I seemed to detect in the tone a note + of personal grievance. My answer was shaped accordingly. + </p> + <p> + "I suspected that; but in the discussions which I have had I have always + been placed at a disadvantage, not being able to adduce any definite facts + in support of my opinion." + </p> + <p> + "You may congratulate yourself on being unable to find any in your own + experience. A mother-in-law living in the house does not conduce to + domestic harmony. I don't know how it is in your country, but so it is + with us." + </p> + <p> + I hastened to assure him that this was not a peculiarity of Russia. + </p> + <p> + "I know it only too well," he continued. "My mother-in-law lived with me + for some years, and I was obliged at last to insist on her going to + another son-in-law." + </p> + <p> + "Rather selfish conduct towards your brother-in-law," I said to myself, + and then added audibly, "I hope you have thus solved the difficulty + satisfactorily." + </p> + <p> + "Not at all. Things are worse now than they were. I agreed to pay her + three roubles a month, and have regularly fulfilled my promise, but lately + she has thought it not enough, and she made a complaint to the Bishop. + Last week I went to him to defend myself, but as I had not money enough + for all the officials in the Consistorium, I could not obtain justice. My + mother-in-law had made all sorts of absurd accusations against me, and + consequently I was laid under an inhibition for six weeks!" + </p> + <p> + "And what is the effect of an inhibition?" + </p> + <p> + "The effect is that I cannot perform the ordinary rites of our religion. + It is really very unjust," he added, assuming an indignant tone, "and very + annoying. Think of all the hardship and inconvenience to which it gives + rise." + </p> + <p> + As I thought of the hardship and inconvenience to which the parishioners + must be exposed through the inconsiderate conduct of the old + mother-in-law, I could not but sympathise with my new acquaintance's + indignation. My sympathy was, however, somewhat cooled when I perceived + that I was on a wrong tack, and that the priest was looking at the matter + from an entirely different point of view. + </p> + <p> + "You see," he said, "it is a most unfortunate time of year. The peasants + have gathered in their harvest, and can give of their abundance. There are + merry-makings and marriages, besides the ordinary deaths and baptisms. + Altogether I shall lose by the thing more than a hundred roubles!" + </p> + <p> + I confess I was a little shocked on hearing the priest thus speak of his + sacred functions as if they were an ordinary marketable commodity, and + talk of the inhibition as a pushing undertaker might talk of sanitary + improvements. My surprise was caused not by the fact that he regarded the + matter from a pecuniary point of view—for I was old enough to know + that clerical human nature is not altogether insensible to pecuniary + considerations—but by the fact that he should thus undisguisedly + express his opinions to a stranger without in the least suspecting that + there was anything unseemly in his way of speaking. The incident appeared + to me very characteristic, but I refrained from all audible comments, lest + I should inadvertently check his communicativeness. With the view of + encouraging it, I professed to be very much interested, as I really was, + in what he said, and I asked him how in his opinion the present + unsatisfactory state of things might be remedied. + </p> + <p> + "There is but one cure," he said, with a readiness that showed he had + often spoken on the theme already, "and that is freedom and publicity. We + full-grown men are treated like children, and watched like conspirators. + If I wish to preach a sermon—not that I often wish to do such a + thing, but there are occasions when it is advisable—I am expected to + show it first to the Blagotchinny, and—" + </p> + <p> + "I beg your pardon, who is the Blagotchinny?" + </p> + <p> + "The Blagotchinny is a parish priest who is in direct relations with the + Consistory of the Province, and who is supposed to exercise a strict + supervision over all the other parish priests of his district. He acts as + the spy of the Consistory, which is filled with greedy, shameless + officials, deaf to any one who does not come provided with a handful of + roubles. The Bishop may be a good, well-intentioned man, but he always + sees and acts through these worthless subordinates. Besides this, the + Bishops and heads of monasteries, who monopolise the higher places in the + ecclesiastical Administration, all belong to the Black Clergy—that + is to say, they are all monks—and consequently cannot understand our + wants. How can they, on whom celibacy is imposed by the rules of the + Church, understand the position of a parish priest who has to bring up a + family and to struggle with domestic cares of every kind? What they do is + to take all the comfortable places for themselves, and leave us all the + hard work. The monasteries are rich enough, and you see how poor we are. + Perhaps you have heard that the parish priests extort money from the + peasants—refusing to perform the rites of baptism or burial until a + considerable sum has been paid. It is only too true, but who is to blame? + The priest must live and bring up his family, and you cannot imagine the + humiliations to which he has to submit in order to gain a scanty pittance. + I know it by experience. When I make the periodical visitation I can see + that the peasants grudge every handful of rye and every egg that they give + me. I can overbear their sneers as I go away, and I know they have many + sayings such as—'The priest takes from the living and from the + dead.' Many of them fasten their doors, pretending to be away from home, + and do not even take the precaution of keeping silent till I am out of + hearing." + </p> + <p> + "You surprise me," I said, in reply to the last part of this long tirade; + "I have always heard that the Russians are a very religious people—at + least the lower classes." + </p> + <p> + "So they are; but the peasantry are poor and heavily taxed. They set great + importance on the sacraments, and observe rigorously the fasts, which + comprise nearly a half of the year; but they show very little respect for + their priests, who are almost as poor as themselves." + </p> + <p> + "But I do not see clearly how you propose to remedy this state of things." + </p> + <p> + "By freedom and publicity, as I said before." The worthy man seemed to + have learned this formula by rote. "First of all, our wants must be made + known. In some provinces there have been attempts to do this by means of + provincial assemblies of the clergy, but these efforts have always been + strenuously opposed by the Consistories, whose members fear publicity + above all things. But in order to have publicity we must have more + freedom." + </p> + <p> + Here followed a long discourse on freedom and publicity, which seemed to + me very confused. So far as I could understand the argument, there was a + good deal of reasoning in a circle. Freedom was necessary in order to get + publicity, and publicity was necessary in order to get freedom; and the + practical result would be that the clergy would enjoy bigger salaries and + more popular respect. We had only got thus far in the investigation of the + subject when our conversation was interrupted by the rumbling of a + peasant's cart. In a few seconds our friend Batushka appeared, and the + conversation took a different turn. + </p> + <p> + Since that time I have frequently spoken on this subject with competent + authorities, and nearly all have admitted that the present condition of + the clergy is highly unsatisfactory, and that the parish priest rarely + enjoys the respect of his parishioners. In a semi-official report, which I + once accidentally stumbled upon when searching for material of a different + kind, the facts are stated in the following plain language: "The people"—I + seek to translate as literally as possible—"do not respect the + clergy, but persecute them with derision and reproaches, and feel them to + be a burden. In nearly all the popular comic stories the priest, his wife, + or his labourer is held up to ridicule, and in all the proverbs and + popular sayings where the clergy are mentioned it is always with derision. + The people shun the clergy, and have recourse to them not from the inner + impulse of conscience, but from necessity. . . . And why do the people not + respect the clergy? Because it forms a class apart; because, having + received a false kind of education, it does not introduce into the life of + the people the teaching of the Spirit, but remains in the mere dead forms + of outward ceremonial, at the same time despising these forms even to + blasphemy; because the clergy itself continually presents examples of want + of respect to religion, and transforms the service of God into a + profitable trade. Can the people respect the clergy when they hear how one + priest stole money from below the pillow of a dying man at the moment of + confession, how another was publicly dragged out of a house of ill-fame, + how a third christened a dog, how a fourth whilst officiating at the + Easter service was dragged by the hair from the altar by the deacon? Is it + possible for the people to respect priests who spend their time in the + gin-shop, write fraudulent petitions, fight with the cross in their hands, + and abuse each other in bad language at the altar? + </p> + <p> + "One might fill several pages with examples of this kind—in each + instance naming the time and place—without overstepping the + boundaries of the province of Nizhni-Novgorod. Is it possible for the + people to respect the clergy when they see everywhere amongst them simony, + carelessness in performing the religious rites, and disorder in + administering the sacraments? Is it possible for the people to respect the + clergy when they see that truth has disappeared from it, and that the + Consistories, guided in their decisions not by rules, but by personal + friendship and bribery, destroy in it the last remains of truthfulness? If + we add to all this the false certificates which the clergy give to those + who do not wish to partake of the Eucharist, the dues illegally extracted + from the Old Ritualists, the conversion of the altar into a source of + revenue, the giving of churches to priests' daughters as a dowry, and + similar phenomena, the question as to whether the people can respect the + clergy requires no answer." + </p> + <p> + As these words were written by an orthodox Russian,* celebrated for his + extensive and intimate knowledge of Russian provincial life, and were + addressed in all seriousness to a member of the Imperial family, we may + safely assume that they contain a considerable amount of truth. The reader + must not, however, imagine that all Russian priests are of the kind above + referred to. Many of them are honest, respectable, well-intentioned men, + who conscientiously fulfil their humble duties, and strive hard to procure + a good education for their children. If they have less learning, culture, + and refinement than the Roman Catholic priesthood, they have at the same + time infinitely less fanaticism, less spiritual pride, and less + intolerance towards the adherents of other faiths. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Mr. Melnikof, in a "secret" Report to the Grand Duke + Constantine Nikolaievitch. +</pre> + <p> + Both the good and the bad qualities of the Russian priesthood at the + present time can be easily explained by its past history, and by certain + peculiarities of the national character. + </p> + <p> + The Russian White Clergy—that is to say, the parish priests, as + distinguished from the monks, who are called the Black Clergy—have + had a curious history. In primitive times they were drawn from all classes + of the population, and freely elected by the parishioners. When a man was + elected by the popular vote, he was presented to the Bishop, and if he was + found to be a fit and proper person for the office, he was at once + ordained. But this custom early fell into disuse. The Bishops, finding + that many of the candidates presented were illiterate peasants, gradually + assumed the right of appointing the priests, with or without the consent + of the parishioners; and their choice generally fell on the sons of the + clergy as the men best fitted to take orders. The creation of Bishops' + schools, afterwards called seminaries, in which the sons of the clergy + were educated, naturally led, in the course of time, to the total + exclusion of the other classes. The policy of the civil Government led to + the same end. Peter the Great laid down the principle that every subject + should in some way serve the State—the nobles as officers in the + army or navy, or as officials in the civil service; the clergy as + ministers of religion; and the lower classes as soldiers, sailors, or + tax-payers. Of these three classes the clergy had by far the lightest + burdens, and consequently many nobles and peasants would willingly have + entered its ranks. But this species of desertion the Government could not + tolerate, and accordingly the priesthood was surrounded by a legal barrier + which prevented all outsiders from entering it. Thus by the combined + efforts of the ecclesiastical and the civil Administration the clergy + became a separate class or caste, legally and actually incapable of + mingling with the other classes of the population. + </p> + <p> + The simple fact that the clergy became an exclusive caste, with a peculiar + character, peculiar habits, and peculiar ideals, would in itself have had + a prejudicial influence on the priesthood; but this was not all. The caste + increased in numbers by the process of natural reproduction much more + rapidly than the offices to be filled, so that the supply of priests and + deacons soon far exceeded the demand; and the disproportion between supply + and demand became every year greater and greater. In this way was formed + an ever-increasing clerical Proletariat, which—as is always the case + with a Proletariat of any kind—gravitated towards the towns. In vain + the Government issued ukazes prohibiting the priests from quitting their + places of domicile, and treated as vagrants and runaways those who + disregarded the prohibition; in vain successive sovereigns endeavoured to + diminish the number of these supernumeraries by drafting them wholesale + into the army. In Moscow, St. Petersburg, and all the larger towns the cry + was, "Still they come!" Every morning, in the Kremlin of Moscow, a large + crowd of them assembled for the purpose of being hired to officiate in the + private chapels of the rich nobles, and a great deal of hard bargaining + took place between the priests and the lackeys sent to hire them—conducted + in the same spirit, and in nearly the same forms, as that which + simultaneously took place in the bazaar close by between extortionate + traders and thrifty housewives. "Listen to me," a priest would say, as an + ultimatum, to a lackey who was trying to beat down the price: "if you + don't give me seventy-five kopeks without further ado, I'll take a bite of + this roll, and that will be an end to it!" And that would have been an end + to the bargaining, for, according to the rules of the Church, a priest + cannot officiate after breaking his fast. The ultimatum, however, could be + used with effect only to country servants who had recently come to town. A + sharp lackey, experienced in this kind of diplomacy, would have laughed at + the threat, and replied coolly, "Bite away, Batushka; I can find plenty + more of your sort!" Amusing scenes of this kind I have heard described by + old people who professed to have been eye-witnesses. + </p> + <p> + The condition of the priests who remained in the villages was not much + better. Those of them who were fortunate enough to find places were raised + at least above the fear of absolute destitution, but their position was by + no means enviable. They received little consideration or respect from the + peasantry, and still less from the nobles. When the church was situated + not on the State Domains, but on a private estate, they were practically + under the power of the proprietor—almost as completely as his serfs; + and sometimes that power was exercised in a most humiliating and shameful + way. I have heard, for instance, of one priest who was ducked in a pond on + a cold winter day for the amusement of the proprietor and his guests—choice + spirits, of rough, jovial temperament; and of another who, having + neglected to take off his hat as he passed the proprietor's house, was put + into a barrel and rolled down a hill into the river at the bottom! + </p> + <p> + In citing these incidents, I do not at all mean to imply that they + represent the relations which usually existed between proprietors and + village priests, for I am quite aware that wanton cruelty was not among + the ordinary vices of Russian serf-owners. My object in mentioning the + incidents is to show how a brutal proprietor—and it must be admitted + that they were not a few brutal individuals in the class—could + maltreat a priest without much danger of being called to account for his + conduct. Of course such conduct was an offence in the eyes of the criminal + law; but the criminal law of that time was very shortsighted, and strongly + disposed to close its eyes completely when the offender was an influential + proprietor. Had the incidents reached the ears of the Emperor Nicholas he + would probably have ordered the culprit to be summarily and severely + punished but, as the Russian proverb has it, "Heaven is high, and the Tsar + is far off." A village priest treated in this barbarous way could have + little hope of redress, and, if he were a prudent man, he would make no + attempt to obtain it; for any annoyance which he might give the proprietor + by complaining to the ecclesiastical authorities would be sure to be paid + back to him with interest in some indirect way. + </p> + <p> + The sons of the clergy who did not succeed in finding regular sacerdotal + employment were in a still worse position. Many of them served as scribes + or subordinate officials in the public offices, where they commonly eked + out their scanty salaries by unblushing extortion and pilfering. Those who + did not succeed in gaining even modest employment of this kind had to keep + off starvation by less lawful means, and not unfrequently found their way + into the prisons or to Siberia. + </p> + <p> + In judging of the Russian priesthood of the present time, we must call to + mind this severe school through which it has passed, and we must also take + into consideration the spirit which has been for centuries predominant in + the Eastern Church—I mean the strong tendency both in the clergy and + in the laity to attribute an inordinate importance to the ceremonial + element of religion. Primitive mankind is everywhere and always disposed + to regard religion as simply a mass of mysterious rites which have a + secret magical power of averting evil in this world and securing felicity + in the next. To this general rule the Russian peasantry are no exception, + and the Russian Church has not done all it might have done to eradicate + this conception and to bring religion into closer association with + ordinary morality. Hence such incidents as the following are still + possible: A robber kills and rifles a traveller, but he refrains from + eating a piece of cooked meat which he finds in the cart, because it + happens to be a fast-day; a peasant prepares to rob a young attache of the + Austrian Embassy in St. Petersburg, and ultimately kills his victim, but + before going to the house he enters a church and commends his undertaking + to the protection of the saints; a housebreaker, when in the act of + robbing a church, finds it difficult to extract the jewels from an Icon, + and makes a vow that if a certain saint assists him he will place a + rouble's-worth of tapers before the saint's image! These facts are within + the memory of the present generation. I knew the young attache, and saw + him a few days before his death. + </p> + <p> + All these are of course extreme cases, but they illustrate a tendency + which in its milder forms is only too general amongst the Russian people—the + tendency to regard religion as a mass of ceremonies which have a magical + rather than a spiritual significance. The poor woman who kneels at a + religious procession in order that the Icon may be carried over her head, + and the rich merchant who invites the priests to bring some famous Icon to + his house, illustrates this tendency in a more harmless form. + </p> + <p> + According to a popular saying, "As is the priest, so is the parish," and + the converse proposition is equally true—as is the parish, so is the + priest. The great majority of priests, like the great majority of men in + general, content themselves with simply striving to perform what is + expected of them, and their character is consequently determined to a + certain extent by the ideas and conceptions of their parishioners. This + will become more apparent if we contrast the Russian priest with the + Protestant pastor. + </p> + <p> + According to Protestant conceptions, the village pastor is a man of grave + demeanour and exemplary conduct, and possesses a certain amount of + education and refinement. He ought to expound weekly to his flock, in + simple, impressive words, the great truths of Christianity, and exhort his + hearers to walk in the paths of righteousness. Besides this, he is + expected to comfort the afflicted, to assist the needy, to counsel those + who are harassed with doubts, and to admonish those who openly stray from + the narrow path. Such is the ideal in the popular mind, and pastors + generally seek to realise it, if not in very deed, at least in appearance. + The Russian priest, on the contrary, has no such ideal set before him by + his parishioners. He is expected merely to conform to certain observances, + and to perform punctiliously the rites and ceremonies prescribed by the + Church. If he does this without practising extortion his parishioners are + quite satisfied. He rarely preaches or exhorts, and neither has nor seeks + to have a moral influence over his flock. I have occasionally heard of + Russian priests who approach to what I have termed the Protestant ideal, + and I have even seen one or two of them, but I fear they are not numerous. + </p> + <p> + In the above contrast I have accidentally omitted one important feature. + The Protestant clergy have in all countries rendered valuable service to + the cause of popular education. The reason of this is not difficult to + find. In order to be a good Protestant it is necessary to "search the + Scriptures," and to do this, one must be able at least to read. To be a + good member of the Greek Orthodox Church, on the contrary, according to + popular conceptions, the reading of the Scriptures is not necessary, and + therefore primary education has not in the eyes of the Greek Orthodox + priest the same importance which it has in the eyes of the Protestant + pastor. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that the Russian people are in a certain sense + religions. They go regularly to church on Sundays and holy-days, cross + themselves repeatedly when they pass a church or Icon, take the Holy + Communion at stated seasons, rigorously abstain from animal food—not + only on Wednesdays and Fridays, but also during Lent and the other long + fasts—make occasional pilgrimages to holy shrines, and, in a word, + fulfil punctiliously the ceremonial observances which they suppose + necessary for salvation. But here their religiousness ends. They are + generally profoundly ignorant of religious doctrine, and know little or + nothing of Holy Writ. A peasant, it is said, was once asked by a priest if + he could name the three Persons of the Trinity, and replied without a + moment's hesitation, "How can one not know that, Batushka? Of course it is + the Saviour, the Mother of God, and Saint Nicholas the miracle-worker!" + </p> + <p> + That answer represents fairly enough the theological attainments of a very + large section of the peasantry. The anecdote is so often repeated that it + is probably an invention, but it is not a calumny of theology and of what + Protestants term the "inner religious life" the orthodox Russian peasant—of + Dissenters, to whom these remarks do not apply, I shall speak later—has + no conception. For him the ceremonial part of religion suffices, and he + has the most unbounded, childlike confidence in the saving efficacy of the + rites which he practises. If he has been baptised in infancy, has + regularly observed the fasts, has annually partaken of the Holy Communion, + and has just confessed and received extreme unction, he feels death + approach with the most perfect tranquillity. He is tormented with no + doubts as to the efficacy of faith or works, and has no fears that his + past life may possibly have rendered him unfit for eternal felicity. Like + a man in a sinking ship who has buckled on his life-preserver, he feels + perfectly secure. With no fear for the future and little regret for the + present or the past, he awaits calmly the dread summons, and dies with a + resignation which a Stoic philosopher might envy. + </p> + <p> + In the above paragraph I have used the word Icon, and perhaps the reader + may not clearly understand the word. Let me explain then, briefly, what an + Icon is—a very necessary explanation, for the Icons play an + important part in the religious observances of the Russian people. + </p> + <p> + Icons are pictorial, usually half-length, representations of the Saviour, + of the Madonna, or of a saint, executed in archaic Byzantine style, on a + yellow or gold ground, and varying in size from a square inch to several + square feet. Very often the whole picture, with the exception of the face + and hands of the figure, is covered with a metal plaque, embossed so as to + represent the form of the figure and the drapery. When this plaque is not + used, the crown and costume are often adorned with pearls and other + precious stones—sometimes of great price. + </p> + <p> + In respect of religions significance, Icons are of two kinds: simple, and + miraculous or miracle-working (tchudotvorny). The former are manufactured + in enormous quantities—chiefly in the province of Vladimir, where + whole villages are employed in this kind of work—and are to be found + in every Russian house, from the hut of the peasant to the palace of the + Emperor. They are generally placed high up in a corner facing the door, + and good orthodox Christians on entering bow in that direction, making at + the same time the sign of the cross. Before and after meals the same short + ceremony is always performed. On the eve of fete-days a small lamp is kept + burning before at least one of the Icons in the house. + </p> + <p> + The wonder-working Icons are comparatively few in number, and are always + carefully preserved in a church or chapel. They are commonly believed to + have been "not made with hands," and to have appeared in a miraculous way. + A monk, or it may be a common mortal, has a vision, in which he is + informed that he may find a miraculous Icon in such a place, and on going + to the spot indicated he finds it, sometimes buried, sometimes hanging on + a tree. The sacred treasure is then removed to a church, and the news + spreads like wildfire through the district. Thousands flock to prostrate + themselves before the heaven-sent picture, and some are healed of their + diseases—a fact that plainly indicates its miracle-working power. + The whole affair is then officially reported to the Most Holy Synod, the + highest ecclesiastical authority in Russia, in order that the existence of + the miracle-working power may be fully and regularly proved. The official + recognition of the fact is by no means a mere matter of form, for the + Synod is well aware that wonder-working Icons are always a rich source of + revenue to the monasteries where they are kept, and that zealous Superiors + are consequently apt in such cases to lean to the side of credulity, + rather than that of over-severe criticism. A regular investigation is + therefore made, and the formal recognition is not granted till the + testimony of the finder is thoroughly examined and the alleged miracles + duly authenticated. If the recognition is granted, the Icon is treated + with the greatest veneration, and is sure to be visited by pilgrims from + far and near. + </p> + <p> + Some of the most revered Icons—as, for instance, the Kazan Madonna—have + annual fete-days instituted in their honour; or, more correctly speaking, + the anniversary of their miraculous appearance is observed as a religions + holiday. A few of them have an additional title to popular respect and + veneration: that of being intimately associated with great events in the + national history. The Vladimir Madonna, for example, once saved Moscow + from the Tartars; the Smolensk Madonna accompanied the army in the + glorious campaign against Napoleon in 1812; and when in that year it was + known in Moscow that the French were advancing on the city, the people + wished the Metropolitan to take the Iberian Madonna, which may still be + seen near one of the gates of the Kremlin, and to lead them out armed with + hatchets against the enemy. + </p> + <p> + If the Russian priests have done little to advance popular education, they + have at least never intentionally opposed it. Unlike their Roman Catholic + brethren, they do not hold that "a little learning is a dangerous thing," + and do not fear that faith may be endangered by knowledge. Indeed, it is a + remarkable fact that the Russian Church regards with profound apathy those + various intellectual movements which cause serious alarm to many + thoughtful Christians in Western Europe. It considers religion as + something so entirely apart that its votaries do not feel the necessity of + bringing their theological beliefs into logical harmony with their + scientific conceptions. A man may remain a good orthodox Christian long + after he has adopted scientific opinions irreconcilable with Eastern + Orthodoxy, or, indeed, with dogmatic Christianity of any kind. In the + confessional the priest never seeks to ferret out heretical opinions; and + I can recall no instance in Russian history of a man being burnt at the + stake on the demand of the ecclesiastical authorities, as so often + happened in the Roman Catholic world, for his scientific views. This + tolerance proceeds partly, no doubt, from the fact that the Eastern Church + in general, and the Russian Church in particular, have remained for + centuries in a kind of intellectual torpor. Even such a fervent orthodox + Christian as the late Ivan Aksakof perceived this absence of healthy + vitality, and he did not hesitate to declare his conviction that, "neither + the Russian nor the Slavonic world will be resuscitated . . . so long as + the Church remains in such lifelessness (mertvennost'), which is not a + matter of chance, but the legitimate fruit of some organic defect."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Solovyoff, "Otcherki ig istorii Russkoi Literaturi XIX. + veka." St. Petersburg, 1903, p. 269. +</pre> + <p> + Though the unsatisfactory condition of the parochial clergy is generally + recognised by the educated classes, very few people take the trouble to + consider seriously how it might be improved. During the Reform enthusiasm + which raged for some years after the Crimean War ecclesiastical affairs + were entirely overlooked. Many of the reformers of those days were so very + "advanced" that religion in all its forms seemed to them an old-world + superstition which tended to retard rather than accelerate social + progress, and which consequently should be allowed to die as tranquilly as + possible; whilst the men of more moderate views found they had enough to + do in emancipating the serfs and reforming the corrupt civil and judicial + Administration. During the subsequent reactionary period, which culminated + in the reign of the late Emperor, Alexander III., much more attention was + devoted to Church matters, and it came to be recognised in official + circles that something ought to be done for the parish clergy in the way + of improving their material condition so as to increase their moral + influence. With this object in view, M. Pobedonostsef, the Procurator of + the Holy Synod, induced the Government in 1893 to make a State-grant of + about 6,500,000 roubles, which should be increased every year, but the sum + was very inadequate, and a large portion of it was devoted to purposes of + political propaganda in the form of maintaining Greek Orthodox priests in + districts where the population was Protestant or Roman Catholic. + Consequently, of the 35,865 parishes which Russia contains, only 18,936, + or a little more than one-half, were enabled to benefit by the grant. In + an optimistic, semi-official statement published as late as 1896 it is + admitted that "the means for the support of the parish clergy must even + now be considered insufficient and wanting in stability, making the + priests dependent on the parishioners, and thereby preventing the + establishment of the necessary moral authority of the spiritual father + over his flock." + </p> + <p> + In some places the needs of the Church are attended to by voluntary + parish-curatorships which annually raise a certain sum of money, and the + way in which they distribute it is very characteristic of the Russian + people, who have a profound veneration for the Church and its rites, but + very little consideration for the human beings who serve at the altar. In + 14,564 parishes possessing such curatorships no less than 2,500,000 + roubles were collected, but of this sum 2,000,000 were expended on the + maintenance and embellishment of churches, and only 174,000 were devoted + to the personal wants of the clergy. According to the semi-official + document from which these figures are taken the whole body of the Russian + White Clergy in 1893 numbered 99,391, of whom 42,513 were priests, 12,953 + deacons, and 43,925 clerks. + </p> + <p> + In more recent observations among the parochial clergy I have noticed + premonitory symptoms of important changes. This may be illustrated by an + entry in my note-book, written in a village of one of the Southern + provinces, under date of 30th September, 1903: + </p> + <p> + "I have made here the acquaintance of two good specimens of the parish + clergy, both excellent men in their way, but very different from each + other. The elder one, Father Dmitri, is of the old school, a plain, + practical man, who fulfils his duties conscientiously according to his + lights, but without enthusiasm. His intellectual wants are very limited, + and he devotes his attention chiefly to the practical affairs of everyday + life, which he manages very successfully. He does not squeeze his + parishioners unduly, but he considers that the labourer is worthy of his + hire, and insists on his flock providing for his wants according to their + means. At the same time he farms on his own account and attends personally + to all the details of his farming operations. With the condition and + doings of every member of his flock he is intimately acquainted, and, on + the whole, as he never idealised anything or anybody, he has not a very + high opinion of them. + </p> + <p> + "The younger priest, Father Alexander, is of a different type, and the + difference may be remarked even in his external appearance. There is a + look of delicacy and refinement about him, though his dress and domestic + surroundings are of the plainest, and there is not a tinge of affectation + in his manner. His language is less archaic and picturesque. He uses fewer + Biblical and semi-Slavonic expressions—I mean expressions which + belong to the antiquated language of the Church Service rather than to + modern parlance—and his armoury of terse popular proverbs which + constitute such a characteristic trait of the peasantry, is less + frequently drawn on. When I ask him about the present condition of the + peasantry, his account does not differ substantially from that of his + elder colleague, but he does not condemn their sins in the same forcible + terms. He laments their shortcomings in an evangelical spirit and has + apparently aspirations for their future improvement. Admitting frankly + that there is a great deal of lukewarmness among them, he hopes to revive + their interest in ecclesiastical affairs and he has an idea of + constituting a sort of church committee for attending to the temporal + affairs of the village church and for works of charity, but he looks to + influencing the younger rather than the older generation. + </p> + <p> + "His interest in his parishioners is not confined to their spiritual + welfare, but extends to their material well-being. Of late an association + for mutual credit has been founded in the village, and he uses his + influence to induce the peasants to take advantage of the benefits it + offers, both to those who are in need of a little ready money and to those + who might invest their savings, instead of keeping them hidden away in an + old stocking or buried in an earthen pot. The proposal to create a local + agricultural society meets also with his sympathy." + </p> + <p> + If the number of parish priests of this type increase, the clergy may come + to exercise great moral influence on the common people. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <h3> + A MEDICAL CONSULTATION + </h3> + <p> + Unexpected Illness—A Village Doctor—Siberian Plague—My + Studies—Russian Historians—A Russian Imitator of Dickens—A + ci-devant Domestic Serf—Medicine and Witchcraft—A Remnant of + Paganism—Credulity of the Peasantry—Absurd Rumours—A + Mysterious Visit from St. Barbara—Cholera on Board a Steamer—Hospitals—Lunatic + Asylums—Amongst Maniacs. + </p> + <p> + In enumerating the requisites for travelling in the less frequented parts + of Russia, I omitted to mention one important condition: the traveller + should be always in good health, and in case of illness be ready to + dispense with regular medical attendance. This I learned by experience + during my stay at Ivanofka. + </p> + <p> + A man who is accustomed to be always well, and has consequently cause to + believe himself exempt from the ordinary ills that flesh is heir to, + naturally feels aggrieved—as if some one had inflicted upon him an + undeserved injury—when he suddenly finds himself ill. At first he + refuses to believe the fact, and, as far as possible, takes no notice of + the disagreeable symptoms. + </p> + <p> + Such was my state of mind on being awakened early one morning by peculiar + symptoms which I had never before experienced. Unwilling to admit to + myself the possibility of being ill, I got up, and endeavoured to dress as + usual, but very soon discovered that I was unable to stand. There was no + denying the fact; not only was I ill, but the malady, whatever it was, + surpassed my powers of diagnosis; and when the symptoms increased steadily + all that day and the following night, I was constrained to take the + humiliating decision of asking for medical advice. To my inquiries whether + there was a doctor in the neighbourhood, the old servant replied, "There + is not exactly a doctor, but there is a Feldsher in the village." + </p> + <p> + "And what is a Feldsher?" + </p> + <p> + "A Feldsher is . . . . is a Feldsher." + </p> + <p> + "I am quite aware of that, but I would like to know what you mean by the + word. What is this Feldsher?" + </p> + <p> + "He's an old soldier who dresses wounds and gives physic." + </p> + <p> + The definition did not predispose me in favour of the mysterious + personage, but as there was nothing better to be had I ordered him to be + sent for, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the old servant, who + evidently did not believe in feldshers. + </p> + <p> + In about half an hour a tall, broad-shouldered man entered, and stood bolt + upright in the middle of the room in the attitude which is designated in + military language by the word "Attention." His clean-shaven chin, long + moustache, and closely-cropped hair confirmed one part of the old + servant's definition; he was unmistakably an old soldier. + </p> + <p> + "You are a Feldsher," I said, making use of the word which I had recently + added to my vocabulary. + </p> + <p> + "Exactly so, your Nobility!" These words, the ordinary form of affirmation + used by soldiers to their officers, were pronounced in a loud, metallic, + monotonous tone, as if the speaker had been an automaton conversing with a + brother automaton at a distance of twenty yards. As soon as the words were + pronounced the mouth of the machine closed spasmodically, and the head, + which had been momentarily turned towards me, reverted to its former + position with a jerk as if it had received the order "Eyes front!" + </p> + <p> + "Then please to sit down here, and I'll tell you about my ailment." Upon + this the figure took three paces to the front, wheeled to the right-about, + and sat down on the edge of the chair, retaining the position of + "Attention" as nearly as the sitting posture would allow. When the + symptoms had been carefully described, he knitted his brows, and after + some reflection remarked, "I can give you a dose of . . . ." Here followed + a long word which I did not understand. + </p> + <p> + "I don't wish you to give me a dose of anything till I know what is the + matter with me. Though a bit of a doctor myself, I have no idea what it + is, and, pardon me, I think you are in the same position." Noticing a look + of ruffled professional dignity on his face, I added, as a sedative, "It + is evidently something very peculiar, so that if the first medical + practitioner in the country were present he would probably be as much + puzzled as ourselves." + </p> + <p> + The sedative had the desired effect. "Well, sir, to tell you the truth," + he said, in a more human tone of voice, "I do not clearly understand what + it is." + </p> + <p> + "Exactly; and therefore I think we had better leave the cure to Nature, + and not interfere with her mode of treatment." + </p> + <p> + "Perhaps it would be better." + </p> + <p> + "No doubt. And now, since I have to lie here on my back, and feel rather + lonely, I should like to have a talk with you. You are not in a hurry, I + hope?" + </p> + <p> + "Not at all. My assistant knows where I am, and will send for me if I am + required." + </p> + <p> + "So you have an assistant, have you?" + </p> + <p> + "Oh, yes; a very sharp young fellow, who has been two years in the + Feldsher school, and has now come here to help me and learn more by + practice. That is a new way. I never was at a school of the kind myself, + and had to pick up what I could when a servant in the hospital. There + were, I believe, no such schools in my time. The one where my assistant + learned was opened by the Zemstvo." + </p> + <p> + "The Zemstvo is the new local administration, is it not?" + </p> + <p> + "Exactly so. And I could not do without the assistant," continued my new + acquaintance, gradually losing his rigidity, and showing himself, what he + really was, a kindly, talkative man. "I have often to go to other + villages, and almost every day a number of peasants come here. At first I + had very little to do, for the people thought I was an official, and would + make them pay dearly for what I should give them; but now they know that + they don't require to pay, and come in great numbers. And everything I + give them—though sometimes I don't clearly understand what the + matter is—seems to do them good. I believe that faith does as much + as physic." + </p> + <p> + "In my country," I remarked, "there is a sect of doctors who get the + benefit of that principle. They give their patients two or three little + balls no bigger than a pin's head, or a few drops of tasteless liquid, and + they sometimes work wonderful cures." + </p> + <p> + "That system would not do for us. The Russian muzhik would have no faith + if he swallowed merely things of that kind. What he believes in is + something with a very bad taste, and lots of it. That is his idea of a + medicine; and he thinks that the more he takes of a medicine the better + chance he has of getting well. When I wish to give a peasant several doses + I make him come for each separate dose, for I know that if I did not he + would probably swallow the whole as soon as he was out of sight. But there + is not much serious disease here—not like what I used to see on the + Sheksna. You have been on the Sheksna?" + </p> + <p> + "Not yet, but I intend going there." The Sheksna is a river which falls + into the Volga, and forms part of the great system of water-communication + connecting the Volga with the Neva. + </p> + <p> + "When you go there you will see lots of diseases. If there is a hot + summer, and plenty of barges passing, something is sure to break out—typhus, + or black small-pox, or Siberian plague, or something of the kind. That + Siberian plague is a curious thing. Whether it really comes from Siberia, + God only knows. So soon as it breaks out the horses die by dozens, and + sometimes men and women are attacked, though it is not properly a human + disease. They say that flies carry the poison from the dead horses to the + people. The sign of it is a thing like a boil, with a dark-coloured rim. + If this is cut open in time the person may recover, but if it is not, the + person dies. There is cholera, too, sometimes." + </p> + <p> + "What a delightful country," I said to myself, "for a young doctor who + wishes to make discoveries in the science of disease!" + </p> + <p> + The catalogue of diseases inhabiting this favoured region was apparently + not yet complete, but it was cut short for the moment by the arrival of + the assistant, with the announcement that his superior was wanted. + </p> + <p> + This first interview with the feldsher was, on the whole, satisfactory. He + had not rendered me any medical assistance, but he had helped me to pass + an hour pleasantly, and had given me a little information of the kind I + desired. My later interviews with him were equally agreeable. He was + naturally an intelligent, observant man, who had seen a great deal of the + Russian world, and could describe graphically what he had seen. + Unfortunately the horizontal position to which I was condemned prevented + me from noting down at the time the interesting things which he related to + me. His visits, together with those of Karl Karl'itch and of the priest, + who kindly spent a great part of his time with me, helped me to while away + many an hour which would otherwise have been dreary enough. + </p> + <p> + During the intervals when I was alone I devoted myself to reading—sometimes + Russian history and sometimes works of fiction. The history was that of + Karamzin, who may fairly be called the Russian Livy. It interested me much + by the facts which it contained, but irritated me not a little by the + rhetorical style in which it is written. Afterwards, when I had waded + through some twenty volumes of the gigantic work of Solovyoff—or + Solovief, as the name is sometimes unphonetically written—which is + simply a vast collection of valuable but undigested material, I was much + less severe on the picturesque descriptions and ornate style of his + illustrious predecessor. The first work of fiction which I read was a + collection of tales by Grigorovitch, which had been given to me by the + author on my departure from St. Petersburg. These tales, descriptive of + rural life in Russia, had been written, as the author afterwards admitted + to me, under the influence of Dickens. Many of the little tricks and + affectations which became painfully obtrusive in Dickens's later works I + had no difficulty in recognising under their Russian garb. In spite of + these I found the book very pleasant reading, and received from it some + new notions—to be afterwards verified, of course—about Russian + peasant life. + </p> + <p> + One of these tales made a deep impression upon me, and I still remember + the chief incidents. The story opens with the description of a village in + late autumn. It has been raining for some time heavily, and the road has + become covered with a deep layer of black mud. An old woman—a small + proprietor—is sitting at home with a friend, drinking tea and trying + to read the future by means of a pack of cards. This occupation is + suddenly interrupted by the entrance of a female servant, who announces + that she has discovered an old man, apparently very ill, lying in one of + the outhouses. The old woman goes out to see her uninvited guest, and, + being of a kindly nature, prepares to have him removed to a more + comfortable place, and properly attended to; but her servant whispers to + her that perhaps he is a vagrant, and the generous impulse is thereby + checked. When it is discovered that the suspicion is only too well + founded, and that the man has no passport, the old woman becomes + thoroughly alarmed. Her imagination pictures to her the terrible + consequences that would ensue if the police should discover that she had + harboured a vagrant. All her little fortune might be extorted from her. + And if the old man should happen to die in her house or farmyard! The + consequences in that case might be very serious. Not only might she lose + everything, but she might even be dragged to prison. At the sight of these + dangers the old woman forgets her tender-heartedness, and becomes + inexorable. The old man, sick unto death though he be, must leave the + premises instantly. Knowing full well that he will nowhere find a refuge, + he walks forth into the cold, dark, stormy night, and next morning a dead + body is found at a short distance from the village. + </p> + <p> + Why this story, which was not strikingly remarkable for artistic merit, + impressed me so deeply I cannot say. Perhaps it was because I was myself + ill at the time, and imagined how terrible it would be to be turned out on + the muddy road on a cold, wet October night. Besides this, the story + interested me as illustrating the terror which the police inspired during + the reign of Nicholas I. The ingenious devices which they employed for + extorting money formed the subject of another sketch, which I read shortly + afterwards, and which has likewise remained in my memory. The facts were + as follows: An officer of rural police, when driving on a country road, + finds a dead body by the wayside. Congratulating himself on this bit of + good luck, he proceeds to the nearest village, and lets the inhabitants + know that all manner of legal proceedings will be taken against them, so + that the supposed murderer may be discovered. The peasants are of course + frightened, and give him a considerable sum of money in order that he may + hush up the affair. An ordinary officer of police would have been quite + satisfied with this ransom, but this officer is not an ordinary man, and + is very much in need of money; he conceives, therefore, the brilliant idea + of repeating the experiment. Taking up the dead body, he takes it away in + his tarantass, and a few hours later declares to the inhabitants of a + village some miles off that some of them have been guilty of murder, and + that he intends to investigate the matter thoroughly. The peasants of + course pay liberally in order to escape the investigation, and the + rascally officer, emboldened by success, repeats the trick in different + villages until he has gathered a large sum. + </p> + <p> + Tales and sketches of this kind were very much in fashion during the years + which followed the death of the great autocrat, Nicholas I., when the + long-pent-up indignation against his severe, repressive regime was + suddenly allowed free expression, and they were still much read during the + first years of my stay in the country. Now the public taste has changed. + The reform enthusiast has evaporated, and the existing administrative + abuses, more refined and less comical than their predecessors, receive + comparatively little attention from the satirists. + </p> + <p> + When I did not feel disposed to read, and had none of my regular visitors + with me, I sometimes spent an hour or two in talking with the old + man-servant who attended me. Anton was decidedly an old man, but what his + age precisely was I never could discover; either he did not know himself, + or he did not wish to tell me. In appearance he seemed about sixty, but + from certain remarks which he made I concluded that he must be nearer + seventy, though he had scarcely a grey hair on his head. As to who his + father was he seemed, like the famous Topsy, to have no very clear ideas, + but he had an advantage over Topsy with regard to his maternal ancestry. + His mother had been a serf who had fulfilled for some time the functions + of a lady's maid, and after the death of her mistress had been promoted to + a not very clearly defined position of responsibility in the household. + Anton, too, had been promoted in his time. His first function in the + household had been that of assistant-keeper of the tobacco-pipes, from + which humble office he had gradually risen to a position which may be + roughly designated as that of butler. All this time he had been, of + course, a serf, as his mother had been before him; but being naturally a + man of sluggish intellect, he had never thoroughly realised the fact, and + had certainly never conceived the possibility of being anything different + from what he was. His master was master, and he himself was Anton, obliged + to obey his master, or at least conceal disobedience—these were long + the main facts in his conception of the universe, and, as philosophers + generally do with regard to fundamental facts or axioms, he had accepted + them without examination. By means of these simple postulates he had led a + tranquil life, untroubled by doubts, until the year 1861, when the + so-called freedom was brought to Ivanofka. He himself had not gone to the + church to hear Batushka read the Tsar's manifesto, but his master, on + returning from the ceremony, had called him and said, "Anton, you are free + now, but the Tsar says you are to serve as you have done for two years + longer." + </p> + <p> + To this startling announcement Anton had replied coolly, "Slushayus," or, + as we would say, "Yes, sir," and without further comment had gone to fetch + his master's breakfast; but what he saw and heard during the next few + weeks greatly troubled his old conceptions of human society and the + fitness of things. From that time must be dated, I suppose, the expression + of mental confusion which his face habitually wore. + </p> + <p> + The first thing that roused his indignation was the conduct of his + fellow-servants. Nearly all the unmarried ones seemed to be suddenly + attacked by a peculiar matrimonial mania. The reason of this was that the + new law expressly gave permission to the emancipated serfs to marry as + they chose without the consent of their masters, and nearly all the + unmarried adults hastened to take advantage of their newly-acquired + privilege, though many of them had great difficulty in raising the capital + necessary to pay the priest's fees. Then came disorders among the + peasantry, the death of the old master, and the removal of the family + first to St. Petersburg, and afterwards to Germany. Anton's mind had never + been of a very powerful order, and these great events had exercised a + deleterious influence upon it. When Karl Karl'itch, at the expiry of the + two years, informed him that he might now go where he chose, he replied, + with a look of blank, unfeigned astonishment, "Where can I go to?" He had + never conceived the possibility of being forced to earn his bread in some + new way, and begged Karl Karl'itch to let him remain where he was. This + request was readily granted, for Anton was an honest, faithful servant, + and sincerely attached to the family, and it was accordingly arranged that + he should receive a small monthly salary, and occupy an intermediate + position between those of major-domo and head watch-dog. + </p> + <p> + Had Anton been transformed into a real watch-dog he could scarcely have + slept more than he did. His power of sleeping, and his somnolence when he + imagined he was awake, were his two most prominent characteristics. Out of + consideration for his years and his love of repose, I troubled him as + little as possible; but even the small amount of service which I demanded + he contrived to curtail in an ingenious way. The time and exertion + required for traversing the intervening space between his own room and + mine might, he thought, be more profitably employed; and accordingly he + extemporised a bed in a small ante-chamber, close to my door, and took up + there his permanent abode. If sonorous snoring be sufficient proof that + the performer is asleep, then I must conclude that Anton devoted about + three-fourths of his time to sleeping and a large part of the remaining + fourth to yawning and elongated guttural ejaculations. At first this + little arrangement considerably annoyed me, but I bore it patiently, and + afterwards received my reward, for during my illness I found it very + convenient to have an attendant within call. And I must do Anton the + justice to say that he served me well in his own somnolent fashion. He + seemed to have the faculty of hearing when asleep, and generally appeared + in my room before he had succeeded in getting his eyes completely open. + </p> + <p> + Anton had never found time, during his long life, to form many opinions, + but he had somehow imbibed or inhaled a few convictions, all of a + decidedly conservative kind, and one of these was that feldshers were + useless and dangerous members of society. Again and again he had advised + me to have nothing to do with the one who visited me, and more than once + he recommended to me an old woman of the name of Masha, who lived in a + village a few miles off. Masha was what is known in Russia as a znakharka—that + is to say, a woman who is half witch, half medical practitioner—the + whole permeated with a strong leaven of knavery. According to Anton, she + could effect by means of herbs and charms every possible cure short of + raising from the dead, and even with regard to this last operation he + cautiously refrained from expressing an opinion. + </p> + <p> + The idea of being subjected to a course of herbs and charms by an old + woman who probably knew very little about the hidden properties of either, + did not seem to me inviting, and more than once I flatly refused to have + recourse to such unhallowed means. On due consideration, however, I + thought that a professional interview with the old witch would be rather + amusing, and then a brilliant idea occurred to me! I would bring together + the feldsher and the znakharka, who no doubt hated each other with a + Kilkenny-cat hatred, and let them fight out their differences before me + for the benefit of science and my own delectation. + </p> + <p> + The more I thought of my project, the more I congratulated myself on + having conceived such a scheme; but, alas! in this very imperfectly + organised world of ours brilliant ideas are seldom realised, and in this + case I was destined to be disappointed. Did the old woman's black art warn + her of approaching danger, or was she simply actuated by a feeling of + professional jealousy and considerations of professional etiquette? To + this question I can give no positive answer, but certain it is that she + could not be induced to pay me a visit, and I was thus balked of my + expected amusement. I succeeded, however, in learning indirectly something + about the old witch. She enjoyed among her neighbours that solid, durable + kind of respect which is founded on vague, undefinable fear, and was + believed to have effected many remarkable cures. In the treatment of + syphilitic diseases, which are fearfully common among the Russian + peasantry, she was supposed to be specially successful, and I have no + doubt, from the vague descriptions which I received, that the charm which + she employed in these cases was of a mercurial kind. Some time afterward I + saw one of her victims. Whether she had succeeded in destroying the poison + I know not, but she had at least succeeded in destroying most completely + the patient's teeth. How women of this kind obtain mercury, and how they + have discovered its medicinal properties, I cannot explain. Neither can I + explain how they have come to know the peculiar properties of ergot of + rye, which they frequently employ for illicit purposes familiar to all + students of medical jurisprudence. + </p> + <p> + The znakharka and the feldsher represent two very different periods in the + history of medical science—the magical and the scientific. The + Russian peasantry have still many conceptions which belong to the former. + The great majority of them are already quite willing, under ordinary + circumstances, to use the scientific means of healing; but as soon as a + violent epidemic breaks out, and the scientific means prove unequal to the + occasion, the old faith revives, and recourse is had to magical rites and + incantations. Of these rites many are very curious. Here, for instance, is + one which had been performed in a village near which I afterwards lived + for some time. Cholera had been raging in the district for several weeks. + In the village in question no case had yet occurred, but the inhabitants + feared that the dreaded visitor would soon arrive, and the following + ingenious contrivance was adopted for warding off the danger. At midnight, + when the male population was supposed to be asleep, all the maidens met in + nocturnal costume, according to a preconcerted plan, and formed a + procession. In front marched a girl, holding an Icon. Behind her came her + companions, dragging a sokha—the primitive plough commonly used by + the peasantry—by means of a long rope. In this order the procession + made the circuit of the entire village, and it was confidently believed + that the cholera would not be able to overstep the magical circle thus + described. Many of the males probably knew, or at least suspected, what + was going on; but they prudently remained within doors, knowing well that + if they should be caught peeping indiscreetly at the mystic ceremony, they + would be unmercifully beaten by those who were taking part in it. + </p> + <p> + This custom is doubtless a survival of old pagan superstitions. The + introduction of the Icon is a modern innovation, which illustrates that + curious blending of paganism and Christianity which is often to be met + with in Russia, and of which I shall have more to say in another chapter. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes, when an epidemic breaks out, the panic produced takes a more + dangerous form. The people suspect that it is the work of the doctors, or + that some ill-disposed persons have poisoned the wells, and no amount of + reasoning will convince them that their own habitual disregard of the most + simple sanitary precautions has something to do with the phenomenon. I + know of one case where an itinerant photographer was severely maltreated + in consequence of such suspicions; and once, in St. Petersburg, during the + reign of Nicholas I., a serious riot took place. The excited populace had + already thrown several doctors out of the windows of the hospital, when + the Emperor arrived, unattended, in an open carriage, and quelled the + disturbance by his simple presence, aided by his stentorian voice. + </p> + <p> + Of the ignorant credulity of the Russian peasantry I might relate many + curious illustrations. The most absurd rumours sometimes awaken + consternation throughout a whole district. One of the most common reports + of this kind is that a female conscription is about to take place. About + the time of the Duke of Edinburgh's marriage with the daughter of + Alexander II. this report was specially frequent. A large number of young + girls were to be kidnapped and sent to England in a red ship. Why the ship + was to be red I can easily explain, because in the peasants' language the + conceptions of red and beautiful are expressed by the same word (krasny), + and in the popular legends the epithet is indiscriminately applied to + everything connected with princes and great personages; but what was to be + done with the kidnapped maidens when they arrived at their destination, I + never succeeded in discovering. + </p> + <p> + The most amusing instance of credulity which I can recall was the + following, related to me by a peasant woman who came from the village + where the incident had occurred. One day in winter, about the time of + sunset, a peasant family was startled by the entrance of a strange + visitor, a female figure, dressed as St. Barbara is commonly represented + in the religious pictures. All present were very much astonished by this + apparition; but the figure told them, in a low, soft voice, to be of good + cheer, for she was St. Barbara, and had come to honour the family with a + visit as a reward for their piety. The peasant thus favoured was not + remarkable for his piety, but he did not consider it necessary to correct + the mistake of his saintly visitor, and requested her to be seated. With + perfect readiness she accepted the invitation, and began at once to + discourse in an edifying way. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the news of this wonderful apparition spread like wildfire, and + all the inhabitants of the village, as well as those of a neighbouring + village about a mile distant, collected in and around the house. Whether + the priest was among those who came my informant did not know. Many of + those who had come could not get within hearing, but those at the + outskirts of the crowd hoped that the saint might come out before + disappearing. Their hopes were gratified. About midnight the mysterious + visitor announced that she would go and bring St. Nicholas, the + miracle-worker, and requested all to remain perfectly still during her + absence. The crowd respectfully made way for her, and she passed out into + the darkness. With breathless expectation all awaited the arrival of St. + Nicholas, who is the favourite saint of the Russian peasantry; but hours + passed, and he did not appear. At last, toward sunrise, some of the less + zealous spectators began to return home, and those of them who had come + from the neighbouring village discovered to their horror that during their + absence their horses had been stolen! At once they raised the hue-and-cry; + and the peasants scoured the country in all directions in search of the + soi-disant St. Barbara and her accomplices, but they never recovered the + stolen property. "And serve them right, the blockheads!" added my + informant, who had herself escaped falling into the trap by being absent + from the village at the time. + </p> + <p> + It is but fair to add that the ordinary Russian peasant, though in some + respects extremely credulous, and, like all other people, subject to + occasional panics, is by no means easily frightened by real dangers. Those + who have seen them under fire will readily credit this statement. For my + own part, I have had opportunities of observing them merely in dangers of + a non-military kind, and have often admired the perfect coolness + displayed. Even an epidemic alarms them only when it attains a certain + degree of intensity. Once I had a good opportunity of observing this on + board a large steamer on the Volga. It was a very hot day in the early + autumn. As it was well known that there was a great deal of Asiatic + cholera all over the country, prudent people refrained from eating much + raw fruit; but Russian peasants are not generally prudent men, and I + noticed that those on board were consuming enormous quantities of raw + cucumbers and water-melons. This imprudence was soon followed by its + natural punishment. I refrain from describing the scene that ensued, but I + may say that those who were attacked received from the others every + possible assistance. Had no unforeseen accident happened, we should have + arrived at Kazan on the following morning, and been able to send the + patients to the hospital of that town; but as there was little water in + the river, we had to cast anchor for the night, and next morning we ran + aground and stuck fast. Here we had to remain patiently till a smaller + steamer hove in sight. All this time there was not the slightest symptom + of panic, and when the small steamer came alongside there was no frantic + rush to get away from the infected vessel, though it was quite evident + that only a few of the passengers could be taken off. Those who were + nearest the gangway went quietly on board the small steamer, and those who + were less fortunate remained patiently till another steamer happened to + pass. + </p> + <p> + The old conceptions of disease, as something that may be most successfully + cured by charms and similar means, are rapidly disappearing. The Zemstvo—that + is to say, the new local self-government—has done much towards this + end by enabling the people to procure better medical attendance. In the + towns there are public hospitals, which generally are—or at least + seem to an unprofessional eye—in a very satisfactory condition. The + resident doctors are daily besieged by a crowd of peasants, who come from + far and near to ask advice and receive medicines. Besides this, in some + provinces feldshers are placed in the principal villages, and the doctor + makes frequent tours of inspection. The doctors are generally + well-educated men, and do a large amount of work for a very small + remuneration. + </p> + <p> + Of the lunatic asylums, which are generally attached to the larger + hospitals, I cannot speak very favourably. Some of the great central ones + are all that could be desired, but others are badly constructed and + fearfully overcrowded. One or two of those I visited appeared to me to be + conducted on very patriarchal principles, as the following incident may + illustrate. + </p> + <p> + I had been visiting a large hospital, and had remained there so long that + it was already dark before I reached the adjacent lunatic asylum. Seeing + no lights in the windows, I proposed to my companion, who was one of the + inspectors, that we should delay our visit till the following morning, but + he assured me that by the regulations the lights ought not to be + extinguished till considerably later, and consequently there was no + objection to our going in at once. If there was no legal objection, there + was at least a physical obstruction in the form of a large wooden door, + and all our efforts to attract the attention of the porter or some other + inmate were unavailing. At last, after much ringing, knocking, and + shouting, a voice from within asked us who we were and what we wanted. A + brief reply from my companion, not couched in the most polite or amiable + terms, made the bolts rattle and the door open with surprising rapidity, + and we saw before us an old man with long dishevelled hair, who, as far as + appearance went, might have been one of the lunatics, bowing obsequiously + and muttering apologies. + </p> + <p> + After groping our way along a dark corridor we entered a still darker + room, and the door was closed and locked behind us. As the key turned in + the rusty lock a wild scream rang through the darkness! Then came a yell, + then a howl, and then various sounds which the poverty of the English + language prevents me from designating—the whole blending into a + hideous discord that would have been at home in some of the worst regions + of Dante's Inferno. As to the cause of it I could not even form a + conjecture. Gradually my eyes became accustomed to the darkness, and I + could dimly perceive white figures flitting about the room. At the same + time I felt something standing near me, and close to my shoulder I saw a + pair of eyes and long streaming hair. On my other side, equally close, was + something very like a woman's night-cap. Though by no means of a nervous + temperament, I felt uncomfortable. To be shut up in a dark room with an + indefinite number of excited maniacs is not a comfortable position. How + long the imprisonment lasted I know not—probably not more than two + or three minutes, but it seemed a long time. At last a light was procured, + and the whole affair was explained. The guardians, not expecting the visit + of an inspector at so late an hour, had retired for the night much earlier + than usual, and the old porter had put us into the nearest ward until he + could fetch a light—locking the door behind us lest any of the + lunatics should escape. The noise had awakened one of the unfortunate + inmates of the ward, and her hysterical scream had terrified the others. + </p> + <p> + By the influence of asylums, hospitals, and similar institutions, the old + conceptions of disease, as I have said, are gradually dying out, but the + znakharka still finds practice. The fact that the znakharka is to be found + side by side not only with the feldsher, but also with the highly trained + bacteriologist, is very characteristic of Russian civilisation, which is a + strange conglomeration of products belonging to very different periods. + The enquirer who undertakes the study of it will sometimes be scarcely + less surprised than would be the naturalist who should unexpectedly + stumble upon antediluvian megatheria grazing tranquilly in the same field + with prize Southdowns. He will discover the most primitive institutions + side by side with the latest products of French doctrinairism, and the + most childish superstitions in close proximity with the most advanced + free-thinking. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <h3> + A PEASANT FAMILY OF THE OLD TYPE + </h3> + <p> + Ivan Petroff—His Past Life—Co-operative Associations—Constitution + of a Peasant's Household—Predominance of Economic Conceptions over + those of Blood-relationship—Peasant Marriages—Advantages of + Living in Large Families—Its Defects—Family Disruptions and + their Consequences. + </p> + <p> + My illness had at least one good result. It brought me into contact with + the feldsher, and through him, after my recovery, I made the acquaintance + of several peasants living in the village. Of these by far the most + interesting was an old man called Ivan Petroff. + </p> + <p> + Ivan must have been about sixty years of age, but was still robust and + strong, and had the reputation of being able to mow more hay in a given + time than any other peasant in the village. His head would have made a + line study for a portrait-painter. Like Russian peasants in general, he + wore his hair parted in the middle—a custom which perhaps owes its + origin to the religious pictures. The reverend appearance given to his + face by his long fair beard, slightly tinged with grey, was in part + counteracted by his eyes, which had a strange twinkle in them—whether + of humour or of roguery, it was difficult to say. Under all circumstances—whether + in his light, nondescript summer costume, or in his warm sheep-skin, or in + the long, glossy, dark-blue, double-breasted coat which he put on + occasionally on Sundays and holidays—he always looked a well-fed, + respectable, prosperous member of society; whilst his imperturbable + composure, and the entire absence of obsequiousness or truculence in his + manner, indicated plainly that he possessed no small amount of calm, + deep-rooted self-respect. A stranger, on seeing him, might readily have + leaped to the conclusion that he must be the Village Elder, but in reality + he was a simple member of the Commune, like his neighbour, poor Zakhar + Leshkof, who never let slip an opportunity of getting drunk, was always in + debt, and, on the whole, possessed a more than dubious reputation. + </p> + <p> + Ivan had, it is true, been Village Elder some years before. When elected + by the Village Assembly, against his own wishes, he had said quietly, + "Very well, children; I will serve my three years"; and at the end of that + period, when the Assembly wished to re-elect him, he had answered firmly, + "No, children; I have served my term. It is now the turn of some one who + is younger, and has more time. There's Peter Alekseyef, a good fellow, and + an honest; you may choose him." And the Assembly chose the peasant + indicated; for Ivan, though a simple member of the Commune, had more + influence in Communal affairs than any other half-dozen members put + together. No grave matter was decided without his being consulted, and + there was at least one instance on record of the Village Assembly + postponing deliberations for a week because he happened to be absent in + St. Petersburg. + </p> + <p> + No stranger casually meeting Ivan would ever for a moment have suspected + that that big man, of calm, commanding aspect, had been during a great + part of his life a serf. And yet a serf he had been from his birth till he + was about thirty years of age—not merely a serf of the State, but + the serf of a proprietor who had lived habitually on his property. For + thirty years of his life he had been dependent on the arbitrary will of a + master who had the legal power to flog him as often and as severely as he + considered desirable. In reality he had never been subjected to corporal + punishment, for the proprietor to whom he had belonged had been, though in + some respects severe, a just and intelligent master. + </p> + <p> + Ivan's bright, sympathetic face had early attracted the master's + attention, and it was decided that he should learn a trade. For this + purpose he was sent to Moscow, and apprenticed there to a carpenter. After + four years of apprenticeship he was able not only to earn his own bread, + but to help the household in the payment of their taxes, and to pay + annually to his master a fixed yearly sum—first ten, then twenty, + then thirty, and ultimately, for some years immediately before the + Emancipation, seventy roubles. In return for this annual sum he was free + to work and wander about as he pleased, and for some years he had made + ample use of his conditional liberty. I never succeeded in extracting from + him a chronological account of his travels, but I could gather from his + occasional remarks that he had wandered over a great part of European + Russia. Evidently he had been in his youth what is colloquially termed "a + roving blade," and had by no means confined himself to the trade which he + had learned during his four years of apprenticeship. Once he had helped to + navigate a raft from Vetluga to Astrakhan, a distance of about two + thousand miles. At another time he had been at Archangel and Onega, on the + shores of the White Sea. St. Petersburg and Moscow were both well known to + him, and he had visited Odessa. + </p> + <p> + The precise nature of Ivan's occupations during these wanderings I could + not ascertain; for, with all his openness of manner, he was extremely + reticent regarding his commercial affairs. To all my inquiries on this + topic he was wont to reply vaguely, "Lesnoe dyelo"—that is to say, + "Timber business"; and from this I concluded that his chief occupation had + been that of a timber merchant. Indeed, when I knew him, though he was no + longer a regular trader, he was always ready to buy any bit of forest that + could be bought in the vicinity for a reasonable price. + </p> + <p> + During all this nomadic period of his life Ivan had never entirely severed + his connection with his native village or with agricultural life. When + about the age of twenty he had spent several months at home, taking part + in the field labour, and had married a wife—a strong, healthy young + woman, who had been selected for him by his mother, and strongly + recommended to him on account of her good character and her physical + strength. In the opinion of Ivan's mother, beauty was a kind of luxury + which only nobles and rich merchants could afford, and ordinary comeliness + was a very secondary consideration—so secondary as to be left almost + entirely out of sight. This was likewise the opinion of Ivan's wife. She + had never been comely herself, she used to say, but she had been a good + wife to her husband. He had never complained about her want of good looks, + and had never gone after those who were considered good-looking. In + expressing this opinion she always first bent forward, then drew herself + up to her full length, and finally gave a little jerky nod sideways, so as + to clench the statement. Then Ivan's bright eye would twinkle more + brightly than usual, and he would ask her how she knew that—reminding + her that he was not always at home. This was Ivan's stereotyped mode of + teasing his wife, and every time he employed it he was called an "old + scarecrow," or something of the kind. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, however, Ivan's jocular remark had more significance in it than + his wife cared to admit, for during the first years of their married life + they had seen very little of each other. A few days after the marriage, + when according to our notions the honeymoon should be at its height, Ivan + had gone to Moscow for several months, leaving his young bride to the care + of his father and mother. The young bride did not consider this an + extraordinary hardship, for many of her companions had been treated in the + same way, and according to public opinion in that part of the country + there was nothing abnormal in the proceeding. Indeed, it may be said in + general that there is very little romance or sentimentality about Russian + peasant marriages. In this as in other respects the Russian peasantry are, + as a class, extremely practical and matter-of-fact in their conceptions + and habits, and are not at all prone to indulge in sublime, ethereal + sentiments of any kind. They have little or nothing of what may be termed + the Hermann and Dorothea element in their composition, and consequently + know very little about those sentimental, romantic ideas which we + habitually associate with the preliminary steps to matrimony. Even those + authors who endeavour to idealise peasant life have rarely ventured to + make their story turn on a sentimental love affair. Certainly in real life + the wife is taken as a helpmate, or in plain language a worker, rather + than as a companion, and the mother-in-law leaves her very little time to + indulge in fruitless dreaming. + </p> + <p> + As time wore on, and his father became older and frailer, Ivan's visits to + his native place became longer and more frequent, and when the old man was + at last incapable of work, Ivan settled down permanently and undertook the + direction of the household. In the meantime his own children had been + growing up. When I knew the family it comprised—besides two + daughters who had married early and gone to live with their parents-in-law—Ivan + and his wife, two sons, three daughters-in-law, and an indefinite and + frequently varying number of grandchildren. The fact that there were three + daughters-in-law and only two sons was the result of the Conscription, + which had taken away the youngest son shortly after his marriage. The two + who remained spent only a small part of the year at home. The one was a + carpenter and the other a bricklayer, and both wandered about the country + in search of employment, as their father had done in his younger days. + There was, however, one difference. The father had always shown a leaning + towards commercial transactions, rather than the simple practice of his + handicraft, and consequently he had usually lived and travelled alone. The + sons, on the contrary, confined themselves to their handicrafts, and were + always during the working season members of an artel. + </p> + <p> + The artel in its various forms is a curious institution. Those to which + Ivan's sons belonged were simply temporary, itinerant associations of + workmen, who during the summer lived together, fed together, worked + together, and periodically divided amongst themselves the profits. This is + the primitive form of the institution, and is now not very often met with. + Here, as elsewhere, capital has made itself felt, and destroyed that + equality which exists among the members of an artel in the above sense of + the word. Instead of forming themselves into a temporary association, the + workmen now generally make an engagement with a contractor who has a + little capital, and receive from him fixed monthly wages. The only + association which exists in this case is for the purchase and preparation + of provisions, and even these duties are very often left to the + contractor. + </p> + <p> + In some of the larger towns there are artels of a much more complex kind—permanent + associations, possessing a large capital, and pecuniarily responsible for + the acts of the individual members. Of these, by far the most celebrated + is that of the Bank Porters. These men have unlimited opportunities of + stealing, and are often entrusted with the guarding or transporting of + enormous sums; but the banker has no cause for anxiety, because he knows + that if any defalcations occur they will be made good to him by the artel. + Such accidents very rarely happen, and the fact is by no means so + extraordinary as many people suppose. The artel, being responsible for the + individuals of which it is composed, is very careful in admitting new + members, and a man when admitted is closely watched, not only by the + regularly constituted office-bearers, but also by all his fellow-members + who have an opportunity of observing him. If he begins to spend money too + freely or to neglect his duties, though his employer may know nothing of + the fact, suspicions are at once aroused among his fellow-members, and an + investigation ensues—ending in summary expulsion if the suspicions + prove to have been well founded. Mutual responsibility, in short, creates + a very effective system of mutual supervision. + </p> + <p> + Of Ivan's sons, the one who was a carpenter visited his family only + occasionally, and at irregular intervals; the bricklayer, on the contrary, + as building is impossible in Russia during the cold weather, spent the + greater part of the winter at home. Both of them paid a large part of + their earnings into the family treasury, over which their father exercised + uncontrolled authority. If he wished to make any considerable outlay, he + consulted his sons on the subject; but as he was a prudent, intelligent + man, and enjoyed the respect and confidence of the family, he never met + with any strong opposition. All the field work was performed by him with + the assistance of his daughters-in-law; only at harvest time he hired one + or two labourers to help him. + </p> + <p> + Ivan's household was a good specimen of the Russian peasant family of the + old type. Previous to the Emancipation in 1861 there were many households + of this kind, containing the representatives of three generations. All the + members, young and old, lived together in patriarchal fashion under the + direction and authority of the Head of the House, called usually the + Khozain—that is to say, the Administrator; or, in some districts, + the Bolshak, which means literally "the Big One." Generally speaking, this + important position was occupied by the grandfather, or, if he was dead, by + the eldest brother, but the rule was not very strictly observed. If, for + instance, the grandfather became infirm, or if the eldest brother was + incapacitated by disorderly habits or other cause, the place of authority + was taken by some other member—it might be by a woman—who was + a good manager, and possessed the greatest moral influence. + </p> + <p> + The relations between the Head of the Household and the other members + depended on custom and personal character, and they consequently varied + greatly in different families. If the Big One was an intelligent man, of + decided, energetic character, like my friend Ivan, there was probably + perfect discipline in the household, except perhaps in the matter of + female tongues, which do not readily submit to the authority even of their + owners; but very often it happened that the Big One was not thoroughly + well fitted for his post, and in that case endless quarrels and bickerings + inevitably took place. Those quarrels were generally caused and fomented + by the female members of the family—a fact which will not seem + strange if we try to realise how difficult it must be for several + sisters-in-law to live together, with their children and a mother-in-law, + within the narrow limits of a peasant's household. The complaints of the + young bride, who finds that her mother-in-law puts all the hard work on + her shoulders, form a favourite motive in the popular poetry. + </p> + <p> + The house, with its appurtenances, the cattle, the agricultural + implements, the grain and other products, the money gained from the sale + of these products—in a word, the house and nearly everything it + contained—were the joint property of the family. Hence nothing was + bought or sold by any member—not even by the Big One himself, unless + he possessed an unusual amount of authority—without the express or + tacit consent of the other grown-up males, and all the money that was + earned was put into the common purse. When one of the sons left home to + work elsewhere, he was expected to bring or send home all his earnings, + except what he required for food, lodgings, and other necessary expenses; + and if he understood the word "necessary" in too lax a sense, he had to + listen to very plain-spoken reproaches when he returned. During his + absence, which might last for a whole year or several years, his wife and + children remained in the house as before, and the money which he earned + could be devoted to the payment of the family taxes. + </p> + <p> + The peasant household of the old type is thus a primitive labour + association, of which the members have all things in common, and it is not + a little remarkable that the peasant conceives it as such rather than as a + family. This is shown by the customary terminology, for the Head of the + Household is not called by any word corresponding to Paterfamilias, but is + termed, as I have said, Khozain, or Administrator—a word that is + applied equally to a farmer, a shopkeeper or the head of an industrial + undertaking, and does not at all convey the idea of blood-relationship. It + is likewise shown by what takes place when a household is broken up. On + such occasions the degree of blood-relationship is not taken into + consideration in the distribution of the property. All the adult male + members share equally. Illegitimate and adopted sons, if they have + contributed their share of labour, have the same rights as the sons born + in lawful wedlock. The married daughter, on the contrary—being + regarded as belonging to her husband's family—and the son who has + previously separated himself from the household, are excluded from the + succession. Strictly speaking, the succession or inheritance is confined + to the wearing apparel and any little personal effects of a deceased + member. The house and all that it contains belong to the little household + community; and, consequently, when it is broken up, by the death of the + Khozain or other cause, the members do not inherit, but merely appropriate + individually what they had hitherto possessed collectively. Thus there is + properly no inheritance or succession, but simply liquidation and + distribution of the property among the members. The written law of + inheritance founded on the conception of personal property, is quite + unknown to the peasantry, and quite inapplicable to their mode of life. In + this way a large and most important section of the Code remains a dead + letter for about four-fifths of the population. + </p> + <p> + This predominance of practical economic considerations is exemplified also + by the way in which marriages are arranged in these large families. In the + primitive system of agriculture usually practised in Russia, the natural + labour-unit—if I may use such a term—comprises a man, a woman, + and a horse. As soon, therefore, as a boy becomes an able-bodied labourer + he ought to be provided with the two accessories necessary for the + completion of the labour-unit. To procure a horse, either by purchase or + by rearing a foal, is the duty of the Head of the House; to procure a wife + for the youth is the duty of "the female Big One" (Bolshukha). And the + chief consideration in determining the choice is in both cases the same. + Prudent domestic administrators are not to be tempted by showy horses or + beautiful brides; what they seek is not beauty, but physical strength and + capacity for work. When the youth reaches the age of eighteen he is + informed that he ought to marry at once, and as soon as he gives his + consent negotiations are opened with the parents of some eligible young + person. In the larger villages the negotiations are sometimes facilitated + by certain old women called svakhi, who occupy themselves specially with + this kind of mediation; but very often the affair is arranged directly by, + or through the agency of, some common friend of the two houses. + </p> + <p> + Care must of course be taken that there is no legal obstacle, and these + obstacles are not always easily avoided in a small village, the + inhabitants of which have been long in the habit of intermarrying. + According to Russian ecclesiastical law, not only is marriage between + first-cousins illegal, but affinity is considered as equivalent to + consanguinity—that is to say a mother-in-law and a sister-in-law are + regarded as a mother and a sister—and even the fictitious + relationship created by standing together at the baptismal font as + godfather and godmother is legally recognised, and may constitute a bar to + matrimony. If all the preliminary negotiations are successful, the + marriage takes place, and the bridegroom brings his bride home to the + house of which he is a member. She brings nothing with her as a dowry + except her trousseau, but she brings a pair of good strong arms, and + thereby enriches her adopted family. Of course it happens occasionally—for + human nature is everywhere essentially the same—that a young peasant + falls in love with one of his former playmates, and brings his little + romance to a happy conclusion at the altar; but such cases are very rare, + and as a rule it may be said that the marriages of the Russian peasantry + are arranged under the influence of economic rather than sentimental + considerations. + </p> + <p> + The custom of living in large families has many economic advantages. We + all know the edifying fable of the dying man who showed to his sons by + means of a piece of wicker-work the advantages of living together and + assisting each other. In ordinary times the necessary expenses of a large + household of ten members are considerably less than the combined expenses + of two households comprising five members each, and when a "black day" + comes a large family can bear temporary adversity much more successfully + than a small one. These are principles of world-wide application, but in + the life of the Russian peasantry they have a peculiar force. Each adult + peasant possesses, as I shall hereafter explain, a share of the Communal + land, but this share is not sufficient to occupy all his time and working + power. One married pair can easily cultivate two shares—at least in + all provinces where the peasant allotments are not very large. Now, if a + family is composed of two married couples, one of the men can go elsewhere + and earn money, whilst the other, with his wife and sister-in-law, can + cultivate the two combined shares of land. If, on the contrary a family + consists merely of one pair with their children, the man must either + remain at home—in which case he may have difficulty in finding work + for the whole of his time—or he must leave home, and entrust the + cultivation of his share of the land to his wife, whose time must be in + great part devoted to domestic affairs. + </p> + <p> + In the time of serfage the proprietors clearly perceived these and similar + advantages, and compelled their serfs to live together in large families. + No family could be broken up without the proprietor's consent, and this + consent was not easily obtained unless the family had assumed quite + abnormal proportions and was permanently disturbed by domestic dissension. + In the matrimonial affairs of the serfs, too, the majority of the + proprietors systematically exercised a certain supervision, not + necessarily from any paltry meddling spirit, but because their own + material interests were thereby affected. A proprietor would not, for + instance, allow the daughter of one of his serfs to marry a serf belonging + to another proprietor—because he would thereby lose a female + labourer—unless some compensation were offered. The compensation + might be a sum of money, or the affair might be arranged on the principle + of reciprocity by the master of the bridegroom allowing one of his female + serfs to marry a serf belonging to the master of the bride. + </p> + <p> + However advantageous the custom of living in large families may appear + when regarded from the economic point of view, it has very serious + defects, both theoretical and practical. + </p> + <p> + That families connected by the ties of blood-relationship and marriage can + easily live together in harmony is one of those social axioms which are + accepted universally and believed by nobody. We all know by our own + experience, or by that of others, that the friendly relations of two such + families are greatly endangered by proximity of habitation. To live in the + same street is not advisable; to occupy adjoining houses is positively + dangerous; and to live under the same roof is certainly fatal to prolonged + amity. There may be the very best intentions on both sides, and the + arrangement may be inaugurated by the most gushing expressions of undying + affection and by the discovery of innumerable secret affinities, but + neither affinities, affection, nor good intentions can withstand the + constant friction and occasional jerks which inevitably ensue. + </p> + <p> + Now the reader must endeavour to realise that Russian peasants, even when + clad in sheep-skins, are human beings like ourselves. Though they are + often represented as abstract entities—as figures in a table of + statistics or dots on a diagram—they have in reality "organs, + dimensions, senses, affections, passions." If not exactly "fed with the + same food," they are at least "hurt with the same weapons, subject to the + same diseases, healed by the same means," and liable to be irritated by + the same annoyances as we are. And those of them who live in large + families are subjected to a kind of probation that most of us have never + dreamed of. The families comprising a large household not only live + together, but have nearly all things in common. Each member works, not for + himself, but for the household, and all that he earns is expected to go + into the family treasury. The arrangement almost inevitably leads to one + of two results—either there are continual dissensions, or order is + preserved by a powerful domestic tyranny. + </p> + <p> + It is quite natural, therefore, that when the authority of the landed + proprietors was abolished in 1861, the large peasant families almost all + crumbled to pieces. The arbitrary rule of the Khozain was based on, and + maintained by, the arbitrary rule of the proprietor, and both naturally + fell together. Households like that of our friend Ivan were preserved only + in exceptional cases, where the Head of the House happened to possess an + unusual amount of moral influence over the other members. + </p> + <p> + This change has unquestionably had a prejudicial influence on the material + welfare of the peasantry, but it must have added considerably to their + domestic comfort, and may perhaps produce good moral results. For the + present, however, the evil consequences are by far the most prominent. + Every married peasant strives to have a house of his own, and many of + them, in order to defray the necessary expenses, have been obliged to + contract debts. This is a very serious matter. Even if the peasants could + obtain money at five or six per cent., the position of the debtors would + be bad enough, but it is in reality much worse, for the village usurers + consider twenty or twenty-five per cent. a by no means exorbitant rate of + interest. A laudable attempt has been made to remedy this state of things + by village banks, but these have proved successful only in certain + exceptional localities. As a rule the peasant who contracts debts has a + hard struggle to pay the interest in ordinary times, and when some + misfortune overtakes him—when, for instance, the harvest is bad or + his horse is stolen—he probably falls hopelessly into pecuniary + embarrassments. I have seen peasants not specially addicted to drunkenness + or other ruinous habits sink to a helpless state of insolvency. + Fortunately for such insolvent debtors, they are treated by the law with + extreme leniency. Their house, their share of the common land, their + agricultural implements, their horse—in a word, all that is + necessary for their subsistence, is exempt from sequestration. The + Commune, however, may bring strong pressure to bear on those who do not + pay their taxes. When I lived among the peasantry in the seventies, + corporal punishment inflicted by order of the Commune was among the means + usually employed; and though the custom was recently prohibited by an + Imperial decree of Nicholas II, I am not at all sure that it has entirely + disappeared. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <h3> + THE PEASANTRY OF THE NORTH + </h3> + <p> + Communal Land—System of Agriculture—Parish Fetes—Fasting—Winter + Occupations—Yearly Migrations—Domestic Industries—Influence + of Capital and Wholesale Enterprise—The State Peasants—Serf-dues—Buckle's + "History of Civilisation"—A precocious Yamstchik—"People Who + Play Pranks"—A Midnight Alarm—The Far North. + </p> + <p> + Ivanofka may be taken as a fair specimen of the villages in the northern + half of the country, and a brief description of its inhabitants will + convey a tolerably correct notion of the northern peasantry in general. + </p> + <p> + Nearly the whole of the female population, and about one-half of the male + inhabitants, are habitually engaged in cultivating the Communal land, + which comprises about two thousand acres of a light sandy soil. The arable + part of this land is divided into three large fields, each of which is cut + up into long narrow strips. The first field is reserved for the winter + grain—that is to say, rye, which forms, in the shape of black bread, + the principal food of the rural population. In the second are raised oats + for the horses, and buckwheat, which is largely used for food. The third + lies fallow, and is used in the summer as pasturage for the cattle. + </p> + <p> + All the villagers in this part of the country divide the arable land in + this way, in order to suit the triennial rotation of crops. This triennial + system is extremely simple. The field which is used this year for raising + winter grain will be used next year for raising summer grain, and in the + following year will lie fallow. Before being sown with winter grain it + ought to receive a certain amount of manure. Every family possesses in + each of the two fields under cultivation one or more of the long narrow + strips or belts into which they are divided. + </p> + <p> + The annual life of the peasantry is that of simple husbandman, inhabiting + a country where the winter is long and severe. The agricultural year + begins in April with the melting of the snow. Nature has been lying + dormant for some months. Awaking now from her long sleep, and throwing off + her white mantle, she strives to make up for lost time. No sooner has the + snow disappeared than the fresh young grass begins to shoot up, and very + soon afterwards the shrubs and trees begin to bud. The rapidity of this + transition from winter to spring astonishes the inhabitants of more + temperate climes. + </p> + <p> + On St. George's Day (April 23rd*) the cattle are brought out for the first + time, and sprinkled with holy water by the priest. They are never very + fat, but at this period of the year their appearance is truly lamentable. + During the winter they have been cooped up in small unventilated + cow-houses, and fed almost exclusively on straw; now, when they are + released from their imprisonment, they look like the ghosts of their + former emaciated selves. All are lean and weak, many are lame, and some + cannot rise to their feet without assistance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * With regard to saints' days, I always give the date + according to the old style. To find the date according to + our calendar, thirteen days must be added. +</pre> + <p> + Meanwhile the peasants are impatient to begin the field labour. An old + proverb which they all know says: "Sow in mud and you will be a prince"; + and they always act in accordance with this dictate of traditional wisdom. + As soon as it is possible to plough they begin to prepare the land for the + summer grain, and this labour occupies them probably till the end of May. + Then comes the work of carting out manure and preparing the fallow field + for the winter grain, which will last probably till about St. Peter's Day + (June 29th), when the hay-making generally begins. After the hay-making + comes the harvest, by far the busiest time of the year. From the middle of + July—especially from St. Elijah's Day (July 20th), when the saint is + usually heard rumbling along the heavens in his chariot of fire*—until + the end of August, the peasant may work day and night, and yet he will + find that he has barely time to get all his work done. In little more than + a month he has to reap and stack his grain—rye, oats, and whatever + else he may have sown either in spring or in the preceding autumn—and + to sow the winter grain for next year. To add to his troubles, it + sometimes happens that the rye and the oats ripen almost simultaneously, + and his position is then still more difficult. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is thus that the peasants explain the thunder, which is + often heard at that season. +</pre> + <p> + Whether the seasons favour him or not, the peasant has at this time a hard + task, for he can rarely afford to hire the requisite number of labourers, + and has generally the assistance merely of his wife and family; but he can + at this season work for a short time at high pressure, for he has the + prospect of soon obtaining a good rest and an abundance of food. About the + end of September the field labour is finished, and on the first day of + October the harvest festival begins—a joyous season, during which + the parish fetes are commonly celebrated. + </p> + <p> + To celebrate a parish fete in true orthodox fashion it is necessary to + prepare beforehand a large quantity of braga—a kind of home-brewed + small beer—and to bake a plentiful supply of piroghi or meat pies. + Oil, too, has to be procured, and vodka (rye spirit) in goodly quantity. + At the same time the big room of the izba, as the peasant's house is + called, has to be cleared, the floor washed, and the table and benches + scrubbed. The evening before the fete, while the piroghi are being baked, + a little lamp burns before the Icon in the corner of the room, and perhaps + one or two guests from a distance arrive in order that they may have on + the morrow a full day's enjoyment. + </p> + <p> + On the morning of the fete the proceedings begin by a long service in the + church, at which all the inhabitants are present in their best holiday + costumes, except those matrons and young women who remain at home to + prepare the dinner. About mid-day dinner is served in each izba for the + family and their friends. In general the Russian peasant's fare is of the + simplest kind, and rarely comprises animal food of any sort—not from + any vegetarian proclivities, but merely because beef, mutton, and pork are + too expensive; but on a holiday, such as a parish fete, there is always on + the dinner table a considerable variety of dishes. In the house of a + well-to-do family there will be not only greasy cabbage-soup and kasha—a + dish made from buckwheat—but also pork, mutton, and perhaps even + beef. Braga will be supplied in unlimited quantities, and more than once + vodka will be handed round. When the repast is finished, all rise + together, and, turning towards the Icon in the corner, bow and cross + themselves repeatedly. The guests then say to their host, "Spasibo za + khelb za sol"—that is to say, "Thanks for your hospitality," or more + literally, "Thanks for bread and salt"; and the host replies, "Do not be + displeased, sit down once more for good luck"—or perhaps he puts the + last part of his request into the form of a rhyming couplet to the + following effect: "Sit down, that the hens may brood, and that the + chickens and bees may multiply!" All obey this request, and there is + another round of vodka. + </p> + <p> + After dinner some stroll about, chatting with their friends, or go to + sleep in some shady nook, whilst those who wish to make merry go to the + spot where the young people are singing, playing, and amusing themselves + in various ways. As the sun sinks towards the horizon, the more grave, + staid guests wend their way homewards, but many remain for supper; and as + evening advances the effects of the vodka become more and more apparent. + Sounds of revelry are heard more frequently from the houses, and a large + proportion of the inhabitants and guests appear on the road in various + degrees of intoxication. Some of these vow eternal affection to their + friends, or with flaccid gestures and in incoherent tones harangue + invisible audiences; others stagger about aimlessly in besotted + self-contentment, till they drop down in a state of complete + unconsciousness. There they will lie tranquilly till they are picked up by + their less intoxicated friends, or more probably till they awake of their + own accord next morning. + </p> + <p> + As a whole, a village fete in Russia is a saddening spectacle. It affords + a new proof—where, alas! no new proof was required—that we + northern nations, who know so well how to work, have not yet learned the + art of amusing ourselves. + </p> + <p> + If the Russian peasant's food were always as good and plentiful as at this + season of the year, he would have little reason to complain; but this is + by no means the case. Gradually, as the harvest-time recedes, it + deteriorates in quality, and sometimes diminishes in quantity. Besides + this, during a great part of the year the peasant is prevented, by the + rules of the Church, from using much that he possesses. + </p> + <p> + In southern climes, where these rules were elaborated and first practised, + the prescribed fasts are perhaps useful not only in a religious, but also + in a sanitary sense. Having abundance of fruit and vegetables, the + inhabitants do well to abstain occasionally from animal food. But in + countries like Northern and Central Russia the influence of these rules is + very different. The Russian peasant cannot get as much animal food as he + requires, whilst sour cabbage and cucumbers are probably the only + vegetables he can procure, and fruit of any kind is for him an + unattainable luxury. Under these circumstances, abstinence from eggs and + milk in all their forms during several months of the year seems to the + secular mind a superfluous bit of asceticism. If the Church would direct + her maternal solicitude to the peasant's drinking, and leave him to eat + what he pleases, she might exercise a beneficial influence on his material + and moral welfare. Unfortunately she has a great deal too much inherent + immobility to attempt anything of the kind, so the muzhik, while free to + drink copiously whenever he gets the chance, must fast during the seven + weeks of Lent, during two or three weeks in June, from the beginning of + November till Christmas, and on all Wednesdays and Fridays during the + remainder of the year. + </p> + <p> + From the festival time till the following spring there is no possibility + of doing any agricultural work, for the ground is hard as iron, and + covered with a deep layer of snow. The male peasants, therefore, who + remain in the villages, have very little to do, and may spend the greater + part of their time in lying idly on the stove, unless they happen to have + learned some handicraft that can be practised at home. Formerly, many of + them were employed in transporting the grain to the market town, which + might be several hundred miles distant; but now this species of occupation + has been greatly diminished by the extension of railways. + </p> + <p> + Another winter occupation which was formerly practised, and has now almost + fallen into disuse, was that of stealing wood in the forest. This was, + according to peasant morality, no sin, or at most a very venial offence, + for God plants and waters the trees, and therefore forests belong properly + to no one. So thought the peasantry, but the landed proprietors and the + Administration of the Domains held a different theory of property, and + consequently precautions had to be taken to avoid detection. In order to + ensure success it was necessary to choose a night when there was a violent + snowstorm, which would immediately obliterate all traces of the + expedition; and when such a night was found, the operation was commonly + performed with success. During the hours of darkness a tree would be + felled, stripped of its branches, dragged into the village, and cut up + into firewood, and at sunrise the actors would be tranquilly sleeping on + the stove as if they had spent the night at home. In recent years the + judicial authorities have done much towards putting down this practice and + eradicating the loose conceptions of property with which it was connected. + </p> + <p> + For the female part of the population the winter used to be a busy time, + for it was during these four or five months that the spinning and weaving + had to be done, but now the big factories, with their cheap methods of + production, are rapidly killing the home industries, and the young girls + are not learning to work at the jenny and the loom as their mothers and + grandmothers did. + </p> + <p> + In many of the northern villages, where ancient usages happen to be + preserved, the tedium of the long winter evenings is relieved by so-called + Besedy, a word which signifies literally conversazioni. A Beseda, however, + is not exactly a conversazione as we understand the term, but resembles + rather what is by some ladies called a Dorcas meeting, with this essential + difference, that those present work for themselves and not for any + benevolent purposes. In some villages as many as three Besedy regularly + assemble about sunset; one for the children, the second for the young + people, and the third for the matrons. Each of the three has its peculiar + character. In the first, the children work and amuse themselves under the + superintendence of an old woman, who trims the torch* and endeavours to + keep order. The little girls spin flax in a primitive way without the aid + of a jenny, and the boys, who are, on the whole, much less industrious, + make simple bits of wicker-work. Formerly—I mean within my own + recollection—many of them used to make rude shoes of plaited bark, + called lapty, but these are being rapidly supplanted by leather boots. + These occupations do not prevent an almost incessant hum of talk, frequent + discordant attempts to sing in chorus, and occasional quarrels requiring + the energetic interference of the old woman who controls the proceedings. + To amuse her noisy flock she sometimes relates to them, for the hundredth + time, one of those wonderful old stories that lose nothing by repetition, + and all listen to her attentively, as if they had never heard the story + before. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The torch (lutchina) has now almost entirely disappeared + and been replaced by the petroleum lamp. +</pre> + <p> + The second Beseda is held in another house by the young people of a riper + age. Here the workers are naturally more staid, less given to quarrelling, + sing more in harmony, and require no one to look after them. Some people, + however, might think that a chaperon or inspector of some kind would be by + no means out of place, for a good deal of flirtation goes on, and if + village scandal is to be trusted, strict propriety in thought, word, and + deed is not always observed. How far these reports are true I cannot + pretend to say, for the presence of a stranger always acts on the company + like the presence of a severe inspector. In the third Beseda there is + always at least strict decorum. Here the married women work together and + talk about their domestic concerns, enlivening the conversation + occasionally by the introduction of little bits of village scandal. + </p> + <p> + Such is the ordinary life of the peasants who live by agriculture; but + many of the villagers live occasionally or permanently in the towns. + Probably the majority of the peasants in this region have at some period + of their lives gained a living elsewhere. Many of the absentees spend + yearly a few months at home, whilst others visit their families only + occasionally, and, it may be, at long intervals. In no case, however, do + they sever their connection with their native village. Even the peasant + who becomes a rich merchant and settles permanently with his family in + Moscow or St. Petersburg remains probably a member of the Village Commune, + and pays his share of the taxes, though he does not enjoy any of the + corresponding privileges. Once I remember asking a rich man of this kind, + the proprietor of several large houses in St. Petersburg, why he did not + free himself from all connection with his native Commune, with which he + had no longer any interests in common. His answer was, "It is all very + well to be free, and I don't want anything from the Commune now; but my + old father lives there, my mother is buried there, and I like to go back + to the old place sometimes. Besides, I have children, and our affairs are + commercial (nashe dyelo torgovoe). Who knows but my children may be very + glad some day to have a share of the Commune land?" + </p> + <p> + In respect to these non-agricultural occupations, each district has its + specialty. The province of Yaroslavl, for instance, supplies the large + towns with waiters for the traktirs, or lower class of restaurants, whilst + the best hotels in Petersburg are supplied by the Tartars of Kasimof, + celebrated for their sobriety and honesty. One part of the province of + Kostroma has a special reputation for producing carpenters and + stove-builders, whilst another part, as I once discovered to my surprise, + sends yearly to Siberia—not as convicts, but as free laborours—a + large contingent of tailors and workers in felt! On questioning some + youngsters who were accompanying as apprentices one of these bands, I was + informed by a bright-eyed youth of about sixteen that he had already made + the journey twice, and intended to go every winter. "And you always bring + home a big pile of money with you?" I inquired. "Nitchevo!" replied the + little fellow, gaily, with an air of pride and self-confidence; "last year + I brought home three roubles!" This answer was, at the moment, not + altogether welcome, for I had just been discussing with a Russian + fellow-traveller as to whether the peasantry can fairly be called + industrious, and the boy's reply enabled my antagonist to score a point + against me. "You hear that!" he said, triumphantly. "A Russian peasant + goes all the way to Siberia and back for three roubles! Could you get an + Englishman to work at that rate?" "Perhaps not," I replied, evasively, + thinking at the same time that if a youth were sent several times from + Land's End to John o' Groat's House, and obliged to make the greater part + of the journey in carts or on foot, he would probably expect, by way of + remuneration for the time and labour expended, rather more than seven and + sixpence! + </p> + <p> + Very often the peasants find industrial occupations without leaving home, + for various industries which do not require complicated machinery are + practised in the villages by the peasants and their families. Wooden + vessels, wrought iron, pottery, leather, rush-matting, and numerous other + articles are thus produced in enormous quantities. Occasionally we find + not only a whole village, but even a whole district occupied almost + exclusively with some one kind of manual industry. In the province of + Vladimir, for example, a large group of villages live by Icon-painting; in + one locality near Nizhni-Novgorod nineteen villages are occupied with the + manufacture of axes; round about Pavlovo, in the same province, eighty + villages produce almost nothing but cutlery; and in a locality called + Ouloma, on the borders of Novgorod and Tver, no less than two hundred + villages live by nail-making. + </p> + <p> + These domestic industries have long existed, and were formerly an abundant + source of revenue—providing a certain compensation for the poverty + of the soil. But at present they are in a very critical position. They + belong to the primitive period of economic development, and that period in + Russia, as I shall explain in a future chapter, is now rapidly drawing to + a close. Formerly the Head of a Household bought the raw material, had it + worked up at home, and sold with a reasonable profit the manufactured + articles at the bazaars, as the local fairs are called, or perhaps at the + great annual yarmarkt* of Nizhni-Novgorod. This primitive system is now + rapidly becoming obsolete. Capital and wholesale enterprise have come into + the field and are revolutionising the old methods of production and trade. + Already whole groups of industrial villages have fallen under the power of + middle-men, who advance money to the working households and fix the price + of the products. Attempts are frequently made to break their power by + voluntary co-operative associations, organised by the local authorities or + benevolent landed proprietors of the neighbourhood—like the + benevolent people in England who try to preserve the traditional cottage + industries—and some of the associations work very well; but the + ultimate success of such "efforts to stem the current of capitalism" is + extremely doubtful. At the same time, the periodical bazaars and yarmarki, + at which producers and consumers transacted their affairs without + mediation, are being replaced by permanent stores and by various classes + of tradesmen—wholesale and retail. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This term is a corruption of the German word Jahrmarkt. +</pre> + <p> + To the political economist of the rigidly orthodox school this important + change may afford great satisfaction. According to his theories it is a + gigantic step in the right direction, and must necessarily redound to the + advantage of all parties concerned. The producer now receives a regular + supply of raw material, and regularly disposes of the articles + manufactured; and the time and trouble which he formerly devoted to + wandering about in search of customers he can now employ more profitably + in productive work. The creation of a class between the producers and the + consumers is an important step towards that division and specialisation of + labour which is a necessary condition of industrial and commercial + prosperity. The consumer no longer requires to go on a fixed day to some + distant point, on the chance of finding there what he requires, but can + always buy what he pleases in the permanent stores. Above all, the + production is greatly increased in amount, and the price of manufactured + goods is proportionally lessened. + </p> + <p> + All this seems clear enough in theory, and any one who values intellectual + tranquillity will feel disposed to accept this view of the case without + questioning its accuracy; but the unfortunate traveller who is obliged to + use his eyes as well as his logical faculties may find some little + difficulty in making the facts fit into the a priori formula. Far be it + from me to question the wisdom of political economists, but I cannot + refrain from remarking that of the three classes concerned—small + producers, middle-men, and consumers—two fail to perceive and + appreciate the benefits which have been conferred upon them. The small + producers complain that on the new system they work more and gain less; + and the consumers complain that the manufactured articles, if cheaper and + more showy in appearance, are far inferior in quality. The middlemen, who + are accused, rightly or wrongly, of taking for themselves the lion's share + of the profits, alone seem satisfied with the new arrangement. + </p> + <p> + Interesting as this question undoubtedly is, it is not of permanent + importance, because the present state of things is merely transitory. + Though the peasants may continue for a time to work at home for the + wholesale dealers, they cannot in the long run compete with the big + factories and workshops, organised on the European model with steam-power + and complicated machinery, which already exist in many provinces. Once a + country has begun to move forward on the great highway of economic + progress, there is no possibility of stopping halfway. + </p> + <p> + Here again the orthodox economists find reason for congratulation, because + big factories and workshops are the cheapest and most productive form of + manufacturing industry; and again, the observant traveller cannot shut his + eyes to ugly facts which force themselves on his attention. He notices + that this cheapest and most productive form of manufacturing industry does + not seem to advance the material and moral welfare of the population. + Nowhere is there more disease, drunkenness, demoralisation and misery than + in the manufacturing districts. + </p> + <p> + The reader must not imagine that in making these statements I wish to + calumniate the spirit of modern enterprise, or to advocate a return to + primitive barbarism. All great changes produce a mixture of good and evil, + and at first the evil is pretty sure to come prominently forward. Russia + is at this moment in a state of transition, and the new condition of + things is not yet properly organised. With improved organisation many of + the existing evils will disappear. Already in recent years I have noticed + sporadic signs of improvement. When factories were first established no + proper arrangements were made for housing and feeding the workmen, and the + consequent hardships were specially felt when the factories were founded, + as is often the case, in rural districts. Now, the richer and more + enterprising manufacturers build large barracks for the workmen and their + families, and provide them with common kitchens, wash-houses, steam-baths, + schools, and similar requisites of civilised life. At the same time the + Government appoints inspectors to superintend the sanitary arrangements + and see that the health and comfort of the workers are properly attended + to. + </p> + <p> + On the whole we must assume that the activity of these inspectors tends to + improve the condition of the working-classes. Certainly in some instances + it has that effect. I remember, for example, some thirty years ago, + visiting a lucifer-match factory in which the hands employed worked + habitually in an atmosphere impregnated with the fumes of phosphorus, + which produce insidious and very painful diseases. Such a thing is hardly + possible nowadays. On the other hand, official inspection, like Factory + Acts, everywhere gives rise to a good deal of dissatisfaction and does not + always improve the relations between employers and employed. Some of the + Russian inspectors, if I may credit the testimony of employers, are young + gentlemen imbued with socialist notions, who intentionally stir up + discontent or who make mischief from inexperience. An amusing illustration + of the current complaints came under my notice when, in 1903, I was + visiting a landed proprietor of the southern provinces, who has a large + sugar factory on his estate. The inspector objected to the traditional + custom of the men sleeping in large dormitories and insisted on + sleeping-cots being constructed for them individually. As soon as the + change was made the workmen came to the proprietor to complain, and put + their grievance in an interrogative form: "Are we cattle that we should be + thus couped up in stalls?" + </p> + <p> + To return to the northern agricultural region, the rural population have a + peculiar type, which is to be accounted for by the fact that they never + experienced to its full extent the demoralising influence of serfage. A + large proportion of them were settled on State domains and were governed + by a special branch of the Imperial administration, whilst others lived on + the estates of rich absentee landlords, who were in the habit of leaving + the management of their properties to a steward acting under a code of + instructions. In either case, though serfs in the eye of the law, they + enjoyed practically a very large amount of liberty. By paying a small sum + for a passport they could leave their villages for an indefinite period, + and as long as they sent home regularly the money required for taxes and + dues, they were in little danger of being molested. Many of them, though + officially inscribed as domiciled in their native communes, lived + permanently in the towns, and not a few succeeded in amassing large + fortunes. The effect of this comparative freedom is apparent even at the + present day. These peasants of the north are more energetic, more + intelligent, more independent, and consequently less docile and pliable + than those of the fertile central provinces. They have, too, more + education. A large proportion of them can read and write, and occasionally + one meets among them men who have a keen desire for knowledge. Several + times I encountered peasants in this region who had a small collection of + books, and twice I found in such collections, much to my astonishment, a + Russian translation of Buckle's "History of Civilisation." + </p> + <p> + How, it may be asked, did a work of this sort find its way to such a + place? If the reader will pardon a short digression, I shall explain the + fact. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the Crimean War there was a curious intellectual + movement—of which I shall have more to say hereafter—among the + Russian educated classes. The movement assumed various forms, of which two + of the most prominent were a desire for encyclopaedic knowledge, and an + attempt to reduce all knowledge to a scientific form. For men in this + state of mind Buckle's great work had naturally a powerful fascination. It + seemed at first sight to reduce the multifarious conflicting facts of + human history to a few simple principles, and to evolve order out of + chaos. Its success, therefore, was great. In the course of a few years no + less than four independent translations were published and sold. Every one + read, or at least professed to have read, the wonderful book, and many + believed that its author was the greatest genius of his time. During the + first year of my residence in Russia (1870), I rarely had a serious + conversation without hearing Buckle's name mentioned; and my friends + almost always assumed that he had succeeded in creating a genuine science + of history on the inductive method. In vain I pointed out that Buckle had + merely thrown out some hints in his introductory chapter as to how such a + science ought to be constructed, and that he had himself made no serious + attempt to use the method which he commended. My objections had little or + no effect: the belief was too deep-rooted to be so easily eradicated. In + books, periodicals, newspapers, and professional lectures the name of + Buckle was constantly cited—often violently dragged in without the + slightest reason—and the cheap translations of his work were sold in + enormous quantities. It is not, then, so very wonderful after all that the + book should have found its way to two villages in the province of + Yaroslavl. + </p> + <p> + The enterprising, self-reliant, independent spirit which is often to be + found among those peasants manifests itself occasionally in amusing forms + among the young generation. Often in this part of the country I have + encountered boys who recalled young America rather than young Russia. One + of these young hopefuls I remember well. I was waiting at a post-station + for the horses to be changed, when he appeared before me in a sheep-skin, + fur cap, and gigantic double-soled boots—all of which articles had + been made on a scale adapted to future rather than actual requirements. He + must have stood in his boots about three feet eight inches, and he could + not have been more than twelve years of age; but he had already learned to + look upon life as a serious business, wore a commanding air, and knitted + his innocent little brows as if the cares of an empire weighed on his + diminutive shoulders. Though he was to act as yamstchik he had to leave + the putting in of the horses to larger specimens of the human species, but + he took care that all was done properly. Putting one of his big boots a + little in advance, and drawing himself up to his full shortness, he + watched the operation attentively, as if the smallness of his stature had + nothing to do with his inactivity. When all was ready, he climbed up to + his seat, and at a signal from the station-keeper, who watched with + paternal pride all the movements of the little prodigy, we dashed off at a + pace rarely attained by post-horses. He had the faculty of emitting a + peculiar sound—something between a whirr and a whistle—that + appeared to have a magical effect on the team and every few minutes he + employed this incentive. The road was rough, and at every jolt he was shot + upwards into the air, but he always fell back into his proper position, + and never lost for a moment his self-possession or his balance. At the end + of the journey I found we had made nearly fourteen miles within the hour. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately this energetic, enterprising spirit sometimes takes an + illegitimate direction. Not only whole villages, but even whole districts, + have in this way acquired a bad reputation for robbery, the manufacture of + paper-money, and similar offences against the criminal law. In popular + parlance, these localities are said to contain "people who play pranks" + (narod shalit). I must, however, remark that, if I may judge by my own + experience, these so-called "playful" tendencies are greatly exaggerated. + Though I have travelled hundreds of miles at night on lonely roads, I was + never robbed or in any way molested. Once, indeed, when travelling at + night in a tarantass, I discovered on awaking that my driver was bending + over me, and had introduced his hand into one of my pockets; but the + incident ended without serious consequences. When I caught the delinquent + hand, and demanded an explanation from the owner, he replied, in an + apologetic, caressing tone, that the night was cold, and he wished to warm + his fingers; and when I advised him to use for that purpose his own + pockets rather than mine, he promised to act in future according to my + advice. More than once, it is true, I believed that I was in danger of + being attacked, but on every occasion my fears turned out to be unfounded, + and sometimes the catastrophe was ludicrous rather than tragical. Let the + following serve as an illustration. + </p> + <p> + I had occasion to traverse, in company with a Russian friend, the country + lying to the east of the river Vetluga—a land of forest and morass, + with here and there a patch of cultivation. The majority of the population + are Tcheremiss, a Finnish tribe; but near the banks of the river there are + villages of Russian peasants, and these latter have the reputation of + "playing pranks." When we were on the point of starting from Kozmodemiansk + a town on the bank of the Volga, we received a visit from an officer of + rural police, who painted in very sombre colours the habits and moral + character—or, more properly, immoral character—of the people + whose acquaintance we were about to make. He related with melodramatic + gesticulation his encounters with malefactors belonging to the villages + through which we had to pass, and ended the interview with a strong + recommendation to us not to travel at night, and to keep at all times our + eyes open and our revolver ready. The effect of his narrative was + considerably diminished by the prominence of the moral, which was to the + effect that there never had been a police-officer who had shown so much + zeal, energy, and courage in the discharge of his duty as the worthy man + before us. We considered it, however, advisable to remember his hint about + keeping our eyes open. + </p> + <p> + In spite of our intention of being very cautious, it was already dark when + we arrived at the village which was to be our halting-place for the night, + and it seemed at first as if we should be obliged to spend the night in + the open air. The inhabitants had already retired to rest, and refused to + open their doors to unknown travellers. At length an old woman, more + hospitable than her neighbours, or more anxious to earn an honest penny, + consented to let us pass the night in an outer apartment (seni), and this + permission we gladly accepted. Mindful of the warnings of the police + officer, we barricaded the two doors and the window, and the precaution + was evidently not superfluous, for almost as soon as the light was + extinguished we could hear that an attempt was being made stealthily to + effect an entrance. Notwithstanding my efforts to remain awake, and on the + watch, I at last fell asleep, and was suddenly aroused by some one + grasping me tightly by the arm. Instantly I sprang to my feet and + endeavoured to close with my invisible assailant. In vain! He dexterously + eluded my grasp, and I stumbled over my portmanteau, which was lying on + the floor; but my prompt action revealed who the intruder was, by + producing a wild flutter and a frantic cackling! Before my companion could + strike a light the mysterious attack was fully explained. The supposed + midnight robber and possible assassin was simply a peaceable hen that had + gone to roost on my arm, and, on finding her position unsteady, had dug + her claws into what she mistook for a roosting-pole! + </p> + <p> + When speaking of the peasantry of the north I have hitherto had in view + the inhabitants of the provinces of Old-Novgorod, Tver, Yaroslavl, + Nizhni-Novgorod, Kostroma, Kazan, and Viatka, and I have founded my + remarks chiefly on information collected on the spot. Beyond this lies + what may be called the Far North. Though I cannot profess to have the same + personal acquaintance with the peasantry of that region, I may perhaps be + allowed to insert here some information regarding them which I collected + from various trustworthy sources. + </p> + <p> + If we draw a wavy line eastward from a point a little to the north of St. + Petersburg, as is shown in the map facing page 1 of this volume, we shall + have between that line and the Polar Ocean what may be regarded as a + distinct, peculiar region, differing in many respects from the rest of + Russia. Throughout the whole of it the climate is very severe. For about + half of the year the ground is covered by deep snow, and the rivers are + frozen. By far the greater part of the land is occupied by forests of + pine, fir, larch, and birch, or by vast, unfathomable morasses. The arable + land and pasturage taken together form only about one and a half per cent, + of the area. The population is scarce—little more than one to the + English square mile—and settled chiefly along the banks of the + rivers. The peasantry support themselves by fishing, hunting, felling and + floating timber, preparing tar and charcoal, cattle-breeding, and, in the + extreme north, breeding reindeer. + </p> + <p> + These are their chief occupations, but the people do not entirely neglect + agriculture. They make the most of their short summer by means of a + peculiar and ingenious mode of farming, well adapted to the peculiar local + conditions. The peasant knows of course nothing about agronomical + chemistry, but he, as well as his forefathers, have observed that if wood + be burnt on a field, and the ashes be mixed with the soil, a good harvest + may be confidently expected. On this simple principle his system of + farming is based. When spring comes round and the leaves begin to appear + on the trees, a band of peasants, armed with their hatchets, proceed to + some spot in the woods previously fixed upon. Here they begin to make a + clearing. This is no easy matter, for tree-felling is hard and tedious + work; but the process does not take so much time as might be expected, for + the workmen have been brought up to the trade, and wield their axes with + marvellous dexterity. When they have felled all the trees, great and + small, they return to their homes, and think no more about their clearing + till the autumn, when they return, in order to strip the fallen trees of + the branches, to pick out what they require for building purposes or + firewood, and to pile up the remainder in heaps. The logs for building or + firewood are dragged away by horses as soon as the first fall of snow has + made a good slippery road, but the piles are allowed to remain till the + following spring, when they are stirred up with long poles and ignited. + The flames rapidly spread in all directions till they join together and + form a gigantic bonfire, such as is never seen in more densely-populated + countries. If the fire does its work properly, the whole of the space is + covered with a layer of ashes; and when these have been slightly mixed + with soil by means of a light plough, the seed is sown. + </p> + <p> + On the field prepared in this original fashion is sown barley, rye, or + flax, and the harvests, nearly always good, sometimes border on the + miraculous. Barley or rye may be expected to produce about sixfold in + ordinary years, and they may produce as much as thirty-fold under + peculiarly favourable circumstances. The fertility is, however, + short-lived. If the soil is poor and stony, not more than two crops can be + raised; if it is of a better quality, it may give tolerable harvests for + six or seven successive years. In most countries this would be an absurdly + expensive way of manuring, for wood is much too valuable a commodity to be + used for such a purpose; but in this northern region the forests are + boundless, and in the districts where there is no river or stream by which + timber may be floated, the trees not used in this way rot from old age. + Under these circumstances the system is reasonable, but it must be + admitted that it does not give a very large return for the amount of + labour expended, and in bad seasons it gives almost no return at all. + </p> + <p> + The other sources of revenue are scarcely less precarious. With his gun + and a little parcel of provisions the peasant wanders about in the + trackless forests, and too often returns after many days with a very light + bag; or he starts in autumn for some distant lake, and comes back after + five or six weeks with nothing better than perch and pike. Sometimes he + tries his luck at deep-sea fishing. In this case he starts in February—probably + on foot—for Kem, on the shore of the White Sea, or perhaps for the + more distant Kola, situated on a small river which falls into the Arctic + Ocean. There, in company with three or four comrades, he starts on a + fishing cruise along the Murman coast, or, it may be, off the coast of + Spitzbergen. His gains will depend on the amount caught, for it is a + joint-venture; but in no case can they be very great, for three-fourths of + the fish brought into port belongs to the owner of the craft and tackle. + Of the sum realised, he brings home perhaps only a small part, for he has + a strong temptation to buy rum, tea, and other luxuries, which are very + dear in those northern latitudes. If the fishing is good and he resists + temptation, he may save as much as 100 roubles—about 10 pounds—and + thereby live comfortably all winter; but if the fishing season is bad, he + may find himself at the end of it not only with empty pockets, but in debt + to the owner of the boat. This debt he may pay off, if he has a horse, by + transporting the dried fish to Kargopol, St. Petersburg, or some other + market. + </p> + <p> + It is here in the Far North that the ancient folk-lore—popular + songs, stories, and fragments of epic poetry—has been best + preserved; but this is a field on which I need not enter, for the reader + can easily find all that he may desire to know on the subject in the + brilliant writings of M. Rambaud and the very interesting, conscientious + works of the late Mr. Ralston,* which enjoy a high reputation in Russia. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Rambaud, "La Russie Epique," Paris, 1876; Ralston, "The + Songs of the Russian People," London, 1872; and "Russian + Folk-tales," London, 1873. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE MIR, OR VILLAGE COMMUNITY + </h3> + <p> + Social and Political Importance of the Mir—The Mir and the Family + Compared—Theory of the Communal System—Practical Deviations + from the Theory—The Mir a Good Specimen of Constitutional Government + of the Extreme Democratic Type—The Village Assembly—Female + Members—The Elections—Distribution of the Communal Land. + </p> + <p> + When I had gained a clear notion of the family-life and occupations of the + peasantry, I turned my attention to the constitution of the village. This + was a subject which specially interested me, because I was aware that the + Mir is the most peculiar of Russian institutions. Long before visiting + Russia I had looked into Haxthausen's celebrated work, by which the + peculiarities of the Russian village system were first made known to + Western Europe, and during my stay in St. Petersburg I had often been + informed by intelligent, educated Russians that the rural Commune + presented a practical solution of many difficult social problems with + which the philosophers and statesmen of the West had long been vainly + struggling. "The nations of the West"—such was the substance of + innumerable discourses which I had heard—"are at present on the + high-road to political and social anarchy, and England has the unenviable + distinction of being foremost in the race. The natural increase of + population, together with the expropriation of the small landholders by + the great landed proprietors, has created a dangerous and ever-increasing + Proletariat—a great disorganised mass of human beings, without + homes, without permanent domicile, without property of any kind, without + any stake in the existing institutions. Part of these gain a miserable + pittance as agricultural labourers, and live in a condition infinitely + worse than serfage. The others have been forever uprooted from the soil, + and have collected in the large towns, where they earn a precarious living + in the factories and workshops, or swell the ranks of the criminal + classes. In England you have no longer a peasantry in the proper sense of + the term, and unless some radical measures be very soon adopted, you will + never be able to create such a class, for men who have been long exposed + to the unwholesome influences of town life are physically and morally + incapable of becoming agriculturists. + </p> + <p> + "Hitherto," the disquisition proceeded, "England has enjoyed, in + consequence of her geographical position, her political freedom, and her + vast natural deposits of coal and iron, a wholly exceptional position in + the industrial world. Fearing no competition, she has proclaimed the + principles of Free Trade, and has inundated the world with her + manufactures—using unscrupulously her powerful navy and all the + other forces at her command for breaking down every barrier tending to + check the flood sent forth from Manchester and Birmingham. In that way her + hungry Proletariat has been fed. But the industrial supremacy of England + is drawing to a close. The nations have discovered the perfidious fallacy + of Free-Trade principles, and are now learning to manufacture for their + own wants, instead of paying England enormous sums to manufacture for + them. Very soon English goods will no longer find foreign markets, and how + will the hungry Proletariat then be fed? Already the grain production of + England is far from sufficient for the wants of the population, so that, + even when the harvest is exceptionally abundant, enormous quantities of + wheat are imported from all quarters of the globe. Hitherto this grain has + been paid for by the manufactured goods annually exported, but how will it + be procured when these goods are no longer wanted by foreign consumers? + And what then will the hungry Proletariat do?"* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This passage was written, precisely as it stands, long + before the fiscal question was raised by Mr. Chamberlain. + It will be found in the first edition of this work, + published in 1877. (Vol. I., pp. 179-81.) +</pre> + <p> + This sombre picture of England's future had often been presented to me, + and on nearly every occasion I had been assured that Russia had been saved + from these terrible evils by the rural Commune—an institution which, + in spite of its simplicity and incalculable utility, West Europeans seemed + utterly incapable of understanding and appreciating. + </p> + <p> + The reader will now easily conceive with what interest I took to studying + this wonderful institution, and with what energy I prosecuted my + researches. An institution which professes to solve satisfactorily the + most difficult social problems of the future is not to be met with every + day, even in Russia, which is specially rich in material for the student + of social science. + </p> + <p> + On my arrival at Ivanofka my knowledge of the institution was of that + vague, superficial kind which is commonly derived from men who are fonder + of sweeping generalisations and rhetorical declamation than of serious, + patient study of phenomena. I knew that the chief personage in a Russian + village is the Selski Starosta, or Village Elder, and that all important + Communal affairs are regulated by the Selski Skhod, or Village Assembly. + Further, I was aware that the land in the vicinity of the village belongs + to the Commune, and is distributed periodically among the members in such + a way that every able-bodied peasant possesses a share sufficient, or + nearly sufficient, for his maintenance. Beyond this elementary information + I knew little or nothing. + </p> + <p> + My first attempt at extending my knowledge was not very successful. Hoping + that my friend Ivan might be able to assist me, and knowing that the + popular name for the Commune is Mir, which means also "the world," I put + to him the direct, simple question, "What is the Mir?" + </p> + <p> + Ivan was not easily disconcerted, but for once he looked puzzled, and + stared at me vacantly. When I endeavoured to explain to him my question, + he simply knitted his brows and scratched the back of his head. This + latter movement is the Russian peasant's method of accelerating cerebral + action; but in the present instance it had no practical result. In spite + of his efforts, Ivan could not get much further than the "Kak vam + skazat'?" that is to say, "How am I to tell you?" + </p> + <p> + It was not difficult to perceive that I had adopted an utterly false + method of investigation, and a moment's reflection sufficed to show me the + absurdity of my question. I had asked from an uneducated man a + philosophical definition, instead of extracting from him material in the + form of concrete facts, and constructing therefrom a definition for + myself. These concrete facts Ivan was both able and willing to supply; and + as soon as I adopted a rational mode of questioning, I obtained from him + all I wanted. The information he gave me, together with the results of + much subsequent conversation and reading, I now propose to present to the + reader in my own words. + </p> + <p> + The peasant family of the old type is, as we have just seen, a kind of + primitive association in which the members have nearly all things in + common. The village may be roughly described as a primitive association on + a larger scale. + </p> + <p> + Between these two social units there are many points of analogy. In both + there are common interests and common responsibilities. In both there is a + principal personage, who is in a certain sense ruler within and + representative as regards the outside world: in the one case called + Khozain, or Head of the Household, and in the other Starosta, or Village + Elder. In both the authority of the ruler is limited: in the one case by + the adult members of the family, and in the other by the Heads of + Households. In both there is a certain amount of common property: in the + one case the house and nearly all that it contains, and in the other the + arable land and possibly a little pasturage. In both cases there is a + certain amount of common responsibility: in the one case for all the + debts, and in the other for all the taxes and Communal obligations. And + both are protected to a certain extent against the ordinary legal + consequences of insolvency, for the family cannot be deprived of its house + or necessary agricultural implements, and the Commune cannot be deprived + of its land, by importunate creditors. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, there are many important points of contrast. The + Commune is, of course, much larger than the family, and the mutual + relations of its members are by no means so closely interwoven. The + members of a family all farm together, and those of them who earn money + from other sources are expected to put their savings into the common + purse; whilst the households composing a Commune farm independently, and + pay into the common treasury only a certain fixed sum. + </p> + <p> + From these brief remarks the reader will at once perceive that a Russian + village is something very different from a village in our sense of the + term, and that the villagers are bound together by ties quite unknown to + the English rural population. A family living in an English village has + little reason to take an interest in the affairs of its neighbours. The + isolation of the individual families is never quite perfect, for man, + being a social animal, takes necessarily a certain interest in the affairs + of those around him, and this social duty is sometimes fulfilled by the + weaker sex with more zeal than is absolutely indispensable for the public + welfare; but families may live for many years in the same village without + ever becoming conscious of common interests. So long as the Jones family + do not commit any culpable breach of public order, such as putting + obstructions on the highway or habitually setting their house on fire, + their neighbour Brown takes probably no interest in their affairs, and has + no ground for interfering with their perfect liberty of action. Amongst + the families composing a Russian village, such a state of isolation is + impossible. The Heads of Households must often meet together and consult + in the Village Assembly, and their daily occupation must be influenced by + the Communal decrees. They cannot begin to mow the hay or plough the + fallow field until the Village Assembly has passed a resolution on the + subject. If a peasant becomes a drunkard, or takes some equally efficient + means to become insolvent, every family in the village has a right to + complain, not merely in the interests of public morality, but from selfish + motives, because all the families are collectively responsible for his + taxes.* For the same reason no peasant can permanently leave the village + without the consent of the Commune, and this consent will not be granted + until the applicant gives satisfactory security for the fulfilment of his + actual and future liabilities. If a peasant wishes to go away for a short + time, in order to work elsewhere, he must obtain a written permission, + which serves him as a passport during his absence; and he may be recalled + at any moment by a Communal decree. In reality he is rarely recalled so + long as he sends home regularly the full amount of his taxes—including + the dues which he has to pay for the temporary passport—but + sometimes the Commune uses the power of recall for purposes of extortion. + If it becomes known, for instance, that an absent member is receiving a + good salary or otherwise making money, he may one day receive a formal + order to return at once to his native village, but he is probably informed + at the same time, unofficially, that his presence will be dispensed with + if he will send to the Commune a certain specified sum. The money thus + sent is generally used by the Commune for convivial purposes. ** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This common responsibility for the taxes was abolished in + 1903 by the Emperor, on the advice of M. Witte, and the + other Communal fetters are being gradually relaxed. A + peasant may now, if he wishes, cease to be a member of the + Commune altogether, as soon as he has defrayed all his + outstanding obligations. + + ** With the recent relaxing of the Communal fetters, + referred to in the foregoing note, this abuse should + disappear. +</pre> + <p> + In all countries the theory of government and administration differs + considerably from the actual practice. Nowhere is this difference greater + than in Russia, and in no Russian institution is it greater than in the + Village Commune. It is necessary, therefore, to know both theory and + practice; and it is well to begin with the former, because it is the + simpler of the two. When we have once thoroughly mastered the theory, it + is easy to understand the deviations that are made to suit peculiar local + conditions. + </p> + <p> + According, then, to theory, all male peasants in every part of the Empire + are inscribed in census-lists, which form the basis of the direct + taxation. These lists are revised at irregular intervals, and all males + alive at the time of the "revision," from the newborn babe to the + centenarian, are duly inscribed. Each Commune has a list of this kind, and + pays to the Government an annual sum proportionate to the number of names + which the list contains, or, in popular language, according to the number + of "revision souls." During the intervals between the revisions the + financial authorities take no notice of the births and deaths. A Commune + which has a hundred male members at the time of the revision may have in a + few years considerably more or considerably less than that number, but it + has to pay taxes for a hundred members all the same until a new revision + is made for the whole Empire. + </p> + <p> + Now in Russia, so far at least as the rural population is concerned, the + payment of taxes is inseparably connected with the possession of land. + Every peasant who pays taxes is supposed to have a share of the land + belonging to the Commune. If the Communal revision lists contain a hundred + names, the Communal land ought to be divided into a hundred shares, and + each "revision soul" should enjoy his share in return for the taxes which + he pays. + </p> + <p> + The reader who has followed my explanations up to this point may naturally + conclude that the taxes paid by the peasants are in reality a species of + rent for the land which they enjoy. Such a conclusion would not be + altogether justified. When a man rents a bit of land he acts according to + his own judgment, and makes a voluntary contract with the proprietor; but + the Russian peasant is obliged to pay his taxes whether he desires to + enjoy land or not. The theory, therefore, that the taxes are simply the + rent of the land will not bear even superficial examination. Equally + untenable is the theory that they are a species of land-tax. In any + reasonable system of land-dues the yearly sum imposed bears some kind of + proportion to the quantity and quality of the land enjoyed; but in Russia + it may be that the members of one Commune possess six acres of bad land, + and the members of the neighbouring Commune seven acres of good land, and + yet the taxes in both cases are the same. The truth is that the taxes are + personal, and are calculated according to the number of male "souls," and + the Government does not take the trouble to inquire how the Communal land + is distributed. The Commune has to pay into the Imperial Treasury a fixed + yearly sum, according to the number of its "revision souls," and + distributes the land among its members as it thinks fit. + </p> + <p> + How, then, does the Commune distribute the land? To this question it is + impossible to reply in brief, general terms, because each Commune acts as + it pleases!* Some act strictly according to the theory. These divide their + land at the time of the revision into a number of portions or shares + corresponding to the number of revision souls, and give to each family a + number of shares corresponding to the number of revision souls which it + contains. This is from the administrative point of view by far the + simplest system. The census-list determines how much land each family will + enjoy, and the existing tenures are disturbed only by the revisions which + take place at irregular intervals.** But, on the other hand, this system + has serious defects. The revision-list represents merely the numerical + strength of the families, and the numerical strength is often not at all + in proportion to the working power. Let us suppose, for example, two + families, each containing at the time of the revision five male members. + According to the census-list these two families are equal, and ought to + receive equal shares of the land; but in reality it may happen that the + one contains a father in the prime of life and four able-bodies sons, + whilst the other contains a widow and five little boys. The wants and + working power of these two families are of course very different; and if + the above system of distribution be applied, the man with four sons and a + goodly supply of grandchildren will probably find that he has too little + land, whilst the widow with her five little boys will find it difficult to + cultivate the five shares alloted to her, and utterly impossible to pay + the corresponding amount of taxation—for in all cases, it must be + remembered, the Communal burdens are distributed in the same proportion as + the land. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A long list of the various systems of allotment to be + found in individual Communes in different parts of the + country is given in the opening chapter of a valuable work + by Karelin, entitled "Obshtchinnoye Vladyenie v Rossii" (St. + Petersburg, 1893). As my object is to convey to the reader + merely a general idea of the institution, I refrain from + confusing him by an enumeration of the endless divergencies + from the original type. + + ** Since 1719 eleven revisions have been made, the last in + 1897. The intervals varied from six to forty-one years. +</pre> + <p> + But why, it may be said, should the widow not accept provisionally the + five shares, and let to others the part which she does not require? The + balance of rent after payment of the taxes might help her to bring up her + young family. + </p> + <p> + So it seems to one acquainted only with the rural economy of England, + where land is scarce, and always gives a revenue more than sufficient to + defray the taxes. But in Russia the possession of a share of Communal land + is often not a privilege, but a burden. In some Communes the land is so + poor and abundant that it cannot be let at any price. In others the soil + will repay cultivation, but a fair rent will not suffice to pay the taxes + and dues. + </p> + <p> + To obviate these inconvenient results of the simpler system, many Communes + have adopted the expedient of allotting the land, not according to the + number of revision souls, but according to the working power of the + families. Thus, in the instance above supposed, the widow would receive + perhaps two shares, and the large household, containing five workers, + would receive perhaps seven or eight. Since the breaking-up of the large + families, such inequality as I have supposed is, of course, rare; but + inequality of a less extreme kind does still occur, and justifies a + departure from the system of allotment according to the revision-lists. + </p> + <p> + Even if the allotment be fair and equitable at the time of the revision, + it may soon become unfair and burdensome by the natural fluctuations of + the population. Births and deaths may in the course of a very few years + entirely alter the relative working power of the various families. The + sons of the widow may grow up to manhood, whilst two or three able-bodied + members of the other family may be cut off by an epidemic. Thus, long + before a new revision takes place, the distribution of the land may be no + longer in accordance with the wants and capacities of the various families + composing the Commune. To correct this, various expedients are employed. + Some Communes transfer particular lots from one family to another, as + circumstances demand; whilst others make from time to time, during the + intervals between the revisions, a complete redistribution and reallotment + of the land. Of these two systems the former is now more frequently + employed. + </p> + <p> + The system of allotment adopted depends entirely on the will of the + particular Commune. In this respect the Communes enjoy the most complete + autonomy, and no peasant ever dreams of appealing against a Communal + decree.* The higher authorities not only abstain from all interference in + the allotment of the Communal lands, but remain in profound ignorance as + to which system the Communes habitually adopt. Though the Imperial + Administration has a most voracious appetite for symmetrically constructed + statistical tables—many of them formed chiefly out of materials + supplied by the mysterious inner consciousness of the subordinate + officials—no attempt has yet been made, so far as I know, to collect + statistical data which might throw light on this important subject. In + spite of the systematic and persistent efforts of the centralised + bureaucracy to regulate minutely all departments of the national life, the + rural Communes, which contain about five-sixths of the population, remain + in many respects entirely beyond its influence, and even beyond its sphere + of vision! But let not the reader be astonished overmuch. He will learn in + time that Russia is the land of paradoxes; and meanwhile he is about to + receive a still more startling bit of information. In "the great + stronghold of Caesarian despotism and centralised bureaucracy," these + Village Communes, containing about five-sixths of the population, are + capital specimens of representative Constitutional government of the + extreme democratic type! + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This has been somewhat modified by recent legislation. + According to the Emancipation Law of 1861, redistribution of + the land could take place at any time provided it was voted + by a majority of two-thirds at the Village Assembly. By a + law of 1893 redistribution cannot take place oftener than + once in twelve years, and must receive the sanction of + certain local authorities. +</pre> + <p> + When I say that the rural Commune is a good specimen of Constitutional + government, I use the phrase in the English, and not in the Continental + sense. In the Continental languages a Constitutional regime implies the + existence of a long, formal document, in which the functions of the + various institutions, the powers of the various authorities, and the + methods of procedure are carefully defined. Such a document was never + heard of in Russian Village Communes, except those belonging to the + Imperial Domains, and the special legislation which formerly regulated + their affairs was repealed at the time of the Emancipation. At the present + day the Constitution of all the Village Communes is of the English type—a + body of unwritten, traditional conceptions, which have grown up and + modified themselves under the influence of ever-changing practical + necessity. No doubt certain definitions of the functions and mutual + relations of the Communal authorities might be extracted from the + Emancipation Law and subsequent official documents, but as a rule neither + the Village Elder nor the members of the Village Assembly ever heard of + such definitions; and yet every peasant knows, as if by instinct, what + each of these authorities can do and cannot do. The Commune is, in fact, a + living institution, whose spontaneous vitality enables it to dispense with + the assistance and guidance of the written law, and its constitution is + thoroughly democratic. The Elder represents merely the executive power. + The real authority resides in the Assembly, of which all Heads of + Households are members.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An attempt was made by Alexander III. in 1884 to bring the + rural Communes under supervision and control by the + appointment of rural officials called Zemskiye Natchalniki. + Of this so-called reform I shall have occasion to speak + later. +</pre> + <p> + The simple procedure, or rather the absence of all formal procedure, at + the Assemblies, illustrates admirably the essentially practical character + of the institution. The meetings are held in the open air, because in the + village there is no building—except the church, which can be used + only for religious purposes—large enough to contain all the members; + and they almost always take place on Sundays or holidays, when the + peasants have plenty of leisure. Any open space may serve as a Forum. The + discussions are occasionally very animated, but there is rarely any + attempt at speech-making. If any young member should show an inclination + to indulge in oratory, he is sure to be unceremoniously interrupted by + some of the older members, who have never any sympathy with fine talking. + The assemblage has the appearance of a crowd of people who have + accidentally come together and are discussing in little groups subjects of + local interest. Gradually some one group, containing two or three peasants + who have more moral influence than their fellows, attracts the others, and + the discussion becomes general. Two or more peasants may speak at a time, + and interrupt each other freely—using plain, unvarnished language, + not at all parliamentary—and the discussion may become a confused, + unintelligible din; but at the moment when the spectator imagines that the + consultation is about to be transformed into a free fight, the tumult + spontaneously subsides, or perhaps a general roar of laughter announces + that some one has been successfully hit by a strong argumentum ad hominem, + or biting personal remark. In any case there is no danger of the + disputants coming to blows. No class of men in the world are more + good-natured and pacific than the Russian peasantry. When sober they never + fight, and even when under the influence of alcohol they are more likely + to be violently affectionate than disagreeably quarrelsome. If two of them + take to drinking together, the probability is that in a few minutes, + though they may never have seen each other before, they will be expressing + in very strong terms their mutual regard and affection, confirming their + words with an occasional friendly embrace. + </p> + <p> + Theoretically speaking, the Village Parliament has a Speaker, in the + person of the Village Elder. The word Speaker is etymologically less + objectionable than the term President, for the personage in question never + sits down, but mingles in the crowd like the ordinary members. Objection + may be taken to the word on the ground that the Elder speaks much less + than many other members, but this may likewise be said of the Speaker of + the House of Commons. Whatever we may call him, the Elder is officially + the principal personage in the crowd, and wears the insignia of office in + the form of a small medal suspended from his neck by a thin brass chain. + His duties, however, are extremely light. To call to order those who + interrupt the discussion is no part of his functions. If he calls an + honourable member "Durak" (blockhead), or interrupts an orator with a + laconic "Moltchi!" (hold your tongue!), he does so in virtue of no special + prerogative, but simply in accordance with a time-honoured privilege, + which is equally enjoyed by all present, and may be employed with impunity + against himself. Indeed, it may be said in general that the phraseology + and the procedure are not subjected to any strict rules. The Elder comes + prominently forward only when it is necessary to take the sense of the + meeting. On such occasions he may stand back a little from the crowd and + say, "Well, orthodox, have you decided so?" and the crowd will probably + shout, "Ladno! ladno!" that is to say, "Agreed! agreed!" + </p> + <p> + Communal measures are generally carried in this way by acclamation; but it + sometimes happens that there is such a diversity of opinion that it is + difficult to tell which of the two parties has a majority. In this case + the Elder requests the one party to stand to the right and the other to + the left. The two groups are then counted, and the minority submits, for + no one ever dreams of opposing openly the will of the Mir. + </p> + <p> + During the reign of Nicholas I. an attempt was made to regulate by the + written law the procedure of Village Assemblies amongst the peasantry of + the State Domains, and among other reforms voting by ballot was + introduced; but the new custom never struck root. The peasants did not + regard with favour the new method, and persisted in calling it, + contemptuously, "playing at marbles." Here, again, we have one of those + wonderful and apparently anomalous facts which frequently meet the student + of Russian affairs: the Emperor Nicholas I., the incarnation of autocracy + and the champion of the Reactionary Party throughout Europe, forces the + ballot-box, the ingenious invention of extreme radicals, on several + millions of his subjects! + </p> + <p> + In the northern provinces, where a considerable portion of the male + population is always absent, the Village Assembly generally includes a + good many female members. These are women who, on account of the absence + or death of their husbands, happen to be for the moment Heads of + Households. As such they are entitled to be present, and their right to + take part in the deliberations is never called in question. In matters + affecting the general welfare of the Commune they rarely speak, and if + they do venture to enounce an opinion on such occasions they have little + chance of commanding attention, for the Russian peasantry are as yet + little imbued with the modern doctrines of female equality, and express + their opinion of female intelligence by the homely adage: "The hair is + long, but the mind is short." According to one proverb, seven women have + collectively but one soul, and, according to a still more ungallant + popular saying, women have no souls at all, but only a vapour. Woman, + therefore, as woman, is not deserving of much consideration, but a + particular woman, as Head of a Household, is entitled to speak on all + questions directly affecting the household under her care. If, for + instance, it be proposed to increase or diminish her household's share of + the land and the burdens, she will be allowed to speak freely on the + subject, and even to indulge in personal invective against her male + opponents. She thereby exposes herself, it is true, to uncomplimentary + remarks; but any which she happens to receive she is pretty sure to repay + with interest—referring, perhaps, with pertinent virulence to the + domestic affairs of those who attack her. And when argument and invective + fail, she can try the effect of pathetic appeal, supported by copious + tears. + </p> + <p> + As the Village Assembly is really a representative institution in the full + sense of the term, it reflects faithfully the good and the bad qualities + of the rural population. Its decisions are therefore usually characterised + by plain, practical common sense, but it is subject to occasional + unfortunate aberrations in consequence of pernicious influences, chiefly + of an alcoholic kind. An instance of this fact occurred during my sojourn + at Ivanofka. The question under discussion was whether a kabak, or + gin-shop, should be established in the village. A trader from the district + town desired to establish one, and offered to pay to the Commune a yearly + sum for the necessary permission. The more industrious, respectable + members of the Commune, backed by the whole female population, were + strongly opposed to the project, knowing full well that a kabak would + certainly lead to the ruin of more than one household; but the + enterprising trader had strong arguments wherewith to seduce a large + number of the members, and succeeded in obtaining a decision in his + favour. + </p> + <p> + The Assembly discusses all matters affecting the Communal welfare, and, as + these matters have never been legally defined, its recognised competence + is very wide. It fixes the time for making the hay, and the day for + commencing the ploughing of the fallow field; it decrees what measures + shall be employed against those who do not punctually pay their taxes; it + decides whether a new member shall be admitted into the Commune, and + whether an old member shall be allowed to change his domicile; it gives or + withholds permission to erect new buildings on the Communal land; it + prepares and signs all contracts which the Commune makes with one of its + own members or with a stranger; it interferes whenever it thinks necessary + in the domestic affairs of its members; it elects the Elder—as well + as the Communal tax-collector and watchman, where such offices exist—and + the Communal herd-boy; above all, it divides and allots the Communal land + among the members as it thinks fit. + </p> + <p> + Of all these various proceedings the English reader may naturally assume + that the elections are the most noisy and exciting. In reality this is a + mistake. The elections produce little excitement, for the simple reason + that, as a rule, no one desires to be elected. Once, it is said, a peasant + who had been guilty of some misdemeanor was informed by an Arbiter of the + Peace—a species of official of which I shall have occasion to speak + in the sequel—that he would be no longer capable of filling any + Communal office; and instead of regretting this diminution of his civil + rights, he bowed very low, and respectfully expressed his thanks for the + new privilege which he had acquired. This anecdote may not be true, but it + illustrates the undoubted fact that the Russian peasant regards office as + a burden rather than as an honour. There is no civic ambition in those + little rural commonwealths, whilst the privilege of wearing a bronze + medal, which commands no respect, and the reception of a few roubles as + salary afford no adequate compensation for the trouble, annoyance, and + responsibility which a Village Elder has to bear. The elections are + therefore generally very tame and uninteresting. The following description + may serve as an illustration: + </p> + <p> + It is a Sunday afternoon. The peasants, male and female, have turned out + in Sunday attire, and the bright costumes of the women help the sunshine + to put a little rich colour into the scene, which is at ordinary times + monotonously grey. Slowly the crowd collects on the open space at the side + of the church. All classes of the population are represented. On the + extreme outskirts are a band of fair-haired, merry children—some of + them standing or lying on the grass and gazing attentively at the + proceedings, and others running about and amusing themselves. Close to + these stand a group of young girls, convulsed with half-suppressed + laughter. The cause of their merriment is a youth of some seventeen + summers, evidently the wag of the village, who stands beside them with an + accordion in his hand, and relates to them in a half-whisper how he is + about to be elected Elder, and what mad pranks he will play in that + capacity. When one of the girls happens to laugh outright, the matrons who + are standing near turn round and scowl; and one of them, stepping forward, + orders the offender, in a tone of authority, to go home at once if she + cannot behave herself. Crestfallen, the culprit retires, and the youth who + is the cause of the merriment makes the incident the subject of a new + joke. Meanwhile the deliberations have begun. The majority of the members + are chatting together, or looking at a little group composed of three + peasants and a woman, who are standing a little apart from the others. + Here alone the matter in hand is being really discussed. The woman is + explaining, with tears in her eyes, and with a vast amount of useless + repetition, that her "old man," who is Elder for the time being, is very + ill, and cannot fulfil his duties. + </p> + <p> + "But he has not yet served a year, and he'll get better," remarks one + peasant, evidently the youngest of the little group. + </p> + <p> + "Who knows?" replies the woman, sobbing. "It is the will of God, but I + don't believe that he'll ever put his foot to the ground again. The + Feldsher has been four times to see him, and the doctor himself came once, + and said that he must be brought to the hospital." + </p> + <p> + "And why has he not been taken there?" + </p> + <p> + "How could he be taken? Who is to carry him? Do you think he's a baby? The + hospital is forty versts off. If you put him in a cart he would die before + he had gone a verst. And then, who knows what they do with people in the + hospital?" This last question contained probably the true reason why the + doctor's orders had been disobeyed. + </p> + <p> + "Very well, that's enough; hold your tongue," says the grey-beard of the + little group to the woman; and then, turning to the other peasants, + remarks, "There is nothing to be done. The Stanovoi [officer of rural + police] will be here one of these days, and will make a row again if we + don't elect a new Elder. Whom shall we choose?" + </p> + <p> + As soon as this question is asked several peasants look down to the + ground, or try in some other way to avoid attracting attention, lest their + names should be suggested. When the silence has continued a minute or two, + the greybeard says, "There is Alexei Ivanof; he has not served yet!" + </p> + <p> + "Yes, yes, Alexei Ivanof!" shout half-a-dozen voices, belonging probably + to peasants who fear they may be elected. + </p> + <p> + Alexei protests in the strongest terms. He cannot say that he is ill, + because his big ruddy face would give him the lie direct, but he finds + half-a-dozen other reasons why he should not be chosen, and accordingly + requests to be excused. But his protestations are not listened to, and the + proceedings terminate. A new Village Elder has been duly elected. + </p> + <p> + Far more important than the elections is the redistribution of the + Communal land. It can matter but little to the Head of a Household how the + elections go, provided he himself is not chosen. He can accept with + perfect equanimity Alexei, or Ivan, or Nikolai, because the office-bearers + have very little influence in Communal affairs. But he cannot remain a + passive, indifferent spectator when the division and allotment of the land + come to be discussed, for the material welfare of every household depends + to a great extent on the amount of land and of burdens which it receives. + </p> + <p> + In the southern provinces, where the soil is fertile, and the taxes do not + exceed the normal rent, the process of division and allotment is + comparatively simple. Here each peasant desires to get as much land as + possible, and consequently each household demands all the land to which it + is entitled—that is to say, a number of shares equal to the number + of its members inscribed in the last revision list. The Assembly has + therefore no difficult questions to decide. The Communal revision list + determines the number of shares into which the land must be divided, and + the number of shares to be allotted to each family. The only difficulty + likely to arise is as to which particular shares a particular family shall + receive, and this difficulty is commonly obviated by the custom of drawing + lots. There may be, it is true, some difference of opinion as to when a + redistribution should be made, but this question is easily decided by a + vote of the Assembly. + </p> + <p> + Very different is the process of division and allotment in many Communes + of the northern provinces. Here the soil is often very unfertile and the + taxes exceed the normal rent, and consequently it may happen that the + peasants strive to have as little land as possible. In these cases such + scenes as the following may occur: + </p> + <p> + Ivan is being asked how many shares of the Communal land he will take, and + replies in a slow, contemplative way, "I have two sons, and there is + myself, so I'll take three shares, or somewhat less, if it is your + pleasure." + </p> + <p> + "Less!" exclaims a middle-aged peasant, who is not the Village Elder, but + merely an influential member, and takes the leading part in the + proceedings. "You talk nonsense. Your two sons are already old enough to + help you, and soon they may get married, and so bring you two new female + labourers." + </p> + <p> + "My eldest son," explains Ivan, "always works in Moscow, and the other + often leaves me in summer." + </p> + <p> + "But they both send or bring home money, and when they get married, the + wives will remain with you." + </p> + <p> + "God knows what will be," replies Ivan, passing over in silence the first + part of his opponent's remark. "Who knows if they will marry?" + </p> + <p> + "You can easily arrange that!" + </p> + <p> + "That I cannot do. The times are changed now. The young people do as they + wish, and when they do get married they all wish to have houses of their + own. Three shares will be heavy enough for me!" + </p> + <p> + "No, no. If they wish to separate from you, they will take some land from + you. You must take at least four. The old wives there who have little + children cannot take shares according to the number of souls." + </p> + <p> + "He is a rich muzhik!" says a voice in the crowd. "Lay on him five souls!" + (that is to say, give him five shares of the land and of the burdens). + </p> + <p> + "Five souls I cannot! By God, I cannot!" + </p> + <p> + "Very well, you shall have four," says the leading spirit to Ivan; and + then, turning to the crowd, inquires, "Shall it be so?" + </p> + <p> + "Four! four!" murmurs the crowd; and the question is settled. + </p> + <p> + Next comes one of the old wives just referred to. Her husband is a + permanent invalid, and she has three little boys, only one of whom is old + enough for field labour. If the number of souls were taken as the basis of + distribution, she would receive four shares; but she would never be able + to pay four shares of the Communal burdens. She must therefore receive + less than that amount. When asked how many she will take, she replies with + downcast eyes, "As the Mir decides, so be it!" + </p> + <p> + "Then you must take three." + </p> + <p> + "What do you say, little father?" cries the woman, throwing off suddenly + her air of submissive obedience. "Do you hear that, ye orthodox? They want + to lay upon me three souls! Was such a thing ever heard of? Since St. + Peter's Day my husband has been bedridden—bewitched, it seems, for + nothing does him good. He cannot put a foot to the ground—all the + same as if he were dead; only he eats bread!" + </p> + <p> + "You talk nonsense," says a neighbour; "he was in the kabak [gin-shop] + last week." + </p> + <p> + "And you!" retorts the woman, wandering from the subject in hand; "what + did YOU do last parish fete? Was it not you who got drunk and beat your + wife till she roused the whole village with her shrieking? And no further + gone than last Sunday—pfu!" + </p> + <p> + "Listen!" says the old man, sternly cutting short the torrent of + invective. "You must take at least two shares and a half. If you cannot + manage it yourself, you can get some one to help you." + </p> + <p> + "How can that be? Where am I to get the money to pay a labourer?" asks the + woman, with much wailing and a flood of tears. "Have pity, ye orthodox, on + the poor orphans! God will reward you!" and so on, and so on. + </p> + <p> + I need not worry the reader with a further description of these scenes, + which are always very long and sometimes violent. All present are deeply + interested, for the allotment of the land is by far the most important + event in Russian peasant life, and the arrangement cannot be made without + endless talking and discussion. After the number of shares for each family + has been decided, the distribution of the lots gives rise to new + difficulties. The families who have plentifully manured their land strive + to get back their old lots, and the Commune respects their claims so far + as these are consistent with the new arrangement; but often it happens + that it is impossible to conciliate private rights and Communal interests, + and in such cases the former are sacrificed in a way that would not be + tolerated by men of Anglo-Saxon race. This leads, however, to no serious + consequences. The peasants are accustomed to work together in this way, to + make concessions for the Communal welfare, and to bow unreservedly to the + will of the Mir. I know of many instances where the peasants have set at + defiance the authority of the police, of the provincial governor, and of + the central Government itself, but I have never heard of any instance + where the will of the Mir was openly opposed by one of its members. + </p> + <p> + In the preceding pages I have repeatedly spoken about "shares of the + Communal land." To prevent misconception I must explain carefully what + this expression means. A share does not mean simply a plot or parcel of + land; on the contrary, it always contains at least four, and may contain a + large number of distinct plots. We have here a new point of difference + between the Russian village and the villages of Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + Communal land in Russia is of three kinds: the land on which the village + is built, the arable land, and the meadow or hay-field, if the village is + fortunate enough to possess one. On the first of these each family + possesses a house and garden, which are the hereditary property of the + family, and are never affected by the periodical redistributions. The + other two kinds are both subject to redistribution, but on somewhat + different principles. + </p> + <p> + The whole of the Communal arable land is first of all divided into three + fields, to suit the triennial rotation of crops already described, and + each field is divided into a number of long narrow strips—corresponding + to the number of male members in the Commune—as nearly as possible + equal to each other in area and quality. Sometimes it is necessary to + divide the field into several portions, according to the quality of the + soil, and then to subdivide each of these portions into the requisite + number of strips. Thus in all cases every household possesses at least one + strip in each field; and in those cases where subdivision is necessary, + every household possesses a strip in each of the portions into which the + field is subdivided. It often happens, therefore, that the strips are very + narrow, and the portions belonging to each family very numerous. Strips + six feet wide are by no means rare. In 124 villages of the province of + Moscow, regarding which I have special information, they varied in width + from 3 to 45 yards, with an average of 11 yards. Of these narrow strips a + household may possess as many as thirty in a single field! The complicated + process of division and subdivision is accomplished by the peasants + themselves, with the aid of simple measuring-rods, and the accuracy of the + result is truly marvellous. + </p> + <p> + The meadow, which is reserved for the production of hay, is divided into + the same number of shares as the arable land. There, however, the division + and distribution take place, not at irregular intervals, but annually. + Every year, on a day fixed by the Assembly, the villagers proceed in a + body to this part of their property, and divide it into the requisite + number of portions. Lots are then cast, and each family at once mows the + portion allotted to it. In some Communes the meadow is mown by all the + peasants in common, and the hay afterwards distributed by lot among the + families; but this system is by no means so frequently used. + </p> + <p> + As the whole of the Communal land thus resembles to some extent a big + farm, it is necessary to make certain rules concerning cultivation. A + family may sow what it likes in the land allotted to it, but all families + must at least conform to the accepted system of rotation. In like manner, + a family cannot begin the autumn ploughing before the appointed time, + because it would thereby interfere with the rights of the other families, + who use the fallow field as pasturage. + </p> + <p> + It is not a little strange that this primitive system of land tenure + should have succeeded in living into the twentieth century, and still more + remarkable that the institution of which it forms an essential part should + be regarded by many intelligent people as one of the great institutions of + the future, and almost as a panacea for social and political evils. The + explanation of these facts will form the subject of the next chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + HOW THE COMMUNE HAS BEEN PRESERVED, AND WHAT IT IS TO EFFECT IN THE FUTURE + </p> + <p> + Sweeping Reforms after the Crimean War—Protest Against the Laissez + Faire Principle—Fear of the Proletariat—English and Russian + Methods of Legislation Contrasted—Sanguine Expectations—Evil + Consequences of the Communal System—The Commune of the Future—Proletariat + of the Towns—The Present State of Things Merely Temporary. + </p> + <p> + The reader is probably aware that immediately after the Crimean War Russia + was subjected to a series of sweeping reforms, including the emancipation + of the serfs and the creation of a new system of local self-government, + and he may naturally wonder how it came to pass that a curious, primitive + institution like the rural Commune succeeded in weathering the + bureaucratic hurricane. This strange phenomena I now proceed to explain, + partly because the subject is in itself interesting, and partly because I + hope thereby to throw some light on the peculiar intellectual condition of + the Russian educated classes. + </p> + <p> + When it became evident, in 1857, that the serfs were about to be + emancipated, it was at first pretty generally supposed that the rural + Commune would be entirely abolished, or at least radically modified. At + that time many Russians were enthusiastic, indiscriminate admirers of + English institutions, and believed, in common with the orthodox school of + political economists, that England had acquired her commercial and + industrial superiority by adopting the principle of individual liberty and + unrestricted competition, or, as French writers term it, the "laissez + faire" principle. This principle is plainly inconsistent with the rural + Commune, which compels the peasantry to possess land, prevents an + enterprising peasant from acquiring the land of his less enterprising + neighbours, and places very considerable restrictions on the freedom of + action of the individual members. Accordingly it was assumed that the + rural Commune, being inconsistent with the modern spirit of progress, + would find no place in the new regime of liberty which was about to be + inaugurated. + </p> + <p> + No sooner had these ideas been announced in the Press than they called + forth strenuous protests. In the crowd of protesters were two well-defined + groups. On the one hand there were the so-called Slavophils, a small band + of patriotic, highly educated Moscovites, who were strongly disposed to + admire everything specifically Russian, and who habitually refused to bow + the knee to the wisdom of Western Europe. These gentlemen, in a special + organ which they had recently founded, pointed out to their countrymen + that the Commune was a venerable and peculiarly Russian institution, which + had mitigated in the past the baneful influence of serfage, and would + certainly in the future confer inestimable benefits on the emancipated + peasantry. The other group was animated by a very different spirit. They + had no sympathy with national peculiarities, and no reverence for hoary + antiquity. That the Commune was specifically Russian or Slavonic, and a + remnant of primitive times, was in their eyes anything but a + recommendation in its favour. Cosmopolitan in their tendencies, and + absolutely free from all archaeological sentimentality, they regarded the + institution from the purely utilitarian point of view. They agreed, + however, with the Slavophils in thinking that its preservation would have + a beneficial influence on the material and moral welfare of the peasantry. + </p> + <p> + For the sake of convenience it is necessary to designate this latter group + by some definite name, but I confess I have some difficulty in making a + choice. I do not wish to call these gentlemen Socialists, because many + people habitually and involuntarily attach a stigma to the word, and + believe that all to whom the term is applied must be first-cousins to the + petroleuses. To avoid misconceptions of this kind, it will be well to + designate them simply by the organ which most ably represented their + views, and to call them the adherents of The Contemporary. + </p> + <p> + The Slavophils and the adherents of The Contemporary, though differing + widely from each other in many respects, had the same immediate object in + view, and accordingly worked together. With great ingenuity they contended + that the Communal system of land tenure had much greater advantages, and + was attended with much fewer inconveniences, than people generally + supposed. But they did not confine themselves to these immediate practical + advantages, which had very little interest for the general reader. The + writers in The Contemporary explained that the importance of the rural + Commune lies, not in its actual condition, but in its capabilities of + development, and they drew, with prophetic eye, most attractive pictures + of the happy rural Commune of the future. Let me give here, as an + illustration, one of these prophetic descriptions: + </p> + <p> + "Thanks to the spread of primary and technical education the peasants have + become well acquainted with the science of agriculture, and are always + ready to undertake in common the necessary improvements. They no longer + exhaust the soil by exporting the grain, but sell merely certain technical + products containing no mineral ingredients. For this purpose the Communes + possess distilleries, starch-works, and the like, and the soil thereby + retains its original fertility. The scarcity induced by the natural + increase of the population is counteracted by improved methods of + cultivation. If the Chinese, who know nothing of natural science, have + succeeded by purely empirical methods in perfecting agriculture to such an + extent that a whole family can support itself on a few square yards of + land, what may not the European do with the help of chemistry, botanical + physiology, and the other natural sciences?" + </p> + <p> + Coming back from the possibilities of the future to the actualities of the + present, these ingenious and eloquent writers pointed out that in the + rural Commune, Russia possessed a sure preventive against the greatest + evil of West-European social organisation, the Proletariat. Here the + Slavophils could strike in with their favourite refrain about the rotten + social condition of Western Europe; and their temporary allies, though + they habitually scoffed at the Slavophil jeremiads, had no reason for the + moment to contradict them. Very soon the Proletariat became, for the + educated classes, a species of bugbear, and the reading public were + converted to the doctrine that the Communal institutions should be + preserved as a means of excluding the monster from Russia. + </p> + <p> + This fear of what is vaguely termed the Proletariat is still frequently to + be met with in Russia, and I have often taken pains to discover precisely + what is meant by the term. I cannot, however, say that my efforts have + been completely successful. The monster seems to be as vague and shadowy + as the awful forms which Milton placed at the gate of the infernal + regions. At one moment he seems to be simply our old enemy Pauperism, but + when we approach a little nearer we find that he expands to colossal + dimensions, so as to include all who do not possess inalienable landed + property. In short, he turns out to be, on examination, as vague and + undefinable as a good bugbear ought to be; and this vagueness contributed + probably not a little to his success. + </p> + <p> + The influence which the idea of the Proletariat exercised on the public + mind and on the legislation at the time of the Emancipation is a very + notable fact, and well worthy of attention, because it helps to illustrate + a point of difference between Russians and Englishmen. + </p> + <p> + Englishmen are, as a rule, too much occupied with the multifarious + concerns of the present to look much ahead into the distant future. We + profess, indeed, to regard with horror the maxim, Apres nous le deluge! + and we should probably annihilate with our virtuous indignation any one + who should boldly profess the principle. And yet we often act almost as if + we were really partisans of that heartless creed. When called upon to + consider the interests of the future generations, we declared that + "sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof," and stigmatise as + visionaries and dreamers all who seek to withdraw our attention from the + present. A modern Cassandra who confidently predicts the near exhaustion + of our coal-fields, or graphically describes a crushing national disaster + that must some day overtake us, may attract some public attention; but + when we learn that the misfortune is not to take place in our time, we + placidly remark that future generations must take care of themselves, and + that we cannot reasonably be expected to bear their burdens. When we are + obliged to legislate, we proceed in a cautious, tentative way, and are + quite satisfied with any homely, simple remedies that common sense and + experience may suggest, without taking the trouble to inquire whether the + remedy adopted is in accordance with scientific theories. In short, there + is a certain truth in those "famous prophetick pictures" spoken of by + Stillingfleet, which "represent the fate of England by a mole, a creature + blind and busy, continually working under ground." + </p> + <p> + In Russia we find the opposite extreme. There reformers have been trained, + not in the arena of practical politics, but in the school of political + speculation. As soon, therefore, as they begin to examine any simple + matter with a view to legislation, it at once becomes a "question," and + flies up into the region of political and social science. Whilst we have + been groping along an unexplored path, the Russians have—at least in + recent times—been constantly mapping out, with the help of foreign + experience, the country that lay before them, and advancing with gigantic + strides according to the newest political theories. Men trained in this + way cannot rest satisfied with homely remedies which merely alleviate the + evils of the moment. They wish to "tear up evil by the roots," and to + legislate for future generations as well as for themselves. + </p> + <p> + This tendency was peculiarly strong at the time of the Emancipation. The + educated classes were profoundly convinced that the system of Nicholas I. + had been a mistake, and that a new and brighter era was about to dawn upon + the country. Everything had to be reformed. The whole social and political + edifice had to be reconstructed on entirely new principles. + </p> + <p> + Let us imagine the position of a man who, having no practical acquaintance + with building, suddenly finds himself called upon to construct a large + house, containing all the newest appliances for convenience and comfort. + What will his first step be? Probably he will proceed at once to study the + latest authorities on architecture and construction, and when he has + mastered the general principles he will come down gradually to the + details. This is precisely what the Russians did when they found + themselves called upon to reconstruct the political and social edifice. + They eagerly consulted the most recent English, French, and German writers + on social and political science, and here it was that they made the + acquaintance of the Proletariat. + </p> + <p> + People who read books of travel without ever leaving their own country are + very apt to acquire exaggerated notions regarding the hardships and + dangers of uncivilised life. They read about savage tribes, daring + robbers, ferocious wild beasts, poisonous snakes, deadly fevers, and the + like; and they cannot but wonder how a human being can exist for a week + among such dangers. But if they happen thereafter to visit the countries + described, they discover to their surprise that, though the descriptions + may not have been exaggerated, life under such conditions is much easier + than they supposed. Now the Russians who read about the Proletariat were + very much like the people who remain at home and devour books of travel. + They gained exaggerated notions, and learned to fear the Proletariat much + more than we do, who habitually live in the midst of it. Of course it is + quite possible that their view of the subject is truer than ours, and that + we may some day, like the people who live tranquilly on the slopes of a + volcano, be rudely awakened from our fancied security. But this is an + entirely different question. I am at present not endeavouring to justify + our habitual callousness with regard to social dangers, but simply seeking + to explain why the Russians, who have little or no practical acquaintance + with pauperism, should have taken such elaborate precautions against it. + </p> + <p> + But how can the preservation of the Communal institutions lead to this + "consummation devoutly to be wished," and how far are the precautions + likely to be successful? + </p> + <p> + Those who have studied the mysteries of social science have generally come + to the conclusion that the Proletariat has been formed chiefly by the + expropriation of the peasantry or small land-holders, and that its + formation might be prevented, or at least retarded, by any system of + legislation which would secure the possession of land for the peasants and + prevent them from being uprooted from the soil. Now it must be admitted + that the Russian Communal system is admirably adapted for this purpose. + About one-half of the arable land has been reserved for the peasantry, and + cannot be encroached on by the great landowners or the capitalists, and + every adult peasant, roughly speaking, has a right to a share of this + land. When I have said that the peasantry compose about five-sixths of the + population, and that it is extremely difficult for a peasant to sever his + connection with the rural Commune, it will be at once evident that, if the + theories of social philosophers are correct, and if the sanguine + expectations entertained in many quarters regarding the permanence of the + present Communal institutions are destined to be realised, there is little + or no danger of a numerous Proletariat being formed, and the Russians are + justified in maintaining, as they often do, that they have successfully + solved one of the most important and most difficult of social problems. + </p> + <p> + But is there any reasonable chance of these sanguine expectations being + realised? + </p> + <p> + This is, doubtless, a most complicated and difficult question, but it + cannot be shirked. However sceptical we may be with regard to social + panaceas of all sorts, we cannot dismiss with a few hackneyed phrases a + gigantic experiment in social science involving the material and moral + welfare of many millions of human beings. On the other hand, I do not wish + to exhaust the reader's patience by a long series of multifarious details + and conflicting arguments. What I propose to do, therefore, is to state in + a few words the conclusions at which I have arrived, after a careful study + of the question in all its bearings, and to indicate in a general way how + I have arrived at these conclusions. + </p> + <p> + If Russia were content to remain a purely agricultural country of the + Sleepy Hollow type, and if her Government were to devote all its energies + to maintaining economic and social stagnation, the rural Commune might + perhaps prevent the formation of a large Proletariat in the future, as it + has tended to prevent it for centuries in the past. The periodical + redistributions of the Communal land would secure to every family a + portion of the soil, and when the population became too dense, the evils + arising from inordinate subdivision of the land might be obviated by a + carefully regulated system of emigration to the outlying, thinly populated + provinces. All this sounds very well in theory, but experience is proving + that it cannot be carried out in practice. In Russia, as in Western + Europe, the struggle for life, even among the conservative agricultural + classes, is becoming yearly more and more intense, and is producing both + the desire and the necessity for greater freedom of individual character + and effort, so that each man may make his way in the world according to + the amount of his intelligence, energy, spirit of enterprise, and tenacity + of purpose. Whatever institutions tend to fetter the individual and + maintain a dead level of mediocrity have little chance of subsisting for + any great length of time, and it must be admitted that among such + institutions the rural Commune in its present form occupies a prominent + place. All its members must possess, in principle if not always in + practice, an equal share of the soil and must practice the same methods of + agriculture, and when a certain inequality has been created by individual + effort it is in great measure wiped out by a redistribution of the + Communal land. + </p> + <p> + Now, I am well aware that in practice the injustice and inconveniences of + the system, being always tempered and corrected by ingenious compromises + suggested by long experience, are not nearly so great as the mere theorist + might naturally suppose; but they are, I believe, quite great enough to + prevent the permanent maintenance of the institution, and already there + are ominous indications of the coming change, as I shall explain more + fully when I come to deal with the consequences of serf-emancipation. On + the other hand there is no danger of a sudden, general abolition of the + old system. Though the law now permits the transition from Communal to + personal hereditary tenure, even the progressive enterprising peasants are + slow to avail themselves of the permission; and the reason I once heard + given for this conservative tendency is worth recording. A well-to-do + peasant who had been in the habit of manuring his land better than his + neighbours, and who was, consequently, a loser by the existing system, + said to me: "Of course I want to keep the allotment I have got. But if the + land is never again to be divided my grandchildren may be beggars. We must + not sin against those who are to come after us." This unexpected reply + gave me food for reflection. Surely those muzhiks who are so often accused + of being brutally indifferent to moral obligations must have peculiar + deep-rooted moral conceptions of their own which exercise a great + influence on their daily life. A man who hesitates to sin against his + grandchildren still unborn, though his conceptions of the meum and the + tuum in the present may be occasionally a little confused, must possess + somewhere deep down in his nature a secret fund of moral feeling of a very + respectable kind. Even among the educated classes in Russia the way of + looking at these matters is very different from ours. We should naturally + feel inclined to applaud, encourage, and assist the peasants who show + energy and initiative, and who try to rise above their fellows. To the + Russian this seems at once inexpedient and immoral. The success of the + few, he explains, is always obtained at the expense of the many, and + generally by means which the severe moralist cannot approve of. The rich + peasants, for example, have gained their fortune and influence by + demoralising and exploiting their weaker brethren, by committing all + manner of illegalities, and by bribing the local authorities. Hence they + are styled Miroyedy (Commune-devourers) or Kulaki (fists), or something + equally uncomplimentary. Once this view is adopted, it follows logically + that the Communal institutions, in so far as they form a barrier to the + activity of such persons, ought to be carefully preserved. This idea + underlies nearly all the arguments in favour of the Commune, and explains + why they are so popular. Russians of all classes have, in fact, a leaning + towards socialistic notions, and very little sympathy with our belief in + individual initiative and unrestricted competition. + </p> + <p> + Even if it be admitted that the Commune may effectually prevent the + formation of an agricultural Proletariat, the question is thereby only + half answered. Russia aspires to become a great industrial and commercial + country, and accordingly her town population is rapidly augmenting. We + have still to consider, then, how the Commune affects the Proletariat of + the towns. In Western Europe the great centres of industry have uprooted + from the soil and collected in the towns a great part of the rural + population. Those who yielded to this attractive influence severed all + connection with their native villages, became unfit for field labour, and + were transformed into artisans or factory-workers. In Russia this + transformation could not easily take place. The peasant might work during + the greater part of his life in the towns, but he did not thereby sever + his connection with his native village. He remained, whether he desired it + or not, a member of the Commune, possessing a share of the Communal land, + and liable for a share of the Communal burdens. During his residence in + the town his wife and family remained at home, and thither he himself + sooner or later returned. In this way a class of hybrids—half-peasants, + half-artisans—has been created, and the formation of a town + Proletariat has been greatly retarded. + </p> + <p> + The existence of this hybrid class is commonly cited as a beneficent + result of the Communal institutions. The artisans and factory labourers, + it is said, have thus always a home to which they can retire when thrown + out of work or overtaken by old age, and their children are brought up in + the country, instead of being reared among the debilitating influences of + overcrowded cities. Every common labourer has, in short, by this ingenious + contrivance, some small capital and a country residence. + </p> + <p> + In the present transitional state of Russian society this peculiar + arrangement is at once natural and convenient, but amidst its advantages + it has many serious defects. The unnatural separation of the artisan from + his wife and family leads to very undesirable results, well known to all + who are familiar with the details of peasant life in the northern + provinces. And whatever its advantages and defects may be, it cannot be + permanently retained. At the present time native industry is still in its + infancy. Protected by the tariff from foreign competition, and too few in + number to produce a strong competition among themselves, the existing + factories can give to their owners a large revenue without any strenuous + exertion. Manufacturers can therefore allow themselves many little + liberties, which would be quite inadmissible if the price of manufactured + goods were lowered by brisk competition. Ask a Lancashire manufacturer if + he could allow a large portion of his workers to go yearly to Cornwall or + Caithness to mow a field of hay or reap a few acres of wheat or oats! And + if Russia is to make great industrial progress, the manufacturers of + Moscow, Lodz, Ivanovo, and Shui will some day be as hard pressed as are + those of Bradford and Manchester. The invariable tendency of modern + industry, and the secret of its progress, is the ever-increasing division + of labour; and how can this principle be applied if the artisans insist on + remaining agriculturists? + </p> + <p> + The interests of agriculture, too, are opposed to the old system. + Agriculture cannot be expected to make progress, or even to be tolerably + productive, if it is left in great measure to women and children. At + present it is not desirable that the link which binds the factory-worker + or artisan with the village should be at once severed, for in the + neighbourhood of the large factories there is often no proper + accommodation for the families of the workers, and agriculture, as at + present practised, can be carried on successfully though the Head of the + Household happens to be absent. But the system must be regarded as simply + temporary, and the disruption of large families—a phenomenon of + which I have already spoken—renders its application more and more + difficult. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <h3> + FINNISH AND TARTAR VILLAGES + </h3> + <p> + A Finnish Tribe—Finnish Villages—Various Stages of + Russification—Finnish Women—Finnish Religions—Method of + "Laying" Ghosts—Curious Mixture of Christianity and Paganism—Conversion + of the Finns—A Tartar Village—A Russian Peasant's Conception + of Mahometanism—A Mahometan's View of Christianity—Propaganda—The + Russian Colonist—Migrations of Peoples During the Dark Ages. + </p> + <p> + When talking one day with a landed proprietor who lived near Ivanofka, I + accidentally discovered that in a district at some distance to the + northeast there were certain villages the inhabitants of which did not + understand Russian, and habitually used a peculiar language of their own. + With an illogical hastiness worthy of a genuine ethnologist, I at once + assumed that these must be the remnants of some aboriginal race. + </p> + <p> + "Des aborigenes!" I exclaimed, unable to recall the Russian equivalent for + the term, and knowing that my friend understood French. "Doubtless the + remains of some ancient race who formerly held the country, and are now + rapidly disappearing. Have you any Aborigines Protection Society in this + part of the world?" + </p> + <p> + My friend had evidently great difficulty in imagining what an Aborigines + Protection Society could be, and promptly assured me that there was + nothing of the kind in Russia. On being told that such a society might + render valuable services by protecting the weaker against the stronger + race, and collecting important materials for the new science of Social + Embryology, he looked thoroughly mystified. As to the new science, he had + never heard of it, and as to protection, he thought that the inhabitants + of the villages in question were quite capable of protecting themselves. + "I could invent," he added, with a malicious smile, "a society for the + protection of ALL peasants, but I am quite sure that the authorities would + not allow me to carry out my idea." + </p> + <p> + My ethnological curiosity was thoroughly aroused, and I endeavoured to + awaken a similar feeling in my friend by hinting that we had at hand a + promising field for discoveries which might immortalise the fortunate + explorers; but my efforts were in vain. The old gentleman was a portly, + indolent man, of phlegmatic temperament, who thought more of comfort than + of immortality in the terrestrial sense of the term. To my proposal that + we should start at once on an exploring expedition, he replied calmly that + the distance was considerable, that the roads were muddy, and that there + was nothing to be learned. The villages in question were very like other + villages, and their inhabitants lived, to all intents and purposes, in the + same way as their Russian neighbours. If they had any secret peculiarities + they would certainly not divulge them to a stranger, for they were + notoriously silent, gloomy, morose, and uncommunicative. Everything that + was known about them, my friend assured me, might be communicated in a few + words. They belonged to a Finnish tribe called Korelli, and had been + transported to their present settlements in comparatively recent times. In + answer to my questions as to how, when, and by whom they had been + transported thither my informant replied that it had been the work of Ivan + the Terrible. + </p> + <p> + Though I knew at that time little of Russian history, I suspected that the + last assertion was invented on the spur of the moment, in order to satisfy + my troublesome curiosity, and accordingly I determined not to accept it + without verification. The result showed how careful the traveller should + be in accepting the testimony of "intelligent, well-informed natives." On + further investigation I discovered, not only that the story about Ivan the + Terrible was a pure invention—whether of my friend or of the popular + imagination, which always uses heroic names as pegs on which to hang + traditions, I know not—but also that my first theory was correct. + These Finnish peasants turned out to be a remnant of the aborigines, or at + least of the oldest known inhabitants of the district. Men of the same + race, but bearing different tribal names, such as Finns, Korelli, + Tcheremiss, Tchuvash, Mordva, Votyaks, Permyaks, Zyryanye, Voguls, are to + be found in considerable numbers all over the northern provinces, from the + Gulf of Bothnia to Western Siberia, as well as in the provinces bordering + the Middle Volga as far south as Penza, Simbirsk, and Tamboff.* The + Russian peasants, who now compose the great mass of the population, are + the intruders. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The semi-official "Statesman's Handbook for Russia," + published in 1896, enumerates fourteen different tribes, + with an aggregate of about 4,650,000 souls, but these + numbers must not be regarded as having any pretensions to + accuracy. The best authorities differ widely in their + estimates. +</pre> + <p> + I had long taken a deep interest in what learned Germans call the + Volkerwanderung—that is to say, the migrations of peoples during the + gradual dissolution of the Roman Empire, and it had often occurred to me + that the most approved authorities, who had expended an infinite amount of + learning on the subject, had not always taken the trouble to investigate + the nature of the process. It is not enough to know that a race or tribe + extended its dominions or changed its geographical position. We ought at + the same time to inquire whether it expelled, exterminated, or absorbed + the former inhabitants, and how the expulsion, extermination, or + absorption was effected. Now of these three processes, absorption may have + been more frequent than is commonly supposed, and it seemed to me that in + Northern Russia this process might be conveniently studied. A thousand + years ago the whole of Northern Russia was peopled by Finnish pagan + tribes, and at the present day the greater part of it is occupied by + peasants who speak the language of Moscow, profess the Orthodox faith, + present in their physiognomy no striking peculiarities, and appear to the + superficial observer pure Russians. And we have no reason to suppose that + the former inhabitants were expelled or exterminated, or that they + gradually died out from contact with the civilisation and vices of a + higher race. History records no wholesale Finnish migrations like that of + the Kalmyks, and no war of extermination; and statistics prove that among + the remnants of those primitive races the population increases as rapidly + as among the Russian peasantry.* From these facts I concluded that the + Finnish aborigines had been simply absorbed, or rather, were being + absorbed, by the Slavonic intruders. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This latter statement is made on the authority of Popoff + ("Zyryanye i zyryanski krai," Moscow, 1874) and + Tcheremshanski ("Opisanie Orenburgskoi Gubernii," Ufa, + 1859). +</pre> + <p> + This conclusion has since been confirmed by observation. During my + wanderings in these northern provinces I have found villages in every + stage of Russification. In one, everything seemed thoroughly Finnish: the + inhabitants had a reddish-olive skin, very high cheek-bones, obliquely set + eyes, and a peculiar costume; none of the women, and very few of the men, + could understand Russian, and any Russian who visited the place was + regarded as a foreigner. In a second, there were already some Russian + inhabitants; the others had lost something of their pure Finnish type, + many of the men had discarded the old costume and spoke Russian fluently, + and a Russian visitor was no longer shunned. In a third, the Finnish type + was still further weakened: all the men spoke Russian, and nearly all the + women understood it; the old male costume had entirely disappeared, and + the old female costume was rapidly following it; while intermarriage with + the Russian population was no longer rare. In a fourth, intermarriage had + almost completely done its work, and the old Finnish element could be + detected merely in certain peculiarities of physiognomy and + pronunciation.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * One of the most common peculiarities of pronunciation is + the substitution of the sound of ts for that of tch, which I + found almost universal over a large area. +</pre> + <p> + The process of Russification may be likewise observed in the manner of + building the houses and in the methods of farming, which show plainly that + the Finnish races did not obtain rudimentary civilisation from the Slavs. + Whence, then, was it derived? Was it obtained from some other race, or is + it indigenous? These are questions which I have no means of answering. + </p> + <p> + A Positivist poet—or if that be a contradiction in terms, let us say + a Positivist who wrote verses—once composed an appeal to the fair + sex, beginning with the words: + </p> + <p> + "Pourquoi, O femmes, restez-vous en arriere?" + </p> + <p> + The question might have been addressed to the women in these Finnish + villages. Like their sisters in France, they are much more conservative + than the men, and oppose much more stubbornly the Russian influence. On + the other hand, like women in general, when they do begin to change, they + change more rapidly. This is seen especially in the matter of costume. The + men adopt the Russian costume very gradually; the women adopt it at once. + As soon as a single woman gets a gaudy Russian dress, every other woman in + the village feels envious and impatient till she has done likewise. I + remember once visiting a Mordva village when this critical point had been + reached, and a very characteristic incident occurred. In the preceding + villages through which I had passed I had tried in vain to buy a female + costume, and I again made the attempt. This time the result was very + different. A few minutes after I had expressed my wish to purchase a + costume, the house in which I was sitting was besieged by a great crowd of + women, holding in their hands articles of wearing apparel. In order to + make a selection I went out into the crowd, but the desire to find a + purchaser was so general and so ardent that I was regularly mobbed. The + women, shouting "Kupi! kupi!" ("Buy! buy!"), and struggling with each + other to get near me, were so importunate that I had at last to take + refuge in the house, to prevent my own costume from being torn to shreds. + But even there I was not safe, for the women followed at my heels, and a + considerable amount of good-natured violence had to be employed to expel + the intruders. + </p> + <p> + It is especially interesting to observe the transformation of nationality + in the sphere of religious conceptions. The Finns remained pagans long + after the Russians had become Christians, but at the present time the + whole population, from the eastern boundary of Finland proper to the Ural + Mountains, are officially described as members of the Greek Orthodox + Church. The manner in which this change of religion was effected is well + worthy of attention. + </p> + <p> + The old religion of the Finnish tribes, if we may judge from the fragments + which still remain, had, like the people themselves, a thoroughly + practical, prosaic character. Their theology consisted not of abstract + dogmas, but merely of simple prescriptions for the ensuring of material + welfare. Even at the present day, in the districts not completely + Russified, their prayers are plain, unadorned requests for a good harvest, + plenty of cattle, and the like, and are expressed in a tone of childlike + familiarity that sounds strange in our ears. They make no attempt to veil + their desires with mystic solemnity, but ask, in simple, straightforward + fashion, that God should make the barley ripen and the cow calve + successfully, that He should prevent their horses from being stolen, and + that he should help them to gain money to pay their taxes. + </p> + <p> + Their religious ceremonies have, so far as I have been able to discover, + no hidden mystical signification, and are for the most part rather magical + rites for averting the influence of malicious spirits, or freeing + themselves from the unwelcome visits of their departed relatives. For this + latter purpose many even of those who are officially Christians proceed at + stated seasons to the graveyards and place an abundant supply of cooked + food on the graves of their relations who have recently died, requesting + the departed to accept this meal, and not to return to their old homes, + where their presence is no longer desired. Though more of the food is + eaten at night by the village dogs than by the famished spirits, the + custom is believed to have a powerful influence in preventing the dead + from wandering about at night and frightening the living. If it be true, + as I am inclined to believe, that tombstones were originally used for + keeping the dead in their graves, then it must be admitted that in the + matter of "laying" ghosts the Finns have shown themselves much more humane + than other races. It may, however, be suggested that in the original home + of the Finns—"le berceau de la race," as French ethnologists say—stones + could not easily be procured, and that the custom of feeding the dead was + adopted as a pis aller. The decision of the question must be left to those + who know where the original home of the Finns was. + </p> + <p> + As the Russian peasantry, knowing little or nothing of theology, and + placing implicit confidence in rites and ceremonies, did not differ very + widely from the pagan Finns in the matter of religious conceptions, the + friendly contact of the two races naturally led to a curious blending of + the two religions. The Russians adopted many customs from the Finns, and + the Finns adopted still more from the Russians. When Yumala and the other + Finnish deities did not do as they were desired, their worshippers + naturally applied for protection or assistance to the Madonna and the + "Russian God." If their own traditional magic rites did not suffice to + ward off evil influences, they naturally tried the effect of crossing + themselves, as the Russians do in moments of danger. All this may seem + strange to us who have been taught from our earliest years that religion + is something quite different from spells, charms, and incantations, and + that of all the various religions in the world one alone is true, all the + others being false. But we must remember that the Finns have had a very + different education. They do not distinguish religion from magic rites, + and they have never been taught that other religions are less true than + their own. For them the best religion is the one which contains the most + potent spells, and they see no reason why less powerful religions should + not be blended therewith. Their deities are not jealous gods, and do not + insist on having a monopoly of devotion; and in any case they cannot do + much injury to those who have placed themselves under the protection of a + more powerful divinity. + </p> + <p> + This simple-minded eclecticism often produces a singular mixture of + Christianity and paganism. Thus, for instance, at the harvest festivals, + Tchuvash peasants have been known to pray first to their own deities, and + then to St. Nicholas, the miracle-worker, who is the favourite saint of + the Russian peasantry. Such dual worship is sometimes even recommended by + the Yomzi—a class of men who correspond to the medicine-men among + the Red Indians—and the prayers are on these occasions couched in + the most familiar terms. Here is a specimen given by a Russian who has + specially studied the language and customs of this interesting people:* + "Look here, O Nicholas-god! Perhaps my neighbour, little Michael, has been + slandering me to you, or perhaps he will do so. If he does, don't believe + him. I have done him no ill, and wish him none. He is a worthless boaster + and a babbler. He does not really honour you, and merely plays the + hypocrite. But I honour you from my heart; and, behold, I place a taper + before you!" Sometimes incidents occur which display a still more curious + blending of the two religions. Thus a Tcheremiss, on one occasion, in + consequence of a serious illness, sacrificed a young foal to our Lady of + Kazan! + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Mr. Zolotnitski, "Tchuvasko-russki slovar," p. 167. +</pre> + <p> + Though the Finnish beliefs affected to some extent the Russian peasantry, + the Russian faith ultimately prevailed. This can be explained without + taking into consideration the inherent superiority of Christianity over + all forms of paganism. The Finns had no organised priesthood, and + consequently never offered a systematic opposition to the new faith; the + Russians, on the contrary, had a regular hierarchy in close alliance with + the civil administration. In the principal villages Christian churches + were built, and some of the police-officers vied with the ecclesiastical + officials in the work of making converts. At the same time there were + other influences tending in the same direction. If a Russian practised + Finnish superstitions he exposed himself to disagreeable consequences of a + temporal kind; if, on the contrary, a Finn adopted the Christian religion, + the temporal consequences that could result were all advantageous to him. + </p> + <p> + Many of the Finns gradually became Christians almost unconsciously. The + ecclesiastical authorities were extremely moderate in their demands. They + insisted on no religious knowledge, and merely demanded that the converts + should be baptised. The converts, failing to understand the spiritual + significance of the ceremony, commonly offered no resistance, so long as + the immersion was performed in summer. So little repugnance, indeed, did + they feel, that on some occasions, when a small reward was given to those + who consented, some of the new converts wished the ceremony to be repeated + several times. The chief objection to receiving the Christian faith lay in + the long and severe fasts imposed by the Greek Orthodox Church; but this + difficulty was overcome by assuming that they need not be strictly + observed. At first, in some districts, it was popularly believed that the + Icons informed the Russian priests against those who did not fast as the + Church prescribed; but experience gradually exploded this theory. Some of + the more prudent converts, however, to prevent all possible tale-telling, + took the precaution of turning the face of the Icon to the wall when + prohibited meats were about to be eaten! + </p> + <p> + This gradual conversion of the Finnish tribes, effected without any + intellectual revolution in the minds of the converts, had very important + temporal consequences. Community of faith led to intermarriage, and + intermarriage led rapidly to the blending of the two races. + </p> + <p> + If we compare a Finnish village in any stage of Russification with a + Tartar village, of which the inhabitants are Mahometans, we cannot fail to + be struck by the contrast. In the latter, though there may be many + Russians, there is no blending of the two races. Between them religion has + raised an impassable barrier. There are many villages in the eastern and + north-eastern provinces of European Russia which have been for generations + half Tartar and half Russian, and the amalgamation of the two + nationalities has not yet begun. Near the one end stands the Christian + church, and near the other stands the little metchet, or Mahometan house + of prayer. The whole village forms one Commune, with one Village Assembly + and one Village Elder; but, socially, it is composed of two distinct + communities, each possessing its peculiar customs and peculiar mode of + life. The Tartar may learn Russian, but he does not on that account become + Russianised. + </p> + <p> + It must not, however, be supposed that the two races are imbued with + fanatical hatred towards each other. On the contrary, they live in perfect + good-fellowship, elect as Village Elder sometimes a Russian and sometimes + a Tartar, and discuss the Communal affairs in the Village Assembly without + reference to religious matters. I know one village where the + good-fellowship went even a step farther: the Christians determined to + repair their church, and the Mahometans helped them to transport wood for + the purpose! All this tends to show that under a tolerably good + Government, which does not favour one race at the expense of the other, + Mahometan Tartars and Christian Slavs can live peaceably together. + </p> + <p> + The absence of fanaticism and of that proselytising zeal which is one of + the most prolific sources of religious hatred, is to be explained by the + peculiar religious conceptions of these peasants. In their minds religion + and nationality are so closely allied as to be almost identical. The + Russian is, as it were, by nature a Christian, and the Tartar a Mahometan; + and it never occurs to any one in these villages to disturb the appointed + order of nature. On this subject I had once an interesting conversation + with a Russian peasant who had been for some time living among Tartars. In + reply to my question as to what kind of people the Tartars were, he + replied laconically, "Nitchevo"—that is to say, "nothing in + particular"; and on being pressed for a more definite expression of + opinion, he admitted that they were very good people indeed. + </p> + <p> + "And what kind of faith have they?" I continued. + </p> + <p> + "A good enough faith," was the prompt reply. + </p> + <p> + "Is it better than the faith of the Molokanye?" The Molokanye are Russian + sectarians—closely resembling Scotch Presbyterians—of whom I + shall have more to say in the sequel. + </p> + <p> + "Of course it is better than the Molokan faith." + </p> + <p> + "Indeed!" I exclaimed, endeavouring to conceal my astonishment at this + strange judgment. "Are the Molokanye, then, very bad people?" + </p> + <p> + "Not at all. The Molokanye are good and honest." + </p> + <p> + "Why, then, do you think their faith is so much worse than that of the + Mahometans?" + </p> + <p> + "How shall I tell you?" The peasant here paused as if to collect his + thoughts, and then proceeded slowly, "The Tartars, you see, received their + faith from God as they received the colour of their skins, but the + Molokanye are Russians who have invented a faith out of their own heads!" + </p> + <p> + This singular answer scarcely requires a commentary. As it would be absurd + to try to make Tartars change the colour of their skins, so it would be + absurd to try to make them change their religion. Besides this, such an + attempt would be an unjustifiable interference with the designs of + Providence, for, in the peasant's opinion, God gave Mahometanism to the + Tartars just as he gave the Orthodox faith to the Russians. + </p> + <p> + The ecclesiastical authorities do not formally adopt this strange theory, + but they generally act in accordance with it. There is little official + propaganda among the Mahometan subjects of the Tsar, and it is well that + it is so, for an energetic propaganda would lead merely to the stirring up + of any latent hostility which may exist deep down in the nature of the two + races, and it would not make any real converts. The Tartars cannot + unconsciously imbibe Christianity as the Finns have done. Their religion + is not a rude, simple paganism without theology in the scholastic sense of + the term, but a monotheism as exclusive as Christianity itself. Enter into + conversation with an intelligent man who has no higher religious belief + than a rude sort of paganism, and you may, if you know him well and make a + judicious use of your knowledge, easily interest him in the touching story + of Christ's life and teaching. And in these unsophisticated natures there + is but one step from interest and sympathy to conversion. + </p> + <p> + Try the same method with a Mussulman, and you will soon find that all your + efforts are fruitless. He has already a theology and a prophet of his own, + and sees no reason why he should exchange them for those which you have to + offer. Perhaps he will show you more or less openly that he pities your + ignorance and wonders that you have not been able to ADVANCE from + Christianity to Mahometanism. In his opinion—I am supposing that he + is a man of education—Moses and Christ were great prophets in their + day, and consequently he is accustomed to respect their memory; but he is + profoundly convinced that however appropriate they were for their own + times, they have been entirely superseded by Mahomet, precisely as we + believe that Judaism was superseded by Christianity. Proud of his superior + knowledge, he regards you as a benighted polytheist, and may perhaps tell + you that the Orthodox Christians with whom he comes in contact have three + Gods and a host of lesser deities called saints, that they pray to idols + called Icons, and that they keep their holy days by getting drunk. In vain + you endeavour to explain to him that saints and Icons are not essential + parts of Christianity, and that habits of intoxication have no religious + significance. On these points he may make concessions to you, but the + doctrine of the Trinity remains for him a fatal stumbling-block. "You + Christians," he will say, "once had a great prophet called Jisous, who is + mentioned with respect in the Koran, but you falsified your sacred + writings and took to worshipping him, and now you declare that he is the + equal of Allah. Far from us be such blasphemy! There is but one God, and + Mahomet is His prophet." + </p> + <p> + A worthy Christian missionary, who had laboured long and zealously among a + Mussulman population, once called me sharply to account for having + expressed the opinion that Mahometans are very rarely converted to + Christianity. When I brought him down from the region of vague general + statements and insisted on knowing how many cases he had met with in his + own personal experience during sixteen years of missionary work, he was + constrained to admit that he had know only one: and when I pressed him + farther as to the disinterested sincerity of the convert in question his + reply was not altogether satisfactory. + </p> + <p> + The policy of religious non-intervention has not always been practised by + the Government. Soon after the conquest of the Khanate of Kazan in the + sixteenth century, the Tsars of Muscovy attempted to convert their new + subjects from Mahometanism to Christianity. The means employed were partly + spiritual and partly administrative, but the police-officers seem to have + played a more important part than the clergy. In this way a certain number + of Tartars were baptised; but the authorities were obliged to admit that + the new converts "shamelessly retain many horrid Tartar customs, and + neither hold nor know the Christian faith." When spiritual exhortations + failed, the Government ordered its officials to "pacify, imprison, put in + irons, and thereby UNTEACH and frighten from the Tartar faith those who, + though baptised, do not obey the admonitions of the Metropolitan." These + energetic measures proved as ineffectual as the spiritual exhortations; + and Catherine II. adopted a new method, highly characteristic of her + system of administration. The new converts—who, be it remembered, + were unable to read and write—were ordered by Imperial ukaz to sign + a written promise to the effect that "they would completely forsake their + infidel errors, and, avoiding all intercourse with unbelievers, would hold + firmly and unwaveringly the Christian faith and its dogmas"*—of + which latter, we may add, they had not the slightest knowledge. The + childlike faith in the magical efficacy of stamped paper here displayed + was not justified. The so-called "baptised Tartars" are at the present + time as far from being Christians as they were in the sixteenth century. + They cannot openly profess Mahometanism, because men who have been once + formally admitted into the National Church cannot leave it without + exposing themselves to the severe pains and penalties of the criminal + code, but they strongly object to be Christianised. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Ukaz Kazanskoi dukhovnoi Konsistorii." Anno 1778. +</pre> + <p> + On this subject I have found a remarkable admission in a semiofficial + article, published as recently as 1872.* "It is a fact worthy of + attention," says the writer, "that a long series of evident apostasies + coincides with the beginning of measures to confirm the converts in the + Christian faith. There must be, therefore, some collateral cause producing + those cases of apostasy precisely at the moment when the contrary might be + expected." There is a delightful naivete in this way of stating the fact. + The mysterious cause vaguely indicated is not difficult to find. So long + as the Government demanded merely that the supposed converts should be + inscribed as Christians in the official registers, there was no official + apostasy; but as soon as active measures began to be taken "to confirm the + converts," a spirit of hostility and fanaticism appeared among the + Mussulman population, and made those who were inscribed as Christians + resist the propaganda. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Zhurnal Ministerstva Narodnago Prosveshtcheniya." June, + 1872. +</pre> + <p> + It may safely be said that Christians are impervious to Islam, and genuine + Mussulmans impervious to Christianity; but between the two there are + certain tribes, or fractions of tribes, which present a promising field + for missionary enterprise. In this field the Tartars show much more zeal + than the Russians, and possess certain advantages over their rivals. The + tribes of Northeastern Russia learn Tartar much more easily than Russian, + and their geographical position and modes of life bring them in contact + with Russians much less than with Tartars. The consequence is that whole + villages of Tcheremiss and Votiaks, officially inscribed as belonging to + the Greek Orthodox Church, have openly declared themselves Mahometans; and + some of the more remarkable conversions have been commemorated by popular + songs, which are sung by young and old. Against this propaganda the + Orthodox ecclesiastical authorities do little or nothing. Though the + criminal code contains severe enactments against those who fall away from + the Orthodox Church, and still more against those who produce apostasy,* + the enactments are rarely put in force. Both clergy and laity in the + Russian Church are, as a rule, very tolerant where no political questions + are involved. The parish priest pays attention to apostasy only when it + diminishes his annual revenues, and this can be easily avoided by the + apostate's paying a small yearly sum. If this precaution be taken, whole + villages may be converted to Islam without the higher ecclesiastical + authorities knowing anything of the matter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A person convicted of converting a Christian to Islamism + is sentenced, according to the criminal code (§184), to the + loss of all civil rights, and to imprisonment with hard + labour for a term varying from eight to ten years. +</pre> + <p> + Whether the barrier that separates Christians and Mussulmans in Russia, as + elsewhere, will ever be broken down by education, I do not know; but I may + remark that hitherto the spread of education among the Tartars has tended + rather to imbue them with fanaticism. If we remember that theological + education always produces intolerance, and that Tartar education is almost + exclusively theological, we shall not be surprised to find that a Tartar's + religious fanaticism is generally in direct proportion to the amount of + his intellectual culture. The unlettered Tartar, unspoiled by learning + falsely so called, and knowing merely enough of his religion to perform + the customary ordinances prescribed by the Prophet, is peaceable, kindly, + and hospitable towards all men; but the learned Tartar, who has been + taught that the Christian is a kiafir (infidel) and a mushrik + (polytheist), odious in the sight of Allah, and already condemned to + eternal punishment, is as intolerant and fanatical as the most bigoted + Roman Catholic or Calvinist. Such fanatics are occasionally to be met with + in the eastern provinces, but they are few in number, and have little + influence on the masses. From my own experience I can testify that during + the whole course of my wanderings I have nowhere received more kindness + and hospitality than among the uneducated Mussulman Bashkirs. Even here, + however, Islam opposes a strong barrier to Russification. + </p> + <p> + Though no such barrier existed among the pagan Finnish tribes, the work of + Russification among them is still, as I have already indicated, far from + complete. Not only whole villages, but even many entire districts, are + still very little affected by Russian influence. This is to be explained + partly by geographical conditions. In regions which have a poor soil, and + are intersected by no navigable river, there are few or no Russian + settlers, and consequently the Finns have there preserved intact their + language and customs; whilst in those districts which present more + inducements to colonisation, the Russian population is more numerous, and + the Finns less conservative. It must, however, be admitted that + geographical conditions do not completely explain the facts. The various + tribes, even when placed in the same conditions, are not equally + susceptible to foreign influence. The Mordva, for instance, are infinitely + less conservative than the Tchuvash. This I have often noticed, and my + impression has been confirmed by men who have had more opportunities of + observation. For the present we must attribute this to some occult + ethnological peculiarity, but future investigations may some day supply a + more satisfactory explanation. Already I have obtained some facts which + appear to throw light on the subject. The Tchuvash have certain customs + which seem to indicate that they were formerly, if not avowed Mahometans, + at least under the influence of Islam, whilst we have no reason to suppose + that the Mordva ever passed through that school. + </p> + <p> + The absence of religious fanaticism greatly facilitated Russian + colonisation in these northern regions, and the essentially peaceful + disposition of the Russian peasantry tended in the same direction. The + Russian peasant is admirably fitted for the work of peaceful agricultural + colonisation. Among uncivilised tribes he is good-natured, long-suffering, + conciliatory, capable of bearing extreme hardships, and endowed with a + marvellous power of adapting himself to circumstances. The haughty + consciousness of personal and national superiority habitually displayed by + Englishmen of all ranks when they are brought in contact with races which + they look upon as lower in the scale of humanity than themselves, is + entirely foreign to his character. He has no desire to rule, and no wish + to make the natives hewers of wood and drawers of water. All he desires is + a few acres of land which he and his family can cultivate; and so long as + he is allowed to enjoy these he is not likely to molest his neighbours. + Had the colonists of the Finnish country been men of Anglo-Saxon race, + they would in all probability have taken possession of the land and + reduced the natives to the condition of agricultural labourers. The + Russian colonists have contented themselves with a humbler and less + aggressive mode of action; they have settled peaceably among the native + population, and are rapidly becoming blended with it. In many districts + the so-called Russians have perhaps more Finnish than Slavonic blood in + their veins. + </p> + <p> + But what has all this to do, it may be asked, with the aforementioned + Volkerwanderung, or migration of peoples, during the Dark Ages? More than + may at first sight appear. Some of the so-called migrations were, I + suspect, not at all migrations in the ordinary sense of the term, but + rather gradual changes, such as those which have taken place, and are + still taking place, in Northern Russia. A thousand years ago what is now + known as the province of Yaroslavl was inhabited by Finns, and now it is + occupied by men who are commonly regarded as pure Slavs. But it would be + an utter mistake to suppose that the Finns of this district migrated to + those more distant regions where they are now to be found. In reality they + formerly occupied, as I have said, the whole of Northern Russia, and in + the province of Yaroslavl they have been transformed by Slav infiltration. + In Central Europe the Slavs may be said in a certain sense to have + retreated, for in former times they occupied the whole of Northern Germany + as far as the Elbe. But what does the word "retreat" mean in this case? It + means probably that the Slays were gradually Teutonised, and then absorbed + by the Teutonic race. Some tribes, it is true, swept over a part of Europe + in genuine nomadic fashion, and endeavoured perhaps to expel or + exterminate the actual possessors of the soil. This kind of migration may + likewise be studied in Russia. But I must leave the subject till I come to + speak of the southern provinces. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <h3> + LORD NOVGOROD THE GREAT + </h3> + <p> + Departure from Ivanofka and Arrival at Novgorod—The Eastern Half of + the Town—The Kremlin—An Old Legend—The Armed Men of Rus—The + Northmen—Popular Liberty in Novgorod—The Prince and the + Popular Assembly—Civil Dissensions and Faction-fights—The + Commercial Republic Conquered by the Muscovite Tsars—Ivan the + Terrible—Present Condition of the Town—Provincial Society—Card-playing—Periodicals—"Eternal + Stillness." + </p> + <p> + Country life in Russia is pleasant enough in summer or in winter, but + between summer and winter there is an intermediate period of several weeks + when the rain and mud transform a country-house into something very like a + prison. To escape this durance vile I determined in the month of October + to leave Ivanofka, and chose as my headquarters for the next few months + the town of Novgorod—the old town of that name, not to be confounded + with Nizhni Novgorod—i.e., Lower Novgorod, on the Volga—where + the great annual fair is held. + </p> + <p> + For this choice there were several reasons. I did not wish to go to St. + Petersburg or Moscow, because I foresaw that in either of those cities my + studies would certainly be interrupted. In a quiet, sleepy provincial town + I should have much more chance of coming in contact with people who could + not speak fluently any West-European languages, and much better + opportunities for studying native life and local administration. Of the + provincial capitals, Novgorod was the nearest, and more interesting than + most of its rivals; for it has had a curious history, much older than that + of St. Petersburg or even of Moscow, and some traces of its former + greatness are still visible. Though now a town of third-rate importance—a + mere shadow of its former self—it still contains about 21,000 + inhabitants, and is the administrative centre of the large province in + which it is situated. + </p> + <p> + About eighty miles before reaching St. Petersburg the Moscow railway + crosses the Volkhof, a rapid, muddy river which connects Lake Ilmen with + Lake Ladoga. At the point of intersection I got on board a small steamer + and sailed up stream towards Lake Ilmen for about fifty miles.* The + journey was tedious, for the country was flat and monotonous, and the + steamer, though it puffed and snorted inordinately, did not make more than + nine knots. Towards sunset Novgorod appeared on the horizon. Seen thus at + a distance in the soft twilight, it seemed decidedly picturesque. On the + east bank lay the greater part of the town, the sky line of which was + agreeably broken by the green roofs and pear-shaped cupolas of many + churches. On the opposite bank rose the Kremlin. Spanning the river was a + long, venerable stone bridge, half hidden by a temporary wooden one, which + was doing duty for the older structure while the latter was being + repaired. A cynical fellow-passenger assured me that the temporary + structure was destined to become permanent, because it yielded a + comfortable revenue to certain officials, but this sinister prediction has + not been verified. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The journey would now be made by rail, but the branch line + which runs near the bank of the river had not been + constructed at that time. +</pre> + <p> + That part of Novgorod which lies on the eastern bank of the river, and in + which I took up my abode for several months, contains nothing that is + worthy of special mention. As is the case in most Russian towns, the + streets are straight, wide, and ill-paved, and all run parallel or at + right angles to each other. At the end of the bridge is a spacious + market-place, flanked on one side by the Town-house. Near the other side + stand the houses of the Governor and of the chief military authority of + the district. The only other buildings of note are the numerous churches, + which are mostly small, and offer nothing that is likely to interest the + student of architecture. Altogether this part of the town is + unquestionably commonplace. The learned archaeologist may detect in it + some traces of the distant past, but the ordinary traveller will find + little to arrest his attention. + </p> + <p> + If now we cross over to the other side of the river, we are at once + confronted by something which very few Russian towns possess—a + kremlin, or citadel. This is a large and slightly-elevated enclosure, + surrounded by high brick walls, and in part by the remains of a moat. + Before the days of heavy artillery these walls must have presented a + formidable barrier to any besieging force, but they have long ceased to + have any military significance, and are now nothing more than an + historical monument. Passing through the gateway which faces the bridge, + we find ourselves in a large open space. To the right stands the cathedral—a + small, much-venerated church, which can make no pretensions to + architectural beauty—and an irregular group of buildings containing + the consistory and the residence of the Archbishop. To the left is a long + symmetrical range of buildings containing the Government offices and the + law courts. Midway between this and the cathedral, in the centre of the + great open space, stands a colossal monument, composed of a massive + circular stone pedestal and an enormous globe, on and around which cluster + a number of emblematic and historical figures. This curious monument, + which has at least the merit of being original in design, was erected in + 1862, in commemoration of Russia's thousandth birthday, and is supposed to + represent the history of Russia in general and of Novgorod in particular + during the last thousand years. It was placed here because Novgorod is the + oldest of Russian towns, and because somewhere in the surrounding country + occurred the incident which is commonly recognised as the foundation of + the Russian Empire. The incident in question is thus described in the + oldest chronicle: + </p> + <p> + "At that time, as the southern Slavonians paid tribute to the Kozars, so + the Novgorodian Slavonians suffered from the attacks of the Variags. For + some time the Variags exacted tribute from the Novgorodian Slavonians and + the neighbouring Finns; then the conquered tribes, by uniting their + forces, drove out the foreigners. But among the Slavonians arose strong + internal dissensions; the clans rose against each other. Then, for the + creation of order and safety, they resolved to call in princes from a + foreign land. In the year 862 Slavonic legates went away beyond the sea to + the Variag tribe called Rus, and said, 'Our land is great and fruitful, + but there is no order in it; come and reign and rule over us.' Three + brothers accepted the invitation, and appeared with their armed followers. + The eldest of these, Rurik, settled in Novgorod; the second, Sineus, at + Byelo-ozero; and the third, Truvor, in Isborsk. From them our land is + called Rus. After two years the brothers of Rurik died. He alone began to + rule over the Novgorod district, and confided to his men the + administration of the principal towns." + </p> + <p> + This simple legend has given rise to a vast amount of learned controversy, + and historical investigators have fought valiantly with each other over + the important question, Who were those armed men of Rus? For a long time + the commonly received opinion was that they were Normans from Scandinavia. + The Slavophils accepted the legend literally in this sense, and + constructed upon it an ingenious theory of Russian history. The nations of + the West, they said, were conquered by invaders, who seized the country + and created the feudal system for their own benefit; hence the history of + Western Europe is a long tale of bloody struggles between conquerors and + conquered, and at the present day the old enmity still lives in the + political rivalry of the different social classes. The Russo-Slavonians, + on the contrary, were not conquered, but voluntarily invited a foreign + prince to come and rule over them! Hence the whole social and political + development of Russia has been essentially peaceful, and the Russian + people know nothing of social castes or feudalism. Though this theory + afforded some nourishment for patriotic self-satisfaction, it displeased + extreme patriots, who did not like the idea that order was first + established in their country by men of Teutonic race. These preferred to + adopt the theory that Rurik and his companions were Slavonians from the + shores of the Baltic. + </p> + <p> + Though I devoted to the study of this question more time and labour than + perhaps the subject deserved, I have no intention of inviting the reader + to follow me through the tedious controversy. Suffice it to say that, + after careful consideration, and with all due deference to recent + historians, I am inclined to adopt the old theory, and to regard the + Normans of Scandinavia as in a certain sense the founders of the Russian + Empire. We know from other sources that during the ninth century there was + a great exodus from Scandinavia. Greedy of booty, and fired with the + spirit of adventure, the Northmen, in their light, open boats, swept along + the coasts of Germany, France, Spain, Greece, and Asia Minor, pillaging + the towns and villages near the sea, and entering into the heart of the + country by means of the rivers. At first they were mere marauders, and + showed everywhere such ferocity and cruelty that they came to be regarded + as something akin to plagues and famines, and the faithful added a new + petition to the Litany, "From the wrath and malice of the Normans, O Lord, + deliver us!" But towards the middle of the century the movement changed + its character. The raids became military invasions, and the invaders + sought to conquer the lands which they had formerly plundered, "ut + acquirant sibi spoliando regna quibus possent vivere pace perpetua." The + chiefs embraced Christianity, married the daughters or sisters of the + reigning princes, and obtained the conquered territories as feudal grants. + Thus arose Norman principalities in the Low Countries, in France, in + Italy, and in Sicily; and the Northmen, rapidly blending with the native + population, soon showed as much political talent as they had formerly + shown reckless and destructive valour. + </p> + <p> + It would have been strange indeed if these adventurers, who succeeded in + reaching Asia Minor and the coasts of North America, should have + overlooked Russia, which lay, as it were, at their very doors. The + Volkhof, flowing through Novgorod, formed part of a great waterway which + afforded almost uninterrupted water-communication between the Baltic and + the Black Sea; and we know that some time afterwards the Scandinavians + used this route in their journeys to Constantinople. The change which the + Scandinavian movement underwent elsewhere is clearly indicated by the + Russian chronicles: first, the Variags came as collectors of tribute, and + raised so much popular opposition that they were expelled, and then they + came as rulers, and settled in the country. Whether they really came on + invitation may be doubted, but that they adopted the language, religion, + and customs of the native population does not militate against the + assertion that they were Normans. On the contrary, we have here rather an + additional confirmation, for elsewhere the Normans did likewise. In the + North of France they adopted almost at once the French language and + religion, and the son and successor of the famous Rollo was sometimes + reproached with being more French than Norman.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *Strinnholm, "Die Vikingerzuge" (Hamburg, 1839), I., p. 135. +</pre> + <p> + Though it is difficult to decide how far the legend is literally true, + there can be no possible doubt that the event which it more or less + accurately describes had an important influence on Russian history. From + that time dates the rapid expansion of the Russo-Slavonians—a + movement that is still going on at the present day. To the north, the + east, and the south new principalities were formed and governed by men who + all claimed to be descendants of Rurik, and down to the end of the + sixteenth century no Russian outside of this great family ever attempted + to establish independent sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + For six centuries after the so-called invitation of Rurik the city on the + Volkhof had a strange, checkered history. Rapidly it conquered the + neighbouring Finnish tribes, and grew into a powerful independent state, + with a territory extending to the Gulf of Finland, and northwards to the + White Sea. At the same time its commercial importance increased, and it + became an outpost of the Hanseatic League. In this work the descendants of + Rurik played an important part, but they were always kept in strict + subordination to the popular will. Political freedom kept pace with + commercial prosperity. What means Rurik employed for establishing and + preserving order we know not, but the chronicles show that his successors + in Novgorod possessed merely such authority as was freely granted them by + the people. The supreme power resided, not in the prince, but in the + assembly of the citizens called together in the market-place by the sound + of the great bell. This assembly made laws for the prince as well as for + the people, entered into alliances with foreign powers, declared war, and + concluded peace, imposed taxes, raised troops, and not only elected the + magistrates, but also judged and deposed them when it thought fit. The + prince was little more than the hired commander of the troops and the + president of the judicial administration. When entering on his functions + he had to take a solemn oath that he would faithfully observe the ancient + laws and usages, and if he failed to fulfil his promise he was sure to be + summarily deposed and expelled. The people had an old rhymed proverb, + "Koli khud knyaz, tak v gryaz!" "If the prince is bad, into the mud with + him!", and they habitually acted according to it. So unpleasant, indeed, + was the task of ruling those sturdy, stiff-necked burghers, that some + princes refused to undertake it, and others, having tried it for a time, + voluntarily laid down their authority and departed. But these frequent + depositions and abdications—as many as thirty took place in the + course of a single century—did not permanently disturb the existing + order of things. The descendants of Rurik were numerous, and there were + always plenty of candidates for the vacant post. The municipal republic + continued to grow in strength and in riches, and during the thirteenth and + fourteenth centuries it proudly styled itself "Lord Novgorod the Great" + (Gospodin Velilki Novgorod). + </p> + <p> + "Then came a change, as all things human change." To the east arose the + principality of Moscow—not an old, rich municipal republic, but a + young, vigorous State, ruled by a line of crafty, energetic, ambitious, + and unscrupulous princes of the Rurik stock, who were freeing the country + from the Tartar yoke and gradually annexing by fair means and foul the + neighbouring principalities to their own dominions. At the same time, and + in a similar manner, the Lithuanian Princes to the westward united various + small principalities and formed a large independent State. Thus Novgorod + found itself in a critical position. Under a strong Government it might + have held its own against these rivals and successfully maintained its + independence, but its strength was already undermined by internal + dissensions. Political liberty had led to anarchy. Again and again on that + great open space where the national monument now stands, and in the + market-place on the other side of the river, scenes of disorder and + bloodshed took place, and more than once on the bridge battles were fought + by contending factions. Sometimes it was a contest between rival families, + and sometimes a struggle between the municipal aristocracy, who sought to + monopolise the political power, and the common people, who wished to have + a large share in the administration. A State thus divided against itself + could not long resist the aggressive tendencies of powerful neighbours. + Artful diplomacy could but postpone the evil day, and it required no great + political foresight to predict that sooner or later Novgorod must become + Lithuanian or Muscovite. The great families inclined to Lithuania, but the + popular party and the clergy, disliking Roman Catholicism, looked to + Moscow for assistance, and the Grand Princes of Muscovy ultimately won the + prize. + </p> + <p> + The barbarous way in which the Grand Princes effected the annexation shows + how thoroughly they had imbibed the spirit of Tartar statesmanship. + Thousands of families were transported to Moscow, and Muscovite families + put in their places; and when, in spite of this, the old spirit revived, + Ivan the Terrible determined to apply the method of physical extermination + which he had found so effectual in breaking the power of his own nobles. + Advancing with a large army, which met with no resistance, he devastated + the country with fire and sword, and during a residence of five weeks in + the town he put the inhabitants to death with a ruthless ferocity which + has perhaps never been surpassed even by Oriental despots. If those old + walls could speak they would have many a horrible tale to tell. Enough has + been preserved in the chronicles to give us some idea of this awful time. + Monks and priests were subjected to the Tartar punishment called pravezh, + which consisted in tying the victim to a stake, and flogging him daily + until a certain sum of money was paid for his release. The merchants and + officials were tortured with fire, and then thrown from the bridge with + their wives and children into the river. Lest any of them should escape by + swimming, boatfuls of soldiers despatched those who were not killed by the + fall. At the present day there is a curious bubbling immediately below the + bridge, which prevents the water from freezing in winter, and according to + popular belief this is caused by the spirits of the terrible Tsar's + victims. Of those who were murdered in the villages there is no record, + but in the town alone no less than 60,000 human beings are said to have + been butchered—an awful hecatomb on the altar of national unity and + autocratic power! + </p> + <p> + This tragic scene, which occurred in 1570, closes the history of Novgorod + as an independent State. Its real independence had long since ceased to + exist, and now the last spark of the old spirit was extinguished. The + Tsars could not suffer even a shadow of political independence to exist + within their dominions. + </p> + <p> + In the old days, when many Hanseatic merchants annually visited the city, + and when the market-place, the bridge, and the Kremlin were often the + scene of violent political struggles, Novgorod must have been an + interesting place to live in; but now its glory has departed, and in + respect of social resources it is not even a first-rate provincial town. + Kief, Kharkof, and other towns which are situated at a greater distance + from the capital, in districts fertile enough to induce the nobles to farm + their own land, are in their way little semi-independent centres of + civilisation. They contain a theatre, a library, two or three clubs, and + large houses belonging to rich landed proprietors, who spend the summer on + their estates and come into town for the winter months. These proprietors, + together with the resident officials, form a numerous society, and during + the winter, dinner-parties, balls, and other social gatherings are by no + means infrequent. In Novgorod the society is much more limited. It does + not, like Kief, Kharkof, and Kazan, possess a university, and it contains + no houses belonging to wealthy nobles. The few proprietors of the province + who live on their estates, and are rich enough to spend part of the year + in town, prefer St. Petersburg for their winter residence. The society, + therefore, is composed exclusively of the officials and of the officers + who happen to be quartered in the town or the immediate vicinity. + </p> + <p> + Of all the people whose acquaintance I made at Novgorod, I can recall only + two men who did not occupy some official position, civil or military. One + of these was a retired doctor, who was attempting to farm on scientific + principles, and who, I believe, soon afterwards gave up the attempt and + migrated elsewhere. The other was a Polish bishop who had been compromised + in the insurrection of 1863, and was condemned to live here under police + supervision. This latter could scarcely be said to belong to the society + of the place; though he sometimes appeared at the unceremonious weekly + receptions given by the Governor, and was invariably treated by all + present with marked respect, he could not but feel that he was in a false + position, and he was rarely or never seen in other houses. + </p> + <p> + The official circle of a town like Novgorod is sure to contain a good many + people of average education and agreeable manners, but it is sure to be + neither brilliant nor interesting. Though it is constantly undergoing a + gradual renovation by the received system of frequently transferring + officials from one town to another, it preserves faithfully, in spite of + the new blood which it thus receives, its essentially languid character. + When a new official arrives he exchanges visits with all the notables, and + for a few days he produces quite a sensation in the little community. If + he appears at social gatherings he is much talked to, and if he does not + appear he is much talked about. His former history is repeatedly narrated, + and his various merits and defects assiduously discussed. + </p> + <p> + If he is married, and has brought his wife with him, the field of comment + and discussion is very much enlarged. The first time that Madame appears + in society she is the "cynosure of neighbouring eyes." Her features, her + complexion, her hair, her dress, and her jewellery are carefully noted and + criticised. Perhaps she has brought with her, from the capital or from + abroad, some dresses of the newest fashion. As soon as this is discovered + she at once becomes an object of special curiosity to the ladies, and of + envious jealousy to those who regard as a personal grievance the presence + of a toilette finer or more fashionable than their own. Her demeanour, + too, is very carefully observed. If she is friendly and affable in manner, + she is patronised; if she is distant and reserved, she is condemned as + proud and pretentious. In either case she is pretty sure to form a close + intimacy with some one of the older female residents, and for a few weeks + the two ladies are inseparable, till some incautious word or act disturbs + the new-born friendship, and the devoted friends become bitter enemies. + Voluntarily or involuntarily the husbands get mixed up in the quarrel. + Highly undesirable qualities are discovered in the characters of all + parties concerned, and are made the subject of unfriendly comment. Then + the feud subsides, and some new feud of a similar kind comes to occupy the + public attention. Mrs. A. wonders how her friends Mr. and Mrs. B. can + afford to lose considerable sums every evening at cards, and suspects that + they are getting into debt or starving themselves and their children; in + her humble opinion they would do well to give fewer supper-parties, and to + refrain from poisoning their guests. The bosom friend to whom this is + related retails it directly or indirectly to Mrs. B., and Mrs. B. + naturally retaliates. Here is a new quarrel, which for some time affords + material for conversation. + </p> + <p> + When there is no quarrel, there is sure to be a bit of scandal afloat. + Though Russian provincial society is not at all prudish, and leans rather + to the side of extreme leniency, it cannot entirely overlook les + convenances. Madame C. has always a large number of male admirers, and to + this there can be no reasonable objection so long as her husband does not + complain, but she really parades her preference for Mr. X. at balls and + parties a little too conspicuously. Then there is Madame D., with the big + dreamy eyes. How can she remain in the place after her husband was killed + in a duel by a brother officer? Ostensibly the cause of the quarrel was a + trifling incident at the card-table, but every one knows that in reality + she was the cause of the deadly encounter. And so on, and so on. In the + absence of graver interests society naturally bestows inordinate attention + on the private affairs of its members; and quarrelling, backbiting, and + scandal-mongery help indolent people to kill the time that hangs heavily + on their hands. + </p> + <p> + Potent as these instruments are, they are not sufficient to kill all the + leisure hours. In the forenoons the gentlemen are occupied with their + official duties, whilst the ladies go out shopping or pay visits, and + devote any time that remains to their household duties and their children; + but the day's work is over about four o'clock, and the long evening + remains to be filled up. The siesta may dispose of an hour or an hour and + a half, but about seven o'clock some definite occupation has to be found. + As it is impossible to devote the whole evening to discussing the ordinary + news of the day, recourse is almost invariably had to card-playing, which + is indulged in to an extent that we had no conception of in England until + Bridge was imported. Hour after hour the Russians of both sexes will sit + in a hot room, filled with a constantly-renewed cloud of tobacco-smoke—in + the production of which most of the ladies take part—and silently + play "Preference," "Yarolash," or Bridge. Those who for some reason are + obliged to be alone can amuse themselves with "Patience," in which no + partner is required. In the other games the stakes are commonly very + small, but the sittings are often continued so long that a player may win + or lose two or three pounds sterling. It is no unusual thing for gentlemen + to play for eight or nine hours at a time. At the weekly club dinners, + before coffee had been served, nearly all present used to rush off + impatiently to the card-room, and sit there placidly from five o'clock in + the afternoon till one or two o'clock in the morning! When I asked my + friends why they devoted so much time to this unprofitable occupation, + they always gave me pretty much the same answer: "What are we to do? We + have been reading or writing official papers all day, and in the evening + we like to have a little relaxation. When we come together we have very + little to talk about, for we have all read the daily papers and nothing + more. The best thing we can do is to sit down at the card-table, where we + can spend our time pleasantly, without the necessity of talking." + </p> + <p> + In addition to the daily papers, some people read the monthly periodicals—big, + thick volumes, containing several serious articles on historical and + social subjects, sections of one or two novels, satirical sketches, and a + long review of home and foreign politics on the model of those in the + Revue des Deux Mondes. Several of these periodicals are very ably + conducted, and offer to their readers a large amount of valuable + information; but I have noticed that the leaves of the more serious part + often remain uncut. The translation of a sensation novel by the latest + French or English favourite finds many more readers than an article by an + historian or a political economist. As to books, they seem to be very + little read, for during all the time I lived in Novgorod I never + discovered a bookseller's shop, and when I required books I had to get + them sent from St. Petersburg. The local administration, it is true, + conceived the idea of forming a museum and circulating library, but in my + time the project was never realised. Of all the magnificent projects that + are formed in Russia, only a very small percentage come into existence, + and these are too often very short-lived. The Russians have learned + theoretically what are the wants of the most advanced civilisation, and + are ever ready to rush into the grand schemes which their theoretical + knowledge suggests; but very few of them really and permanently feel these + wants, and consequently the institutions artificially formed to satisfy + them very soon languish and die. In the provincial towns the shops for the + sale of gastronomic delicacies spring up and flourish, whilst shops for + the sale of intellectual food are rarely to be met with. + </p> + <p> + About the beginning of December the ordinary monotony of Novgorod life is + a little relieved by the annual Provincial Assembly, which sits daily for + two or three weeks and discusses the economic wants of the province.* + During this time a good many landed proprietors, who habitually live on + their estates or in St. Petersburg, collect in the town, and enliven a + little the ordinary society. But as Christmas approaches the deputies + disperse, and again the town becomes enshrouded in that "eternal + stillness" (vetchnaya tishina) which a native poet has declared to be the + essential characteristic of Russian provincial life. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Of these Assemblies I shall have more to say when I come + to describe the local self-government. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <h3> + THE TOWNS AND THE MERCANTILE CLASSES + </h3> + <p> + General Character of Russian Towns—Scarcity of Towns in Russia—Why + the Urban Element in the Population is so Small—History of Russian + Municipal Institutions—Unsuccessful Efforts to Create a Tiers-etat—Merchants, + Burghers, and Artisans—Town Council—A Rich Merchant—His + House—His Love of Ostentation—His Conception of Aristocracy—Official + Decorations—Ignorance and Dishonesty of the Commercial Classes—Symptoms + of Change. + </p> + <p> + Those who wish to enjoy the illusions produced by scene painting and stage + decorations should never go behind the scenes. In like manner he who + wishes to preserve the delusion that Russian provincial towns are + picturesque should never enter them, but content himself with viewing them + from a distance. + </p> + <p> + However imposing they may look when seen from the outside, they will be + found on closer inspection, with very few exceptions, to be little more + than villages in disguise. If they have not a positively rustic, they have + at least a suburban, appearance. The streets are straight and wide, and + are either miserably paved or not paved at all. Trottoirs are not + considered indispensable. The houses are built of wood or brick, generally + one-storied, and separated from each other by spacious yards. Many of them + do not condescend to turn their facades to the street. The general + impression produced is that the majority of the burghers have come from + the country, and have brought their country-houses with them. There are + few or no shops with merchandise tastefully arranged in the window to + tempt the passer-by. If you wish to make purchases you must go to the + Gostinny Dvor,* or Bazaar, which consists of long, symmetrical rows of + low-roofed, dimly-lighted stores, with a colonnade in front. This is the + place where merchants most do congregate, but it presents nothing of that + bustle and activity which we are accustomed to associate with commercial + life. The shopkeepers stand at their doors or loiter about in the + immediate vicinity waiting for customers. From the scarcity of these + latter I should say that when sales are effected the profits must be + enormous. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These words mean literally the Guests' Court or Yard. The + Ghosti—a word which is etymologically the same as our + "host" and "guest"—were originally the merchants who traded + with other towns or other countries. +</pre> + <p> + In the other parts of the town the air of solitude and languor is still + more conspicuous. In the great square, or by the side of the promenade—if + the town is fortunate enough to have one—cows or horses may be seen + grazing tranquilly, without being at all conscious of the incongruity of + their position. And, indeed, it would be strange if they had any such + consciousness, for it does not exist in the minds either of the police or + of the inhabitants. At night the streets may be lighted merely with a few + oil-lamps, which do little more than render the darkness visible, so that + cautious citizens returning home late often provide themselves with + lanterns. As late as the sixties the learned historian, Pogodin, then a + town-councillor of Moscow, opposed the lighting of the city with gas on + the ground that those who chose to go out at night should carry their + lamps with them. The objection was overruled, and Moscow is now fairly + well lit, but the provincial towns are still far from being on the same + level. Some retain their old primitive arrangements, while others enjoy + the luxury of electric lighting. + </p> + <p> + The scarcity of large towns in Russia is not less remarkable than their + rustic appearance. According to the last census (1897) the number of + towns, officially so-called, is 1,321, but about three-fifths of them have + under 5,000 inhabitants; only 104 have over 25,000, and only 19 over + 100,000. These figures indicate plainly that the urban element of the + population is relatively small, and it is declared by the official + statisticians to be only 14 per cent., as against 72 per cent. in Great + Britain, but it is now increasing rapidly. When the first edition of this + work was published, in 1877, European Russia in the narrower sense of the + term—excluding Finland, the Baltic Provinces, Lithuania, Poland, and + the Caucasus—had only 11 towns with a population of over 50,000, and + now there are 34; that is to say, the number of such towns has more than + trebled. In the other portions of the country a similar increase has taken + place. The towns which have become important industrial and commercial + centres have naturally grown most rapidly. For example, in a period of + twelve years (1885-97) the populations of Lodz, of Ekaterinoslaf, of Baku, + of Yaroslavl, and of Libau, have more than doubled. In the five largest + towns of the Empire—St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Odessa and Lodz—the + aggregate population rose during the same twelve years from 2,423,000 to + 3,590,000, or nearly 50 per cent. In ten other towns, with populations + varying from 50,000 to 282,000, the aggregate rose from 780,000 to + 1,382,000, or about 77 per cent. + </p> + <p> + That Russia should have taken so long to assimilate herself in this + respect to Western Europe is to be explained by the geographical and + political conditions. Her population was not hemmed in by natural or + artificial frontiers strong enough to restrain their expansive tendencies. + To the north, the east, and the southeast there was a boundless expanse of + fertile, uncultivated land, offering a tempting field for emigration; and + the peasantry have ever shown themselves ready to take advantage of their + opportunities. Instead of improving their primitive system of agriculture, + which requires an enormous area and rapidly exhausts the soil, they have + always found it easier and more profitable to emigrate and take possession + of the virgin land beyond. Thus the territory—sometimes with the aid + of, and sometimes in spite of, the Government—has constantly + expanded, and has already reached the Polar Ocean, the Pacific, and the + northern offshoots of the Himalayas. The little district around the + sources of the Dnieper has grown into a mighty empire, comprising + one-seventh of the land surface of the globe. Prolific as the Russian race + is, its power of reproduction could not keep pace with its territorial + expansion, and consequently the country is still very thinly peopled. + According to the latest census (1897) in the whole empire there are under + 130 millions of inhabitants, and the average density of population is only + about fifteen to the English square mile. Even the most densely populated + provinces, including Moscow with its 988,610 inhabitants, cannot show more + than 189 to the English square mile, whereas England has about 400. A + people that has such an abundance of land, and can support itself by + agriculture, is not naturally disposed to devote itself to industry, or to + congregate in large cities. + </p> + <p> + For many generations there were other powerful influences working in the + same direction. Of these the most important was serfage, which was not + abolished till 1861. That institution, and the administrative system of + which it formed an essential part, tended to prevent the growth of the + towns by hemming the natural movements of the population. Peasants, for + example, who learned trades, and who ought to have drifted naturally into + the burgher class, were mostly retained by the master on his estate, where + artisans of all sorts were daily wanted, and the few who were sent to seek + work in the towns were not allowed to settle there permanently. + </p> + <p> + Thus the insignificance of the Russian towns is to be attributed mainly to + two causes. The abundance of land tended to prevent the development of + industry, and the little industry which did exist was prevented by serfage + from collecting in the towns. But this explanation is evidently + incomplete. The same causes existed during the Middle Ages in Central + Europe, and yet, in spite of them, flourishing cities grew up and played + an important part in the social and political history of Germany. In these + cities collected traders and artisans, forming a distinct social class, + distinguished from the nobles on the one hand, and the surrounding + peasantry on the other, by peculiar occupations, peculiar aims, peculiar + intellectual physiognomy, and peculiar moral conceptions. Why did these + important towns and this burgher class not likewise come into existence in + Russia, in spite of the two preventive causes above mentioned? + </p> + <p> + To discuss this question fully it would be necessary to enter into certain + debated points of mediaeval history. All I can do here is to indicate what + seems to me the true explanation. + </p> + <p> + In Central Europe, all through the Middle Ages, a perpetual struggle went + on between the various political factors of which society was composed, + and the important towns were in a certain sense the products of this + struggle. They were preserved and fostered by the mutual rivalry of the + Sovereign, the Feudal Nobility, and the Church; and those who desired to + live by trade or industry settled in them in order to enjoy the protection + and immunities which they afforded. In Russia there was never any + political struggle of this kind. As soon as the Grand Princes of Moscow, + in the sixteenth century, threw off the yoke of the Tartars, and made + themselves Tsars of all Russia, their power was irresistible and + uncontested. Complete masters of the situation, they organised the country + as they thought fit. At first their policy was favourable to the + development of the towns. Perceiving that the mercantile and industrial + classes might be made a rich source of revenue, they separated them from + the peasantry, gave them the exclusive right of trading, prevented the + other classes from competing with them, and freed them from the authority + of the landed proprietors. Had they carried out this policy in a cautious, + rational way, they might have created a rich burgher class; but they acted + with true Oriental short-sightedness, and defeated their own purpose by + imposing inordinately heavy taxes, and treating the urban population as + their serfs. The richer merchants were forced to serve as custom-house + officers—often at a great distance from their domiciles*—and + artisans were yearly summoned to Moscow to do work for the Tsars without + remuneration. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Merchants from Yaroslavl, for instance, were sent to + Astrakhan to collect the custom-dues. +</pre> + <p> + Besides this, the system of taxation was radically defective, and the + members of the local administration, who received no pay and were + practically free from control, were merciless in their exactions. In a + word, the Tsars used their power so stupidly and so recklessly that the + industrial and trading population, instead of fleeing to the towns to + secure protection, fled from them to escape oppression. At length this + emigration from the towns assumed such dimensions that it was found + necessary to prevent it by administrative and legislative measures; and + the urban population was legally fixed in the towns as the rural + population was fixed to the soil. Those who fled were brought back as + runaways, and those who attempted flight a second time were ordered to be + flogged and transported to Siberia.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the "Ulozhenie" (i.e. the laws of Alexis, father of + Peter the Great), chap. xix. 13. +</pre> + <p> + With the eighteenth century began a new era in the history of the towns + and of the urban population. Peter the Great observed, during his travels + in Western Europe, that national wealth and prosperity reposed chiefly on + the enterprising, educated middle classes, and he attributed the poverty + of his own country to the absence of this burgher element. Might not such + a class be created in Russia? Peter unhesitatingly assumed that it might, + and set himself at once to create it in a simple, straightforward way. + Foreign artisans were imported into his dominions and foreign merchants + were invited to trade with his subjects; young Russians were sent abroad + to learn the useful arts; efforts were made to disseminate practical + knowledge by the translation of foreign books and the foundation of + schools; all kinds of trade were encouraged, and various industrial + enterprises were organised. At the same time the administration of the + towns was thoroughly reorganised after the model of the ancient free-towns + of Germany. In place of the old organisation, which was a slightly + modified form of the rural Commune, they received German municipal + institutions, with burgomasters, town councils, courts of justice, guilds + for the merchants, trade corporations (tsekhi) for the artisans, and an + endless list of instructions regarding the development of trade and + industry, the building of hospitals, sanitary precautions, the founding of + schools, the dispensation of justice, the organisation of the police, and + similar matters. + </p> + <p> + Catherine II. followed in the same track. If she did less for trade and + industry, she did more in the way of legislating and writing grandiloquent + manifestoes. In the course of her historical studies she had learned, as + she proclaims in one of her manifestoes, that "from remotest antiquity we + everywhere find the memory of town-builders elevated to the same level as + the memory of legislators, and we see that heroes, famous for their + victories, hoped by town-building to give immortality to their names." As + the securing of immortality for her own name was her chief aim in life, + she acted in accordance with historical precedent, and created 216 towns + in the short space of twenty-three years. This seems a great work, but it + did not satisfy her ambition. She was not only a student of history, but + was at the same time a warm admirer of the fashionable political + philosophy of her time. That philosophy paid much attention to the + tiers-etat, which was then acquiring in France great political importance, + and Catherine thought that as she had created a Noblesse on the French + model, she might also create a bourgeoisie. For this purpose she modified + the municipal organisation created by her great predecessor, and granted + to all the towns an Imperial Charter. This charter remained without + essential modification until the publication of the new Municipality Law + in 1870. + </p> + <p> + The efforts of the Government to create a rich, intelligent tiers-etat + were not attended with much success. Their influence was always more + apparent in official documents than in real life. The great mass of the + population remained serfs, fixed to the soil, whilst the nobles—that + is to say, all who possessed a little education—were required for + the military and civil services. Those who were sent abroad to learn the + useful arts learned little, and made little use of the knowledge which + they acquired. On their return to their native country they very soon fell + victims to the soporific influence of the surrounding social atmosphere. + The "town-building" had as little practical result. It was an easy matter + to create any number of towns in the official sense of the term. To + transform a village into a town, it was necessary merely to prepare an + izba, or log-house, for the district court, another for the police-office, + a third for the prison, and so on. On an appointed day the Governor of the + province arrived in the village, collected the officials appointed to + serve in the newly-constructed or newly-arranged log-houses, ordered a + simple religious ceremony to be performed by the priest, caused a formal + act to be drawn up, and then declared the town to be "opened." All this + required very little creative effort; to create a spirit of commercial and + industrial enterprise among the population was a more difficult matter and + could not be effected by Imperial ukaz. + </p> + <p> + To animate the newly-imported municipal institutions, which had no root in + the traditions and habits of the people, was a task of equal difficulty. + In the West these institutions had been slowly devised in the course of + centuries to meet real, keenly-felt, practical wants. In Russia they were + adopted for the purpose of creating those wants which were not yet felt. + Let the reader imagine our Board of Trade supplying the masters of + fishing-smacks with accurate charts, learned treatises on navigation, and + detailed instructions for the proper ventilation of ships' cabins, and he + will have some idea of the effect which Peter's legislation had upon the + towns. The office-bearers, elected against their will, were hopelessly + bewildered by the complicated procedure, and were incapable of + understanding the numerous ukazes which prescribed to them their + multifarious duties and threatened the most merciless punishments for sins + of omission and commission. Soon, however, it was discovered that the + threats were not nearly so dreadful as they seemed; and accordingly those + municipal authorities who were to protect and enlighten the burghers, + "forgot the fear of God and the Tsar," and extorted so unblushingly that + it was found necessary to place them under the control of Government + officials. + </p> + <p> + The chief practical result of the efforts made by Peter and Catherine to + create a bourgeoisie was that the inhabitants of the towns were more + systematically arranged in categories for the purpose of taxation, and + that the taxes were increased. All those parts of the new administration + which had no direct relation to the fiscal interests of the Government had + very little vitality in them. The whole system had been arbitrarily + imposed on the people, and had as motive only the Imperial will. Had that + motive power been withdrawn and the burghers left to regulate their own + municipal affairs, the system would immediately have collapsed. Rathhaus, + burgomasters, guilds, aldermen, and all the other lifeless shadows which + had been called into existence by Imperial ukaz would instantly have + vanished into space. In this fact we have one of the characteristic traits + of Russian historical development compared with that of Western Europe. In + the West monarchy had to struggle with municipal institutions to prevent + them from becoming too powerful; in Russia, it had to struggle with them + to prevent them from committing suicide or dying of inanition. + </p> + <p> + According to Catherine's legislation, which remained in force until 1870, + and still exists in some of its main features, the towns were divided into + three categories: (1) Government towns (gubernskiye goroda)—that is + to say, the chief towns of provinces, or governments (gubernii)—in + which are concentrated the various organs of provincial administration; + (2) district towns (uyezdniye goroda), in which resides the administration + of the districts (uyezdi) into which the provinces are divided; and (3) + supernumerary towns (zashtatniye goroda), which have no particular + significance in the territorial administration. + </p> + <p> + In all these the municipal organisation is the same. Leaving out of + consideration those persons who happen to reside in the towns, but in + reality belong to the Noblesse, the clergy, or the lower ranks of + officials, we may say that the town population is composed of three + groups: the merchants (kuptsi), the burghers in the narrower sense of the + term (meshtchanye), and the artisans (tsekhoviye). These categories are + not hereditary castes, like the nobles, the clergy, and the peasantry. A + noble may become a merchant, or a man may be one year a burgher, the next + year an artisan, and the third year a merchant, if he changes his + occupation and pays the necessary dues. But the categories form, for the + time being, distinct corporations, each possessing a peculiar organisation + and peculiar privileges and obligations. + </p> + <p> + Of these three groups the first in the scale of dignity is that of the + merchants. It is chiefly recruited from the burghers and the peasantry. + Any one who wishes to engage in commerce inscribes himself in one of the + three guilds, according to the amount of his capital and the nature of the + operations in which he wishes to embark, and as soon as he has paid the + required dues he becomes officially a merchant. As soon as he ceases to + pay these dues he ceases to be a merchant in the legal sense of the term, + and returns to the class to which he formerly belonged. There are some + families whose members have belonged to the merchant class for several + generations, and the law speaks about a certain "velvet-book" (barkhatnaya + kniga) in which their names should be inscribed, but in reality they do + not form a distinct category, and they descend at once from their + privileged position as soon as they cease to pay the annual guild dues. + </p> + <p> + The artisans form the connecting link between the town population and the + peasantry, for peasants often enrol themselves in the trades-corporations, + or tsekhi, without severing their connection with the rural Communes to + which they belong. Each trade or handicraft constitutes a tsekh, at the + head of which stands an elder and two assistants, elected by the members; + and all the tsekhi together form a corporation under an elected head + (remeslenny golova) assisted by a council composed of the elders of the + various tsekhi. It is the duty of this council and its president to + regulate all matters connected with the tsekhi, and to see that the + multifarious regulations regarding masters, journeymen, and apprentices + are duly observed. + </p> + <p> + The nondescript class, composed of those who are inscribed as permanent + inhabitants of the towns, but who do not belong to any guild or tsekh, + constitutes what is called the burghers in the narrower sense of the term. + Like the other two categories, they form a separate corporation, with an + elder and an administrative bureau. + </p> + <p> + Some idea of the relative numerical strength of these three categories may + be obtained from the following figures. Thirty years ago in European + Russia the merchant class (including wives and children) numbered about + 466,000, the burghers about 4,033,000, and the artisans about 260,000. The + numbers according to the last census are not yet available. + </p> + <p> + In 1870 the entire municipal administration was reorganised on modern + West-European principles, and the Town Council (gorodskaya duma), which + formed under the previous system the connecting link between the + old-fashioned corporations, and was composed exclusively of members of + these bodies, became a genuine representative body composed of + householders, irrespective of the social class to which they might belong. + A noble, provided he was a house-proprietor, could become Town Councillor + or Mayor, and in this way a certain amount of vitality and a progressive + spirit were infused into the municipal administration. As a consequence of + this change the schools, hospitals, and other benevolent institutions were + much improved, the streets were kept cleaner and somewhat better paved, + and for a time it seemed as if the towns in Russia might gradually rise to + the level of those of Western Europe. But the charm of novelty, which so + often works wonders in Russia, soon wore off. After a few years of + strenuous effort the best citizens no longer came forward as candidates, + and the office-bearers selected no longer displayed zeal and intelligence + in the discharge of their duties. In these circumstances the Government + felt called upon again to intervene. By a decree dated June 11, 1892, it + introduced a new series of reforms, by which the municipal self-government + was placed more under the direction and control of the centralised + bureaucracy, and the attendance of the Town Councillors at the periodical + meetings was declared to be obligatory, recalcitrant members being + threatened with reprimands and fines. + </p> + <p> + This last fact speaks volumes for the low vitality of the institutions and + the prevalent popular apathy with regard to municipal affairs. Nor was the + unsatisfactory state of things much improved by the new reforms; on the + contrary, the increased interference of the regular officials tended + rather to weaken the vitality of the urban self government, and the + so-called reform was pretty generally condemned as a needlessly + reactionary measure. We have here, in fact, a case of what has often + occurred in the administrative history of the Russian Empire since the + time of Peter the Great, and to which I shall again have occasion to + refer. The central authority, finding itself incompetent to do all that is + required of it, and wishing to make a display of liberalism, accords large + concessions in the direction of local autonomy; and when it discovers that + the new institutions do not accomplish all that was expected of them, and + are not quite so subservient and obsequious as is considered desirable, it + returns in a certain measure to the old principles of centralised + bureaucracy. + </p> + <p> + The great development of trade and industry in recent years has of course + enriched the mercantile classes, and has introduced into them a more + highly educated element, drawn chiefly from the Noblesse, which formerly + eschewed such occupations; but it has not yet affected very deeply the + mode of life of those who have sprung from the old merchant families and + the peasantry. When a merchant, contractor, or manufacturer of the old + type becomes wealthy, he builds for himself a fine house, or buys and + thoroughly repairs the house of some ruined noble, and spends money freely + on parquetry floors, large mirrors, malachite tables, grand pianos by the + best makers, and other articles of furniture made of the most costly + materials. Occasionally—especially on the occasion of a marriage or + a death in the family—he will give magnificent banquets, and expend + enormous sums on gigantic sterlets, choice sturgeons, foreign fruits, + champagne, and all manner of costly delicacies. But this lavish, + ostentatious expenditure does not affect the ordinary current of his daily + life. As you enter those gaudily furnished rooms you can perceive at a + glance that they are not for ordinary use. You notice a rigid symmetry and + an indescribable bareness which inevitably suggest that the original + arrangements of the upholsterer have never been modified or supplemented. + The truth is that by far the greater part of the house is used only on + state occasions. The host and his family live down-stairs in small, dirty + rooms, furnished in a very different, and for them more comfortable, + style. At ordinary times the fine rooms are closed, and the fine furniture + carefully covered. + </p> + <p> + If you make a visite de politesse after an entertainment, you will + probably have some difficulty in gaining admission by the front door. When + you have knocked or rung several times, some one will come round from the + back regions and ask you what you want. Then follows another long pause, + and at last footsteps are heard approaching from within. The bolts are + drawn, the door is opened, and you are led up to a spacious drawing-room. + At the wall opposite the windows there is sure to be a sofa, and before it + an oval table. At each end of the table, and at right angles to the sofa, + there will be a row of three arm-chairs. The other chairs will be + symmetrically arranged round the room. In a few minutes the host will + appear, in his long double-breasted black coat and well-polished long + boots. His hair is parted in the middle, and his beard shows no trace of + scissors or razor. + </p> + <p> + After the customary greetings have been exchanged, glasses of tea, with + slices of lemon and preserves, or perhaps a bottle of champagne, are + brought in by way of refreshments. The female members of the family you + must not expect to see, unless you are an intimate friend; for the + merchants still retain something of that female seclusion which was in + vogue among the upper classes before the time of Peter the Great. The host + himself will probably be an intelligent, but totally uneducated and + decidedly taciturn, man. + </p> + <p> + About the weather and the crops he may talk fluently enough, but he will + not show much inclination to go beyond these topics. You may, perhaps, + desire to converse with him on the subject with which he is best + acquainted—the trade in which he is himself engaged; but if you make + the attempt, you will certainly not gain much information, and you may + possibly meet with such an incident as once happened to my travelling + companion, a Russian gentleman who had been commissioned by two learned + societies to collect information regarding the grain trade. When he called + on a merchant who had promised to assist him in his investigation, he was + hospitably received; but when he began to speak about the grain trade of + the district the merchant suddenly interrupted him, and proposed to tell + him a story. The story was as follows: + </p> + <p> + Once on a time a rich landed proprietor had a son, who was a thoroughly + spoilt child; and one day the boy said to his father that he wished all + the young serfs to come and sing before the door of the house. After some + attempts at dissuasion the request was granted, and the young people + assembled; but as soon as they began to sing, the boy rushed out and drove + them away. + </p> + <p> + When the merchant had told this apparently pointless story at great + length, and with much circumstantial detail, he paused a little, poured + some tea into his saucer, drank it off, and then inquired, "Now what do + you think was the reason of this strange conduct?" + </p> + <p> + My friend replied that the riddle surpassed his powers of divination. + </p> + <p> + "Well," said the merchant, looking hard at him, with a knowing grin, + "there was no reason; and all the boy could say was, 'Go away, go away! + I've changed my mind; I've changed my mind'" (poshli von; otkhotyel). + </p> + <p> + There was no possibility of mistaking the point of the story. My friend + took the hint and departed. + </p> + <p> + The Russian merchant's love of ostentation is of a peculiar kind—something + entirely different from English snobbery. He may delight in gaudy + reception-rooms, magnificent dinners, fast trotters, costly furs; or he + may display his riches by princely donations to churches, monasteries, or + benevolent institutions: but in all this he never affects to be other than + he really is. He habitually wears a costume which designates plainly his + social position; he makes no attempt to adopt fine manners or elegant + tastes; and he never seeks to gain admission to what is called in Russia + la societe. Having no desire to seem what he is not, he has a plain, + unaffected manner, and sometimes a quiet dignity which contrasts + favourably with the affected manner of those nobles of the lower ranks who + make pretensions to being highly educated and strive to adopt the outward + forms of French culture. At his great dinners, it is true, the merchant + likes to see among his guests as many "generals"—that is to say, + official personages—as possible, and especially those who happen to + have a grand cordon; but he never dreams of thereby establishing an + intimacy with these personages, or of being invited by them in return. It + is perfectly understood by both parties that nothing of the kind is meant. + The invitation is given and accepted from quite different motives. The + merchant has the satisfaction of seeing at his table men of high official + rank, and feels that the consideration which he enjoys among people of his + own class is thereby augmented. If he succeeds in obtaining the presence + of three generals, he obtains a victory over a rival who cannot obtain + more than two. The general, on his side, gets a first-rate dinner, a la + russe, and acquires an undefined right to request subscriptions for public + objects or benevolent institutions. + </p> + <p> + Of course this undefined right is commonly nothing more than a mere tacit + understanding, but in certain cases the subject is expressly mentioned. I + know of one case in which a regular bargain was made. A Moscow magnate was + invited by a merchant to a dinner, and consented to go in full uniform, + with all his decorations, on condition that the merchant should subscribe + a certain sum to a benevolent institution in which he was particularly + interested. It is whispered that such bargains are sometimes made, not on + behalf of benevolent institutions, but simply in the interest of the + gentleman who accepts the invitation. I cannot believe that there are many + official personages who would consent to let themselves out as table + decorations, but that it may happen is proved by the following incident, + which accidentally came to my knowledge. A rich merchant of the town of T—— + once requested the Governor of the Province to honour a family festivity + with his presence, and added that he would consider it a special favour if + the "Governoress" would enter an appearance. To this latter request his + Excellency made many objections, and at last let the petitioner understand + that her Excellency could not possibly be present, because she had no + velvet dress that could bear comparison with those of several merchants' + wives in the town. Two days after the interview a piece of the finest + velvet that could be procured in Moscow was received by the Governor from + an unknown donor, and his wife was thus enabled to be present at the + festivity, to the complete satisfaction of all parties concerned. + </p> + <p> + It is worthy of remark that the merchants recognise no aristocracy but + that of official rank. Many merchants would willingly give twenty pounds + for the presence of an "actual State Councillor" who perhaps never heard + of his grandfather, but who can show a grand cordon; whilst they would not + give twenty pence for the presence of an undecorated Prince without + official rank, though he might be able to trace his pedigree up to the + half-mythical Rurik. Of the latter they would probably say, "Kto ikh + znact?" (Who knows what sort of a fellow he is?) The former, on the + contrary, whoever his father and grandfather may have been, possesses + unmistakable marks of the Tsar's favour, which, in the merchant's opinion, + is infinitely more important than any rights or pretensions founded on + hereditary titles or long pedigrees. + </p> + <p> + Some marks of Imperial favour the old-fashioned merchants strive to obtain + for themselves. They do not dream of grand cordons—that is far + beyond their most sanguine expectations—but they do all in their + power to obtain those lesser decorations which are granted to the + mercantile class. For this purpose the most common expedient is a liberal + subscription to some benevolent institution, and occasionally a regular + bargain is made. I know of at least one instance where the kind of + decoration was expressly stipulated. The affair illustrates so well the + commercial character of these transactions that I venture to state the + facts as related to me by the official chiefly concerned. A merchant + subscribed to a society which enjoyed the patronage of a Grand Duchess a + considerable sum of money, under the express condition that he should + receive in return a St. Vladimir Cross. Instead of the desired decoration, + which was considered too much for the sum subscribed, a cross of St. + Stanislas was granted; but the donor was dissatisfied with the latter and + demanded that his money should be returned to him. The demand had to be + complied with, and, as an Imperial gift cannot be retracted, the merchant + had his Stanislas Cross for nothing. + </p> + <p> + This traffic in decorations has had its natural result. Like paper money + issued in too large quantities, the decorations have fallen in value. The + gold medals which were formerly much coveted and worn with pride by the + rich merchants—suspended by a ribbon round the neck—are now + little sought after. In like manner the inordinate respect for official + personages has considerably diminished. Fifty years ago the provincial + merchants vied with each other in their desire to entertain any great + dignitary who honoured their town with a visit, but now they seek rather + to avoid this expensive and barren honour. When they do accept the honour, + they fulfil the duties of hospitality in a most liberal spirit. I have + sometimes, when living as an honoured guest in a rich merchant's house, + found it difficult to obtain anything simpler than sterlet, sturgeon, and + champagne. + </p> + <p> + The two great blemishes on the character of the Russian merchants as a + class are, according to general opinion, their ignorance and their + dishonesty. As to the former of these there cannot possibly be any + difference of opinion. Many of them can neither read nor write, and are + forced to keep their accounts in their memory, or by means of ingenious + hieroglyphics, intelligible only to the inventor. Others can decipher the + calendar and the lives of the saints, can sign their names with tolerable + facility, and can make the simpler arithmetical calculations with the help + of the stchety, a little calculating instrument, composed of wooden balls + strung on brass wires, which resembles the "abaca" of the old Romans, and + is universally used in Russia. It is only the minority who understand the + mysteries of regular book-keeping, and of these very few can make any + pretensions to being educated men. + </p> + <p> + All this, however, is rapidly undergoing a radical change. Children are + now much better educated than their parents, and the next generation will + doubtless make further progress, so that the old-fashioned type above + described is destined to disappear. Already there are not a few of the + younger generation—especially among the wealthy manufacturers of + Moscow—who have been educated abroad, who may be described as tout a + fait civilises, and whose mode of life differs little from that of the + richer nobles; but they remain outside fashionable society, and constitute + a "set" of their own. + </p> + <p> + As to the dishonesty which is said to be so common among the Russian + commercial classes, it is difficult to form an accurate judgment. That an + enormous amount of unfair dealing does exist there can be no possible + doubt, but in this matter a foreigner is likely to be unduly severe. We + are apt to apply unflinchingly our own standard of commercial morality, + and to forget that trade in Russia is only emerging from that primitive + condition in which fixed prices and moderate profits are entirely unknown. + And when we happen to detect positive dishonesty, it seems to us + especially heinous, because the trickery employed is more primitive and + awkward than that to which we are accustomed. Trickery in weighing and + measuring, for instance, which is by no means uncommon in Russia, is + likely to make us more indignant than those ingenious methods of + adulteration which are practised nearer home, and are regarded by many as + almost legitimate. Besides this, foreigners who go to Russia and embark in + speculations without possessing any adequate knowledge of the character, + customs, and language of the people positively invite spoliation, and + ought to blame themselves rather than the people who profit by their + ignorance. + </p> + <p> + All this, and much more of the same kind, may be fairly urged in + mitigation of the severe judgments which foreign merchants commonly pass + on Russian commercial morality, but these judgments cannot be reversed by + such argumentation. The dishonesty and rascality which exist among the + merchants are fully recognised by the Russians themselves. In all moral + affairs the lower classes in Russia are very lenient in their judgments, + and are strongly disposed, like the Americans, to admire what is called in + Transatlantic phraseology "a smart man," though the smartness is known to + contain a large admixture of dishonesty; and yet the vox populi in Russia + emphatically declares that the merchants as a class are unscrupulous and + dishonest. There is a rude popular play in which the Devil, as principal + dramatis persona, succeeds in cheating all manner and conditions of men, + but is finally overreached by a genuine Russian merchant. When this play + is acted in the Carnival Theatre in St. Petersburg the audience invariably + agrees with the moral of the plot. + </p> + <p> + If this play were acted in the southern towns near the coast of the Black + Sea it would be necessary to modify it considerably, for here, in company + with Jews, Greeks, and Armenians, the Russian merchants seem honest by + comparison. As to Greeks and Armenians, I know not which of the two + nationalities deserves the palm, but it seems that both are surpassed by + the Children of Israel. "How these Jews do business," I have heard a + Russian merchant of this region exclaim, "I cannot understand. They buy up + wheat in the villages at eleven roubles per tchetvert, transport it to the + coast at their own expense, and sell it to the exporters at ten roubles! + And yet they contrive to make a profit! It is said that the Russian trader + is cunning, but here 'our brother' [i.e., the Russian] can do nothing." + The truth of this statement I have had abundant opportunities of + confirming by personal investigations on the spot. + </p> + <p> + If I might express a general opinion regarding Russian commercial + morality, I should say that trade in Russia is carried on very much on the + same principle as horse-dealing in England. A man who wishes to buy or + sell must trust to his own knowledge and acuteness, and if he gets the + worst of a bargain or lets himself be deceived, he has himself to blame. + Commercial Englishmen on arriving in Russia rarely understand this, and + when they know it theoretically they are too often unable, from their + ignorance of the language, the laws, and the customs of the people, to + turn their theoretical knowledge to account. They indulge, therefore, at + first in endless invectives against the prevailing dishonesty; but + gradually, when they have paid what Germans call Lehrgeld, they + accommodate themselves to circumstances, take large profits to + counterbalance bad debts, and generally succeed—if they have + sufficient energy, mother-wit, and capital—in making a very handsome + income. + </p> + <p> + The old race of British merchants, however, is rapidly dying out, and I + greatly fear that the rising generation will not be equally successful. + Times have changed. It is no longer possible to amass large fortunes in + the old easy-going fashion. Every year the conditions alter, and the + competition increases. In order to foresee, understand, and take advantage + of the changes, one must have far more knowledge of the country than the + men of the old school possessed, and it seems to me that the young + generation have still less of that knowledge than their predecessors. + Unless some change takes place in this respect, the German merchants, who + have generally a much better commercial education and are much better + acquainted with their adopted country, will ultimately, I believe, expel + their British rivals. Already many branches of commerce formerly carried + on by Englishmen have passed into their hands. + </p> + <p> + It must not be supposed that the unsatisfactory organisation of the + Russian commercial world is the result of any radical peculiarity of the + Russian character. All new countries have to pass through a similar state + of things, and in Russia there are already premonitory symptoms of a + change for the better. For the present, it is true, the extensive + construction of railways and the rapid development of banks and limited + liability companies have opened up a new and wide field for all kinds of + commercial swindling; but, on the other hand, there are now in every large + town a certain number of merchants who carry on business in the + West-European manner, and have learnt by experience that honesty is the + best policy. The success which many of these have obtained will doubtless + cause their example to be followed. The old spirit of caste and routine + which has long animated the merchant class is rapidly disappearing, and + not a few nobles are now exchanging country life and the service of the + State for industrial and commercial enterprises. In this way is being + formed the nucleus of that wealthy, enlightened bourgeoisie which + Catherine endeavoured to create by legislation; but many years must elapse + before this class acquires sufficient social and political significance to + deserve the title of a tiers-etat. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE PASTORAL TRIBES OF THE STEPPE + </h3> + <p> + A Journey to the Steppe Region of the Southeast—The Volga—Town + and Province of Samara—Farther Eastward—Appearance of the + Villages—Characteristic Incident—Peasant Mendacity—Explanation + of the Phenomenon—I Awake in Asia—A Bashkir Aoul—Diner + la Tartare—Kumyss—A Bashkir Troubadour—Honest Mehemet + Zian—Actual Economic Condition of the Bashkirs Throws Light on a + Well-known Philosophical Theory—Why a Pastoral Race Adopts + Agriculture—The Genuine Steppe—The Kirghiz—Letter from + Genghis Khan—The Kalmyks—Nogai Tartars—Struggle between + Nomadic Hordes and Agricultural Colonists. + </p> + <p> + When I had spent a couple of years or more in the Northern and + North-Central provinces—the land of forests and of agriculture + conducted on the three-field system, with here and there a town of + respectable antiquity—I determined to visit for purposes of + comparison and contrast the Southeastern region, which possesses no + forests nor ancient towns, and corresponds to the Far West of the United + States of America. My point of departure was Yaroslavl, a town on the + right bank of the Volga to the northeast of Moscow—and thence I + sailed down the river during three days on a large comfortable steamer to + Samara, the chief town of the province or "government" of the name. Here I + left the steamer and prepared to make a journey into the eastern + hinterland. + </p> + <p> + Samara is a new town, a child of the last century. At the time of my first + visit, now thirty years ago, it recalled by its unfinished appearance the + new towns of America. Many of the houses were of wood. The streets were + still in such a primitive condition that after rain they were almost + impassable from mud, and in dry, gusty weather they generated thick clouds + of blinding, suffocating dust. Before I had been many days in the place I + witnessed a dust-hurricane, during which it was impossible at certain + moments to see from my window the houses on the other side of the street. + Amidst such primitive surroundings the colossal new church seemed a little + out of keeping, and it occurred to my practical British mind that some of + the money expended on its construction might have been more profitably + employed. But the Russians have their own ideas of the fitness of things. + Religious after their own fashion, they subscribe money liberally for + ecclesiastical purposes—especially for the building and decoration + of their churches. Besides this, the Government considers that every chief + town of a province should possess a cathedral. + </p> + <p> + In its early days Samara was one of the outposts of Russian colonisation, + and had often to take precautions against the raids of the nomadic tribes + living in the vicinity; but the agricultural frontier has since been + pushed far forward to the east and south, and the province was until + lately, despite occasional droughts, one of the most productive in the + Empire. The town is the chief market of this region, and therein lies its + importance. The grain is brought by the peasants from great distances, and + stored in large granaries by the merchants, who send it to Moscow or St. + Petersburg. In former days this was a very tedious operation. The boats + containing the grain were towed by horses or stout peasants up the rivers + and through the canals for hundreds of miles. Then came the period of + "cabestans"—unwieldly machines propelled by means of anchors and + windlasses. Now these primitive methods of transport have disappeared. The + grain is either despatched by rail or put into gigantic barges, which are + towed up the river by powerful tug-steamers to some point connected with + the great network of railways. + </p> + <p> + When the traveller has visited the Cathedral and the granaries he has seen + all the lions—not very formidable lions, truly—of the place. + He may then inspect the kumyss establishments, pleasantly situated near + the town. He will find there a considerable number of patients—mostly + consumptive—who drink enormous quantities of fermented mare's-milk, + and who declare that they receive great benefit from this modern + health-restorer. + </p> + <p> + What interested me more than the lions of the town or the suburban kumyss + establishments were the offices of the local administration, where I found + in the archives much statistical and other information of the kind I was + in search of, regarding the economic condition of the province generally, + and of the emancipated peasantry in particular. Having filled my note-book + with material of this sort, I proceeded to verify and complete it by + visiting some characteristic villages and questioning the inhabitants. For + the student of Russian affairs who wishes to arrive at real, as + distinguished from official, truth, this is not an altogether superfluous + operation. + </p> + <p> + When I had thus made the acquaintance of the sedentary agricultural + population in several districts I journeyed eastwards with the intention + of visiting the Bashkirs, a Tartar tribe which still preserved—so at + least I was assured—its old nomadic habits. My reasons for + undertaking this journey were twofold. In the first place I was desirous + of seeing with my own eyes some remnants of those terrible nomadic tribes + which had at one time conquered Russia and long threatened to overrun + Europe—those Tartar hordes which gained, by their irresistible force + and relentless cruelty, the reputation of being "the scourge of God." + Besides this, I had long wished to study the conditions of pastoral life, + and congratulated myself on having found a convenient opportunity of doing + so. + </p> + <p> + As I proceeded eastwards I noticed a change in the appearance of the + villages. The ordinary wooden houses, with their high sloping roofs, + gradually gave place to flat-roofed huts, built of a peculiar kind of + unburnt bricks, composed of mud and straw. I noticed, too, that the + population became less and less dense, and the amount of fallow land + proportionately greater. The peasants were evidently richer than those + near the Volga, but they complained—as the Russian peasant always + does—that they had not land enough. In answer to my inquiries why + they did not use the thousands of acres that were lying fallow around + them, they explained that they had already raised crops on that land for + several successive years, and that consequently they must now allow it to + "rest." + </p> + <p> + In one of the villages through which I passed I met with a very + characteristic little incident. The village was called Samovolnaya + Ivanofka—that is to say, "Ivanofka the Self-willed" or "the + Non-authorised." Whilst our horses were being changed my travelling + companion, in the course of conversation with a group of peasants, + inquired about the origin of this extraordinary name, and discovered a + curious bit of local history. The founders of the village had settled on + the land without the permission of the absentee owner, and obstinately + resisted all attempts at eviction. Again and again troops had been sent to + drive them away, but as soon as the troops retired these "self-willed" + people returned and resumed possession, till at last the proprietor, who + lived in St. Petersburg or some other distant place, became weary of the + contest and allowed them to remain. The various incidents were related + with much circumstantial detail, so that the narration lasted perhaps half + an hour. All this time I listened attentively, and when the story was + finished I took out my note-book in order to jot down the facts, and asked + in what year the affair had happened. No answer was given to my question. + The peasants merely looked at each other in a significant way and kept + silence. Thinking that my question had not been understood, I asked it a + second time, repeating a part of what had been related. To my astonishment + and utter discomfiture they all declared that they had never related + anything of the sort! In despair I appealed to my friend, and asked him + whether my ears had deceived me—whether I was labouring under some + strange hallucination. Without giving me any reply he simply smiled and + turned away. + </p> + <p> + When we had left the village and were driving along in our tarantass the + mystery was satisfactorily cleared up. My friend explained to me that I + had not at all misunderstood what had been related, but that my abrupt + question and the sight of my note-book had suddenly aroused the peasants' + suspicions. "They evidently suspected," he continued, "that you were a + tchinovnik, and that you wished to use to their detriment the knowledge + you had acquired. They thought it safer, therefore, at once to deny it + all. You don't yet understand the Russian muzhik!" + </p> + <p> + In this last remark I was obliged to concur, but since that time I have + come to know the muzhik better, and an incident of the kind would now no + longer surprise me. From a long series of observations I have come to the + conclusion that the great majority of the Russian peasants, when dealing + with the authorities, consider the most patent and barefaced falsehoods as + a fair means of self-defence. Thus, for example, when a muzhik is + implicated in a criminal affair, and a preliminary investigation is being + made, he probably begins by constructing an elaborate story to explain the + facts and exculpate himself. The story may be a tissue of self-evident + falsehoods from beginning to end, but he defends it valiantly as long as + possible. When he perceives that the position which he has taken up is + utterly untenable, he declares openly that all he has said is false, and + that he wishes to make a new declaration. This second declaration may have + the same fate as the former one, and then he proposes a third. Thus + groping his way, he tries various stories till he finds one that seems + proof against all objections. In the fact of his thus telling lies there + is of course nothing remarkable, for criminals in all parts of the world + have a tendency to deviate from the truth when they fall into the hands of + justice. The peculiarity is that he retracts his statements with the + composed air of a chess-player who requests his opponent to let him take + back an inadvertent move. Under the old system of procedure, which was + abolished in the sixties, clever criminals often contrived by means of + this simple device to have their trial postponed for many years. + </p> + <p> + Such incidents naturally astonish a foreigner, and he is apt, in + consequence, to pass a very severe judgment on the Russian peasantry in + general. The reader may remember Karl Karl'itch's remarks on the subject. + These remarks I have heard repeated in various forms by Germans in all + parts of the country, and there must be a certain amount of truth in them, + for even an eminent Slavophil once publicly admitted that the peasant is + prone to perjury.* It is necessary, however, as it seems to me, to draw a + distinction. In the ordinary intercourse of peasants among themselves, or + with people in whom they have confidence, I do not believe that the habit + of lying is abnormally developed. It is only when the muzhik comes in + contact with authorities that he shows himself an expert fabricator of + falsehoods. In this there is nothing that need surprise us. For ages the + peasantry were exposed to the arbitrary power and ruthless exactions of + those who were placed over them; and as the law gave them no means of + legally protecting themselves, their only means of self-defence lay in + cunning and deceit. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Kireyefski, in the Russakaya Beseda. +</pre> + <p> + We have here, I believe, the true explanation of that "Oriental mendacity" + about which Eastern travellers have written so much. It is simply the + result of a lawless state of society. Suppose a truth-loving Englishman + falls into the hands of brigands or savages. Will he not, if he have + merely an ordinary moral character, consider himself justified in + inventing a few falsehoods in order to effect his escape? If so, we have + no right to condemn very severely the hereditary mendacity of those races + which have lived for many generations in a position analogous to that of + the supposed Englishman among brigands. When legitimate interests cannot + be protected by truthfulness and honesty, prudent people always learn to + employ means which experience has proved to be more effectual. In a + country where the law does not afford protection, the strong man defends + himself by his strength, the weak by cunning and duplicity. This fully + explains the fact that in Turkey the Christians are less truthful than the + Mahometans. + </p> + <p> + But we have wandered a long way from the road to Bashkiria. Let us + therefore return at once. + </p> + <p> + Of all the journeys which I made in Russia this was one of the most + agreeable. The weather was bright and warm, without being unpleasantly + hot; the roads were tolerably smooth; the tarantass, which had been hired + for the whole journey, was nearly as comfortable as a tarantass can be; + good milk, eggs, and white bread could be obtained in abundance; there was + not much difficulty in procuring horses in the villages through which we + passed, and the owners of them were not very extortionate in their + demands. But what most contributed to my comfort was that I was + accompanied by an agreeable, intelligent young Russian, who kindly + undertook to make all the necessary arrangements, and I was thereby freed + from those annoyances and worries which are always encountered in + primitive countries where travelling is not yet a recognised institution. + To him I left the entire control of our movements, passively acquiescing + in everything, and asking no questions as to what was coming. Taking + advantage of my passivity, he prepared for me one evening a pleasant + little surprise. + </p> + <p> + About sunset we had left a village called Morsha, and shortly afterwards, + feeling drowsy, and being warned by my companion that we should have a + long, uninteresting drive, I had lain down in the tarantass and gone to + sleep. On awaking I found that the tarantass had stopped, and that the + stars were shining brightly overhead. A big dog was barking furiously + close at hand, and I heard the voice of the yamstchik informing us that we + had arrived. I at once sat up and looked about me, expecting to see a + village of some kind, but instead of that I perceived a wide open space, + and at a short distance a group of haystacks. Close to the tarantass stood + two figures in long cloaks, armed with big sticks, and speaking to each + other in an unknown tongue. My first idea was that we had been somehow led + into a trap, so I drew my revolver in order to be ready for all + emergencies. My companion was still snoring loudly by my side, and stoutly + resisted all my efforts to awaken him. + </p> + <p> + "What's this?" I said, in a gruff, angry voice, to the yamstchik. "Where + have you taken us to?" + </p> + <p> + "To where I was ordered, master!" + </p> + <p> + For the purpose of getting a more satisfactory explanation I took to + shaking my sleepy companion, but before he had returned to consciousness + the moon shone out brightly from behind a thick bank of clouds, and + cleared up the mystery. The supposed haystacks turned out to be tents. The + two figures with long sticks, whom I had suspected of being brigands, were + peaceable shepherds, dressed in the ordinary Oriental khalát, and tending + their sheep, which were grazing close by. Instead of being in an empty + hay-field, as I had imagined, we had before us a regular Tartar aoul, such + as I had often read about. For a moment I felt astonished and bewildered. + It seemed to me that I had fallen asleep in Europe and woke up in Asia! + </p> + <p> + In a few minutes we were comfortably installed in one of the tents, a + circular, cupola-shaped erection, of about twelve feet in diameter, + composed of a frame-work of light wooden rods covered with thick felt. It + contained no furniture, except a goodly quantity of carpets and pillows, + which had been formed into a bed for our accommodation. Our amiable host, + who was evidently somewhat astonished at our unexpected visit, but + refrained from asking questions, soon bade us good-night and retired. We + were not, however, left alone. A large number of black beetles remained + and gave us a welcome in their own peculiar fashion. Whether they were + provided with wings, or made up for the want of flying appliances by + crawling up the sides of the tent and dropping down on any object they + wished to reach, I did not discover, but certain it is that they somehow + reached our heads—even when we were standing upright—and clung + to our hair with wonderful tenacity. Why they should show such a marked + preference for human hair we could not conjecture, till it occurred to us + that the natives habitually shaved their heads, and that these beetles + must naturally consider a hair-covered cranium a curious novelty deserving + of careful examination. Like all children of nature they were decidedly + indiscreet and troublesome in their curiosity, but when the light was + extinguished they took the hint and departed. + </p> + <p> + When we awoke next morning it was broad daylight, and we found a crowd of + natives in front of the tent. Our arrival was evidently regarded as an + important event, and all the inhabitants of the aoul were anxious to make + our acquaintance. First our host came forward. He was a short, + slimly-built man, of middle age, with a grave, severe expression, + indicating an unsociable disposition. We afterwards learned that he was an + akhun*—that is to say, a minor officer of the Mahometan + ecclesiastical administration, and at the same time a small trader in + silken and woollen stuffs. With him came the mullah, or priest, a portly + old gentleman with an open, honest face of the European type, and a fine + grey beard. The other important members of the little community followed. + They were all swarthy in colour, and had the small eyes and prominent + cheek-bones which are characteristic of the Tartar races, but they had + little of that flatness of countenance and peculiar ugliness which + distinguish the pure Mongol. All of them, with the exception of the + mullah, spoke a little Russian, and used it to assure us that we were + welcome. The children remained respectfully in the background, and the + women, with faces veiled, eyed us furtively from the doors of the tents. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I presume this is the same word as akhund, well known on + the Northwest frontier of India, where it was applied + specially to the late ruler of Svat. +</pre> + <p> + The aoul consisted of about twenty tents, all constructed on the same + model, and scattered about in sporadic fashion, without the least regard + to symmetry. Close by was a watercourse, which appears on some maps as a + river, under the name of Karalyk, but which was at that time merely a + succession of pools containing a dark-coloured liquid. As we more than + suspected that these pools supplied the inhabitants with water for + culinary purposes, the sight was not calculated to whet our appetites. We + turned away therefore hurriedly, and for want of something better to do we + watched the preparations for dinner. These were decidedly primitive. A + sheep was brought near the door of our tent, and there killed, skinned, + cut up into pieces, and put into an immense pot, under which a fire had + been kindled. + </p> + <p> + The dinner itself was not less primitive than the manner of preparing it. + The table consisted of a large napkin spread in the middle of the tent, + and the chairs were represented by cushions, on which we sat cross-legged. + There were no plates, knives, forks, spoons, or chopsticks. Guests were + expected all to eat out of a common wooden bowl, and to use the + instruments with which Nature had provided them. The service was performed + by the host and his son. The fare was copious, but not varied—consisting + entirely of boiled mutton, without bread or other substitute, and a little + salted horse-flesh thrown in as an entree. + </p> + <p> + To eat out of the same dish with half-a-dozen Mahometans who accept their + Prophet's injunction about ablutions in a highly figurative sense, and who + are totally unacquainted with the use of forks and spoons, is not an + agreeable operation, even if one is not much troubled with religious + prejudices; but with these Bashkirs something worse than this has to be + encountered, for their favourite method of expressing their esteem and + affection for one with whom they are eating consists in putting bits of + mutton, and sometimes even handfuls of hashed meat, into his month! When I + discovered this unexpected peculiarity in Bashkir manners and customs, I + almost regretted that I had made a favourable impression upon my new + acquaintances. + </p> + <p> + When the sheep had been devoured, partly by the company in the tent and + partly by a nondescript company outside—for the whole aoul took part + in the festivities—kumyss was served in unlimited quantities. This + beverage, as I have already explained, is mare's milk fermented; but what + here passed under the name was very different from the kumyss I had tasted + in the establissements of Samara. There it was a pleasant effervescing + drink, with only the slightest tinge of acidity; here it was a "still" + liquid, strongly resembling very thin and very sour butter-milk. My + Russian friend made a wry face on first tasting it, and I felt inclined at + first to do likewise, but noticing that his grimaces made an unfavourable + impression on the audience, I restrained my facial muscles, and looked as + if I liked it. Very soon I really came to like it, and learned to "drink + fair" with those who had been accustomed to it from their childhood. By + this feat I rose considerably in the estimation of the natives; for if one + does not drink kumyss one cannot be sociable in the Bashkir sense of the + term, and by acquiring the habit one adopts an essential principle of + Bashkir nationality. I should certainly have preferred having a cup of it + to myself, but I thought it well to conform to the habits of the country, + and to accept the big wooden bowl when it was passed round. In return my + friends made an important concession in my favour: they allowed me to + smoke as I pleased, though they considered that, as the Prophet had + refrained from tobacco, ordinary mortals should do the same. + </p> + <p> + Whilst the "loving-cup" was going round I distributed some small presents + which I had brought for the purpose, and then proceeded to explain the + object of my visit. In the distant country from which I came—far + away to the westward—I had heard of the Bashkirs as a people + possessing many strange customs, but very kind and hospitable to + strangers. Of their kindness and hospitality I had already learned + something by experience, and I hoped they would allow me to learn + something of their mode of life, their customs, their songs, their + history, and their religion, in all of which I assured them my distant + countrymen took a lively interest. + </p> + <p> + This little after-dinner speech was perhaps not quite in accordance with + Bashkir etiquette, but it made a favourable impression. There was a + decided murmur of approbation, and those who understood Russian translated + my words to their less accomplished brethren. A short consultation ensued, + and then there was a general shout of "Abdullah! Abdullah!" which was + taken up and repeated by those standing outside. + </p> + <p> + In a few minutes Abdullah appeared, with a big, half-picked bone in his + hand, and the lower part of his face besmeared with grease. He was a + short, thin man, with a dark, sallow complexion, and a look of premature + old age; but the suppressed smile that played about his mouth and a + tremulous movement of his right eye-lid showed plainly that he had not yet + forgotten the fun and frolic of youth. His dress was of richer and more + gaudy material, but at the same time more tawdry and tattered, than that + of the others. Altogether he looked like an artiste in distressed + circumstances, and such he really was. At a word and a sign from the host + he laid aside his bone and drew from under his green silk khalát a small + wind-instrument resembling a flute or flageolet. On this he played a + number of native airs. The first melodies which he played reminded me of a + Highland pibroch—at one moment low, solemn, and plaintive, then + gradually rising into a soul-stirring, martial strain, and again + descending to a plaintive wail. The amount of expression which he put into + his simple instrument was truly marvellous. Then, passing suddenly from + grave to gay, he played a series of light, merry airs, and some of the + younger onlookers got up and performed a dance as boisterous and + ungraceful as an Irish jig. + </p> + <p> + This Abdullah turned out to be for me a most valuable acquaintance. He was + a kind of Bashkir troubadour, well acquainted not only with the music, but + also with the traditions, the history, the superstitions, and the + folk-lore of his people. By the akhun and the mullah he was regarded as a + frivolous, worthless fellow, who had no regular, respectable means of + gaining a livelihood, but among the men of less rigid principles he was a + general favourite. As he spoke Russian fluently I could converse with him + freely without the aid of an interpreter, and he willingly placed his + store of knowledge at my disposal. When in the company of the akhun he was + always solemn and taciturn, but as soon as he was relieved of that + dignitary's presence he became lively and communicative. + </p> + <p> + Another of my new acquaintances was equally useful to me in another way. + This was Mehemet Zian, who was not so intelligent as Abdullah, but much + more sympathetic. In his open, honest face, and kindly, unaffected manner + there was something so irresistibly attractive that before I had known him + twenty-four hours a sort of friendship had sprung up between us. He was a + tall, muscular, broad-shouldered man, with features that suggested a + mixture of European blood. Though already past middle age, he was still + wiry and active—so active that he could, when on horseback, pick a + stone off the ground without dismounting. He could, however, no longer + perform this feat at full gallop, as he had been wont to do in his youth. + His geographical knowledge was extremely limited and inaccurate—his + mind being in this respect like those old Russian maps in which the + nations of the earth and a good many peoples who had never more than a + mythical existence are jumbled together in hopeless confusion—but + his geographical curiosity was insatiable. My travelling-map—the + first thing of the kind he had ever seen—interested him deeply. When + he found that by simply examining it and glancing at my compass I could + tell him the direction and distance of places he knew, his face was like + that of a child who sees for the first time a conjuror's performance; and + when I explained the trick to him, and taught him to calculate the + distance to Bokhara—the sacred city of the Mussulmans of that region—his + delight was unbounded. Gradually I perceived that to possess such a map + had become the great object of his ambition. Unfortunately I could not at + once gratify him as I should have wished, because I had a long journey + before me and I had no other map of the region, but I promised to find + ways and means of sending him one, and I kept my word by means of a native + of the Karalyk district whom I discovered in Samara. I did not add a + compass because I could not find one in the town, and it would have been + of little use to him: like a true child of nature he always knew the + cardinal points by the sun or the stars. Some years later I had the + satisfaction of learning that the map had reached its destination safely, + through no less a personage than Count Tolstoy. One evening at the home of + a friend in Moscow I was presented to the great novelist, and as soon as + he heard my name he said: "Oh! I know you already, and I know your friend + Mehemet Zian. When I passed a night this summer in his aoul he showed me a + map with your signature on the margin, and taught me how to calculate the + distance to Bokhara!" + </p> + <p> + If Mehemet knew little of foreign countries he was thoroughly well + acquainted with his own, and repaid me most liberally for my elementary + lessons in geography. With him I visited the neighbouring aouls. In all of + them he had numerous acquaintances, and everywhere we were received with + the greatest hospitality, except on one occasion when we paid a visit of + ceremony to a famous robber who was the terror of the whole neighbourhood. + Certainly he was one of the most brutalised specimens of humanity I have + ever encountered. He made no attempt to be amiable, and I felt inclined to + leave his tent at once; but I saw that my friend wanted to conciliate him, + so I restrained my feelings and eventually established tolerably good + relations with him. As a rule I avoided festivities, partly because I knew + that my hosts were mostly poor and would not accept payment for the + slaughtered sheep, and partly because I had reason to apprehend that they + would express to me their esteem and affection more Bashkirico; but in + kumyss-drinking, the ordinary occupation of these people when they have + nothing to do, I had to indulge to a most inordinate extent. On these + expeditions Abdullah generally accompanied us, and rendered valuable + service as interpreter and troubadour. Mehemet could express himself in + Russian, but his vocabulary failed him as soon as the conversation ran + above very ordinary topics; Abdullah, on the contrary, was a first-rate + interpreter, and under the influence of his musical pipe and lively + talkativeness new acquaintances became sociable and communicative. Poor + Abdullah! He was a kind of universal genius; but his faded, tattered + khalát showed only too plainly that in Bashkiria, as in more civilised + countries, universal genius and the artistic temperament lead to poverty + rather than to wealth. + </p> + <p> + I have no intention of troubling the reader with the miscellaneous facts + which, with the assistance of these two friends, I succeeded in collecting—indeed, + I could not if I would, for the notes I then made were afterwards lost—but + I wish to say a few words about the actual economic condition of the + Bashkirs. They are at present passing from pastoral to agricultural life; + and it is not a little interesting to note the causes which induce them to + make this change, and the way in which it is made. + </p> + <p> + Philosophers have long held a theory of social development according to + which men were at first hunters, then shepherds, and lastly + agriculturists. How far this theory is in accordance with reality we need + not for the present inquire, but we may examine an important part of it + and ask ourselves the question, Why did pastoral tribes adopt agriculture? + The common explanation is that they changed their mode of life in + consequence of some ill-defined, fortuitous circumstances. A great + legislator arose amongst them and taught them to till the soil, or they + came in contact with an agricultural race and adopted the customs of their + neighbours. Such explanations must appear unsatisfactory to any one who + has lived with a pastoral people. Pastoral life is so incomparably more + agreeable than the hard lot of the agriculturist, and so much more in + accordance with the natural indolence of human nature, that no great + legislator, though he had the wisdom of a Solon and the eloquence of a + Demosthenes, could possibly induce his fellow-countrymen to pass + voluntarily from the one to the other. Of all the ordinary means of + gaining a livelihood—with the exception perhaps of mining—agriculture + is the most laborious, and is never voluntarily adopted by men who have + not been accustomed to it from their childhood. The life of a pastoral + race, on the contrary, is a perennial holiday, and I can imagine nothing + except the prospect of starvation which could induce men who live by their + flocks and herds to make the transition to agricultural life. + </p> + <p> + The prospect of starvation is, in fact, the cause of the transition—probably + in all cases, and certainly in the case of the Bashkirs. So long as they + had abundance of pasturage they never thought of tilling the soil. Their + flocks and herds supplied them with all that they required, and enabled + them to lead a tranquil, indolent existence. No great legislator arose + among them to teach them the use of the plough and the sickle, and when + they saw the Russian peasants on their borders laboriously ploughing and + reaping, they looked on them with compassion, and never thought of + following their example. But an impersonal legislator came to them—a + very severe and tyrannical legislator, who would not brook disobedience—I + mean Economic Necessity. By the encroachments of the Ural Cossacks on the + east, and by the ever-advancing wave of Russian colonisation from the + north and west, their territory had been greatly diminished. With + diminution of the pasturage came diminution of the live stock, their sole + means of subsistence. In spite of their passively conservative spirit they + had to look about for some new means of obtaining food and clothing—some + new mode of life requiring less extensive territorial possessions. It was + only then that they began to think of imitating their neighbours. They saw + that the neighbouring Russian peasant lived comfortably on thirty or forty + acres of land, whilst they possessed a hundred and fifty acres per male, + and were in danger of starvation. + </p> + <p> + The conclusion to be drawn from this was self-evident—they ought at + once to begin ploughing and sowing. But there was a very serious obstacle + to the putting of this principle in practice. Agriculture certainly + requires less land than sheep-farming, but it requires very much more + labour, and to hard work the Bashkirs were not accustomed. They could bear + hardships and fatigues in the shape of long journeys on horseback, but the + severe, monotonous labour of the plough and the sickle was not to their + taste. At first, therefore, they adopted a compromise. They had a portion + of their land tilled by Russian peasants, and ceded to these a part of the + produce in return for the labour expended; in other words, they assumed + the position of landed proprietors, and farmed part of their land on the + metayage system. + </p> + <p> + The process of transition had reached this point in several aouls which I + visited. My friend Mehemet Zian showed me at some distance from the tents + his plot of arable land, and introduced me to the peasant who tilled it—a + Little-Russian, who assured me that the arrangement satisfied all parties. + The process of transition cannot, however, stop here. The compromise is + merely a temporary expedient. Virgin soil gives very abundant harvests, + sufficient to support both the labourer and the indolent proprietor, but + after a few years the soil becomes exhausted and gives only a very + moderate revenue. A proprietor, therefore, must sooner or later dispense + with the labourers who take half of the produce as their recompense, and + must himself put his hand to the plough. + </p> + <p> + Thus we see the Bashkirs are, properly speaking, no longer a purely + pastoral, nomadic people. The discovery of this fact caused me some little + disappointment, and in the hope of finding a tribe in a more primitive + condition I visited the Kirghiz of the Inner Horde, who occupy the country + to the southward, in the direction of the Caspian. Here for the first time + I saw the genuine Steppe in the full sense of the term—a country + level as the sea, with not a hillock or even a gentle undulation to break + the straight line of the horizon, and not a patch of cultivation, a tree, + a bush, or even a stone, to diversify the monotonous expanse. + </p> + <p> + Traversing such a region is, I need scarcely say, very weary work—all + the more as there are no milestones or other landmarks to show the + progress you are making. Still, it is not so overwhelmingly wearisome as + might be supposed. In the morning you may watch the vast lakes, with their + rugged promontories and well-wooded banks, which the mirage creates for + your amusement. Then during the course of the day there are always one or + two trifling incidents which arouse you for a little from your somnolence. + Now you descry a couple of horsemen on the distant horizon, and watch them + as they approach; and when they come alongside you may have a talk with + them if you know the language or have an interpreter; or you may amuse + yourself with a little pantomime, if articulate speech is impossible. Now + you encounter a long train of camels marching along with solemn, stately + step, and speculate as to the contents of the big packages with which they + are laden. Now you encounter the carcass of a horse that has fallen by the + wayside, and watch the dogs and the steppe eagles fighting over their + prey; and if you are murderously inclined you may take a shot with your + revolver at these great birds, for they are ignorantly brave, and will + sometimes allow you to approach within twenty or thirty yards. At last you + perceive—most pleasant sight of all—a group of haystack-shaped + tents in the distance; and you hurry on to enjoy the grateful shade, and + quench your thirst with "deep, deep draughts" of refreshing kumyss. + </p> + <p> + During my journey through the Kirghiz country I was accompanied by a + Russian gentleman, who had provided himself with a circular letter from + the hereditary chieftain of the Horde, a personage who rejoiced in the + imposing name of Genghis Khan,* and claimed to be a descendant of the + great Mongol conqueror. This document assured us a good reception in the + aouls through which we passed. Every Kirghis who saw it treated it with + profound respect, and professed to put all his goods and chattels at our + service. But in spite of this powerful recommendation we met with none of + the friendly cordiality and communicativeness which I had found among the + Bashkirs. A tent with an unlimited quantity of cushions was always set + apart for our accommodation; the sheep were killed and boiled for our + dinner, and the pails of kumyss were regularly brought for our + refreshment; but all this was evidently done as a matter of duty and not + as a spontaneous expression of hospitality. When we determined once or + twice to prolong our visit beyond the term originally announced, I could + perceive that our host was not at all delighted by the change of our + plans. The only consolation we had was that those who entertained us made + no scruples about accepting payment for the food and shelter supplied. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have adopted the ordinary English spelling of this name. + The Kirghiz and the Russians pronounce it "Tchinghiz." +</pre> + <p> + From all this I have no intention of drawing the conclusion that the + Kirghiz are, as a people, inhospitable or unfriendly to strangers. My + experience of them is too limited to warrant any such inference. The + letter of Genghis Khan insured us all the accommodation we required, but + it at the same time gave us a certain official character not at all + favourable to the establishment of friendly relations. Those with whom we + came in contact regarded us as Russian officials, and suspected us of + having some secret designs. As I endeavoured to discover the number of + their cattle, and to form an approximate estimate of their annual revenue, + they naturally feared—having no conception of disinterested + scientific curiosity—that these data were being collected for the + purpose of increasing the taxes, or with some similar intention of a + sinister kind. Very soon I perceived clearly that any information we might + here collect regarding the economic conditions of pastoral life would not + be of much value, and I postponed my proposed studies to a more convenient + season. + </p> + <p> + The Kirghiz are, ethnographically speaking, closely allied to the + Bashkirs, but differ from them both in physiognomy and language. Their + features approach much nearer the pure Mongol type, and their language is + a distinct dialect, which a Bashkir or a Tartar of Kazan has some + difficulty in understanding. They are professedly Mahometans, but their + Mahometanism is not of a rigid kind, as may be seen by the fact that their + women do not veil their faces even in the presence of Ghiaours—a + laxness of which the Ghiaour will certainly not approve if he happen to be + sensitive to female beauty and ugliness. Their mode of life differs from + that of the Bashkirs, but they have proportionately more land and are + consequently still able to lead a purely pastoral life. Near their western + frontier, it is true, they annually let patches of land to the Russian + peasants for the purpose of raising crops; but these encroachments can + never advance very far, for the greater part of their territory is + unsuited to agriculture, on account of a large admixture of salt in the + soil. This fact will have an important influence on their future. Unlike + the Bashkirs, who possess good arable land, and are consequently on the + road to become agriculturists, they will in all probability continue to + live exclusively by their flocks and herds. + </p> + <p> + To the southwest of the Lower Volga, in the flat region lying to the north + of the Caucasus, we find another pastoral tribe, the Kalmyks, differing + widely from the two former in language, in physiognomy, and in religion. + Their language, a dialect of the Mongolian, has no close affinity with any + other language in this part of the world. In respect of religion they are + likewise isolated, for they are Buddhists, and have consequently no + co-religionists nearer than Mongolia or Thibet. But it is their + physiognomy that most strikingly distinguishes them from the surrounding + peoples, and stamps them as Mongols of the purest water. There is + something almost infra-human in their ugliness. They show in an + exaggerated degree all those repulsive traits which we see toned down and + refined in the face of an average Chinaman; and it is difficult, when we + meet them for the first time, to believe that a human soul lurks behind + their expressionless, flattened faces and small, dull, obliquely set eyes. + If the Tartar and Turkish races are really descended from ancestors of + that type, then we must assume that they have received in the course of + time a large admixture of Aryan or Semitic blood. + </p> + <p> + But we must not be too hard on the poor Kalmyks, or judge of their + character by their unprepossessing appearance. They are by no means so + unhuman as they look. Men who have lived among them have assured me that + they are decidedly intelligent, especially in all matters relating to + cattle, and that they are—though somewhat addicted to cattle-lifting + and other primitive customs not tolerated in the more advanced stages of + civilisation—by no means wanting in some of the better qualities of + human nature. + </p> + <p> + Formerly there was a fourth pastoral tribe in this region—the Nogai + Tartars. They occupied the plains to the north of the Sea of Azof, but + they are no longer to be found there. Shortly after the Crimean war they + emigrated to Turkey, and their lands are now occupied by Russian, German, + Bulgarian, and Montenegrin colonists. + </p> + <p> + Among the pastoral tribes of this region the Kalmyks are recent intruders. + They first appeared in the seventeenth century, and were long formidable + on account of their great numbers and compact organisation; but in 1771 + the majority of them suddenly struck their tents and retreated to their + old home in the north of the Celestial Empire. Those who remained were + easily pacified, and have long since lost, under the influence of unbroken + peace and a strong Russian administration, their old warlike spirit. Their + latest military exploits were performed during the last years of the + Napoleonic wars, and were not of a very serious kind; a troop of them + accompanied the Russian army, and astonished Western Europe by their + uncouth features, their strange costume, and their primitive + accoutrements, among which their curious bows and arrows figured + conspicuously. + </p> + <p> + The other pastoral tribes which I have mentioned—Bashkirs, Kirghiz, + and Nogai Tartars—are the last remnants of the famous marauders who + from time immemorial down to a comparatively recent period held the vast + plains of Southern Russia. The long struggle between them and the + agricultural colonists from the northwest, closely resembling the long + struggle between the Red-skins and the white settlers on the prairies of + North America, forms an important page of Russian history. + </p> + <p> + For centuries the warlike nomads stoutly resisted all encroachments on + their pasture-grounds, and considered cattle-lifting, kidnapping, and + pillage as a legitimate and honorable occupation. "Their raids," says an + old Byzantine writer, "are as flashes of lightning, and their retreat is + at once heavy and light—heavy from booty and light from the + swiftness of their movements. For them a peaceful life is a misfortune, + and a convenient opportunity for war is the height of felicity. Worst of + all, they are more numerous than bees in spring, their numbers are + uncountable." "Having no fixed place of abode," says another Byzantine + authority, "they seek to conquer all lands and colonise none. They are + flying people, and therefore cannot be caught. As they have neither towns + nor villages, they must be hunted like wild beasts, and can be fitly + compared only to griffins, which beneficent Nature has banished to + uninhabited regions." As a Persian distich, quoted by Vambery, has it— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "They came, conquered, burned, + pillaged, murdered, and went." +</pre> + <p> + Their raids are thus described by an old Russian chronicler: "They burn + the villages, the farmyards, and the churches. The land is turned by them + into a desert, and the overgrown fields become the lair of wild beasts. + Many people are led away into slavery; others are tortured and killed, or + die from hunger and thirst. Sad, weary, stiff from cold, with faces wan + from woe, barefoot or naked, and torn by the thistles, the Russian + prisoners trudge along through an unknown country, and, weeping, say to + one another, 'I am from such a town, and I from such a village.'" And in + harmony with the monastic chroniclers we hear the nameless Slavonic Ossian + wailing for the fallen sons of Rus: "In the Russian land is rarely heard + the voice of the husbandman, but often the cry of the vultures, fighting + with each other over the bodies of the slain; and the ravens scream as + they fly to the spoil." + </p> + <p> + In spite of the stubborn resistance of the nomads the wave of colonisation + moved steadily onwards until the first years of the thirteenth century, + when it was suddenly checked and thrown back. A great Mongolian horde from + Eastern Asia, far more numerous and better organized than the local + nomadic tribes, overran the whole country, and for more than two centuries + Russia was in a certain sense ruled by Mongol Khans. As I wish to speak at + some length of this Mongol domination, I shall devote to it a separate + chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <h3> + THE MONGOL DOMINATION + </h3> + <p> + The Conquest—Genghis Khan and his People—Creation and Rapid + Disintegration of the Mongol Empire—The Golden Horde—The Real + Character of the Mongol Domination—Religious Toleration—Mongol + System of Government—Grand Princes—The Princes of Moscow—Influence + of the Mongol Domination—Practical Importance of the Subject. + </p> + <p> + The Tartar invasion, with its direct and indirect consequences, is a + subject which has more than a mere antiquarian interest. To the influence + of the Mongols are commonly attributed many peculiarities in the actual + condition and national character of the Russians of the present day, and + some writers would even have us believe that the men whom we call Russians + are simply Tartars half disguised by a thin varnish of European + civilisation. It may be well, therefore, to inquire what the Tartar or + Mongol domination really was, and how far it affected the historical + development and national character of the Russian people. + </p> + <p> + The story of the conquest may be briefly told. In 1224 the chieftains of + the Poloftsi—one of those pastoral tribes which roamed on the Steppe + and habitually carried on a predatory warfare with the Russians of the + south—sent deputies to Mistislaf the Brave, Prince of Galicia, to + inform him that their country had been invaded from the southeast by + strong, cruel enemies called Tartars*—strange-looking men with brown + faces, eyes small and wide apart, thick lips, broad shoulders, and black + hair. "Today," said the deputies, "they have seized our country, and + tomorrow they will seize yours if you do not help us." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The word is properly "Tatar," and the Russians write and + pronounce it in this way, but I have preferred to retain the + better known form. +</pre> + <p> + Mistislaf had probably no objection to the Poloftsi being annihilated by + some tribe stronger and fiercer than themselves, for they gave him a great + deal of trouble by their frequent raids; but he perceived the force of the + argument about his own turn coming next, and thought it wise to assist his + usually hostile neighbours. For the purpose of warding off the danger he + called together the neighbouring Princes, and urged them to join him in an + expedition against the new enemy. The expedition was undertaken, and ended + in disaster. On the Kalka, a small river falling into the Sea of Azof, the + Russian host met the invaders, and was completely routed. The country was + thereby opened to the victors, but they did not follow up their advantage. + After advancing for some distance they suddenly wheeled round and + disappeared. + </p> + <p> + Thus ended unexpectedly the first visit of these unwelcome strangers. + Thirteen years afterwards they returned, and were not so easily got rid + of. An enormous horde crossed the River Ural and advanced into the heart + of the country, pillaging, burning, devastating, and murdering. Nowhere + did they meet with serious resistance. The Princes made no attempt to + combine against the common enemy. Nearly all the principal towns were laid + in ashes, and the inhabitants were killed or carried off as slaves. Having + conquered Russia, they advanced westward, and threw all Europe into alarm. + The panic reached even England, and interrupted, it is said, for a time + the herring fishing on the coast. Western Europe, however, escaped their + ravages. After visiting Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Servia, and Dalmatia, + they retreated to the Lower Volga, and the Russian Princes were summoned + thither to do homage to the victorious Khan. + </p> + <p> + At first the Russians had only very vague notions as to who this terrible + enemy was. The old chronicler remarks briefly: "For our sins unknown + peoples have appeared. No one knows who they are or whence they have come, + or to what race and faith they belong. They are commonly called Tartars, + but some call them Tauermen, and others Petchenegs. Who they really are is + known only to God, and perhaps to wise men deeply read in books." Some of + these "wise men deeply read in books" supposed them to be the idolatrous + Moabites who had in Old Testament times harassed God's chosen people, + whilst others thought that they must be the descendants of the men whom + Gideon had driven out, of whom a revered saint had prophesied that they + would come in the latter days and conquer the whole earth, from the East + even unto the Euphrates, and from the Tigris even unto the Black Sea. + </p> + <p> + We are now happily in a position to dispense with such vague + ethnographical speculations. From the accounts of several European + travellers who visited Tartary about that time, and from the writings of + various Oriental historians, we know a great deal about these barbarians + who conquered Russia and frightened the Western nations. + </p> + <p> + The vast region lying to the east of Russia, from the basin of the Volga + to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, was inhabited then, as it is still, by + numerous Tartar and Mongol tribes. These two terms are often regarded as + identical and interchangeable, but they ought, I think, to be + distinguished. From the ethnographic, the linguistic, and the religious + point of view they differ widely from each other. The Kazan Tartars, the + Bashkirs, the Kirghiz, in a word, all the tribes in the country stretching + latitudinally from the Volga to Kashgar, and longitudinally from the + Persian frontier, the Hindu Kush and the Northern Himalaya, to a line + drawn east and west through the middle of Siberia, belong to the Tartar + group; whereas those further eastward, occupying Mongolia and Manchuria, + are Mongol in the stricter sense of the term. + </p> + <p> + A very little experience enables the traveller to distinguish between the + two. Both of them have the well-known characteristics of the Northern + Asiatic—the broad flat face, yellow skin, small, obliquely set eyes, + high cheekbones, thin, straggling beard; but these traits are more + strongly marked, more exaggerated, if we may use such an expression, in + the Mongol than in the Tartar. Thus the Mongol is, according to our + conceptions, by far the uglier of the two, and the man of Tartar race, + when seen beside him, appears almost European by comparison. The + distinction is confirmed by a study of their languages. All the Tartar + languages are closely allied, so that a person of average linguistic + talent who has mastered one of them, whether it be the rude Turki of + Central Asia or the highly polished Turkish of Stambul, can easily acquire + any of the others; whereas even an extensive acquaintance with the Tartar + dialects will be of no practical use to him in learning a language of the + Mongol group. In their religions likewise the two races differ. The + Mongols are as a rule Shamanists or Buddhists, while the Tartars are + Mahometans. Some of the Mongol invaders, it is true, adopted Mahometanism + from the conquered Tartar tribes, and by this change of religion, which + led naturally to intermarriage, their descendants became gradually blended + with the older population; but the broad line of distinction was not + permanently effaced. + </p> + <p> + It is often supposed, even by people who profess to be acquainted with + Russian history, that Mongols and Tartars alike first came westward to the + frontiers of Europe with Genghis Khan. This is true of the Mongols, but so + far as the Tartars are concerned it is an entire mistake. From time + immemorial the Tartar tribes roamed over these territories. Like the + Russians, they were conquered by the Mongol invaders and had long to pay + tribute, and when the Mongol empire crumbled to pieces by internal + dissensions and finally disappeared before the victorious advance of the + Russians, the Tartars reappeared from the confusion without having lost, + notwithstanding an intermixture doubtless of Mongol blood, their old + racial characteristics, their old dialects, and their old tribal + organisation. + </p> + <p> + The germ of the vast horde which swept over Asia and advanced into the + centre of Europe was a small pastoral tribe of Mongols living in the hilly + country to the north of China, near the sources of the Amur. This tribe + was neither more warlike nor more formidable than its neighbours till near + the close of the twelfth century, when there appeared in it a man who is + described as "a mighty hunter before the Lord." Of him and his people we + have a brief description by a Chinese author of the time: "A man of + gigantic stature, with broad forehead and long beard, and remarkable for + his bravery. As to his people, their faces are broad, flat, and + four-cornered, with prominent cheek-bones; their eyes have no upper + eyelashes; they have very little hair in their beards and moustaches; + their exterior is very repulsive." This man of gigantic stature was no + other than Genghis Khan. He began by subduing and incorporating into his + army the surrounding tribes, conquered with their assistance a great part + of Northern China, and then, leaving one of his generals to complete the + conquest of the Celestial Empire, he led his army westward with the + ambitious design of conquering the whole world. "As there is but one God + in heaven," he was wont to say, "so there should be but one ruler on + earth"; and this one universal ruler he himself aspired to be. + </p> + <p> + A European army necessarily diminishes in force and its existence becomes + more and more imperilled as it advances from its base of operations into a + foreign and hostile country. Not so a horde like that of Genghis Khan in a + country such as that which it had to traverse. It needed no base of + operations, for it took with it its flocks, its tents, and all its worldly + goods. Properly speaking, it was not an army at all, but rather a people + in movement. The grassy Steppes fed the flocks, and the flocks fed the + warriors; and with such a simple commissariat system there was no + necessity for keeping up communications with the point of departure. + Instead of diminishing in numbers, the horde constantly increased as it + moved forwards. The nomadic tribes which it encountered on its way, + composed of men who found a home wherever they found pasture and + drinking-water, required little persuasion to make them join the onward + movement. By means of this terrible instrument of conquest Genghis + succeeded in creating a colossal Empire, stretching from the Carpathians + to the eastern shores of Asia, and from the Arctic Ocean to the Himalayas. + </p> + <p> + Genghis was no mere ruthless destroyer; he was at the same time one of the + greatest administrators the world has ever seen. But his administrative + genius could not work miracles. His vast Empire, founded on conquest and + composed of the most heterogeneous elements, had no principle of organic + life in it, and could not possibly be long-lived. It had been created by + him, and it perished with him. For some time after his death the dignity + of Grand Khan was held by some one of his descendants, and the centralised + administration was nominally preserved; but the local rulers rapidly + emancipated themselves from the central authority, and within half a + century after the death of its founder the great Mongol Empire was little + more than "a geographical expression." + </p> + <p> + With the dismemberment of the short-lived Empire the danger for Eastern + Europe was by no means at an end. The independent hordes were scarcely + less formidable than the Empire itself. A grandson of Genghis formed on + the Russian frontier a new State, commonly known as Kiptchak, or the + Golden Horde, and built a capital called Serai, on one of the arms of the + Lower Volga. This capital, which has since so completely disappeared that + there is some doubt as to its site, is described by Ibn Batuta, who + visited it in the fifteenth century, as a very great, populous, and + beautiful city, possessing many mosques, fine market-places, and broad + streets, in which were to be seen merchants from Babylon, Egypt, Syria, + and other countries. Here lived the Khans of the Golden Horde, who kept + Russia in subjection for two centuries. + </p> + <p> + In conquering Russia the Mongols had no wish to possess themselves of the + soil, or to take into their own hands the local administration. What they + wanted was not land, of which they had enough and to spare, but movable + property which they might enjoy without giving up their pastoral, nomadic + life. They applied, therefore, to Russia the same method of extracting + supplies as they had used in other countries. As soon as their authority + had been formally acknowledged they sent officials into the country to + number the inhabitants and to collect an amount of tribute proportionate + to the population. This was a severe burden for the people, not only on + account of the sum demanded, but also on account of the manner in which it + was raised. The exactions and cruelty of the tax-gatherers led to local + insurrections, and the insurrections were of course always severely + punished. But there was never any general military occupation of the + country or any wholesale confiscations of land, and the existing political + organisation was left undisturbed. The modern method of dealing with + annexed provinces was totally unknown to the Mongols. The Khans never + thought of attempting to denationalise their Russian subjects. They + demanded simply an oath of allegiance from the Princes* and a certain sum + of tribute from the people. The vanquished were allowed to retain their + land, their religion, their language, their courts of justice, and all + their other institutions. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * During the Mongol domination Russia was composed of a + large number of independent principalities. +</pre> + <p> + The nature of the Mongol domination is well illustrated by the policy + which the conquerors adopted towards the Russian Church. For more than + half a century after the conquest the religion of the Tartars was a + mixture of Buddhism and Paganism, with traces of Sabaeism or fire-worship. + During this period Christianity was more than simply tolerated. The Grand + Khan Kuyuk caused a Christian chapel to be erected near his domicile, and + one of his successors, Khubilai, was in the habit of publicly taking part + in the Easter festivals. In 1261 the Khan of the Golden Horde allowed the + Russians to found a bishopric in his capital, and several members of his + family adopted Christianity. One of them even founded a monastery, and + became a saint of the Russian Church! The Orthodox clergy were exempted + from the poll-tax, and in the charters granted to them it was expressly + declared that if any one committed blasphemy against the faith of the + Russians he should be put to death. Some time afterwards the Golden Horde + was converted to Islam, but the Khans did not on that account change their + policy. They continued to favour the clergy, and their protection was long + remembered. Many generations later, when the property of the Church was + threatened by the autocratic power, refractory ecclesiastics contrasted + the policy of the Orthodox Sovereign with that of the "godless Tartars," + much to the advantage of the latter. + </p> + <p> + At first there was and could be very little mutual confidence between the + conquerors and the conquered. The Princes anxiously looked for an + opportunity of throwing off the galling yoke, and the people chafed under + the exactions and cruelty of the tribute-collectors, whilst the Khans took + precautions to prevent insurrection, and threatened to devastate the + country if their authority was not respected. But in the course of time + this mutual distrust and hostility greatly lessened. When the Princes + found by experience that all attempts at resistance were fruitless, they + became reconciled to their new position, and instead of seeking to throw + off the Khan's authority, they tried to gain his favour, in the hope of + forwarding their personal interests. For this purpose they paid frequent + visits to the Tartar Suzerain, made rich presents to his wives and + courtiers, received from him charters confirming their authority, and + sometimes even married members of his family. Some of them used the favour + thus acquired for extending their possessions at the expense of + neighbouring Princes of their own race, and did not hesitate to call in + Tartar hordes to their assistance. The Khans, in their turn, placed + greater confidence in their vassals, entrusted them with the task of + collecting the tribute, recalled their own officials who were a constant + eyesore to the people, and abstained from all interference in the internal + affairs of the principalities so long as the tribute was regularly paid. + The Princes acted, in short, as the Khan's lieutenants, and became to a + certain extent Tartarised. Some of them carried this policy so far that + they were reproached by the people with "loving beyond measure the Tartars + and their language, and with giving them too freely land, and gold, and + goods of every kind." + </p> + <p> + Had the Khans of the Golden Horde been prudent, far-seeing statesmen, they + might have long retained their supremacy over Russia. In reality they + showed themselves miserably deficient in political talent. Seeking merely + to extract from the country as much tribute as possible, they overlooked + all higher considerations, and by this culpable shortsightedness prepared + their own political ruin. Instead of keeping all the Russian Princes on + the same level and thereby rendering them all equally feeble, they were + constantly bribed or cajoled into giving to one or more of their vassals a + pre-eminence over the others. At first this pre-eminence consisted in + little more than the empty title of Grand Prince; but the vassals thus + favoured soon transformed the barren distinction into a genuine power by + arrogating to themselves the exclusive right of holding direct + communications with the Horde, and compelling the minor Princes to deliver + to them the Mongol tribute. If any of the lesser Princes refused to + acknowledge this intermediate authority, the Grand Prince could easily + crush them by representing them at the Horde as rebels. Such an accusation + would cause the accused to be summoned before the Supreme Tribunal, where + the procedure was extremely summary and the Grand Prince had always the + means of obtaining a decision in his own favour. + </p> + <p> + Of the Princes who strove in this way to increase their influence, the + most successful were the Grand Princes of Moscow. They were not a + chivalrous race, or one with which the severe moralist can sympathise, but + they were largely endowed with cunning, tact, and perseverance, and were + little hampered by conscientious scruples. Having early discovered that + the liberal distribution of money at the Tartar court was the surest means + of gaining favour, they lived parsimoniously at home and spent their + savings at the Horde. To secure the continuance of the favour thus + acquired, they were ready to form matrimonial alliances with the Khan's + family, and to act zealously as his lieutenants. When Novgorod, the + haughty, turbulent republic, refused to pay the yearly tribute, they + quelled the insurrection and punished the leaders; and when the + inhabitants of Tver rose against the Tartars and compelled their Prince to + make common cause with them, the wily Muscovite hastened to the Tartar + court and received from the Khan the revolted principality, with 50,000 + Tartars to support his authority. + </p> + <p> + Thus those cunning Moscow Princes "loved the Tartars beyond measure" so + long as the Khan was irresistibly powerful, but as his power waned they + stood forth as his rivals. When the Golden Horde, like the great Empire of + which it had once formed a part, fell to pieces in the fifteenth century, + these ambitious Princes read the signs of the times, and put themselves at + the head of the liberation movement, which was at first unsuccessful, but + ultimately freed the country from the hated yoke. + </p> + <p> + From this brief sketch of the Mongol domination the reader will readily + understand that it did not leave any deep, lasting impression on the + people. The invaders never settled in Russia proper, and never amalgamated + with the native population. So long as they retained their semi-pagan, + semi-Buddhistic religion, a certain number of their notables became + Christians and were absorbed by the Russian Noblesse; but as soon as the + Horde adopted Islam this movement was arrested. There was no blending of + the two races such as has taken place—and is still taking place—between + the Russian peasantry and the Finnish tribes of the North. The Russians + remained Christians, and the Tartars remained Mahometans; and this + difference of religion raised an impassable barrier between the two + nationalities. + </p> + <p> + It must, however, be admitted that the Tartar domination, though it had + little influence on the life and habits of the people, had a considerable + influence on the political development of the nation. At the time of the + conquest Russia was composed of a large number of independent + principalities, all governed by descendants of Rurik. As these + principalities were not geographical or ethnographical units, but mere + artificial, arbitrarily defined districts, which were regularly subdivided + or combined according to the hereditary rights of the Princes, it is + highly probable that they would in any case have been sooner or later + united under one sceptre; but it is quite certain that the policy of the + Khans helped to accelerate this unification and to create the autocratic + power which has since been wielded by the Tsars. If the principalities had + been united without foreign interference we should probably have found in + the united State some form of political organisation corresponding to that + which existed in the component parts—some mixed form of government, + in which the political power would have been more or less equally divided + between the Tsar and the people. The Tartar rule interrupted this normal + development by extinguishing all free political life. The first Tsars of + Muscovy were the political descendants, not of the old independent + Princes, but of the Mongol Khans. It may be said, therefore, that the + autocratic power, which has been during the last four centuries out of all + comparison the most important factor in Russian history, was in a certain + sense created by the Mongol domination. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <h3> + THE COSSACKS + </h3> + <p> + Lawlessness on the Steppe—Slave-markets of the Crimea—The + Military Cordon and the Free Cossacks—The Zaporovian Commonwealth + Compared with Sparta and with the Mediaeval Military Orders—The + Cossacks of the Don, of the Volga, and of the Ural—Border Warfare—The + Modern Cossacks—Land Tenure among the Cossacks of the Don—The + Transition from Pastoral to Agriculture Life—"Universal Law" of + Social Development—Communal versus Private Property—Flogging + as a Means of Land-registration. + </p> + <p> + No sooner had the Grand Princes of Moscow thrown off the Mongol yoke and + become independent Tsars of Muscovy than they began that eastward + territorial expansion which has been going on steadily ever since, and + which culminated in the occupation of Talienwan and Port Arthur. Ivan the + Terrible conquered the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan (1552-54) and + reduced to nominal subjection the Bashkir and Kirghiz tribes in the + vicinity of the Volga, but he did not thereby establish law and order on + the Steppe. The lawless tribes retained their old pastoral mode of life + and predatory habits, and harassed the Russian agricultural population of + the outlying provinces in the same way as the Red Indians in America used + to harass the white colonists of the Far West. A large section of the + Horde, inhabiting the Crimea and the Steppe to the north of the Black Sea, + escaped annexation by submitting to the Ottoman Turks and becoming + tributaries of the Sultan. + </p> + <p> + The Turks were at that time a formidable power, with which the Tsars of + Muscovy were too weak to cope successfully, and the Khan of the Crimea + could always, when hard pressed by his northern neighbours, obtain + assistance from Constantinople. This potentate exercised a nominal + authority over the pastoral tribes which roamed on the Steppe between the + Crimea and the Russian frontier, but he had neither the power nor the + desire to control their aggressive tendencies. Their raids in Russian and + Polish territory ensured, among other advantages, a regular and plentiful + supply of slaves, which formed the chief article of export from Kaffa—the + modern Theodosia—and from the other seaports of the coast. + </p> + <p> + Of this slave trade, which flourished down to 1783, when the Crimea was + finally conquered and annexed by Russia, we have a graphic account by an + eye-witness, a Lithuanian traveller of the sixteenth century. "Ships from + Asia," he says, "bring arms, clothes, and horses to the Crimean Tartars, + and start on the homeward voyage laden with slaves. It is for this kind of + merchandise alone that the Crimean markets are remarkable. Slaves may be + always had for sale as a pledge or as a present, and every one rich enough + to have a horse deals in them. If a man wishes to buy clothes, arms, or + horses, and does not happen to have at the moment any slaves, he takes on + credit the articles required, and makes a formal promise to deliver at a + certain time a certain number of people of our blood—being convinced + that he can get by that time the requisite number. And these promises are + always accurately fulfilled, as if those who made them had always a supply + of our people in their courtyards. A Jewish money-changer, sitting at the + gate of Tauris and seeing constantly the countless multitude of our + countrymen led in as captives, asked us whether there still remained any + people in our land, and whence came such a multitude of them. The stronger + of these captives, branded on the forehead and cheeks and manacled or + fettered, are tortured by severe labour all day, and are shut up in dark + cells at night. They are kept alive by small quantities of food, composed + chiefly of the flesh of animals that have died—putrid, covered with + maggots, disgusting even to dogs. Women, who are more tender, are treated + in a different fashion; some of them who can sing and play are employed to + amuse the guests at festivals. + </p> + <p> + "When the slaves are led out for sale they walk to the marketplace in + single file, like storks on the wing, in whole dozens, chained together by + the neck, and are there sold by auction. The auctioneer shouts loudly that + they are 'the newest arrivals, simple, and not cunning, lately captured + from the people of the kingdom (Poland), and not from Muscovy'; for the + Muscovite race, being crafty and deceitful, does not bring a good price. + This kind of merchandise is appraised with great accuracy in the Crimea, + and is bought by foreign merchants at a high price, in order to be sold at + a still higher rate to blacker nations, such as Saracens, Persians, + Indians, Arabs, Syrians, and Assyrians. When a purchase is made the teeth + are examined, to see that they are neither few nor discoloured. At the + same time the more hidden parts of the body are carefully inspected, and + if a mole, excrescence, wound, or other latent defect is discovered, the + bargain is rescinded. But notwithstanding these investigations the cunning + slave-dealers and brokers succeed in cheating the buyers; for when they + have valuable boys and girls, they do not at once produce them, but first + fatten them, clothe them in silk, and put powder and rouge on their + cheeks, so as to sell them at a better price. Sometimes beautiful and + perfect maidens of our nation bring their weight in gold. This takes place + in all the towns of the peninsula, but especially in Kaffa."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Michalonis Litvani, "De moribus Tartarorum Fragmina," X., + Basilliae, 1615. +</pre> + <p> + To protect the agricultural population of the Steppe against the raids of + these thieving, cattle-lifting, kidnapping neighbours, the Tsars of + Muscovy and the Kings of Poland built forts, constructed palisades, dug + trenches, and kept up a regular military cordon. The troops composing this + cordon were called Cossacks; but these were not the "Free Cossacks" best + known to history and romance. These latter lived beyond the frontier on + the debatable land which lay between the two hostile races, and there they + formed self-governing military communities. Each one of the rivers flowing + southwards—the Dnieper, the Don, the Volga, and the Yaik or Ural—was + held by a community of these Free Cossacks, and no one, whether Christian + or Tartar, was allowed to pass through their territory without their + permission. + </p> + <p> + Officially the Free Cossacks were Russians, for they professed to be + champions of Orthodox Christianity, and—with the exception of those + of the Dnieper—loyal subjects of the Tsar; but in reality they were + something different. Though they were Russian by origin, language, and + sympathy, the habit of kidnapping Tartar women introduced among them a + certain admixture of Tartar blood. Though self-constituted champions of + Christianity and haters of Islam, they troubled themselves very little + with religion, and did not submit to the ecclesiastical authorities. As to + their religious status, it cannot be easily defined. Whilst professing + allegiance and devotion to the Tsar, they did not think it necessary to + obey him, except in so far as his orders suited their own convenience. And + the Tsar, it must be confessed, acted towards them in a similar fashion. + When he found it convenient he called them his faithful subjects; and when + complaints were made to him about their raids in Turkish territory, he + declared that they were not his subjects, but runaways and brigands, and + that the Sultan might punish them as he saw fit. At the same time, the + so-called runaways and brigands regularly received supplies and ammunition + from Moscow, as is amply proved by recently-published documents. Down to + the middle of the seventeenth century the Cossacks of the Dnieper stood in + a similar relation to the Polish kings; but at that time they threw off + their allegiance to Poland, and became subjects of the Tsars of Muscovy. + </p> + <p> + Of these semi-independent military communities, which formed a continuous + barrier along the southern and southeastern frontier, the most celebrated + were the Zaporovians* of the Dnieper, and the Cossacks of the Don. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name "Zaporovians," by which they are known in the + West, is a corruption of the Russian word Zaporozhtsi, which + means "Those who live beyond the rapids." +</pre> + <p> + The Zaporovian Commonwealth has been compared sometimes to ancient Sparta, + and sometimes to the mediaeval Military Orders, but it had in reality + quite a different character. In Sparta the nobles kept in subjection a + large population of slaves, and were themselves constantly under the + severe discipline of the magistrates. These Cossacks of the Dnieper, on + the contrary, lived by fishing, hunting, and marauding, and knew nothing + of discipline, except in time of war. Amongst all the inhabitants of the + Setch—so the fortified camp was called—there reigned the most + perfect equality. The common saying, "Bear patiently, Cossack; you will + one day be Ataman!" was often realised; for every year the office-bearers + laid down the insignia of office in presence of the general assembly, and + after thanking the brotherhood for the honour they had enjoyed, retired to + their former position of common Cossack. At the election which followed + this ceremony any member could be chosen chief of his kuren, or company, + and any chief of a kuren could be chosen Ataman. + </p> + <p> + The comparison of these bold Borderers with the mediaeval Military Orders + is scarcely less forced. They call themselves, indeed, Lytsars—a + corruption of the Russian word Ritsar, which is in its turn a corruption + of the German Ritter—talked of knightly honour (lytsarskaya + tchest'), and sometimes proclaimed themselves the champions of Greek + Orthodoxy against the Roman Catholicism of the Poles and the Mahometanism + of the Tartars; but religion occupied in their minds a very secondary + place. Their great object in life was the acquisition of booty. To attain + this object they lived in intermittent warfare with the Tartars, lifted + their cattle, pillaged their aouls, swept the Black Sea in flotillas of + small boats, and occasionally sacked important coast towns, such as Varna + and Sinope. When Tartar booty could not be easily obtained, they turned + their attention to the Slavonic populations; and when hard pressed by + Christian potentates, they did not hesitate to put themselves under the + protection of the Sultan. + </p> + <p> + The Cossacks of the Don, of the Volga, and of the Ural had a somewhat + different organisation. They had no fortified camp like the Setch, but + lived in villages, and assembled as necessity demanded. As they were + completely beyond the sphere of Polish influence, they knew nothing about + "knightly honour" and similar conceptions of Western chivalry; they even + adopted many Tartar customs, and loved in time of peace to strut about in + gorgeous Tartar costumes. Besides this, they were nearly all emigrants + from Great Russia, and mostly Old Ritualists or Sectarians, whilst the + Zaporovians were Little Russians and Orthodox. + </p> + <p> + These military communities rendered valuable service to Russia. The best + means of protecting the southern frontier was to have as allies a large + body of men leading the same kind of life and capable of carrying on the + same kind of warfare as the nomadic marauders; and such a body of men were + the Free Cossacks. The sentiment of self-preservation and the desire of + booty kept them constantly on the alert. By sending out small parties in + all directions, by "procuring tongues"—that is to say, by kidnapping + and torturing straggling Tartars with a view to extracting information + from them—and by keeping spies in the enemy's territory, they were + generally apprised beforehand of any intended incursion. When danger + threatened, the ordinary precautions were redoubled. Day and night patrols + kept watch at the points where the enemy was expected, and as soon as sure + signs of his approach were discovered a pile of tarred barrels prepared + for the purpose was fired to give the alarm. Rapidly the signal was + repeated at one point of observation after another, and by this primitive + system of telegraphy in the course of a few hours the whole district was + up in arms. If the invaders were not too numerous, they were at once + attacked and driven back. If they could not be successfully resisted, they + were allowed to pass; but a troop of Cossacks was sent to pillage their + aouls in their absence, whilst another and larger force was collected, in + order to intercept them when they were returning home laden with booty. + Thus many a nameless battle was fought on the trackless Steppe, and many + brave men fell unhonoured and unsung: + </p> + <p> + "Illacrymabiles Urgentur ignotique longa Nocte, carent quia vate sacro." + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these valuable services, the Cossack communities were a + constant source of diplomatic difficulties and political dangers. As they + paid very little attention to the orders of the Government, they supplied + the Sultan with any number of casi belli, and were often ready to turn + their arms against the power to which they professed allegiance. During + "the troublous times," for example, when the national existence was + endangered by civil strife and foreign invasion, they overran the country, + robbing, pillaging, and burning as they were wont to do in the Tartar + aouls. At a later period the Don Cossacks twice raised formidable + insurrections—first under Stenka Razin (1670), and secondly under + Pugatchef (1773)—and during the war between Peter the Great and + Charles XII. of Sweden the Zaporovians took the side of the Swedish king. + </p> + <p> + The Government naturally strove to put an end to this danger, and + ultimately succeeded. All the Cossacks were deprived of their + independence, but the fate of the various communities was different. Those + of the Volga were transfered to the Terek, where they had abundant + occupation in guarding the frontier against the incursions of the Eastern + Caucasian tribes. The Zaporovians held tenaciously to their "Dnieper + liberties," and resisted all interference, till they were forcibly + disbanded in the time of Catherine II. The majority of them fled to + Turkey, where some of their descendants are still to be found, and the + remainder were settled on the Kuban, where they could lead their old life + by carrying on an irregular warfare with the tribes of the Western + Caucasus. Since the capture of Shamyl and the pacification of the + Caucasus, this Cossack population of the Kuban and the Terek, extending in + an unbroken line from the Sea of Azof to the Caspian, have been able to + turn their attention to peaceful pursuits, and now raise large quantities + of wheat for exportation; but they still retain their martial bearing, and + some of them regret the good old times when a brush with the Circassians + was an ordinary occurrence and the work of tilling the soil was often + diversified with a more exciting kind of occupation. + </p> + <p> + The Cossacks of the Ural and the Don have been allowed to remain in their + old homes, but they have been deprived of their independence and + self-government, and their social organisation has been completely + changed. The boisterous popular assemblies which formerly decided all + public affairs have been abolished, and the custom of choosing the Ataman + and other office-bearers by popular election has been replaced by a system + of regular promotion, according to rules elaborated in St. Petersburg. The + officers and their families now compose a kind of hereditary aristocracy + which has succeeded in appropriating, by means of Imperial grants, a large + portion of the land which was formerly common property. As the Empire + expanded in Asia the system of protecting the parties by Cossack colonists + was extended eastwards, so now there is a belt of Cossack territory + stretching almost without interruption from the banks of the Don to the + coast of the Pacific. It is divided into eleven sections, in each of which + is settled a Cossack corps with a separate administration. + </p> + <p> + When universal military service was introduced, in 1873, the Cossacks were + brought under the new law, but in order to preserve their military + traditions and habits they were allowed to retain, with certain + modifications, their old organisation, rights, and privileges. In return + for a large amount of fertile land and exemption from direct taxation, + they have to equip themselves at their own expense, and serve for twenty + years, of which three are spent in preparatory training, twelve in the + active army, and five in the reserve. This system gives to the army a + contingent of about 330,000 men—divided into 890 squadrons and 108 + infantry companies—with 236 guns. + </p> + <p> + The Cossacks in active service are to be met with in all parts of the + Empire, from the Prussian to the Chinese frontier. In the Asiatic + Provinces their services are invaluable. Capable of enduring an incredible + amount of fatigue and all manner of privations, they can live and thrive + in conditions which would soon disable regular troops. The capacity of + self-adaptation, which is characteristic of the Russian people generally, + is possessed by them in the highest degree. When placed on some distant + Asiatic frontier they can at once transform themselves into squatters—building + their own houses, raising crops of grain, and living as colonists without + neglecting their military duties. + </p> + <p> + I have sometimes heard it asserted by military men that the Cossack + organisation is an antiquated institution, and that the soldiers which it + produces, however useful they may be in Central Asia, would be of little + service in regular European warfare. Whether this view, which received + some confirmation in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, is true or false I + cannot pretend to say, for it is a subject on which a civilian has no + right to speak; but I may remark that the Cossacks themselves are not by + any means of that opinion. They regard themselves as the most valuable + troops which the Tsar possesses, believing themselves capable of + performing anything within the bounds of human possibility, and a good + deal that lies beyond that limit. More than once Don Cossacks have assured + me that if the Tsar had allowed them to fit out a flotilla of small boats + during the Crimean War they would have captured the British fleet, as + their ancestors used to capture Turkish galleys on the Black Sea! + </p> + <p> + In old times, throughout the whole territory of the Don Cossacks, + agriculture was prohibited on pain of death. It is generally supposed that + this measure was adopted with a view to preserve the martial spirit of the + inhabitants, but it may be explained otherwise. The great majority of the + Cossacks, averse to all regular, laborious occupations, wished to live by + fishing, hunting, cattle-breeding, and marauding, but there was always + amongst them a considerable number of immigrants—runaway serfs from + the interior—who had been accustomed to live by agriculture. These + latter wished to raise crops on the fertile virgin soil, and if they had + been allowed to do so they would to some extent have spoiled the pastures. + We have here, I believe, the true reason for the above-mentioned + prohibition, and this view is strongly confirmed by analogous facts which + I have observed in another locality. In the Kirghiz territory the poorer + inhabitants of the aouls near the frontier, having few or no cattle, wish + to let part of the common land to the neighbouring Russian peasantry for + agricultural purposes; but the richer inhabitants, who possess flocks and + herds, strenuously oppose this movement, and would doubtless prohibit it + under pain of death if they had the power, because all agricultural + encroachments diminish the pasture-land. + </p> + <p> + Whatever was the real reason of the prohibition, practical necessity + proved in the long run too strong for the anti-agriculturists. As the + population augmented and the opportunities for marauding decreased, the + majority had to overcome their repugnance to husbandry; and soon large + patches of ploughed land or waving grain were to be seen in the vicinity + of the stanitsas, as the Cossack villages are termed. At first there was + no attempt to regulate this new use of the ager publicus. Each Cossack who + wished to raise a crop ploughed and sowed wherever he thought fit, and + retained as long as he chose the land thus appropriated; and when the soil + began to show signs of exhaustion he abandoned his plot and ploughed + elsewhere. But this unregulated use of the Communal property could not + long continue. As the number of agriculturists increased, quarrels + frequently arose, and sometimes terminated in bloodshed. Still worse evils + appeared when markets were created in the vicinity, and it became possible + to sell the grain for exportation. In some stanitsas the richer families + appropriated enormous quantities of the common land by using several teams + of oxen, or by hiring peasants in the nearest villages to come and plough + for them; and instead of abandoning the land after raising two or three + crops they retained possession of it, and came to regard it as their + private property. Thus the whole of the arable land, or at least the best + part of it, became actually, if not legally, the private property of a few + families, whilst the less energetic or less fortunate inhabitants of the + stanitsa had only parcels of comparatively barren soil, or had no land + whatever, and became mere agricultural labourers. + </p> + <p> + After a time this injustice was remedied. The landless members justly + complained that they had to bear the same burdens as those who possessed + the land, and that therefore they ought to enjoy the same privileges. The + old spirit of equality was still strong amongst them, and they ultimately + succeeded in asserting their rights. In accordance with their demands the + appropriated land was confiscated by the Commune, and the system of + periodical redistributions was introduced. By this system each adult male + possesses a share of the land. + </p> + <p> + These facts tend to throw light on some of the dark questions of social + development in its early stages. + </p> + <p> + So long as a village community leads a purely pastoral life, and possesses + an abundance of land, there is no reason why the individuals or the + families of which it is composed should divide the land into private lots, + and there are very potent reasons why they should not adopt such a course. + To give the division of the land any practical significance, it would be + necessary to raise fences of some kind, and these fences, requiring for + their construction a certain amount of labour, would prove merely a + useless encumbrance, for it is much more convenient that all the sheep and + cattle should graze together. If there is a scarcity of pasture, and + consequently a conflict of interest among the families, the enjoyment of + the common land will be regulated not by raising fences, but by simply + limiting the number of sheep and cattle which each family is entitled to + put upon the pasturage, as is done in many Russian villages at the present + day. When any one desires to keep more sheep and cattle than the maximum + to which he is entitled, he pays to the others a certain compensation. + Thus, we see, in pastoral life the dividing of the common land is + unnecessary and inexpedient, and consequently private property in land is + not likely to come into existence. + </p> + <p> + With the introduction of agriculture appears a tendency to divide the land + among the families composing the community, for each family living by + husbandry requires a definite portion of the soil. If the land suitable + for agricultural purposes be plentiful, each head of a family may be + allowed to take possession of as much of it as he requires, as was + formerly done in the Cossack stanitsas; if, on the contrary, the area of + arable land is small, as is the case in some Bashkir aouls, there will + probably be a regular allotment of it among the families. + </p> + <p> + With the tendency to divide the land into definite portions arises a + conflict between the principle of communal and the principle of private + property. Those who obtain definite portions of the soil are in general + likely to keep them and transmit them to their descendants. In a country, + however, like the Steppe—and it is only of such countries that I am + at present speaking—the nature of the soil and the system of + agriculture militate against this conversion of simple possession into a + right of property. A plot of land is commonly cultivated for only three or + four years in succession. It is then abandoned for at least double that + period, and the cultivators remove to some other portion of the communal + territory. After a time, it is true, they return to the old portion, which + has been in the meantime lying fallow; but as the soil is tolerably equal + in quality, the families or individuals have no reason to desire the + precise plots which they formerly possessed. Under such circumstances the + principle of private property in the land is not likely to strike root; + each family insists on possessing a certain QUANTITY rather than a certain + PLOT of land, and contents itself with a right of usufruct, whilst the + right of property remains in the hands of the Commune; and it must not be + forgotten that the difference between usufruct and property here is of + great practical importance, for so long as the Commune retains the right + of property it may re-allot the land in any way it thinks fit. + </p> + <p> + As the population increases and land becomes less plentiful, the primitive + method of agriculture above alluded to gives place to a less primitive + method, commonly known as "the three-field system," according to which the + cultivators do not migrate periodically from one part of the communal + territory to another, but till always the same fields, and are obliged to + manure the plots which they occupy. The principle of communal property + rarely survives this change, for by long possession the families acquire a + prescriptive right to the portions which they cultivate, and those who + manure their land well naturally object to exchange it for land which has + been held by indolent, improvident neighbours. In Russia, however, this + change has not destroyed the principle of communal property. Though the + three-field system has been in use for many generations in the central + provinces, the communal principle, with its periodical re-allotment of the + land, still remains intact. + </p> + <p> + For the student of sociology the past history and actual condition of the + Don Cossacks present many other features equally interesting and + instructive. He may there see, for instance, how an aristocracy can be + created by military promotion, and how serfage may originate and become a + recognised institution without any legislative enactment. If he takes an + interest in peculiar manifestations of religious thought and feeling, he + will find a rich field of investigation in the countless religious sects; + and if he is a collector of quaint old customs, he will not lack + occupation. + </p> + <p> + One curious custom, which has very recently died out, I may here mention + by way of illustration. As the Cossacks knew very little about + land-surveying, and still less about land-registration, the precise + boundary between two contiguous yurts—as the communal land of a + stanitsa was called—was often a matter of uncertainty and a fruitful + source of disputes. When the boundary was once determined, the following + method of registering it was employed. All the boys of the two stanitsas + were collected and driven in a body like sheep to the intervening + frontier. The whole population then walked along the frontier that had + been agreed upon, and at each landmark a number of boys were soundly + whipped and allowed to run home! This was done in the hope that the + victims would remember, as long as they lived, the spot where they had + received their unmerited castigation.* The device, I have been assured, + was generally very effective, but it was not always quite successful. + Whether from the castigation not being sufficiently severe, or from some + other defect in the method, it sometimes happened that disputes afterwards + arose, and the whipped boys, now grown up to manhood, gave conflicting + testimony. When such a case occurred the following expedient was adopted. + One of the oldest inhabitants was chosen as arbiter, and made to swear on + the Scriptures that he would act honestly to the best of his knowledge; + then taking an Icon in his hand, he walked along what he believed to be + the old frontier. Whether he made mistakes or not, his decision was + accepted by both parties and regarded as final. This custom existed in + some stanitsas down to the year 1850, when the boundaries were clearly + determined by Government officials. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A custom of this kind, I am told, existed not very long + ago in England and is still spoken of as "the beating of the + bounds." +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI + </h2> + <h3> + FOREIGN COLONISTS ON THE STEPPE + </h3> + <p> + The Steppe—Variety of Races, Languages, and Religions—The + German Colonists—In What Sense the Russians are an Imitative People—The + Mennonites—Climate and Arboriculture—Bulgarian Colonists—Tartar-Speaking + Greeks—Jewish Agriculturists—Russification—A Circassian + Scotchman—Numerical Strength of the Foreign Element. + </p> + <p> + In European Russia the struggle between agriculture and nomadic barbarism + is now a thing of the past, and the fertile Steppe, which was for + centuries a battle-ground of the Aryan and Turanian races, has been + incorporated into the dominions of the Tsar. The nomadic tribes have been + partly driven out and partly pacified and parked in "reserves," and the + territory which they so long and so stubbornly defended is now studded + with peaceful villages and tilled by laborious agriculturists. + </p> + <p> + In traversing this region the ordinary tourist will find little to + interest him. He will see nothing which he can possibly dignify by the + name of scenery, and he may journey on for many days without having any + occasion to make an entry in his note-book. If he should happen, however, + to be an ethnologist and linguist, he may find occupation, for he will + here meet with fragments of many different races and a variety of foreign + tongues. + </p> + <p> + This ethnological variety is the result of a policy inaugurated by + Catherine II. So long as the southern frontier was pushed forward slowly, + the acquired territory was regularly filled up by Russian peasants from + the central provinces who were anxious to obtain more land and more + liberty than they enjoyed in their native villages; but during "the + glorious age of Catherine" the frontier was pushed forward so rapidly that + the old method of spontaneous emigration no longer sufficed to people the + annexed territory. The Empress had recourse, therefore, to organised + emigration from foreign countries. Her diplomatic representatives in + Western Europe tried to induce artisans and peasants to emigrate to + Russia, and special agents were sent to various countries to supplement + the efforts of the diplomatists. Thousands accepted the invitation, and + were for the most part settled on the land which had been recently the + pasture-ground of the nomadic hordes. + </p> + <p> + This policy was adopted by succeeding sovereigns, and the consequence of + it has been that Southern Russia now contains a variety of races such as + is to be found, perhaps, nowhere else in Europe. The official statistics + of New Russia alone—that is to say, the provinces of Ekaterinoslaf, + Tauride, Kherson, and Bessarabia—enumerate the following + nationalities: Great Russians, Little Russians, Poles, Servians, + Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Moldavians, Germans, English, Swedes, Swiss, + French, Italians, Greeks, Armenians, Tartars, Mordwa, Jews, and Gypsies. + The religions are almost equally numerous. The statistics speak of Greek + Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Gregorians, Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, + Mennonites, Separatists, Pietists, Karaim Jews, Talmudists, Mahometans, + and numerous Russian sects, such as the Molokanye and the Skoptsi or + Eunuchs. America herself could scarcely show a more motley list in her + statistics of population. + </p> + <p> + It is but fair to state that the above list, though literally correct, + does not give a true idea of the actual population. The great body of the + inhabitants are Russian and Orthodox, whilst several of the nationalities + named are represented by a small number of souls—some of them, such + as the French, being found exclusively in the towns. Still, the variety + even in the rural population is very great. Once, in the space of three + days, and using only the most primitive means of conveyance, I visited + colonies of Greeks, Germans, Servians, Bulgarians, Montenegrins, and Jews. + </p> + <p> + Of all the foreign colonists the Germans are by far the most numerous. The + object of the Government in inviting them to settle in the country was + that they should till the unoccupied land and thereby increase the + national wealth, and that they should at the same time exercise a + civilising influence on the Russian peasantry in their vicinity. In this + latter respect they have totally failed to fulfil their mission. A Russian + village, situated in the midst of German colonies, shows generally, so far + as I could observe, no signs of German influence. Each nationality lives + more majorum, and holds as little communication as possible with the + other. The muzhik observes carefully—for he is very curious—the + mode of life of his more advanced neighbours, but he never thinks of + adopting it. He looks upon Germans almost as beings of a different world—as + a wonderfully cunning and ingenious people, who have been endowed by + Providence with peculiar qualities not possessed by ordinary Orthodox + humanity. To him it seems in the nature of things that Germans should live + in large, clean, well-built houses, in the same way as it is in the nature + of things that birds should build nests; and as it has probably never + occurred to a human being to build a nest for himself and his family, so + it never occurs to a Russian peasant to build a house on the German model. + Germans are Germans, and Russians are Russians—and there is nothing + more to be said on the subject. + </p> + <p> + This stubbornly conservative spirit of the peasantry who live in the + neighbourhood of Germans seems to give the lie direct to the oft-repeated + and universally believed assertion that Russians are an imitative people + strongly disposed to adopt the manners and customs of any foreigners with + whom they may come in contact. The Russian, it is said, changes his + nationality as easily as he changes his coat, and derives great + satisfaction from wearing some nationality that does not belong to him; + but here we have an important fact which appears to prove the contrary. + </p> + <p> + The truth is that in this matter we must distinguish between the Noblesse + and the peasantry. The nobles are singularly prone to adopt foreign + manners, customs, and institutions; the peasants, on the contrary, are as + a rule decidedly conservative. It must not, however, be supposed that this + proceeds from a difference of race; the difference is to be explained by + the past history of the two classes. Like all other peoples, the Russians + are strongly conservative so long as they remain in what may be termed + their primitive moral habitat—that is to say, so long as external + circumstances do not force them out of their accustomed traditional + groove. The Noblesse were long ago violently forced out of their old + groove by the reforming Tsars, and since that time they have been so + constantly driven hither and thither by foreign influences that they have + never been able to form a new one. Thus they easily enter upon any new + path which seems to them profitable or attractive. The great mass of the + people, on the contrary, too heavy to be thus lifted out of the guiding + influence of custom and tradition, are still animated with a strongly + conservative spirit. + </p> + <p> + In confirmation of this view I may mention two facts which have often + attracted my attention. The first is that the Molokanye—a primitive + Evangelical sect of which I shall speak at length in the next chapter—succumb + gradually to German influence; by becoming heretics in religion they free + themselves from one of the strongest bonds attaching them to the past, and + soon become heretics in things secular. The second fact is that even the + Orthodox peasant, when placed by circumstances in some new sphere of + activity, readily adopts whatever seems profitable. Take, for example, the + peasants who abandon agriculture and embark in industrial enterprises; + finding themselves, as it were, in a new world, in which their old + traditional notions are totally inapplicable, they have no hesitation in + adopting foreign ideas and foreign inventions. And when once they have + chosen this new path, they are much more "go-ahead" than the Germans. + Freed alike from the trammels of hereditary conceptions and from the + prudence which experience generates, they often give a loose rein to their + impulsive character, and enter freely on the wildest speculations. + </p> + <p> + The marked contrast presented by a German colony and a Russian village in + close proximity with each other is often used to illustrate the + superiority of the Teutonic over the Slavonic race, and in order to make + the contrast more striking, the Mennonite colonies are generally taken as + the representatives of the Germans. Without entering here on the general + question, I must say that this method of argumentation is scarcely fair. + The Mennonites, who formerly lived in the neighbourhood of Danzig and + emigrated from Prussia in order to escape the military conscription, + brought with them to their new home a large store of useful technical + knowledge and a considerable amount of capital, and they received a + quantity of land very much greater than the Russian peasants possess. + Besides this, they enjoyed until very recently several valuable + privileges. They were entirely exempted from military service and almost + entirely exempted from taxation. Altogether their lines fell in very + pleasant places. In material and moral well-being they stand as far above + the majority of the ordinary German colonists as these latter do above + their Russian neighbours. Even in the richest districts of Germany their + prosperity would attract attention. To compare these rich, privileged, + well-educated farmers with the poor, heavily taxed, uneducated peasantry, + and to draw from the comparison conclusions concerning the capabilities of + the two races, is a proceeding so absurd that it requires no further + comment. + </p> + <p> + To the wearied traveller who has been living for some time in Russian + villages, one of these Mennonite colonies seems an earthly paradise. In a + little hollow, perhaps by the side of a watercourse, he suddenly comes on + a long row of high-roofed houses half concealed in trees. The trees may be + found on closer inspection to be little better than mere saplings; but + after a long journey on the bare Steppe, where there is neither tree nor + bush of any kind, the foliage, scant as it is, appears singularly + inviting. The houses are large, well arranged, and kept in such thoroughly + good repair that they always appear to be newly built. The rooms are + plainly furnished, without any pretensions to elegance, but scrupulously + clean. Adjoining the house are the stable and byre, which would not + disgrace a model farm in Germany or England. In front is a spacious + courtyard, which has the appearance of being swept several times a day, + and behind there is a garden well stocked with vegetables. Fruit trees and + flowers are not very plentiful, for the climate is not favourable to them. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants are honest, frugal folk, somewhat sluggish of intellect + and indifferent to things lying beyond the narrow limits of their own + little world, but shrewd enough in all matters which they deem worthy of + their attention. If you arrive amongst them as a stranger you may be a + little chilled by the welcome you receive, for they are exclusive, + reserved, and distrustful, and do not much like to associate with those + who do not belong to their own sect; but if you can converse with them in + their mother tongue and talk about religious matters in an evangelical + tone, you may easily overcome their stiffness and exclusiveness. + Altogether such a village cannot be recommended for a lengthened sojourn, + for the severe order and symmetry which everywhere prevail would soon + prove irksome to any one having no Dutch blood in his veins;* but as a + temporary resting-place during a pilgrimage on the Steppe, when the + pilgrim is longing for a little cleanliness and comfort, it is very + agreeable. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Mennonites were originally Dutchmen. Persecuted for + their religious views in the sixteenth century, a large + number of them accepted an invitation to settle in West + Prussia, where they helped to drain the great marshes + between Danzig, Elbing, and Marienburg. Here in the course + of time they forgot their native language. Their emigration + to Russia began in 1789. +</pre> + <p> + The fact that these Mennonites and some other German colonies have + succeeded in rearing a few sickly trees has suggested to some fertile + minds the idea that the prevailing dryness of the climate, which is the + chief difficulty with which the agriculturist of that region has to + contend, might be to some extent counteracted by arboriculture on a large + scale. This scheme, though it has been seriously entertained by one of his + Majesty's ministers, must seem hardly practicable to any one who knows how + much labour and money the colonists have expended in creating that + agreeable shade which they love to enjoy in their leisure hours. If + climate is affected at all by the existence or non-existence of forests—a + point on which scientific men do not seem to be entirely agreed—any + palpable increase of the rainfall can be produced only by forests of + enormous extent, and it is hardly conceivable that these could be + artificially produced in Southern Russia. It is quite possible, however, + that local ameliorations may be effected. During a visit to the province + of Voronezh in 1903 I found that comparatively small plantations + diminished the effects of drought in their immediate vicinity by retaining + the moisture for a time in the soil and the surrounding atmosphere. + </p> + <p> + After the Mennonites and other Germans, the Bulgarian colonists deserve a + passing notice. They settled in this region much more recently, on the + land that was left vacant by the exodus of the Nogai Tartars after the + Crimean War. If I may judge of their condition by a mere flying visit, I + should say that in agriculture and domestic civilisation they are not very + far behind the majority of German colonists. Their houses are indeed small—so + small that one of them might almost be put into a single room of a + Mennonite's house; but there is an air of cleanliness and comfort about + them that would do credit to a German housewife. + </p> + <p> + In spite of all this, these Bulgarians were, I could easily perceive, by + no means delighted with their new home. The cause of their discontent, so + far as I could gather from the few laconic remarks which I extracted from + them, seemed to be this: Trusting to the highly coloured descriptions + furnished by the emigration agents who had induced them to change the rule + of the Sultan for the authority of the Tsar, they came to Russia with the + expectation of finding a fertile and beautiful Promised Land. Instead of a + land flowing with milk and honey, they received a tract of bare Steppe on + which even water could be obtained only with great difficulty—with + no shade to protect them from the heat of summer and nothing to shelter + them from the keen northern blasts that often sweep over those open + plains. As no adequate arrangements had been made for their reception, + they were quartered during the first winter on the German colonists, who, + being quite innocent of any Slavophil sympathies, were probably not very + hospitable to their uninvited guests. To complete their disappointment, + they found that they could not cultivate the vine, and that their mild, + fragrant tobacco, which is for them a necessary of life, could be obtained + only at a very high price. So disconsolate were they under this cruel + disenchantment that, at the time of my visit, they talked of returning to + their old homes in Turkey. + </p> + <p> + As an example of the less prosperous colonists, I may mention the + Tartar-speaking Greeks in the neighbourhood of Mariupol, on the northern + shore of the Sea of Azof. Their ancestors lived in the Crimea, under the + rule of the Tartar Khans, and emigrated to Russia in the time of Catherine + II., before Crim Tartary was annexed to the Russian Empire. They have + almost entirely forgotten their old language, but have preserved their old + faith. In adopting the Tartar language they have adopted something of + Tartar indolence and apathy, and the natural consequence is that they are + poor and ignorant. + </p> + <p> + But of all the colonists of this region the least prosperous are the Jews. + The Chosen People are certainly a most intelligent, industrious, frugal + race, and in all matters of buying, selling, and bartering they are + unrivalled among the nations of the earth, but they have been too long + accustomed to town life to be good tillers of the soil. These Jewish + colonies were founded as an experiment to see whether the Israelite could + be weaned from his traditionary pursuits and transferred to what some + economists call the productive section of society. The experiment has + failed, and the cause of the failure is not difficult to find. One has + merely to look at these men of gaunt visage and shambling gait, with their + loop-holed slippers, and black, threadbare coats reaching down to their + ankles, to understand that they are not in their proper sphere. Their + houses are in a most dilapidated condition, and their villages remind one + of the abomination of desolation spoken of by Daniel the Prophet. A great + part of their land is left uncultivated or let to colonists of a different + race. What little revenue they have is derived chiefly from trade of a + more or less clandestine nature.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Mr. Arnold White, who subsequently visited some of these + Jewish Colonies in connection with Baron Hirsch's + colonisation scheme, assured me that he found them in a much + more prosperous condition. +</pre> + <p> + As Scandinavia was formerly called officina gentium—a workshop in + which new nations were made—so we may regard Southern Russia as a + workshop in which fragments of old nations are being melted down to form a + new, composite whole. It must be confessed, however, that the melting + process has as yet scarcely begun. + </p> + <p> + National peculiarities are not obliterated so rapidly in Russia as in + America or in British colonies. Among the German colonists in Russia the + process of assimilation is hardly perceptible. Though their fathers and + grandfathers may have been born in the new country, they would consider it + an insult to be called Russians. They look down upon the Russian peasantry + as poor, ignorant, lazy, and dishonest, fear the officials on account of + their tyranny and extortion, preserve jealously their own language and + customs, rarely speak Russian well—sometimes not at all—and + never intermarry with those from whom they are separated by nationality + and religion. The Russian influence acts, however, more rapidly on the + Slavonic colonists—Servians, Bulgarians, Montenegrins—who + profess the Greek Orthodox faith, learn more easily the Russian language, + which is closely allied to their own, have no consciousness of belonging + to a Culturvolk, and in general possess a nature much more pliable than + the Teutonic. + </p> + <p> + The Government has recently attempted to accelerate the fusing process by + retracting the privileges granted to the colonists and abolishing the + peculiar administration under which they were placed. These measures—especially + the universal military service—may eventually diminish the extreme + exclusiveness of the Germans; the youths, whilst serving in the army, will + at least learn the Russian language, and may possibly imbibe something of + the Russian spirit. But for the present this new policy has aroused a + strong feeling of hostility and greatly intensified the spirit of + exclusiveness. In the German colonies I have often overheard complaints + about Russian tyranny and uncomplimentary remarks about the Russian + national character. + </p> + <p> + The Mennonites consider themselves specially aggrieved by the so-called + reforms. They came to Russia in order to escape military service and with + the distinct understanding that they should be exempted from it, and now + they are forced to act contrary to the religious tenets of their sect. + This is the ground of complaint which they put forward in the petitions + addressed to the Government, but they have at the same time another, and + perhaps more important, objection to the proposed changes. They feel, as + several of them admitted to me, that if the barrier which separates them + from the rest of the population were in any way broken down, they could no + longer preserve that stern Puritanical discipline which at present + constitutes their force. Hence, though the Government was disposed to make + important concessions, hundreds of families sold their property and + emigrated to America. The movement, however, did not become general. At + present the Russian Mennonites number, male and female, about 50,000, + divided into 160 colonies and possessing over 800,000 acres of land. + </p> + <p> + It is quite possible that under the new system of administration the + colonists who profess in common with the Russians the Greek Orthodox faith + may be rapidly Russianised; but I am convinced that the others will long + resist assimilation. Greek orthodoxy and Protestant sectarianism are so + radically different in spirit that their respective votaries are not + likely to intermarry; and without intermarriage it is impossible that the + two nationalities should blend. + </p> + <p> + As an instance of the ethnological curiosities which the traveller may + stumble upon unawares in this curious region, I may mention a strange + acquaintance I made when travelling on the great plain which stretches + from the Sea of Azof to the Caspian. One day I accidentally noticed on my + travelling-map the name "Shotlandskaya Koldniya" (Scottish Colony) near + the celebrated baths of Piatigorsk. I was at that moment in Stavropol, a + town about eighty miles to the north, and could not gain any satisfactory + information as to what this colony was. Some well-informed people assured + me that it really was what its name implied, whilst others asserted as + confidently that it was simply a small German settlement. To decide the + matter I determined to visit the place myself, though it did not lie near + my intended route, and I accordingly found myself one morning in the + village in question. The first inhabitants whom I encountered were + unmistakably German, and they professed to know nothing about the + existence of Scotsmen in the locality either at the present or in former + times. This was disappointing, and I was about to turn away and drive off, + when a young man, who proved to be the schoolmaster, came up, and on + hearing what I desired, advised me to consult an old Circassian who lived + at the end of the village and was well acquainted with local antiquities. + On proceeding to the house indicated, I found a venerable old man, with + fine, regular features of the Circassian type, coal-black sparkling eyes, + and a long grey beard that would have done honour to a patriarch. To him I + explained briefly, in Russian, the object of my visit, and asked whether + he knew of any Scotsmen in the district. + </p> + <p> + "And why do you wish to know?" he replied, in the same language, fixing me + with his keen, sparkling eyes. + </p> + <p> + "Because I am myself a Scotsman, and hoped to find fellow-countrymen + here." + </p> + <p> + Let the reader imagine my astonishment when, in reply to this, he + answered, in genuine broad Scotch, "Od, man, I'm a Scotsman tae! My name + is John Abercrombie. Did ye never hear tell o' John Abercrombie, the + famous Edinburgh doctor?" + </p> + <p> + I was fairly puzzled by this extraordinary declaration. Dr. Abercrombie's + name was familiar to me as that of a medical practitioner and writer on + psychology, but I knew that he was long since dead. When I had recovered a + little from my surprise, I ventured to remark to the enigmatical personage + before me that, though his tongue was certainly Scotch, his face was as + certainly Circassian. + </p> + <p> + "Weel, weel," he replied, evidently enjoying my look of mystification, + "you're no' far wrang. I'm a Circassian Scotsman!" + </p> + <p> + This extraordinary admission did not diminish my perplexity, so I begged + my new acquaintance to be a little more explicit, and he at once complied + with my request. His long story may be told in a few words: + </p> + <p> + In the first years of the present century a band of Scotch missionaries + came to Russia for the purpose of converting the Circassian tribes, and + received from the Emperor Alexander I. a large grant of land in this + place, which was then on the frontier of the Empire. Here they founded a + mission, and began the work; but they soon discovered that the surrounding + population were not idolaters, but Mussulmans, and consequently impervious + to Christianity. In this difficulty they fell on the happy idea of buying + Circassian children from their parents and bringing them up as Christians. + One of these children, purchased about the year 1806, was a little boy + called Teoona. As he had been purchased with money subscribed by Dr. + Abercrombie, he had received in baptism that gentleman's name, and he + considered himself the foster-son of his benefactor. Here was the + explanation of the mystery. + </p> + <p> + Teoona, alias Mr. Abercrombie, was a man of more than average + intelligence. Besides his native tongue, he spoke English, German, and + Russian perfectly; and he assured me that he knew several other languages + equally well. His life had been devoted to missionary work, and especially + to translating and printing the Scriptures. He had laboured first in + Astrakhan, then for four years and a half in Persia—in the service + of the Bale mission—and afterwards for six years in Siberia. + </p> + <p> + The Scottish mission was suppressed by the Emperor Nicholas about the year + 1835, and all the missionaries except two returned home. The son of one of + these two (Galloway) was the only genuine Scotsman remaining at the time + of my visit. Of the "Circassian Scotsmen" there were several, most of whom + had married Germans. The other inhabitants were German colonists from the + province of Saratof, and German was the language commonly spoken in the + village. + </p> + <p> + After hearing so much about foreign colonists, Tartar invaders, and + Finnish aborigines, the reader may naturally desire to know the numerical + strength of this foreign element. Unfortunately we have no accurate data + on this subject, but from a careful examination of the available + statistics I am inclined to conclude that it constitutes about one-sixth + of the population of European Russia, including Poland, Finland, and the + Caucasus, and nearly a third of the population of the Empire as a whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII + </h2> + <h3> + AMONG THE HERETICS + </h3> + <p> + The Molokanye—My Method of Investigation—Alexandrof-Hai—An + Unexpected Theological Discussion—Doctrines and Ecclesiastical + Organisation of the Molokanye—Moral Supervision and Mutual + Assistance—History of the Sect—A False Prophet—Utilitarian + Christianity—Classification of the Fantastic Sects—The + "Khlysti"—Policy of the Government towards Sectarianism—Two + Kinds of Heresy—Probable Future of the Heretical Sects—Political + Disaffection. + </p> + <p> + Whilst travelling on the Steppe I heard a great deal about a peculiar + religious sect called the Molokanye, and I felt interested in them because + their religious belief, whatever it was, seemed to have a beneficial + influence on their material welfare. Of the same race and placed in the + same conditions as the Orthodox peasantry around them, they were + undoubtedly better housed, better clad, more punctual in the payment of + their taxes, and, in a word, more prosperous. All my informants agreed in + describing them as quiet, decent, sober people; but regarding their + religious doctrines the evidence was vague and contradictory. Some + described them as Protestants or Lutherans, whilst others believed them to + be the last remnants of a curious heretical sect which existed in the + early Christian Church. + </p> + <p> + Desirous of obtaining clear notions on the subject, I determined to + investigate the matter for myself. At first I found this to be no easy + task. In the villages through which I passed I found numerous members of + the sect, but they all showed a decided repugnance to speak about their + religious beliefs. Long accustomed to extortion and persecution at the + hands of the Administration, and suspecting me to be a secret agent of the + Government, they carefully avoided speaking on any subject beyond the + state of the weather and the prospects of the harvest, and replied to my + questions on other topics as if they had been standing before a Grand + Inquisitor. + </p> + <p> + A few unsuccessful attempts convinced me that it would be impossible to + extract from them their religious beliefs by direct questioning. I + adopted, therefore, a different system of tactics. From meagre replies + already received I had discovered that their doctrine had at least a + superficial resemblance to Presbyterianism, and from former experience I + was aware that the curiosity of intelligent Russian peasants is easily + excited by descriptions of foreign countries. On these two facts I based + my plan of campaign. When I found a Molokan, or some one whom I suspected + to be such, I talked for some time about the weather and the crops, as if + I had no ulterior object in view. Having fully discussed this matter, I + led the conversation gradually from the weather and crops in Russia to the + weather and crops in Scotland, and then passed slowly from Scotch + agriculture to the Scotch Presbyterian Church. On nearly every occasion + this policy succeeded. When the peasant heard that there was a country + where the people interpreted the Scriptures for themselves, had no + bishops, and considered the veneration of Icons as idolatry, he invariably + listened with profound attention; and when he learned further that in that + wonderful country the parishes annually sent deputies to an assembly in + which all matters pertaining to the Church were freely and publicly + discussed, he almost always gave free expression to his astonishment, and + I had to answer a whole volley of questions. "Where is that country?" "Is + it to the east, or the west?" "Is it very far away?" "If our Presbyter + could only hear all that!" + </p> + <p> + This last expression was precisely what I wanted, because it gave me an + opportunity of making the acquaintance of the Presbyter, or pastor, + without seeming to desire it; and I knew that a conversation with that + personage, who is always an uneducated peasant like the others, but is + generally more intelligent and better acquainted with religious doctrine, + would certainly be of use to me. On more than one occasion I spent a great + part of the night with a Presbyter, and thereby learned much concerning + the religious beliefs and practices of the sect. After these interviews I + was sure to be treated with confidence and respect by all the Molokanye in + the village, and recommended to the brethren of the faith in the + neighbouring villages through which I intended to pass. Several of the + more intelligent peasants with whom I spoke advised me strongly to visit + Alexandrof-Hai, a village situated on the borders of the Kirghiz Steppe. + "We are dark [i.e., ignorant] people here," they were wont to say, "and do + not know anything, but in Alexandrof-Hai you will find those who know the + faith, and they will discuss with you." This prediction was fulfilled in a + somewhat unexpected way. + </p> + <p> + When returning some weeks later from a visit to the Kirghiz of the Inner + Horde, I arrived one evening at this centre of the Molokan faith, and was + hospitably received by one of the brotherhood. In conversing casually with + my host on religious subjects I expressed to him a desire to find some one + well read in Holy Writ and well grounded in the faith, and he promised to + do what he could for me in this respect. Next morning he kept his promise + with a vengeance. Immediately after the tea-urn had been removed the door + of the room was opened and twelve peasants were ushered in! After the + customary salutations with these unexpected visitors, my host informed me + to my astonishment that his friends had come to have a talk with me about + the faith; and without further ceremony he placed before me a folio Bible + in the old Slavonic tongue, in order that I might read passages in support + of my arguments. As I was not at all prepared to open a formal theological + discussion, I felt not a little embarrassed, and I could see that my + travelling companions, two Russian friends who cared for none of these + things, were thoroughly enjoying my discomfiture. There was, however, no + possibility of drawing back. I had asked for an opportunity of having a + talk with some of the brethren, and now I had got it in a way that I + certainly did not expect. My friends withdrew—"leaving me to my + fate," as they whispered to me—and the "talk" began. + </p> + <p> + My fate was by no means so terrible as had been anticipated, but at first + the situation was a little awkward. Neither party had any clear ideas as + to what the other desired, and my visitors expected that I was to begin + the proceedings. This expectation was quite natural and justifiable, for I + had inadvertently invited them to meet me, but I could not make a speech + to them, for the best of all reasons—that I did not know what to + say. If I told them my real aims, their suspicions would probably be + aroused. My usual stratagem of the weather and the crops was wholly + inapplicable. For a moment I thought of proposing that a psalm should be + sung as a means of breaking the ice, but I felt that this would give to + the meeting a solemnity which I wished to avoid. On the whole it seemed + best to begin at once a formal discussion. I told them, therefore, that I + had spoken with many of their brethren in various villages, and that I had + found what I considered grave errors of doctrine. I could not, for + instance, agree with them in their belief that it was unlawful to eat + pork. This was perhaps an abrupt way of entering on the subject, but it + furnished at least a locus standi—something to talk about—and + an animated discussion immediately ensued. My opponents first endeavoured + to prove their thesis from the New Testament, and when this argument broke + down they had recourse to the Pentateuch. From a particular article of the + ceremonial law we passed to the broader question as to how far the + ceremonial law is still binding, and from this to other points equally + important. + </p> + <p> + If the logic of the peasants was not always unimpeachable, their knowledge + of the Scriptures left nothing to be desired. In support of their views + they quoted long passages from memory, and whenever I indicated vaguely + any text which I needed, they at once supplied it verbatim, so that the + big folio Bible served merely as an ornament. Three or four of them seemed + to know the whole of the New Testament by heart. The course of our + informal debate need not here be described; suffice it to say that, after + four hours of uninterrupted conversation, we agreed to differ on questions + of detail, and parted from each other without a trace of that ill-feeling + which religious discussion commonly engenders. Never have I met men more + honest and courteous in debate, more earnest in the search after truth, + more careless of dialectical triumphs, than these simple, uneducated + muzhiks. If at one or two points in the discussion a little undue warmth + was displayed, I must do my opponents the justice to say that they were + not the offending party. + </p> + <p> + This long discussion, as well as numerous discussions which I had had + before and since have had with Molokanye in various parts of the country, + confirmed my first impression that their doctrines have a strong + resemblance to Presbyterianism. There is, however, an important + difference. Presbyterianism has an ecclesiastical organisation and a + written creed, and its doctrines have long since become clearly defined by + means of public discussion, polemical literature, and general assemblies. + The Molokanye, on the contrary, have had no means of developing their + fundamental principles and forming their vague religious beliefs into a + clearly defined logical system. Their theology is therefore still in a + half-fluid state, so that it is impossible to predict what form it will + ultimately assume. "We have not yet thought about that," I have frequently + been told when I inquired about some abstruse doctrine; "we must talk + about it at the meeting next Sunday. What is your opinion?" Besides this, + their fundamental principles allow great latitude for individual and local + differences of opinion. They hold that Holy Writ is the only rule of faith + and conduct, but that it must be taken in the spiritual, and not in the + literal, sense. As there is no terrestrial authority to which doubtful + points can be referred, each individual is free to adopt the + interpretation which commends itself to his own judgment. This will no + doubt ultimately lead to a variety of sects, and already there is a + considerable diversity of opinion between different communities; but this + diversity has not yet been recognised, and I may say that I nowhere found + that fanatically dogmatic, quibbling spirit which is usually the soul of + sectarianism. + </p> + <p> + For their ecclesiastical organisation the Molokanye take as their model + the early Apostolic Church, as depicted in the New Testament, and + uncompromisingly reject all later authorities. In accordance with this + model they have no hierarchy and no paid clergy, but choose from among + themselves a Presbyter and two assistants—men well known among the + brethren for their exemplary life and their knowledge of the Scriptures—whose + duty it is to watch over the religious and moral welfare of the flock. On + Sundays they hold meetings in private houses—they are not allowed to + build churches—and spend two or three hours in psalm singing, + prayer, reading the Scriptures, and friendly conversation on religious + subjects. If any one has a doctrinal difficulty which he desires to have + cleared up, he states it to the congregation, and some of the others give + their opinions, with the texts on which the opinions are founded. If the + question seems clearly solved by the texts, it is decided; if not, it is + left open. + </p> + <p> + As in many young sects, there exists among the Molokanye a system of + severe moral supervision. If a member has been guilty of drunkenness or + any act unbecoming a Christian, he is first admonished by the Presbyter in + private or before the congregation; and if this does not produce the + desired effect, he is excluded for a longer or shorter period from the + meetings and from all intercourse with the members. In extreme cases + expulsion is resorted to. On the other hand, if any one of the members + happens to be, from no fault of his own, in pecuniary difficulties, the + others will assist him. This system of mutual control and mutual + assistance has no doubt something to do with the fact that the Molokanye + are distinguished from the surrounding population by their sobriety, + uprightness, and material prosperity. + </p> + <p> + Of the history of the sect my friends in Alexandrof-Hai could tell me very + little, but I have obtained from other quarters some interesting + information. The founder was a peasant of the province of Tambof called + Uklein, who lived in the reign of Catherine II., and gained his living as + an itinerant tailor. For some time he belonged to the sect of the + Dukhobortsi—who are sometimes called the Russian Quakers, and who + have recently become known in Western Europe through the efforts of Count + Tolstoy on their behalf—but he soon seceded from them, because he + could not admit their doctrine that God dwells in the human soul, and that + consequently the chief source of religious truth is internal + enlightenment. To him it seemed that religious truth was to be found only + in the Scriptures. With this doctrine he soon made many converts, and one + day he unexpectedly entered the town of Tambof, surrounded by seventy + "Apostles" chanting psalms. They were all quickly arrested and imprisoned, + and when the affair was reported to St. Petersburg the Empress Catherine + ordered that they should be handed over to the ecclesiastical authorities, + and that in the event of their proving obdurate to exhortation they should + be tried by the Criminal Courts. Uklein professed to recant, and was + liberated; but he continued his teaching secretly in the villages, and at + the time of his death he was believed to have no less than five thousand + followers. + </p> + <p> + As to the actual strength of the sect it is difficult to form even a + conjecture. Certainly it has many thousand members—probably several + hundred thousand. Formerly the Government transported them from the + central provinces to the thinly populated outlying districts, where they + had less opportunity of contaminating Orthodox neighbours; and accordingly + we find them in the southeastern districts of Samara, on the north coast + of the Sea of Azof, in the Crimea, in the Caucasus, and in Siberia. There + are still, however, very many of them in the central region, especially in + the province of Tambof. + </p> + <p> + The readiness with which the Molokanye modify their opinions and beliefs + in accordance with what seems to them new light saves them effectually + from bigotry and fanaticism, but it at the same time exposes them to evils + of a different kind, from which they might be preserved by a few stubborn + prejudices. "False prophets arise among us," said an old, sober-minded + member to me on one occasion, "and lead many away from the faith." + </p> + <p> + In 1835, for example, great excitement was produced among them by rumours + that the second advent of Christ was at hand, and that the Son of Man, + coming to judge the world, was about to appear in the New Jerusalem, + somewhere near Mount Ararat. As Elijah and Enoch were to appear before the + opening of the Millennium, they were anxiously awaited by the faithful, + and at last Elijah appeared, in the person of a Melitopol peasant called + Belozvorof, who announced that on a given day he would ascend into heaven. + On the day appointed a great crowd collected, but he failed to keep his + promise, and was handed over to the police as an impostor by the Molokanye + themselves. Unfortunately they were not always so sensible as on that + occasion. In the very next year many of them were persuaded by a certain + Lukian Petrof to put on their best garments and start for the Promised + Land in the Caucasus, where the Millennium was about to begin. + </p> + <p> + Of these false prophets the most remarkable in recent times was a man who + called himself Ivan Grigorief, a mysterious personage who had at one time + a Turkish and at another an American passport, but who seemed in all other + respects a genuine Russian. Some years previously to my visit he appeared + at Alexandrof-Hai. Though he professed himself to be a good Molokan and + was received as such, he enounced at the weekly meetings many new and + startling ideas. At first he simply urged his hearers to live like the + early Christians, and have all things in common. This seemed sound + doctrine to the Molokanye, who profess to take the early Christians as + their model, and some of them thought of at once abolishing personal + property; but when the teacher intimated pretty plainly that this + communism should include free love, a decided opposition arose, and it was + objected that the early Church did not recommend wholesale adultery and + cognate sins. This was a formidable objection, but "the prophet" was equal + to the occasion. He reminded his friends that in accordance with their own + doctrine the Scriptures should be understood, not in the literal, but in + the spiritual, sense—that Christianity had made men free, and every + true Christian ought to use his freedom. + </p> + <p> + This account of the new doctrine was given to me by an intelligent + Molokan, who had formerly been a peasant and was now a trader, as I sat + one evening in his house in Novo-usensk, the chief town of the district in + which Alexandrof-Hai is situated. It seemed to me that the author of this + ingenious attempt to conciliate Christianity with extreme Utilitarianism + must be an educated man in disguise. This conviction I communicated to my + host, but he did not agree with me. + </p> + <p> + "No, I think not," he replied; "in fact, I am sure he is a peasant, and I + strongly suspect he was at some time a soldier. He has not much learning, + but he has a wonderful gift of talking; never have I heard any one speak + like him. He would have talked over the whole village, had it not been for + an old man who was more than a match for him. And then he went to + Orloff-Hai and there he did talk the people over." What he really did in + this latter place I never could clearly ascertain. Report said that he + founded a communistic association, of which he was himself president and + treasurer, and converted the members to an extraordinary theory of + prophetic succession, invented apparently for his own sensual + gratification. For further information my host advised me to apply either + to the prophet himself, who was at that time confined in the gaol on a + charge of using a forged passport, or to one of his friends, a certain Mr. + I——, who lived in the town. As it was a difficult matter to + gain admittance to the prisoner, and I had little time at my disposal, I + adopted the latter alternative. + </p> + <p> + Mr. I—— was himself a somewhat curious character. He had been + a student in Moscow, and in consequence of some youthful indiscretions + during the University disturbances had been exiled to this place. After + waiting in vain some years for a release, he gave up the idea of entering + one of the learned professions, married a peasant girl, rented a piece of + land, bought a pair of camels, and settled down as a small farmer.* He had + a great deal to tell about the prophet. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Here for the first time I saw camels used for agricultural + purposes. When yoked to a small four-wheeled cart, the + "ships of the desert" seemed decidedly out of place. +</pre> + <p> + Grigorief, it seemed, was really simply a Russian peasant, but he had been + from his youth upwards one of those restless people who can never long + work in harness. Where his native place was, and why he left it, he never + divulged, for reasons best known to himself. He had travelled much, and + had been an attentive observer. Whether he had ever been in America was + doubtful, but he had certainly been in Turkey, and had fraternised with + various Russian sectarians, who are to be found in considerable numbers + near the Danube. Here, probably, he acquired many of his peculiar + religious ideas, and conceived his grand scheme of founding a new religion—of + rivalling the Founder of Christianity! He aimed at nothing less than this, + as he on one occasion confessed, and he did not see why he should not be + successful. He believed that the Founder of Christianity had been simply a + man like himself, who understood better than others the people around him + and the circumstances of the time, and he was convinced that he himself + had these qualifications. One qualification, however, for becoming a + prophet he certainly did not possess: he had no genuine religious + enthusiasm in him—nothing of the martyr spirit about him. Much of + his own preaching he did not himself believe, and he had a secret contempt + for those who naively accepted it all. Not only was he cunning, but he + knew he was cunning, and he was conscious that he was playing an assumed + part. And yet perhaps it would be unjust to say that he was merely an + impostor exclusively occupied with his own personal advantage. Though he + was naturally a man of sensual tastes, and could not resist convenient + opportunities of gratifying them, he seemed to believe that his + communistic schemes would, if realised, be beneficial not only to himself, + but also to the people. Altogether a curious mixture of the prophet, the + social reformer, and the cunning impostor! + </p> + <p> + Besides the Molokanye, there are in Russia many other heretical sects. + Some of them are simply Evangelical Protestants, like the Stundisti, who + have adopted the religious conceptions of their neighbours, the German + colonists; whilst others are composed of wild enthusiasts, who give a + loose rein to their excited imagination, and revel in what the Germans + aptly term "der hohere Blodsinn." I cannot here attempt to convey even a + general idea of these fantastic sects with their doctrinal and ceremonial + absurdities, but I may offer the following classification of them for the + benefit of those who may desire to study the subject: + </p> + <p> + 1. Sects which take the Scriptures as the basis of their belief, but + interpret and complete the doctrines therein contained by means of the + occasional inspiration or internal enlightenment of their leading members. + </p> + <p> + 2. Sects which reject interpretation and insist on certain passages of + Scripture being taken in the literal sense. In one of the best known of + these sects—the Skoptsi, or Eunuchs—fanaticism has led to + physical mutilation. + </p> + <p> + 3. Sects which pay little or no attention to Scripture, and derive their + doctrine from the supposed inspiration of their living teachers. + </p> + <p> + 4. Sects which believe in the re-incarnation of Christ. + </p> + <p> + 5. Sects which confound religion with nervous excitement, and are more or + less erotic in their character. The excitement necessary for prophesying + is commonly produced by dancing, jumping, pirouetting, or + self-castigation; and the absurdities spoken at such times are regarded as + the direct expression of divine wisdom. The religious exercises resemble + more or less closely those of the "dancing dervishes" and "howling + dervishes's" with which all who have visited Constantinople are familiar. + There is, however, one important difference: the dervishes practice their + religious exercises in public, and consequently observe a certain decorum, + whilst these Russian sects assemble in secret, and give free scope to + their excitement, so that most disgusting orgies sometimes take place at + their meetings. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate the general character of the sects belonging to this last + category, I may quote here a short extract from a description of the + "Khlysti" by one who was initiated into their mysteries: "Among them men + and women alike take upon themselves the calling of teachers and prophets, + and in this character they lead a strict, ascetic life, refrain from the + most ordinary and innocent pleasures, exhaust themselves by long fasting + and wild, ecstatic religious exercises, and abhor marriage. Under the + excitement caused by their supposed holiness and inspiration, they call + themselves not only teachers and prophets, but also 'Saviours,' + 'Redeemers,' 'Christs,' 'Mothers of God.' Generally speaking, they call + themselves simply Gods, and pray to each other as to real Gods and living + Christs or Madonnas. When several of these teachers come together at a + meeting, they dispute with each other in a vain boasting way as to which + of them possesses most grace and power. In this rivalry they sometimes + give each other lusty blows on the ear, and he who bears the blows most + patiently, turning the other cheek to the smiter, acquires the reputation + of having most holiness." + </p> + <p> + Another sect belonging to this category is the Jumpers, among whom the + erotic element is disagreeably prominent. Here is a description of their + religious meetings, which are held during summer in the forest, and during + winter in some out-house or barn: "After due preparation prayers are read + by the chief teacher, dressed in a white robe and standing in the midst of + the congregation. At first he reads in an ordinary tone of voice, and then + passes gradually into a merry chant. When he remarks that the chanting has + sufficiently acted on the hearers, he begins to jump. The hearers, singing + likewise, follow his example. Their ever-increasing excitement finds + expression in the highest possible jumps. This they continue as long as + they can—men and women alike yelling like enraged savages. When all + are thoroughly exhausted, the leader declares that he hears the angels + singing"—and then begins a scene which cannot be here described. + </p> + <p> + It is but fair to add that we know very little of these peculiar sects, + and what we do know is furnished by avowed enemies. It is very possible, + therefore, that some of them are not nearly so absurd as they are commonly + represented, and that many of the stories told are mere calumnies. + </p> + <p> + The Government is very hostile to sectarianism, and occasionally + endeavours to suppress it. This is natural enough as regards these + fantastic sects, but it seems strange that the peaceful, industrious, + honest Molokanye and Stundisti should be put under the ban. Why is it that + a Russian peasant should be punished for holding doctrines which are + openly professed, with the sanction of the authorities, by his neighbours, + the German colonists? + </p> + <p> + To understand this the reader must know that according to Russian + conceptions there are two distinct kinds of heresy, distinguished from + each other, not by the doctrines held, but by the nationality of the + holder, it seems to a Russian in the nature of things that Tartars should + be Mahometans, that Poles should be Roman Catholics, and that Germans + should be Protestants; and the mere act of becoming a Russian subject is + not supposed to lay the Tartar, the Pole, or the German under any + obligation to change his faith. These nationalities are therefore allowed + the most perfect freedom in the exercise of their respective religions, so + long as they refrain from disturbing by propagandism the divinely + established order of things. + </p> + <p> + This is the received theory, and we must do the Russians the justice to + say that they habitually act up to it. If the Government has sometimes + attempted to convert alien races, the motive has always been political, + and the efforts have never awakened much sympathy among the people at + large, or even among the clergy. In like manner the missionary societies + which have sometimes been formed in imitation of the Western nations have + never received much popular support. Thus with regard to aliens this + peculiar theory has led to very extensive religious toleration. With + regard to the Russians themselves the theory has had a very different + effect. If in the nature of things the Tartar is a Mahometan, the Pole a + Roman Catholic, and the German a Protestant, it is equally in the nature + of things that the Russian should be a member of the Orthodox Church. On + this point the written law and public opinion are in perfect accord. If an + Orthodox Russian becomes a Roman Catholic or a Protestant, he is amenable + to the criminal law, and is at the same time condemned by public opinion + as an apostate and renegade—almost as a traitor. + </p> + <p> + As to the future of these heretical sects it is impossible to speak with + confidence. The more gross and fantastic will probably disappear as + primary education spreads among the people; but the Protestant sects seem + to possess much more vitality. For the present, at least, they are rapidly + spreading. I have seen large villages where, according to the testimony of + the inhabitants, there was not a single heretic fifteen years before, and + where one-half of the population had already become Molokanye; and this + change, be it remarked, had taken place without any propagandist + organisation. The civil and ecclesiastical authorities were well aware of + the existence of the movement, but they were powerless to prevent it. The + few efforts which they made were without effect, or worse than useless. + Among the Stundisti corporal punishment was tried as an antidote—without + the concurrence, it is to be hoped, of the central authorities—and + to the Molokanye of the province of Samara a learned monk was sent in the + hope of converting them from their errors by reason and eloquence. What + effect the birch-twigs had on the religious convictions of the Stundisti I + have not been able to ascertain, but I assume that they were not very + efficacious, for according to the latest accounts the numbers of the sect + are increasing. Of the mission in the province of Samara I happen to know + more, and can state on the evidence of many peasants—some of them + Orthodox—that the only immediate effect was to stir up religious + fanaticism, and to induce a certain number of Orthodox to go over to the + heretical camp. + </p> + <p> + In their public discussions the disputants could find no common ground on + which to argue, for the simple reason that their fundamental conceptions + were different. The monk spoke of the Church as the terrestrial + representative of Christ and the sole possessor of truth, whilst his + opponents knew nothing of a Church in this sense, and held simply that all + men should live in accordance with the dictates of Scripture. Once the + monk consented to argue with them on their own ground, and on that + occasion he sustained a signal defeat, for he could not produce a single + passage recommending the veneration of Icons—a practice which the + Russian peasants consider an essential part of Orthodoxy. After this he + always insisted on the authority of the early Ecumenical Councils and the + Fathers of the Church—an authority which his antagonists did not + recognise. Altogether the mission was a complete failure, and all parties + regretted that it had been undertaken. "It was a great mistake," remarked + to me confidentially an Orthodox peasant; "a very great mistake. The + Molokanye are a cunning people. The monk was no match for them; they knew + the Scriptures a great deal better than he did. The Church should not + condescend to discuss with heretics." + </p> + <p> + It is often said that these heretical sects are politically disaffected, + and the Molokanye are thought to be specially dangerous in this respect. + Perhaps there is a certain foundation for this opinion, for men are + naturally disposed to doubt the legitimacy of a power that systematically + persecutes them. With regard to the Molokanye, I believe the accusation to + be a groundless calumny. Political ideas seemed entirely foreign to their + modes of thought. During my intercourse with them I often heard them refer + to the police as "wolves which have to be fed," but I never heard them + speak of the Emperor otherwise than in terms of filial affection and + veneration. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE DISSENTERS + </h3> + <p> + Dissenters not to be Confounded with Heretics—Extreme Importance + Attached to Ritual Observances—The Raskol, or Great Schism in the + Seventeenth Century—Antichrist Appears!—Policy of Peter the + Great and Catherine II.—Present Ingenious Method of Securing + Religious Toleration—Internal Development of the Raskol—Schism + among the Schismatics—The Old Ritualists—The Priestless People—Cooling + of the Fanatical Enthusiasm and Formation of New Sects—Recent Policy + of the Government towards the Sectarians—Numerical Force and + Political Significance of Sectarianism. + </p> + <p> + We must be careful not to confound those heretical sects, Protestant and + fantastical, of which I have spoken in the preceding chapter, with the + more numerous Dissenters or Schismatics, the descendants of those who + seceded from the Russian Church—or more correctly from whom the + Russian Church seceded—in the seventeenth century. So far from + regarding themselves as heretics, these latter consider themselves more + orthodox than the official Orthodox Church. They are conservatives, too, + in the social as well as the religious sense of the term. Among them are + to be found the last remnants of old Russian life, untinged by foreign + influences. + </p> + <p> + The Russian Church, as I have already had occasion to remark, has always + paid inordinate attention to ceremonial observances and somewhat neglected + the doctrinal and moral elements of the faith which it professes. This + peculiarity greatly facilitated the spread of its influence among a people + accustomed to pagan rites and magical incantations, but it had the + pernicious effect of confirming in the new converts their superstitious + belief in the virtue of mere ceremonies. Thus the Russians became zealous + Christians in all matters of external observance, without knowing much + about the spiritual meaning of the rites which they practised. They looked + upon the rites and sacraments as mysterious charms which preserved them + from evil influences in the present life and secured them eternal felicity + in the life to come, and they believed that these charms would inevitably + lose their efficacy if modified in the slightest degree. Extreme + importance was therefore attached to the ritual minutiae, and the + slightest modification of these minutiae assumed the importance of an + historical event. In the year 1476, for instance, the Novgorodian + Chronicler gravely relates: + </p> + <p> + "This winter some philosophers (!) began to sing, 'O Lord, have mercy,' + and others merely, 'Lord, have mercy.'" And this attaching of enormous + importance to trifles was not confined to the ignorant multitude. An + Archbishop of Novgorod declared solemnly that those who repeat the word + "Alleluia" only twice at certain points in the liturgy "sing to their own + damnation," and a celebrated Ecclesiastical Council, held in 1551, put + such matters as the position of the fingers when making the sign of the + cross on the same level as heresies—formally anathematising those + who acted in such trifles contrary to its decisions. + </p> + <p> + This conservative spirit in religious concerns had a considerable + influence on social life. As there was no clear line of demarcation + between religious observances and simple traditional customs, the most + ordinary act might receive a religious significance, and the slightest + departure from a traditional custom might be looked upon as a deadly sin. + A Russian of the olden time would have resisted the attempt to deprive him + of his beard as strenuously as a Calvinist of the present day would resist + the attempt to make him abjure the doctrine of Predestination—and + both for the same reason. As the doctrine of Predestination is for the + Calvinist, so the wearing of a beard was for the old Russian—an + essential of salvation. "Where," asked one of the Patriarchs of Moscow, + "will those who shave their chins stand at the Last Day?—among the + righteous adorned with beards, or among the beardless heretics?" The + question required no answer. + </p> + <p> + In the seventeenth century this superstitious, conservative spirit reached + its climax. The civil wars and foreign invasions, accompanied by pillage, + famine, and plagues with which that century opened, produced a wide-spread + conviction that the end of all things was at hand. The mysterious number + of the Beast was found to indicate the year 1666, and timid souls began to + discover signs of that falling away from the Faith which is spoken of in + the Apocalypse. The majority of the people did not perhaps share this + notion, but they believed that the sufferings with which they had been + visited were a Divine punishment for having forsaken the ancient customs. + And it could not be denied that considerable changes had taken place. + Orthodox Russia was now tainted with the presence of heretics. Foreigners + who shaved their chins and smoked the accursed weed had been allowed to + settle in Moscow, and the Tsars not only held converse with them, but had + even adopted some of their "pagan" practises. Besides this, the Government + had introduced innovations and reforms, many of which were displeasing to + the people. In short, the country was polluted with "heresy"—a + subtle, evil influence lurking in everything foreign, and very dangerous + to the spiritual and temporal welfare of the Faithful—something of + the nature of an epidemic, but infinitely more dangerous; for disease + kills merely the body, whereas "heresy" kills the soul, and causes both + soul and body to be cast into hell-fire. + </p> + <p> + Had the Government introduced the innovations slowly and cautiously, + respecting as far as possible all outward forms, it might have effected + much without producing a religious panic; but, instead of acting + circumspectly as the occasion demanded, it ran full-tilt against the + ancient prejudices and superstitious fears, and drove the people into open + resistance. When the art of printing was introduced, it became necessary + to choose the best texts of the Liturgy, Psalter, and other religious + books, and on examination it was found that, through the ignorance and + carelessness of copyists, numerous errors had crept into the manuscripts + in use. This discovery led to further investigation, which showed that + certain irregularities had likewise crept into the ceremonial. The chief + of the clerical errors lay in the orthography of the word "Jesus," and the + chief irregularity in the ceremonial regarded the position of the fingers + when making the sign of the cross. + </p> + <p> + To correct these errors the celebrated Nikon, who was Patriarch in the + time of Tsar Alexis, father of Peter the Great, ordered all the old + liturgical books and the old Icons to be called in, and new ones to be + distributed; but the clergy and the people resisted. Believing these + "Nikonian novelties" to be heretical, they clung to their old Icons, their + old missals and their old religious customs as the sole anchors of safety + which could save the Faithful from drifting to perdition. In vain the + Patriarch assured the people that the change was a return to the ancient + forms still preserved in Greece and Constantinople. "The Greek Church," it + was replied, "is no longer free from heresy. Orthodoxy has become + many-coloured from the violence of the Turkish Mahomet; and the Greeks, + under the sons of Hagar, have fallen away from the ancient traditions." + </p> + <p> + An anathema, formally pronounced by an Ecclesiastical Council against + these Nonconformists, had no more effect than the admonitions of the + Patriarch. They persevered in their obstinacy, and refused to believe that + the blessed saints and holy martyrs who had used the ancient forms had not + prayed and crossed themselves aright. "Not those holy men of old, but the + present Patriarch and his counsellors must be heretics." "Woe to us! Woe + to us!" cried the monks of Solovetsk when they received the new Liturgies. + "What have you done with the Son of God? Give him back to us! You have + changed Isus [the old Russian form of Jesus] into Iisus! It is fearful not + only to commit such a sin, but even to think of it!" And the sturdy monks + shut their gates, and defied Patriarch, Council, and Tsar for seven long + years, till the monastery was taken by an armed force. + </p> + <p> + The decree of excommunication pronounced by the Ecclesiastical Council + placed the Nonconformists beyond the pale of the Church, and the civil + power undertook the task of persecuting them. Persecution had of course + merely the effect of confirming the victims in their belief that the + Church and the Tsar had become heretical. Thousands fled across the + frontier and settled in the neighbouring countries—Poland, Russia, + Sweden, Austria, Turkey, the Caucasus, and Siberia. Others concealed + themselves in the northern forests and the densely wooded region near the + Polish frontier, where they lived by agriculture or fishing, and prayed, + crossed themselves and buried their dead according to the customs of their + forefathers. The northern forests were their favourite place of refuge. + Hither flocked many of those who wished to keep themselves pure and + undefiled. Here the more learned men among the Nonconformists—well + acquainted with Holy Writ, with fragmentary translations from the Greek + Fathers, and with the more important decisions of the early Ecumenical + Councils—wrote polemical and edifying works for the confounding of + heretics and the confirming of true believers. Hence were sent out in all + directions zealous missionaries, in the guise of traders, peddlers, and + labourers, to sow what they called the living seed, and what the official + Church termed "Satan's tares." When the Government agents discovered these + retreats, the inmates generally fled from the "ravenous wolves"; but on + more than one occasion a large number of fanatical men and women, shutting + themselves up, set fire to their houses, and voluntarily perished in the + flames. In Paleostrofski Monastery, for instance, in the year 1687, no + less than 2,700 fanatics gained the crown of martyrdom in this way; and + many similar instances are on record.* As in all periods of religious + panic, the Apocalypse was carefully studied, and the Millennial ideas + rapidly spread. The signs of the time were plain: Satan was being let + loose for a little season. Men anxiously looked for the reappearance of + Antichrist—and Antichrist appeared! + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A list of well-authenticated cases is given by Nilski, + "Semeinaya zhizn v russkom Raskole," St. Petersburg, 1869; + part I., pp. 55-57. The number of these self-immolators + certainly amounted to many thousands. +</pre> + <p> + The man in whom the people recognised the incarnate spirit of evil was no + other than Peter the Great. + </p> + <p> + From the Nonconformist point of view, Peter had very strong claims to be + considered Antichrist. He had none of the staid, pious demeanour of the + old Tsars, and showed no respect for many things which were venerated by + the people. He ate, drank, and habitually associated with heretics, spoke + their language, wore their costume, chose from among them his most + intimate friends, and favoured them more than his own people. Imagine the + horror and commotion which would be produced among pious Catholics if the + Pope should some day appear in the costume of the Grand Turk, and should + choose Pashas as his chief counsellors! The horror which Peter's conduct + produced among a large section of his subjects was not less great. They + could not explain it otherwise than by supposing him to be the Devil in + disguise, and they saw in all his important measures convincing proofs of + his Satanic origin. The newly invented census, or "revision," was a + profane "numbering of the people," and an attempt to enrol in the service + of Beëlzebub those whose names were written in the Lamb's Book of Life. + The new title of Imperator was explained to mean something very + diabolical. The passport bearing the Imperial arms was the seal of + Antichrist. The order to shave the beard was an attempt to disfigure "the + image of God," after which man had been created, and by which Christ would + recognise His own at the Last Day. The change in the calendar, by which + New Year's Day was transferred from September to January, was the + destruction of "the years of our Lord," and the introduction of the years + of Satan in their place. Of the ingenious arguments by which these theses + were supported, I may quote one by way of illustration. The world, it was + explained, could not have been created in January as the new calendar + seemed to indicate, because apples are not ripe at that season, and + consequently Eve could not have been tempted in the way described!* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I found this ingenious argument in one of the polemical + treatises of the Old Believers. +</pre> + <p> + These ideas regarding Peter and his reforms were strongly confirmed by the + vigorous persecutions which took place during the earlier years of his + reign. The Nonconformists were constantly convicted of political + disaffection—especially of "insulting the Imperial Majesty"—and + were accordingly flogged, tortured, and beheaded without mercy. But when + Peter had succeeded in putting down all armed opposition, and found that + the movement was no longer dangerous for the throne, he adopted a policy + more in accordance with his personal character. Whether he had himself any + religious belief whatever may be doubted; certainly he had not a spark of + religious fanaticism in his nature. Exclusively occupied with secular + concerns, he took no interest in subtle questions of religious ceremonial, + and was profoundly indifferent as to how his subjects prayed and crossed + themselves, provided they obeyed his orders in worldly matters and paid + their taxes regularly. As soon, therefore, as political considerations + admitted of clemency, he stopped the persecutions, and at last, in 1714, + issued ukazes to the effect that all Dissenters might live unmolested, + provided they inscribed themselves in the official registers and paid a + double poll-tax. Somewhat later they were allowed to practise freely all + their old rites and customs, on condition of paying certain fines. + </p> + <p> + With the accession of Catherine II., "the friend of philosophers," the + Raskol,* as the schism had come to be called, entered on a new phase. + Penetrated with the ideas of religious toleration then in fashion in + Western Europe, Catherine abolished the disabilities to which the + Raskolniks were subjected, and invited those of them who had fled across + the frontier to return to their homes. Thousands accepted the invitation, + and many who had hitherto sought to conceal themselves from the eyes of + the authorities became rich and respected merchants. The peculiar + semi-monastic religious communities, which had up till that time existed + only in the forests of the northern and western provinces, began to appear + in Moscow, and were officially recognised by the Administration. At first + they took the form of hospitals for the sick, or asylums for the aged and + infirm, but soon they became regular monasteries, the superiors of which + exercised an undefined spiritual authority not only over the inmates, but + also over the members of the sect throughout the length and breadth of the + Empire. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The term is derived from two Russian words—ras, asunder; + and kolot, to split. Those who belong to the Raskol are + called Raskolniki. They call themselves Staro-obriadtsi + (Old Ritualists) or Staroveri (Old Believers). +</pre> + <p> + From that time down to the present the Government has followed a wavering + policy, oscillating between complete tolerance and active persecution. It + must, however, be said that the persecution has never been of a very + searching kind. In persecution, as in all other manifestations, the + Russian Church directs its attention chiefly to external forms. It does + not seek to ferret out heresy in a man's opinions, but complacently + accepts as Orthodox all who annually appear at confession and communion, + and who refrain from acts of open hostility. Those who can make these + concessions to convenience are practically free from molestation, and + those who cannot so trifle with their conscience have an equally + convenient method of escaping persecution. The parish clergy, with their + customary indifference to things spiritual and their traditional habit of + regarding their functions from the financial point of view, are hostile to + sectarianism chiefly because it diminishes their revenues by diminishing + the number of parishioners requiring their ministrations. This cause of + hostility can easily be removed by a certain pecuniary sacrifice on the + part of the sectarians, and accordingly there generally exists between + them and their parish priest a tacit contract, by which both parties are + perfectly satisfied. The priest receives his income as if all his + parishioners belonged to the State Church, and the parishioners are left + in peace to believe and practise what they please. By this rude, + convenient method a very large amount of toleration is effectually + secured. Whether the practise has a beneficial moral influence on the + parish clergy is, of course, an entirely different question. + </p> + <p> + When the priest has been satisfied, there still remains the police, which + likewise levies an irregular tax on heterodoxy; but the negotiations are + generally not difficult, for it is in the interest of both parties that + they should come to terms and live in good-fellowship. Thus practically + the Raskolniki live in the same condition as in the time of Peter: they + pay a tax and are not molested—only the money paid does not now find + its way into the Imperial Exchequer. + </p> + <p> + These external changes in the history of the Raskol have exercised a + powerful influence on its internal development. + </p> + <p> + When formally anathematised and excluded from the dominant Church the + Nonconformists had neither a definite organisation nor a positive creed. + The only tie that bound them together was hostility to the "Nikonian + novelties," and all they desired was to preserve intact the beliefs and + customs of their forefathers. At first they never thought of creating any + permanent organisation. The more moderate believed that the Tsar would + soon re-establish Orthodoxy, and the more fanatical imagined that the end + of all things was at hand.* In either case they had only to suffer for a + little season, keeping themselves free from the taint of heresy and from + all contact with the kingdom of Antichrist. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Some had coffins made, and lay down in them at night, in + the expectation that the Second Advent might take place + before the morning. +</pre> + <p> + But years passed, and neither of these expectations was fulfilled. The + fanatics awaited in vain the sound of the last trump and the appearance of + Christ, coming with His angels to judge the world. The sun continued to + rise, and the seasons followed each other in their accustomed course, but + the end was not yet. Nor did the civil power return to the old faith. + Nikon fell a victim to Court intrigues and his own overweening pride, and + was formally deposed. Tsar Alexis in the fulness of time was gathered unto + his fathers. But there was no sign of a re-establishment of the old + Orthodoxy. Gradually the leading Raskolniki perceived that they must make + preparations, not for the Day of Judgment, but for a terrestrial future—that + they must create some permanent form of ecclesiastical organisation. In + this work they encountered at the very outset not only practical, but also + theoretical difficulties. + </p> + <p> + So long as they confined themselves simply to resisting the official + innovations, they seemed to be unanimous; but when they were forced to + abandon this negative policy and to determine theoretically their new + position, radical differences of opinion became apparent. All were + convinced that the official Russian Church had become heretical, and that + it had now Antichrist instead of Christ as its head; but it was not easy + to determine what should be done by those who refused to bow the knee to + the Son of Destruction. According to Protestant conceptions there was a + very simple solution of the difficulty: the Nonconformists had simply to + create a new Church for themselves, and worship God in the way that seemed + good to them. But to the Russians of that time such notions were still + more repulsive than the innovations of Nikon. These men were Orthodox to + the backbone—"plus royalistes que le roi"—and according to + Orthodox conceptions the founding of a new Church is an absurdity. They + believed that if the chain of historic continuity were once broken, the + Church must necessarily cease to exist, in the same way as an ancient + family becomes extinct when its sole representative dies without issue. + If, therefore, the Church had already ceased to exist, there was no longer + any means of communication between Christ and His people, the sacraments + were no longer efficacious, and mankind was forever deprived of the + ordinary means of grace. + </p> + <p> + Now, on this important point there was a difference of opinion among the + Dissenters. Some of them believed that, though the ecclesiastical + authorities had become heretical, the Church still existed in the + communion of those who had refused to accept the innovations. Others + declared boldly that the Orthodox Church had ceased to exist, that the + ancient means of grace had been withdrawn, and that those who had remained + faithful must thenceforth seek salvation, not in the sacraments, but in + prayer and such other religious exercises as did not require the + co-operation of duly consecrated priests. Thus took place a schism among + the Schismatics. The one party retained all the sacraments and ceremonial + observances in the older form; the other refrained from the sacraments and + from many of the ordinary rites, on the ground that there was no longer a + real priesthood, and that consequently the sacraments could not be + efficacious. The former party are termed Staro-obriadsti, or Old + Ritualists; the latter are called Bezpopoftsi—that is to say, people + "without priests" (bez popov). + </p> + <p> + The succeeding history of these two sections of the Nonconformists has + been widely different. The Old Ritualists, being simply ecclesiastical + Conservatives desirous of resisting all innovations, have remained a + compact body little troubled by differences of opinion. The Priestless + People, on the contrary, ever seeking to discover some new effectual means + of salvation, have fallen into an endless number of independent sects. + </p> + <p> + The Old Ritualists had still, however, one important theoretical + difficulty. At first they had amongst themselves plenty of consecrated + priests for the celebration of the ordinances, but they had no means of + renewing the supply. They had no bishops, and according to Orthodox belief + the lower degrees of the clergy cannot be created without episcopal + consecration. At the time of the schism one bishop had thrown in his lot + with the Schismatics, but he had died shortly afterwards without leaving a + successor, and thereafter no bishop had joined their ranks. As time wore + on, the necessity of episcopal consecration came to be more and more felt, + and it is not a little interesting to observe how these rigorists, who + held to the letter of the law and declared themselves ready to die for a + jot or a tittle, modified their theory in accordance with the changing + exigencies of their position. When the priests who had kept themselves + "pure and undefiled"—free from all contact with Antichrist—became + scarce, it was discovered that certain priests of the dominant Church + might be accepted if they formally abjured the Nikonian novelties. At + first, however, only those who had been consecrated previous to the + supposed apostasy of the Church were accepted, for the very good reason + that consecration by bishops who had become heretical could not be + efficacious. When these could no longer be obtained it was discovered that + those who had been baptised previous to the apostasy might be accepted; + and when even these could no longer be found, a still further concession + was made to necessity, and all consecrated priests were received on + condition of their solemnly abjuring their errors. Of such priests there + was always an abundant supply. If a regular priest could not find a + parish, or if he was deposed by the authorities for some crime or + misdemeanour, he had merely to pass over to the Old Ritualists, and was + sure to find among them a hearty welcome and a tolerable salary. + </p> + <p> + By these concessions the indefinite prolongation of Old Ritualism was + secured, but many of the Old Ritualists could not but feel that their + position was, to say the least, extremely anomalous. They had no bishops + of their own, and their priests were all consecrated by bishops whom they + believed to be heretical! For many years they hoped to escape from this + dilemma by discovering "Orthodox"—that is to say, Old Ritualist—bishops + somewhere in the East; but when the East had been searched in vain, and + all their efforts to obtain native bishops proved fruitless, they + conceived the design of creating a bishopric somewhere beyond the + frontier, among the Old Ritualists who had in times of persecution fled to + Prussia, Austria, and Turkey. There were, however, immense difficulties in + the way. In the first place it was necessary to obtain the formal + permission of some foreign Government; and in the second place an Orthodox + bishop must be found, willing to consecrate an Old Ritualist or to become + an Old Ritualist himself. Again and again the attempt was made, and + failed; but at last, after years of effort and intrigue, the design was + realised. In 1844 the Austrian Government gave permission to found a + bishopric at Belaya Krinitsa, in Galicia, a few miles from the Russian + frontier; and two years later the deposed Metropolitan of Bosnia + consented, after much hesitation, to pass over to the Old Ritualist + confession and accept the diocese.* From that time the Old Ritualists have + had their own bishops, and have not been obliged to accept the runaway + priests of the official Church. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An interesting account of these negotiations, and a most + curious picture of the Orthodox ecclesiastical world in + Constantinople, is given by Subbotiny, "Istoria + Belokrinitskoi Ierarkhii," Moscow, 1874. +</pre> + <p> + The Old Ritualists were naturally much grieved by the schism, and were + often sorely tried by persecution, but they have always enjoyed a certain + spiritual tranquillity, proceeding from the conviction that they have + preserved for themselves the means of salvation. The position of the more + extreme section of the Schismatics was much more tragical. They believed + that the sacraments had irretrievably lost their efficacy, that the + ordinary means of salvation were forever withdrawn, that the powers of + darkness had been let loose for a little season, that the authorities were + the agents of Satan, and that the personage who filled the place of the + old God-fearing Tsars was no other than Antichrist. Under the influence of + these horrible ideas they fled to the woods and the caves to escape from + the rage of the Beast, and to await the second coming of Our Lord. + </p> + <p> + This state of things could not continue permanently. Extreme religious + fanaticism, like all other abnormal states, cannot long exist in a mass of + human beings without some constant exciting cause. The vulgar necessities + of everyday life, especially among people who have to live by the labour + of their hands, have a wonderfully sobering influence on the excited + brain, and must always, sooner or later, prove fatal to inordinate + excitement. A few peculiarly constituted individuals may show themselves + capable of a lifelong enthusiasm, but the multitude is ever spasmodic in + its fervour, and begins to slide back to its former apathy as soon as the + exciting cause ceases to act. + </p> + <p> + All this we find exemplified in the history of the Priestless People. When + it was found that the world did not come to an end, and that the rigorous + system of persecution was relaxed, the less excitable natures returned to + their homes, and resumed their old mode of life; and when Peter the Great + made his politic concessions, many who had declared him to be Antichrist + came to suspect that he was really not so black as he was painted. This + idea struck deep root in a religious community near Lake Onega (Vuigovski + Skit) which had received special privileges on condition of supplying + labourers for the neighbouring mines; and here was developed a new theory + which opened up a way of reconciliation with the Government. By a more + attentive study of Holy Writ and ancient books it was discovered that the + reign of Antichrist would consist of two periods. In the former, the Son + of Destruction would reign merely in the spiritual sense, and the Faithful + would not be much molested; in the latter, he would reign visibly in the + flesh, and true believers would be subjected to the most frightful + persecution. The second period, it was held, had evidently not yet + arrived, for the Faithful now enjoyed "a time of freedom, and not of + compulsion or oppression." Whether this theory is strictly in accordance + with Apocalyptic prophecy and patristic theology may be doubted, but it + fully satisfied those who had already arrived at the conclusion by a + different road, and who sought merely a means of justifying their + position. Certain it is that very many accepted it, and determined to + render unto Caesar the things that were Caesar's, or, in secular language, + to pray for the Tsar and to pay their taxes. + </p> + <p> + This ingenious compromise was not accepted by all the Priestless People. + On the contrary, many of them regarded it as a woeful backsliding—a + new device of the Evil One; and among these irreconcilables was a certain + peasant called Theodosi, a man of little education, but of remarkable + intellectual power and unusual strength of character. He raised anew the + old fanaticism by his preaching and writings—widely circulated in + manuscript—and succeeded in founding a new sect in the forest region + near the Polish frontier. + </p> + <p> + The Priestless Nonconformists thus fell into two sections; the one, called + Pomortsi,* accepted at least a partial reconciliation with the civil + power; the other, called Theodosians, after their founder, held to the old + opinions, and refused to regard the Tsar otherwise than as Antichrist. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *The word Pomortsi means "those who live near the seashore." + It is commonly applied to the inhabitants of the Northern + provinces—that is, those who live near the shore of the + White Sea, the only maritime frontier that Russia possessed + previous to the conquests of Peter the Great. +</pre> + <p> + These latter were at first very wild in their fanaticism, but ere long + they gave way to the influences which had softened the fanaticism of the + Pomortsi. Under the liberal, conciliatory rule of Catherine they lived in + contentment, and many of them enriched themselves by trade. Their + fanatical zeal and exclusiveness evaporated under the influence of + material well-being and constant contact with the outer world, especially + after they were allowed to build a monastery in Moscow. The Superior of + this monastery, a man of much shrewdness and enormous wealth, succeeded in + gaining the favour not only of the lower officials, who could be easily + bought, but even of high-placed dignitaries, and for many years he + exercised a very real, if undefined, authority over all sections of the + Priestless People. "His fame," it is said, "sounded throughout Moscow, and + the echoes were heard in Petropol (St. Petersburg), Riga, Astrakhan, + Nizhni-Novgorod, and other lands of piety"; and when deputies came to + consult him, they prostrated themselves in his presence, as before the + great ones of the earth. Living thus not only in peace and plenty, but + even in honour and luxury, "the proud Patriarch of the Theodosian Church" + could not consistently fulminate against "the ravenous wolves" with whom + he was on friendly terms, or excite the fanaticism of his followers by + highly coloured descriptions of "the awful sufferings and persecution of + God's people in these latter days," as the founder of the sect had been + wont to do. Though he could not openly abandon any fundamental doctrines, + he allowed the ideas about the reign of Antichrist to fall into the + background, and taught by example, if not by precept, that the Faithful + might, by prudent concessions, live very comfortably in this present evil + world. This seed fell upon soil already prepared for its reception. The + Faithful gradually forgot their old savage fanaticism, and they have since + contrived, while holding many of their old ideas in theory, to accommodate + themselves in practice to the existing order of things. + </p> + <p> + The gradual softening and toning down of the original fanaticism in these + two sects are strikingly exemplified in their ideas of marriage. According + to Orthodox doctrine, marriage is a sacrament which can only be performed + by a consecrated priest, and consequently for the Priestless People the + celebration of marriage was an impossibility. In the first ages of + sectarianism a state of celibacy was quite in accordance with their + surroundings. Living in constant fear of their persecutors, and wandering + from one place of refuge to another, the sufferers for the Faith had + little time or inclination to think of family ties, and readily listened + to the monks, who exhorted them to mortify the lusts of the flesh. + </p> + <p> + The result, however, proved that celibacy in the creed by no means ensures + chastity in practice. Not only in the villages of the Dissenters, but even + in those religious communities which professed a more ascetic mode of + life, a numerous class of "orphans" began to appear, who knew not who + their parents were; and this ignorance of blood-relationship naturally led + to incestuous connections. Besides this, the doctrine of celibacy had + grave practical inconveniences, for the peasant requires a housewife to + attend to domestic concerns and to help him in his agricultural + occupations. Thus the necessity of re-establishing family life came to be + felt, and the feeling soon found expression in a doctrinal form both among + the Pomortsi and among the Theodsians. Learned dissertations were written + and disseminated in manuscript copies, violent discussions took place, and + at last a great Council was held in Moscow to discuss the question.* The + point at issue was never unanimously decided, but many accepted the + ingenious arguments in favour of matrimony, and contracted marriages which + were, of course, null and void in the eye of the law and of the Church, + but valid in all other respects. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I cannot here enter into the details of this remarkable + controversy, but I may say that in studying it I have been + frequently astonished by the dialectical power and logical + subtlety displayed by the disputants, some of them simple + peasants. +</pre> + <p> + This new backsliding of the unstable multitude produced a new outburst of + fanaticism among the stubborn few. Some of those who had hitherto sought + to conceal the origin of the "orphan" class above referred to now boldly + asserted that the existence of this class was a religious necessity, + because in order to be saved men must repent, and in order to repent men + must sin! At the same time the old ideas about Antichrist were revived and + preached with fervour by a peasant called Philip, who founded a new sect + called the Philipists. This sect still exists. They hold fast to the old + belief that the Tsar is Antichrist, and that the civil and ecclesiastical + authorities are the servants of Satan—an idea that was kept alive by + the corruption and extortion for which the Administration was notorious. + They do not venture on open resistance to the authorities, but the bolder + members take little pains to conceal their opinions and sentiments, and + may be easily recognised by their severe aspect, their Puritanical manner, + and their Pharisaical horror of everything which they suppose heretical + and unclean. Some of them, it is said, carry this fastidiousness to such + an extent that they throw away the handle of a door if it has been touched + by a heretic! + </p> + <p> + It may seem that we have here reached the extreme limits of fanaticism, + but in reality there were men whom even the Pharisaical Puritanism of the + Philipists did not satisfy. These new zealots, who appeared in the time of + Catherine II., but first became known to the official world in the reign + of Nicholas I., rebuked the lukewarmness of their brethren, and founded a + new sect in order to preserve intact the asceticism practised immediately + after the schism. This sect still exists. They call themselves "Christ's + people" (Christoviye Lyudi), but are better known under the popular name + of "Wanderers" (Stranniki), or "Fugitives" (Beguny). Of all the sects they + are the most hostile to the existing political and social organisation. + Not content with condemning the military conscription, the payment of + taxes, the acceptance of passports, and everything connected with the + civil and ecclesiastical authorities, they consider it sinful to live + peaceably among an orthodox—that is, according to their belief, a + heretical—population, and to have dealings with any who do not share + their extreme views. Holding the Antichrist doctrine in the extreme form, + they declare that Tsars are the vessels of Satan, that the Established + Church is the dwelling-place of the Father of Lies, and that all who + submit to the authorities are children of the Devil. According to this + creed, those who wish to escape from the wrath to come must have neither + houses nor fixed places of abode, must sever all ties that bind them to + the world, and must wander about continually from place to place. True + Christians are but strangers and pilgrims in the present life, and whoso + binds himself to the world will perish with the world. + </p> + <p> + Such is the theory of these Wanderers, but among them, as among the less + fanatical sects, practical necessities have produced concessions and + compromises. As it is impossible to lead a nomadic life in Russian + forests, the Wanderers have been compelled to admit into their ranks what + may be called lay-brethren—men who nominally belong to the sect, but + who live like ordinary mortals and have some rational way of gaining a + livelihood. These latter live in the villages or towns, support themselves + by agriculture or trade, accept passports from the authorities, pay their + taxes regularly, and conduct themselves in all outward respects like loyal + subjects. Their chief religious duty consists in giving food and shelter + to their more zealous brethren, who have adopted a vagabond life in + practise as well as in theory. It is only when they feel death approaching + that they consider it necessary to separate themselves from the heretical + world, and they effect this by having themselves carried out to some + neighbouring wood—or into a garden if there is no wood at hand—where + they may die in the open air. + </p> + <p> + Thus, we see, there is among the Russian Nonconformist sects what may be + called a gradation of fanaticism, in which is reflected the history of the + Great Schism. In the Wanderers we have the representatives of those who + adopted and preserved the Antichrist doctrine in its extreme form—the + successors of those who fled to the forests to escape from the rage of the + Beast and to await the second coming of Christ. In the Philipists we have + the representatives of those who adopted these ideas in a somewhat softer + form, and who came to recognise the necessity of having some regular means + of subsistence until the last trump should be heard. The Theodosians + represent those who were in theory at one with the preceding category, but + who, having less religious fanaticism, considered it necessary to yield to + force and make peace with the Government without sacrificing their + convictions. In the Pomortsi we see those who preserved only the religious + ideas of the schism, and became reconciled with the civil power. Lastly we + have the Old Ritualists, who differed from all the other sects in + retaining the old ordinances, and who simply rejected the spiritual + authority of the dominant Church. Besides these chief sections of the + Nonconformists there are a great many minor denominations (tolki), + differing from each other on minor points of doctrine. In certain + districts, it is said, nearly every village has one or two independent + sects. This is especially the case among the Don Cossacks and the Cossacks + of the Ural, who are in part descendants of the men who fled from the + early persecutions. + </p> + <p> + Of all the sects the Old Ritualists stand nearest to the official Church. + They hold the same dogmas, practise the same rites, and differ only in + trifling ceremonial matters, which few people consider essential. In the + hope of inducing them to return to the official fold the Government + created at the beginning of last century special churches, in which they + were allowed to retain their ceremonial peculiarities on condition of + accepting regularly consecrated priests and submitting to ecclesiastical + jurisdiction. As yet the design has not met with much success. The great + majority of the Old Ritualists regard it as a trap, and assert that the + Church in making this concession has been guilty of self-contradiction. + "The Ecclesiastical Council of Moscow," they say, "anathematised our + forefathers for holding to the old ritual, and declared that the whole + course of nature would be changed sooner than the curse be withdrawn. The + course of nature has not been changed, but the anathema has been + cancelled." This argument ought to have a certain weight with those who + believe in the infallibility of Ecclesiastical Councils. + </p> + <p> + Towards the Priestless People the Government has always acted in a much + less conciliatory spirit. Its severity has been sometimes justified on the + ground that sectarianism has had a political as well as a religious + significance. A State like Russia cannot overlook the existence of sects + which preach the duty of systematic resistance to the civil and + ecclesiastical authorities and hold doctrines which lead to the grossest + immorality. This argument, it must be admitted, is not without a certain + force, but it seems to me that the policy adopted tended to increase + rather than diminish the evils which it sought to cure. Instead of + dispelling the absurd idea that the Tsar was Antichrist by a system of + strict and evenhanded justice, punishing merely actual crimes and + delinquencies, the Government confirmed the notion in the minds of + thousands by persecuting those who had committed no crime and who desired + merely to worship God according to their conscience. Above all it erred in + opposing and punishing those marriages which, though legally irregular, + were the best possible means of diminishing fanaticism, by leading back + the fanatics to healthy social life. Fortunately these errors have now + been abandoned. A policy of greater clemency and conciliation has been + adopted, and has proved much more efficacious than persecution. The + Dissenters have not returned to the official fold, but they have lost much + of their old fanaticism and exclusiveness. + </p> + <p> + In respect of numbers the sectarians compose a very formidable body. Of + Old Ritualists and Priestless People there are, it is said, no less than + eleven millions; and the Protestant and fantastical sects comprise + probably about five millions more. If these numbers be correct, the + sectarians constitute about an eighth of the whole population of the + Empire. They count in their ranks none of the nobles—none of the + so-called enlightened class—but they include in their number a + respectable proportion of the peasants, a third of the rich merchant + class, the majority of the Don Cossacks, and nearly all the Cossacks of + the Ural. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances it is important to know how far the sectarians + are politically disaffected. Some people imagine that in the event of an + insurrection or a foreign invasion they might rise against the Government, + whilst others believe that this supposed danger is purely imaginary. For + my own part I agree with the latter opinion, which is strongly supported + by the history of many important events, such as the French invasion in + 1812, the Crimean War, and the last Polish insurrection. The great + majority of the Schismatics and heretics are, I believe, loyal subjects of + the Tsar. The more violent sects, which are alone capable of active + hostility against the authorities, are weak in numbers, and regard all + outsiders with such profound mistrust that they are wholly impervious to + inflammatory influences from without. Even if all the sects were capable + of active hostility, they would not be nearly so formidable as their + numbers seem to indicate, for they are hostile to each other, and are + wholly incapable of combining for a common purpose. + </p> + <p> + Though sectarianism is thus by no means a serious political danger, it has + nevertheless a considerable political significance. It proves + satisfactorily that the Russian people is by no means so docile and + pliable as is commonly supposed, and that it is capable of showing a + stubborn, passive resistance to authority when it believes great interests + to be at stake. The dogged energy which it has displayed in asserting for + centuries its religious liberty may perhaps some day be employed in the + arena of secular politics. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX + </h2> + <h3> + CHURCH AND STATE + </h3> + <p> + The Russian Orthodox Church—Russia Outside of the Mediaeval Papal + Commonwealth—Influence of the Greek Church—Ecclesiastical + History of Russia—Relations between Church and State—Eastern + Orthodoxy and the Russian National Church—The Synod—Ecclesiastical + Grumbling—Local Ecclesiastical Administration—The Black Clergy + and the Monasteries—The Character of the Eastern Church Reflected in + the History of Religious Art—Practical Consequences—The Union + Scheme. + </p> + <p> + From the curious world of heretics and Dissenters let us pass now to the + Russian Orthodox Church, to which the great majority of the Russian people + belong. It has played an important part in the national history, and has + exercised a powerful influence in the formation of the national character. + </p> + <p> + Russians are in the habit of patriotically and proudly congratulating + themselves on the fact that their forefathers always resisted successfully + the aggressive tendencies of the Papacy, but it may be doubted whether, + from a worldly point of view, the freedom from Papal authority has been an + unmixed blessing for the country. If the Popes failed to realise their + grand design of creating a vast European empire based on theocratic + principles, they succeeded at least in inspiring with a feeling of + brotherhood and a vague consciousness of common interest all the nations + which acknowledged their spiritual supremacy. These nations, whilst + remaining politically independent and frequently coming into hostile + contact with each other, all looked to Rome as the capital of the + Christian world, and to the Pope as the highest terrestrial authority. + Though the Church did not annihilate nationality, it made a wide breach in + the political barriers, and formed a channel for international + communication by which the social and intellectual progress of each nation + became known to all the other members of the great Christian confederacy. + Throughout the length and breadth of the Papal Commonwealth educated men + had a common language, a common literature, a common scientific method, + and to a certain extent a common jurisprudence. Western Christendom was + thus all through the Middle Ages not merely an abstract conception or a + geographical expression: if not a political, it was at least a religious + and intellectual unit, and all the countries of which it was composed + benefited more or less by the connection. + </p> + <p> + For centuries Russia stood outside of this religious and intellectual + confederation, for her Church connected her not with Rome, but with + Constantinople, and Papal Europe looked upon her as belonging to the + barbarous East. When the Mongol hosts swept over her plains, burnt her + towns and villages, and finally incorporated her into the great empire of + Genghis khan, the so-called Christian world took no interest in the + struggle except in so far as its own safety was threatened. And as time + wore on, the barriers which separated the two great sections of + Christendom became more and more formidable. The aggressive pretensions + and ambitious schemes of the Vatican produced in the Greek Orthodox world + a profound antipathy to the Roman Catholic Church and to Western influence + of every kind. So strong was this aversion that when the nations of the + West awakened in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries from their + intellectual lethargy and began to move forward on the path of + intellectual and material progress, Russia not only remained unmoved, but + looked on the new civilisation with suspicion and fear as a thing + heretical and accursed. We have here one of the chief reasons why Russia, + at the present day, is in many respects less civilised than the nations of + Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + But it is not merely in this negative way that the acceptance of + Christianity from Constantinople has affected the fate of Russia. The + Greek Church, whilst excluding Roman Catholic civilisation, exerted at the + same time a powerful positive influence on the historical development of + the nation. + </p> + <p> + The Church of the West inherited from old Rome something of that logical, + juridical, administrative spirit which had created the Roman law, and + something of that ambition and dogged, energetic perseverance that had + formed nearly the whole known world into a great centralised empire. The + Bishops of Rome early conceived the design of reconstructing that old + empire on a new basis, and long strove to create a universal Christian + theocratic State, in which kings and other civil authorities should be the + subordinates of Christ's Vicar upon earth. The Eastern Church, on the + contrary, has remained true to her Byzantine traditions, and has never + dreamed of such lofty pretensions. Accustomed to lean on the civil power, + she has always been content to play a secondary part, and has never + strenuously resisted the formation of national churches. + </p> + <p> + For about two centuries after the introduction of Christianity—from + 988 to 1240—Russia formed, ecclesiastically speaking, part of the + Patriarchate of Constantinople. The metropolitans and the bishops were + Greek by birth and education, and the ecclesiastical administration was + guided and controlled by the Byzantine Patriarchs. But from the time of + the Mongol invasion, when communication with Constantinople became more + difficult and educated native priests had become more numerous, this + complete dependence on the Patriarch of Constantinople ceased. The Princes + gradually arrogated to themselves the right of choosing the Metropolitan + of Kief—who was at that time the chief ecclesiastical dignitary in + Russia—and merely sent their nominees to Constantinople for + consecration. About 1448 this formality came to be dispensed with, and the + Metropolitan was commonly consecrated by a Council of Russian bishops. A + further step in the direction of ecclesiastical autonomy was taken in + 1589, when the Tsar succeeded in procuring the consecration of a Russian + Patriarch, equal in dignity and authority to the Patriarchs of + Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + In all matters of external form the Patriarch of Moscow was a very + important personage. He exercised a certain influence in civil as well as + ecclesiastical affairs, bore the official title of "Great Lord" (Veliki + Gosudar), which had previously been reserved for the civil head of the + State, and habitually received from the people scarcely less veneration + than the Tsar himself. But in reality he possessed very little independent + power. The Tsar was the real ruler in ecclesiastical as well as in civil + affairs.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As this is frequently denied by Russians, it may be well + to quote one authority out of many that might be cited. + Bishop Makarii, whose erudition and good faith are alike + above suspicion, says of Dmitri of the Don: "He arrogated to + himself full, unconditional power over the Head of the + Russian Church, and through him over the whole Russian + Church itself." ("Istoriya Russkoi Tserkvi," V., p. 101.) + This is said of a Grand Prince who had strong rivals and had + to treat the Church as an ally. When the Grand Princes + became Tsars and had no longer any rivals, their power was + certainly not diminished. Any further confirmation that may + be required will be found in the Life of the famous + Patriarch Nikon. +</pre> + <p> + The Russian Patriarchate came to an end in the time of Peter the Great. + Peter wished, among other things, to reform the ecclesiastical + administration, and to introduce into his country many novelties which the + majority of the clergy and of the people regarded as heretical; and he + clearly perceived that a bigoted, energetic Patriarch might throw + considerable obstacles in his way, and cause him infinite annoyance. + Though such a Patriarch might be deposed without any flagrant violation of + the canonical formalities, the operation would necessarily be attended + with great trouble and loss of time. Peter was no friend of roundabout, + tortuous methods, and preferred to remove the difficulty in his usual + thorough, violent fashion. When the Patriarch Adrian died, the customary + short interregnum was prolonged for twenty years, and when the people had + thus become accustomed to having no Patriarch, it was announced that no + more Patriarchs would be elected. Their place was supplied by an + ecclesiastical council, or Synod, in which, as a contemporary explained, + "the mainspring was Peter's power, and the pendulum his understanding." + The great autocrat justly considered that such a council could be much + more easily managed than a stubborn Patriarch, and the wisdom of the + measure has been duly appreciated by succeeding sovereigns. Though the + idea of re-establishing the Patriarchate has more than once been raised, + it has never been carried into execution. The Holy Synod remains the + highest ecclesiastical authority. + </p> + <p> + But the Emperor? What is his relation to the Synod and to the Church in + general? + </p> + <p> + This is a question about which zealous Orthodox Russians are extremely + sensitive. If a foreigner ventures to hint in their presence that the + Emperor seems to have a considerable influence in the Church, he may + inadvertently produce a little outburst of patriotic warmth and virtuous + indignation. The truth is that many Russians have a pet theory on this + subject, and have at the same time a dim consciousness that the theory is + not quite in accordance with reality. They hold theoretically that the + Orthodox Church has no "Head" but Christ, and is in some peculiar + undefined sense entirely independent of all terrestrial authority. In this + respect it is often contrasted with the Anglican Church, much to the + disadvantage of the latter; and the supposed differences between the two + are made a theme for semi-religious, semi-patriotic exultation. Khomiakof, + for instance, in one of his most vigorous poems, predicts that God will + one day take the destiny of the world out of the hands of England in order + to give it to Russia, and he adduces as one of the reasons for this + transfer the fact that England "has chained, with sacrilegious hand, the + Church of God to the pedestal of the vain earthly power." So far the + theory. As to the facts, it is unquestionable that the Tsar exercises a + much greater influence in ecclesiastical affairs than the King and + Parliament in England. All who know the internal history of Russia are + aware that the Government does not draw a clear line of distinction + between the temporal and the spiritual, and that it occasionally uses the + ecclesiastical organisation for political purposes. + </p> + <p> + What, then, are the relations between Church and State? + </p> + <p> + To avoid confusion, we must carefully distinguish between the Eastern + Orthodox Church as a whole and that section of it which is known as the + Russian Church. + </p> + <p> + The Eastern Orthodox Church* is, properly speaking, a confederation of + independent churches without any central authority—a unity founded + on the possession of a common dogma and on the theoretical but now + unrealisable possibility of holding Ecumenical Councils. The Russian + National Church is one of the members of this ecclesiastical + confederation. In matters of faith it is bound by the decisions of the + ancient Ecumenical Councils, but in all other respects it enjoys complete + independence and autonomy. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Or Greek Orthodox Church, as it is sometimes called. +</pre> + <p> + In relation to the Orthodox Church as a whole the Emperor of Russia is + nothing more than a simple member, and can no more interfere with its + dogmas or ceremonial than a King of Italy or an Emperor of the French + could modify Roman Catholic theology; but in relation to the Russian + National Church his position is peculiar. He is described in one of the + fundamental laws as "the supreme defender and preserver of the dogmas of + the dominant faith," and immediately afterwards it is said that "the + autocratic power acts in the ecclesiastical administration by means of the + most Holy Governing Synod, created by it."* This describes very fairly the + relations between the Emperor and the Church. He is merely the defender of + the dogmas, and cannot in the least modify them; but he is at the same + time the chief administrator, and uses the Synod as an instrument. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Svod Zakonov I., 42, 43. +</pre> + <p> + Some ingenious people who wish to prove that the creation of the Synod was + not an innovation represent the institution as a resuscitation of the + ancient local councils; but this view is utterly untenable. The Synod is + not a council of deputies from various sections of the Church, but a + permanent college, or ecclesiastical senate, the members of which are + appointed and dismissed by the Emperor as he thinks fit. It has no + independent legislative authority, for its legislative projects do not + become law till they have received the Imperial sanction; and they are + always published, not in the name of the Church, but in the name of the + Supreme Power. Even in matters of simple administration it is not + independent, for all its resolutions require the consent of the Procureur, + a layman nominated by his Majesty. In theory this functionary protests + only against those resolutions which are not in accordance with the civil + law of the country; but as he alone has the right to address the Emperor + directly on ecclesiastical concerns, and as all communications between the + Emperor and the Synod pass through his hands, he possesses in reality + considerable power. Besides this, he can always influence the individual + members by holding out prospects of advancement and decorations, and if + this device fails, he can make refractory members retire, and fill up + their places with men of more pliant disposition. A Council constituted in + this way cannot, of course, display much independence of thought or + action, especially in a country like Russia, where no one ventures to + oppose openly the Imperial will. + </p> + <p> + It must not, however, be supposed that the Russian ecclesiastics regard + the Imperial authority with jealousy or dislike. They are all most loyal + subjects, and warm adherents of autocracy. Those ideas of ecclesiastical + independence which are so common in Western Europe, and that spirit of + opposition to the civil power which animates the Roman Catholic clergy, + are entirely foreign to their minds. If a bishop sometimes complains to an + intimate friend that he has been brought to St. Petersburg and made a + member of the Synod merely to append his signature to official papers and + to give his consent to foregone conclusions, his displeasure is directed, + not against the Emperor, but against the Procureur. He is full of loyalty + and devotion to the Tsar, and has no desire to see his Majesty excluded + from all influence in ecclesiastical affairs; but he feels saddened and + humiliated when he finds that the whole government of the Church is in the + hands of a lay functionary, who may be a military man, and who looks at + all matters from a layman's point of view. + </p> + <p> + This close connection between Church and State and the thoroughly national + character of the Russian Church is well illustrated by the history of the + local ecclesiastical administration. The civil and the ecclesiastical + administration have always had the same character and have always been + modified by the same influences. The terrorism which was largely used by + the Muscovite Tsars and brought to a climax by Peter the Great appeared + equally in both. In the episcopal circulars, as in the Imperial ukazes, we + find frequent mention of "most cruel corporal punishment," "cruel + punishment with whips, so that the delinquent and others may not acquire + the habit of practising such insolence," and much more of the same kind. + And these terribly severe measures were sometimes directed against very + venial offences. The Bishop of Vologda, for instance, in 1748 decrees + "cruel corporal punishment" against priests who wear coarse and ragged + clothes,* and the records of the Consistorial courts contain abundant + proof that such decrees were rigorously executed. When Catherine II. + introduced a more humane spirit into the civil administration, corporal + punishment was at once abolished in the Consistorial courts, and the + procedure was modified according to the accepted maxims of civil + jurisprudence. But I must not weary the reader with tiresome historical + details. Suffice it to say that, from the time of Peter the Great + downwards, the character of all the more energetic sovereigns is reflected + in the history of the ecclesiastical administration. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Znamenski, "Prikhodskoe Dukhovenstvo v Rossii so vremeni + reformy Petra," Kazan, 1873. +</pre> + <p> + Each province, or "government," forms a diocese, and the bishop, like the + civil governor, has a Council which theoretically controls his power, but + practically has no controlling influence whatever. The Consistorial + Council, which has in the theory of ecclesiastical procedure a very + imposing appearance, is in reality the bishop's chancellerie, and its + members are little more than secretaries, whose chief object is to make + themselves agreeable to their superior. And it must be confessed that, so + long as they remain what they are, the less power they possess the better + it will be for those who have the misfortune to be under their + jurisdiction. The higher dignitaries have at least larger aims and a + certain consciousness of the dignity of their position; but the lower + officials, who have no such healthy restraints and receive ridiculously + small salaries, grossly misuse the little authority which they possess, + and habitually pilfer and extort in the most shameless manner. The + Consistories are, in fact, what the public offices were in the time of + Nicholas I. + </p> + <p> + The higher ecclesiastical administration has always been in the hands of + the monks, or "Black Clergy," as they are commonly termed, who form a + large and influential class. The monks who first settled in Russia were, + like those who first visited north-western Europe, men of the earnest, + ascetic, missionary type. Filled with zeal for the glory of God and the + salvation of souls, they took little or no thought for the morrow, and + devoutly believed that their Heavenly Father, without whose knowledge no + sparrow falls to the ground, would provide for their humble wants. Poor, + clad in rags, eating the most simple fare, and ever ready to share what + they had with any one poorer than themselves, they performed faithfully + and earnestly the work which their Master had given them to do. But this + ideal of monastic life soon gave way in Russia, as in the West, to + practices less simple and austere. By the liberal donations and bequests + of the faithful the monasteries became rich in gold, in silver, in + precious stones, and above all in land and serfs. Troitsa, for instance, + possessed at one time 120,000 serfs and a proportionate amount of land, + and it is said that at the beginning of the eighteenth century more than a + fourth of the entire population had fallen under the jurisdiction of the + Church. Many of the monasteries engaged in commerce, and the monks were, + if we may credit Fletcher, who visited Russia in 1588, the most + intelligent merchants of the country. + </p> + <p> + During the eighteenth century the Church lands were secularised, and the + serfs of the Church became serfs of the State. This was a severe blow for + the monasteries, but it did not prove fatal, as many people predicted. + Some monasteries were abolished and others were reduced to extreme + poverty, but many survived and prospered. These could no longer possess + serfs, but they had still three sources of revenue: a limited amount of + real property, Government subsidies, and the voluntary offerings of the + faithful. At present there are about 500 monastic establishments, and the + great majority of them, though not wealthy, have revenues more than + sufficient to satisfy all the requirements of an ascetic life. + </p> + <p> + Thus in Russia, as in Western Europe, the history of monastic institutions + is composed of three chapters, which may be briefly entitled: asceticism + and missionary enterprise; wealth, luxury, and corruption; secularisation + of property and decline. But between Eastern and Western monasticism there + is at least one marked difference. The monasticism of the West made at + various epochs of its history a vigorous, spontaneous effort at + self-regeneration, which found expression in the foundation of separate + Orders, each of which proposed to itself some special aim—some + special sphere of usefulness. In Russia we find no similar phenomenon. + Here the monasteries never deviated from the rules of St. Basil, which + restrict the members to religious ceremonies, prayer, and contemplation. + From time to time a solitary individual raised his voice against the + prevailing abuses, or retired from his monastery to spend the remainder of + his days in ascetic solitude; but neither in the monastic population as a + whole, nor in any particular monastery, do we find at any time a + spontaneous, vigorous movement towards reform. During the last two hundred + years reforms have certainly been effected, but they have all been the + work of the civil power, and in the realisation of them the monks have + shown little more than the virtue of resignation. Here, as elsewhere, we + have evidence of that inertness, apathy, and want of spontaneous vigour + which form one of the most characteristic traits of Russian national life. + In this, as in other departments of national activity, the spring of + action has lain not in the people, but in the Government. + </p> + <p> + It is only fair to the monks to state that in their dislike to progress + and change of every kind they merely reflect the traditional spirit of the + Church to which they belong. The Russian Church, like the Eastern Orthodox + Church generally, is essentially conservative. Anything in the nature of a + religious revival is foreign to her traditions and character. Quieta non + movere is her fundamental principle of conduct. She prides herself as + being above terrestrial influences. + </p> + <p> + The modifications that have been made in her administrative organisation + have not affected her inner nature. In spirit and character she is now + what she was under the Patriarchs in the time of the Muscovite Tsars, + holding fast to the promise that no jot or tittle shall pass from the law + till all be fulfilled. To those who talk about the requirements of modern + life and modern science she turns a deaf ear. Partly from the predominance + which she gives to the ceremonial element, partly from the fact that her + chief aim is to preserve unmodified the doctrine and ceremonial as + determined by the early Ecumenical Councils, and partly from the low state + of general culture among the clergy, she has ever remained outside of the + intellectual movements. The attempts of the Roman Catholic Church to + develop the traditional dogmas by definition and deduction, and the + efforts of Protestants to reconcile their creeds with progressive science + and the ever-varying intellectual currents of the time, are alike foreign + to her nature. Hence she has produced no profound theological treatises + conceived in a philosophical spirit, and has made no attempt to combat the + spirit of infidelity in its modern forms. Profoundly convinced that her + position is impregnable, she has "let the nations rave," and scarcely + deigned to cast a glance at their intellectual and religious struggles. In + a word, she is "in the world, but not of it." + </p> + <p> + If we wish to see represented in a visible form the peculiar + characteristics of the Russian Church, we have only to glance at Russian + religious art, and compare it with that of Western Europe. In the West, + from the time of the Renaissance downwards, religious art has kept pace + with artistic progress. Gradually it emancipated itself from archaic forms + and childish symbolism, converted the lifeless typical figures into living + individuals, lit up their dull eyes and expressionless faces with human + intelligence and human feeling, and finally aimed at archaeological + accuracy in costume and other details. Thus in the West the Icon grew + slowly into the naturalistic portrait, and the rude symbolical groups + developed gradually into highly-finished historical pictures. In Russia + the history of religious art has been entirely different. Instead of + distinctive schools of painting and great religious artists, there has + been merely an anonymous traditional craft, destitute of any artistic + individuality. In all the productions of this craft the old Byzantine + forms have been faithfully and rigorously preserved, and we can see + reflected in the modern Icons—stiff, archaic, expressionless—the + immobility of the Eastern Church in general, and of the Russian Church in + particular. + </p> + <p> + To the Roman Catholic, who struggles against science as soon as it + contradicts traditional conceptions, and to the Protestant, who strives to + bring his religious beliefs into accordance with his scientific knowledge, + the Russian Church may seem to resemble an antediluvian petrifaction, or a + cumbrous line-of-battle ship that has been long stranded. It must be + confessed, however, that the serene inactivity for which she is + distinguished has had very valuable practical consequences. The Russian + clergy have neither that haughty, aggressive intolerance which + characterises their Roman Catholic brethren, nor that bitter, + uncharitable, sectarian spirit which is too often to be found among + Protestants. They allow not only to heretics, but also to members of their + own communion, the most complete intellectual freedom, and never think of + anathematising any one for his scientific or unscientific opinions. All + that they demand is that those who have been born within the pale of + Orthodoxy should show the Church a certain nominal allegiance; and in this + matter of allegiance they are by no mean very exacting. So long as a + member refrains from openly attacking the Church and from going over to + another confession, he may entirely neglect all religious ordinances and + publicly profess scientific theories logically inconsistent with any kind + of dogmatic religious belief without the slightest danger of incurring + ecclesiastical censure. + </p> + <p> + This apathetic tolerance may be partly explained by the national + character, but it is also to some extent due to the peculiar relations + between Church and State. The government vigilantly protects the Church + from attack, and at the same time prevents her from attacking her enemies. + Hence religious questions are never discussed in the Press, and the + ecclesiastical literature is all historical, homiletic, or devotional. The + authorities allow public oral discussions to be held during Lent in the + Kremlin of Moscow between members of the State Church and Old Ritualists; + but these debates are not theological in our sense of the term. They turn + exclusively on details of Church history, and on the minutiae of + ceremonial observance. + </p> + <p> + A few years ago there was a good deal of vague talk about a possible union + of the Russian and Anglican Churches. If by "union" is meant simply union + in the bonds of brotherly love, there can be, of course, no objection to + any amount of such pia desideria; but if anything more real and practical + is intended, the project is an absurdity. A real union of the Russian and + Anglican Churches would be as difficult of realisation, and is as + undesirable, as a union of the Russian Council of State and the British + House of Commons.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I suppose that the more serious partisans of the union + scheme mean union with the Eastern Orthodox, and not with + the Russian, Church. To them the above remarks are not + addressed. Their scheme is, in my opinion, unrealisable and + undesirable, but it contains nothing absurd. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX + </h2> + <h3> + THE NOBLESSE + </h3> + <p> + The Nobles In Early Times—The Mongol Domination—The Tsardom of + Muscovy—Family Dignity—Reforms of Peter the Great—The + Nobles Adopt West-European Conceptions—Abolition of Obligatory + Service—Influence of Catherine II.—The Russian Dvoryanstvo + Compared with the French Noblesse and the English Aristocracy—Russian + Titles—Probable Future of the Russian Noblesse. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto I have been compelling the reader to move about among what we + should call the lower classes—peasants, burghers, traders, parish + priests, Dissenters, heretics, Cossacks, and the like—and he feels + perhaps inclined to complain that he has had no opportunity of mixing with + what old-fashioned people call gentle-folk and persons of quality. By way + of making amends to him for this reprehensible conduct on my part, I + propose now to present him to the whole Noblesse* in a body, not only + those at present living, but also their near and distant ancestors, right + back to the foundation of the Russian Empire a thousand years ago. + Thereafter I shall introduce him to some of the country families and + invite him to make with me a few country-house visits. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I use here a foreign, in preference to an English, term, + because the word "Nobility" would convey a false impression. + Etymologically the Russian word "Dvoryanin" means a Courtier + (from Dvor=court); but this term is equally objectionable, + because the great majority of the Dvoryanstvo have nothing + to do with the Court. +</pre> + <p> + In the old times, when Russia was merely a collection of some seventy + independent principalities, each reigning prince was surrounded by a group + of armed men, composed partly of Boyars, or large landed proprietors, and + partly of knights, or soldiers of fortune. These men, who formed the + Noblesse of the time, were to a certain extent under the authority of the + Prince, but they were by no means mere obedient, silent executors of his + will. The Boyars might refuse to take part in his military expeditions, + and the "free-lances" might leave his service and seek employment + elsewhere. If he wished to go to war without their consent, they could say + to him, as they did on one occasion, "You have planned this yourself, + Prince, so we will not go with you, for we knew nothing of it." Nor was + this resistance to the princely will always merely passive. Once, in the + principality of Galitch, the armed men seized their prince, killed his + favourites, burned his mistress, and made him swear that he would in + future live with his lawful wife. To his successor, who had married the + wife of a priest, they spoke thus: "We have not risen against YOU, Prince, + but we will not do reverence to a priest's wife: we will put her to death, + and then you may marry whom you please." Even the energetic Bogolubski, + one of the most remarkable of the old Princes, did not succeed in having + his own way. When he attempted to force the Boyars he met with stubborn + opposition, and was finally assassinated. From these incidents, which + might be indefinitely multiplied from the old chronicles, we see that in + the early period of Russian history the Boyars and knights were a body of + free men, possessing a considerable amount of political power. + </p> + <p> + Under the Mongol domination this political equilibrium was destroyed. When + the country had been conquered, the Princes became servile vassals of the + Khan and arbitrary rulers towards their own subjects. The political + significance of the nobles was thereby greatly diminished. It was not, + however, by any means annihilated. Though the Prince no longer depended + entirely on their support, he had an interest in retaining their services, + to protect his territory in case of sudden attack, or to increase his + possessions at the expense of his neighbours when a convenient opportunity + presented itself. Theoretically, such conquests were impossible, for all + removing of the ancient landmarks depended on the decision of the Khan; + but in reality the Khan paid little attention to the affairs of his + vassals so long as the tribute was regularly paid; and much took place in + Russia without his permission. We find, therefore, in some of the + principalities the old relations still subsisting under Mongol rule. The + famous Dmitri of the Don, for instance, when on his death-bed, speaks thus + to his Boyars: "You know my habits and my character; I was born among you, + grew up among you, governed with you—fighting by your side, showing + you honour and love, and placing you over towns and districts. I loved + your children, and did evil to no one. I rejoiced with you in your joy, + mourned with you in your grief, and called you the princes of my land." + Then, turning to his children, he adds, as a parting advice: "Love your + Boyars, my children; show them the honour which their services merit, and + undertake nothing without their consent." + </p> + <p> + When the Grand Princes of Moscow brought the other principalities under + their power, and formed them into the Tsardom of Muscovy, the nobles + descended another step in the political scale. So long as there were many + principalities they could quit the service of a Prince as soon as he gave + them reason to be discontented, knowing that they would be well received + by one of his rivals; but now they had no longer any choice. The only + rival of Moscow was Lithuania, and precautions were taken to prevent the + discontented from crossing the Lithuanian frontier. The nobles were no + longer voluntary adherents of a Prince, but had become subjects of a Tsar; + and the Tsars were not as the old Princes had been. By a violent legal + fiction they conceived themselves to be the successors of the Byzantine + Emperors, and created a new court ceremonial, borrowed partly from + Constantinople and partly from the Mongol Horde. They no longer associated + familiarly with the Boyars, and no longer asked their advice, but treated + them rather as menials. When the nobles entered their august master's + presence they prostrated themselves in Oriental fashion—occasionally + as many as thirty times—and when they incurred his displeasure they + were summarily flogged or executed, according to the Tsar's good pleasure. + In succeeding to the power of the Khans, the Tsars had adopted, we see, a + good deal of the Mongol system of government. + </p> + <p> + It may seem strange that a class of men which had formerly shown a proud + spirit of independence should have submitted quietly to such humiliation + and oppression without making a serious effort to curb the new power, + which had no longer a Tartar Horde at its back to quell opposition. But we + must remember that the nobles, as well as the Princes, had passed in the + meantime through the school of the Mongol domination. In the course of two + centuries they had gradually become accustomed to despotic rule in the + Oriental sense. If they felt their position humiliating and irksome, they + must have felt, too, how difficult it was to better it. Their only + resource lay in combining against the common oppressor; and we have only + to glance at the motley, disorganised group, as they cluster round the + Tsar, to perceive that combination was extremely difficult. We can + distinguish there the mediatised Princes, still harbouring designs for the + recovery of their independence; the Moscow Boyars, jealous of their family + honour and proud of Muscovite supremacy; Tartar Murzi, who have submitted + to be baptised and have received land like the other nobles; the + Novgorodian magnate, who cannot forget the ancient glory of his native + city; Lithuanian nobles, who find it more profitable to serve the Tsar + than their own sovereign; petty chiefs who have fled from the opposition + of the Teutonic order; and soldiers of fortune from every part of Russia. + Strong, permanent political factors are not easily formed out of such + heterogeneous material. + </p> + <p> + At the end of the sixteenth century the old dynasty became extinct, and + after a short period of political anarchy, commonly called "the troublous + times" (smutnoe vremya), the Romanof family were raised to the throne by + the will of the people, or at least by those who were assumed to be its + representatives. By this change the Noblesse acquired a somewhat better + position. They were no longer exposed to capricious tyranny and barbarous + cruelty, such as they had experienced at the hands of Ivan the Terrible, + but they did not, as a class, gain any political influence. There were + still rival families and rival factions, but there were no political + parties in the proper sense of the term, and the highest aim of families + and factions was to gain the favour of the Tsar. + </p> + <p> + The frequent quarrels about precedence which took place among the rival + families at this period form one of the most curious episodes of Russian + history. The old patriarchal conception of the family as a unit, one and + indivisible, was still so strong among these men that the elevation or + degradation of one member of a family was considered to affect deeply the + honour of all the other members. Each noble family had its rank in a + recognised scale of dignity, according to the rank which it held, or had + previously held, in the Tsar's service; and a whole family would have + considered itself dishonoured if one of its members accepted a post lower + than that to which he was entitled. Whenever a vacant place in the service + was filled up, the subordinates of the successful candidate examined the + official records and the genealogical trees of their families, in order to + discover whether some ancestor of their new superior had not served under + one of their own ancestors. If the subordinate found such a case, he + complained to the Tsar that it was not becoming for him to serve under a + man who had less family honour than himself. + </p> + <p> + Unfounded complaints of this kind often entailed imprisonment or corporal + punishment, but in spite of this the quarrels for precedence were very + frequent. At the commencement of a campaign many such disputes were sure + to arise, and the Tsar's decision was not always accepted by the party who + considered himself aggrieved. I have met at least with one example of a + great dignitary voluntarily mutilating his hand in order to escape the + necessity of serving under a man whom he considered his inferior in family + dignity. Even at the Tsar's table these rivalries sometimes produced + unseemly incidents, for it was almost impossible to arrange the places so + as to satisfy all the guests. In one recorded instance a noble who + received a place lower than that to which he considered himself entitled + openly declared to the Tsar that he would rather be condemned to death + than submit to such an indignity. In another instance of a similar kind + the refractory guest was put on his chair by force, but saved his family + honour by slipping under the table! + </p> + <p> + The next transformation of the Noblesse was effected by Peter the Great. + Peter was by nature and position an autocrat, and could brook no + opposition. Having set before himself a great aim, he sought everywhere + obedient, intelligent, energetic instruments to carry out his designs. He + himself served the State zealously—as a common artisan, when he + considered it necessary—and he insisted on all his subjects doing + likewise, under pain of merciless punishment. To noble birth and long + pedigrees he habitually showed a most democratic, or rather autocratic, + indifference. Intent on obtaining the service of living men, he paid no + attention to the claims of dead ancestors, and gave to his servants the + pay and honour which their services merited, irrespectively of birth or + social position. Hence many of his chief coadjutors had no connection with + the old Russian families. Count Yaguzhinski, who long held one of the most + important posts in the State, was the son of a poor sacristan; Count + Devier was a Portuguese by birth, and had been a cabin-boy; Baron Shafirof + was a Jew; Hannibal, who died with the rank of Commander in Chief, was a + negro who had been bought in Constantinople; and his Serene Highness + Prince Menshikof had begun life, it was said, as a baker's apprentice! For + the future, noble birth was to count for nothing. The service of the State + was thrown open to men of all ranks, and personal merit was to be the only + claim to promotion. + </p> + <p> + This must have seemed to the Conservatives of the time a most + revolutionary and reprehensible proceeding, but it did not satisfy the + reforming tendencies of the great autocrat. He went a step further, and + entirely changed the legal status of the Noblesse. Down to his time the + nobles were free to serve or not as they chose, and those who chose to + serve enjoyed land on what we should call a feudal tenure. Some served + permanently in the military or civil administration, but by far the + greater number lived on their estates, and entered the active service + merely when the militia was called out in view of war. This system was + completely changed when Peter created a large standing army and a great + centralised bureaucracy. By one of those "fell swoops" which periodically + occur in Russian history, he changed the feudal into freehold tenures, and + laid down the principle that all nobles, whatever their landed possessions + might be, should serve the State in the army, the fleet, or the civil + administration, from boyhood to old age. In accordance with this + principle, any noble who refused to serve was not only deprived of his + estate, as in the old times, but was declared to be a traitor and might be + condemned to capital punishment. + </p> + <p> + The nobles were thus transformed into servants of the State, and the State + in the time of Peter was a hard taskmaster. They complained bitterly, and + with reason, that they had been deprived of their ancient rights, and were + compelled to accept quietly and uncomplainingly whatever burdens their + master chose to place upon them. "Though our country," they said, "is in + no danger of invasion, no sooner is peace concluded than plans are laid + for a new war, which has generally no other foundation than the ambition + of the Sovereign, or perhaps merely the ambition of one of his Ministers. + To please him our peasants are utterly exhausted, and we ourselves are + forced to leave our homes and families, not as formerly for a single + campaign, but for long years. We are compelled to contract debts and to + entrust our estates to thieving overseers, who commonly reduce them to + such a condition that when we are allowed to retire from the service, in + consequence of old age or illness, we cannot to the end of our lives + retrieve our prosperity. In a word, we are so exhausted and ruined by the + keeping up of a standing army, and by the consequences flowing therefrom, + that the most cruel enemy, though he should devastate the whole Empire, + could not cause us one-half of the injury."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These complaints have been preserved by Vockerodt, a + Prussian diplomatic agent of the time. +</pre> + <p> + This Spartan regime, which ruthlessly sacrificed private interests to + considerations of State policy, could not long be maintained in its + pristine severity. It undermined its own foundations by demanding too + much. Draconian laws threatening confiscation and capital punishment were + of little avail. Nobles became monks, inscribed themselves as merchants, + or engaged themselves as domestic servants, in order to escape their + obligations. "Some," says a contemporary, "grow old in disobedience and + have never once appeared in active service. . . . There is, for instance, + Theodore Mokeyef. . . . In spite of the strict orders sent regarding him + no one could ever catch him. Some of those sent to take him he belaboured + with blows, and when he could not beat the messengers, he pretended to be + dangerously ill, or feigned idiocy, and, running into the pond, stood in + the water up to his neck; but as soon as the messengers were out of sight + he returned home and roared like a lion." * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Pososhkof, "O skudosti i bogatstve." +</pre> + <p> + After Peter's death the system was gradually relaxed, but the Noblesse + could not be satisfied by partial concessions. Russia had in the meantime + moved, as it were, out of Asia into Europe, and had become one of the + great European Powers. The upper classes had been gradually learning + something of the fashions, the literature, the institutions, and the moral + conceptions of Western Europe, and the nobles naturally compared the class + to which they belonged with the aristocracies of Germany and France. For + those who were influenced by the new foreign ideas the comparison was + humiliating. In the West the Noblesse was a free and privileged class, + proud of its liberty, its rights, and its culture; whereas in Russia the + nobles were servants of the State, without privileges, without dignity, + subject to corporal punishment, and burdened with onerous duties from + which there was no escape. Thus arose in that section of the Noblesse + which had some acquaintance with Western civilisation a feeling of + discontent, and a desire to gain a social position similar to that of the + nobles in France and Germany. These aspirations were in part realised by + Peter III., who in 1762 abolished the principle of obligatory service. His + consort, Catherine II., went much farther in the same direction, and + inaugurated a new epoch in the history of the Dvoryanstvo, a period in + which its duties and obligations fell into the background, and its rights + and privileges came to the front. + </p> + <p> + Catherine had good reason to favour the Noblesse. As a foreigner and a + usurper, raised to the throne by a Court conspiracy, she could not awaken + in the masses that semi-religious veneration which the legitimate Tsars + have always enjoyed, and consequently she had to seek support in the upper + classes, who were less rigid and uncompromising in their conceptions of + legitimacy. She confirmed, therefore, the ukaz which abolished obligatory + service of the nobles, and sought to gain their voluntary service by + honours and rewards. In her manifestoes she always spoke of them in the + most flattering terms; and tried to convince them that the welfare of the + country depended on their loyalty and devotion. Though she had no + intention of ceding any of her political power, she formed the nobles of + each province into a corporation, with periodical assemblies, which were + supposed to resemble the French Provincial Parliaments, and entrusted to + each of these corporations a large part of the local administration. By + these and similar means, aided by her masculine energy and feminine tact, + she made herself very popular, and completely changed the old conceptions + about the public service. Formerly service had been looked on as a burden; + now it came to be looked on as a privilege. Thousands who had retired to + their estates after the publication of the liberation edict now flocked + back and sought appointments, and this tendency was greatly increased by + the brilliant campaigns against the Turks, which excited the patriotic + feelings and gave plentiful opportunities of promotion. "Not only landed + proprietors," it is said in a comedy of the time,* "but all men, even + shopkeepers and cobblers, aim at becoming officers, and the man who has + passed his whole life without official rank seems to be not a human + being." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Knyazhnina, "Khvastun." +</pre> + <p> + And Catherine did more than this. She shared the idea—generally + accepted throughout Europe since the brilliant reign of Louis XIV.—that + a refined, pomp-loving, pleasure-seeking Court Noblesse was not only the + best bulwark of Monarchy, but also a necessary ornament of every highly + civilised State; and as she ardently desired that her country should have + the reputation of being highly civilised, she strove to create this + national ornament. The love of French civilisation, which already existed + among the upper classes of her subjects, here came to her aid, and her + efforts in this direction were singularly successful. The Court of St. + Petersburg became almost as brilliant, as galant, and as frivolous as the + Court of Versailles. All who aimed at high honours adopted French + fashions, spoke the French language, and affected an unqualified + admiration for French classical literature. The Courtiers talked of the + point d'honneur, discussed the question as to what was consistent with the + dignity of a noble, sought to display "that chivalrous spirit which + constitutes the pride and ornament of France"; and looked back with horror + on the humiliating position of their fathers and grandfathers. "Peter the + Great," writes one of them, "beat all who surrounded him, without + distinction of family or rank; but now, many of us would certainly prefer + capital punishment to being beaten or flogged, even though the castigation + were applied by the sacred hands of the Lord's Anointed." + </p> + <p> + The tone which reigned in the Court circle of St. Petersburg spread + gradually towards the lower ranks of the Dvoryanstvo, and it seemed to + superficial observers that a very fair imitation of the French Noblesse + had been produced; but in reality the copy was very unlike the model. The + Russian Dvoryanin easily learned the language and assumed the manners of + the French gentilhomme, and succeeded in changing his physical and + intellectual exterior; but all those deeper and more delicate parts of + human nature which are formed by the accumulated experience of past + generations could not be so easily and rapidly changed. The French + gentilhomme of the eighteenth century was the direct descendant of the + feudal baron, with the fundamental conceptions of his ancestors deeply + embedded in his nature. He had not, indeed, the old haughty bearing + towards the Sovereign, and his language was tinged with the fashionable + democratic philosophy of the time; but he possessed a large intellectual + and moral inheritance that had come down to him directly from the palmy + days of feudalism—an inheritance which even the Great Revolution, + which was then preparing, could not annihilate. The Russian noble, on the + contrary, had received from his ancestors entirely different traditions. + His father and grandfather had been conscious of the burdens rather than + the privileges of the class to which they belonged. They had considered it + no disgrace to receive corporal punishment, and had been jealous of their + honour, not as gentlemen or descendants of Boyars, but as Brigadiers, + College Assessors, or Privy Counsellors. Their dignity had rested not on + the grace of God, but on the will of the Tsar. Under these circumstances + even the proudest magnate of Catherine's Court, though he might speak + French as fluently as his mother tongue, could not be very deeply + penetrated with the conception of noble blood, the sacred character of + nobility, and the numerous feudal ideas interwoven with these conceptions. + And in adopting the outward forms of a foreign culture the nobles did not, + it seems, gain much in true dignity. "The old pride of the nobles has + fallen!" exclaims one who had more genuine aristocratic feeling than his + fellows.* "There are no longer any honourable families; but merely + official rank and personal merits. All seek official rank, and as all + cannot render direct services, distinctions are sought by every possible + means—by flattering the Monarch and toadying the important + personages." There was considerable truth in this complaint, but the voice + of this solitary aristocrat was as of one crying in the wilderness. The + whole of the educated classes—men of old family and parvenus alike—were, + with few exceptions, too much engrossed with place-hunting to attend to + such sentimental wailing. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Prince Shtcherbatof. +</pre> + <p> + If the Russian Noblesse was thus in its new form but a very imperfect + imitation of its French model, it was still more unlike the English + aristocracy. Notwithstanding the liberal phrases in which Catherine + habitually indulged, she never had the least intention of ceding one jot + or tittle of her autocratic power, and the Noblesse as a class never + obtained even a shadow of political influence. There was no real + independence under the new airs of dignity and hauteur. In all their acts + and openly expressed opinions the courtiers were guided by the real or + supposed wishes of the Sovereign, and much of their political sagacity was + employed in endeavouring to discover what would please her. "People never + talk politics in the salons," says a contemporary witness,* "not even to + praise the Government. Fear has produced habits of prudence, and the + Frondeurs of the Capital express their opinions only in the confidence of + intimate friendship or in a relationship still more confidential. Those + who cannot bear this constraint retire to Moscow, which cannot be called + the centre of opposition, for there is no such thing as opposition in a + country with an autocratic Government, but which is the capital of the + discontented." And even there the discontent did not venture to show + itself in the Imperial presence. "In Moscow," says another witness, + accustomed to the obsequiousness of Versailles, "you might believe + yourself to be among republicans who have just thrown off the yoke of a + tyrant, but as soon as the Court arrives you see nothing but abject + slaves."** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Segur, long Ambassador of France at the Court of + Catherine. + + ** Sabathier de Cabres, "Catherine II. et la Cour de Russie + en 1772." +</pre> + <p> + Though thus excluded from direct influence in political affairs the + Noblesse might still have acquired a certain political significance in the + State, by means of the Provincial Assemblies, and by the part they took in + local administration; but in reality they had neither the requisite + political experience nor the requisite patience, nor even the desire to + pursue such a policy. The majority of the proprietors preferred the + chances of promotion in the Imperial service to the tranquil life of a + country gentleman; and those who resided permanently on their estates + showed indifference or positive antipathy to everything connected with the + local administration. What was officially described as "a privilege + conferred on the nobles for their fidelity, and for the generous sacrifice + of their lives in their country's cause," was regarded by those who + enjoyed it as a new kind of obligatory service—an obligation to + supply judges and officers of rural police. + </p> + <p> + If we require any additional proof that the nobles amidst all these + changes were still as dependent as ever on the arbitrary will or caprice + of the Monarch, we have only to glance at their position in the time of + Paul I., the capricious, eccentric, violent son and successor of + Catherine. The autobiographical memoirs of the time depict in vivid + colours the humiliating position of even the leading men in the State, in + constant fear of exciting by act, word, or look the wrath of the + Sovereign. As we read these contemporary records we seem to have before us + a picture of ancient Rome under the most despotic and capricious of her + Emperors. Irritated and embittered before his accession to the throne by + the haughty demeanour of his mother's favourites, Paul lost no opportunity + of showing his contempt for aristocratic pretensions, and of humiliating + those who were supposed to harbour them. "Apprenez, Monsieur," he said + angrily on one occasion to Dumouriez, who had accidentally referred to one + of the "considerable" personages of the Court, "Apprenez qu'il n'y a pas + de considerable ici, que la personne a laquelle je parle et pendant le + temps que je lui parle!"* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This saying is often falsely attributed to Nicholas. The + anecdote is related by Segur. +</pre> + <p> + From the time of Catherine down to the accession of Alexander II. in 1855 + no important change was made in the legal status of the Noblesse, but a + gradual change took place in its social character by the continual influx + of Western ideas and Western culture. The exclusively French culture in + vogue at the Court of Catherine assumed a more cosmopolitan colouring, and + permeated downwards till all who had any pretensions to being civilises + spoke French with tolerable fluency and possessed at least a superficial + acquaintance with the literature of Western Europe. What chiefly + distinguished them in the eye of the law from the other classes was the + privilege of possessing "inhabited estates"—that is to say, estates + with serfs. By the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 this valuable + privilege was abolished, and about one-half of their landed property + passed into the hands of the peasantry. By the administrative reforms + which have since taken place, any little significance which the provincial + corporations may have possessed has been annihilated. Thus at the present + day the nobles are on a level with the other classes with regard to the + right of possessing landed property and the administration of local + affairs. + </p> + <p> + From this rapid sketch the reader will easily perceive that the Russian + Noblesse has had a peculiar historical development. In Germany, France, + and England the nobles were early formed into a homogeneous organised body + by the political conditions in which they were placed. They had to repel + the encroaching tendencies of the Monarchy on the one hand, and of the + bourgeoisie on the other; and in this long struggle with powerful rivals + they instinctively held together and developed a vigorous esprit de corps. + New members penetrated into their ranks, but these intruders were so few + in number that they were rapidly assimilated without modifying the general + character or recognised ideals of the class, and without rudely disturbing + the fiction of purity of blood. The class thus assumed more and more the + nature of a caste with a peculiar intellectual and moral culture, and + stoutly defended its position and privileges till the ever-increasing + power of the middle classes undermined its influence. Its fate in + different countries has been different. In Germany it clung to its feudal + traditions, and still preserves its social exclusiveness. In France it was + deprived of its political influence by the Monarchy and crushed by the + Revolution. In England it moderated its pretensions, allied itself with + the middle classes, created under the disguise of constitutional monarchy + an aristocratic republic, and conceded inch by inch, as necessity + demanded, a share of its political influence to the ally that had helped + it to curb the Royal power. Thus the German baron, the French gentilhomme, + and the English nobleman represent three distinct, well-marked types; but + amidst all their diversities they have much in common. They have all + preserved to a greater or less extent a haughty consciousness of innate + inextinguishable superiority over the lower orders, together with a more + or less carefully disguised dislike for the class which has been, and + still is, an aggressive rival. + </p> + <p> + The Russian Noblesse has not these characteristics. It was formed out of + more heterogeneous materials, and these materials did not spontaneously + combine to form an organic whole, but were crushed into a conglomerate + mass by the weight of the autocratic power. It never became a + semi-independent factor in the State. What rights and privileges it + possesses it received from the Monarchy, and consequently it has no + deep-rooted jealousy or hatred of the Imperial prerogative. On the other + hand, it has never had to struggle with the other social classes, and + therefore it harbours towards them no feelings of rivalry or hostility. If + we hear a Russian noble speak with indignation of autocracy or with + acrimony of the bourgeoisie, we may be sure that these feelings have their + source, not in traditional conceptions, but in principles learned from the + modern schools of social and political philosophy. The class to which he + belongs has undergone so many transformations that it has no hoary + traditions or deep-rooted prejudices, and always willingly adapts itself + to existing conditions. Indeed, it may be said in general that it looks + more to the future than the past, and is ever ready to accept any new + ideas that wear the badge of progress. Its freedom from traditions and + prejudices makes it singularly susceptible of generous enthusiasm and + capable of vigorous spasmodic action, but calm moral courage and tenacity + of purpose are not among its prominent attributes. In a word, we find in + it neither the peculiar virtues nor the peculiar vices which are + engendered and fostered by an atmosphere of political liberty. + </p> + <p> + However we may explain the fact, there is no doubt that the Russian + Noblesse has little or nothing of what we call aristocratic feeling—little + or nothing of that haughty, domineering, exclusive spirit which we are + accustomed to associate with the word aristocracy. We find plenty of + Russians who are proud of their wealth, of their culture, or of their + official position, but we rarely find a Russian who is proud of his birth + or imagines that the fact of his having a long pedigree gives him any + right to political privileges or social consideration. Hence there is a + certain amount of truth in the oft-repeated saying that there is in + reality no aristocracy in Russia. + </p> + <p> + Certainly the Noblesse as a whole cannot be called an aristocracy. If the + term is to be used at all, it must be applied to a group of families which + cluster around the Court and form the highest ranks of the Noblesse. This + social aristocracy contains many old families, but its real basis is + official rank and general culture rather than pedigree or blood. The + feudal conceptions of noble birth, good family, and the like have been + adopted by some of its members, but do not form one of its conspicuous + features. Though habitually practising a certain exclusiveness, it has + none of those characteristics of a caste which we find in the German Adel, + and is utterly unable to understand such institutions as Tafelfähigkeit, + by which a man who has not a pedigree of a certain length is considered + unworthy to sit down at a royal table. It takes rather the English + aristocracy as its model, and harbours the secret hope of one day + obtaining a social and political position similar to that of the nobility + and gentry of England. Though it has no peculiar legal privileges, its + actual position in the Administration and at Court gives its members great + facilities for advancement in the public service. On the other hand, its + semi-bureaucratic character, together with the law and custom of dividing + landed property among the children at the death of their parents, deprives + it of stability. New men force their way into it by official distinction, + whilst many of the old families are compelled by poverty to retire from + its ranks. The son of a small proprietor, or even of a parish priest, may + rise to the highest offices of State, whilst the descendants of the + half-mythical Rurik may descend to the position of peasants. It is said + that not very long ago a certain Prince Krapotkin gained his living as a + cabman in St. Petersburg! + </p> + <p> + It is evident, then, that this social aristocracy must not be confounded + with the titled families. Titles do not possess the same value in Russia + as in Western Europe. They are very common—because the titled + families are numerous, and all the children bear the titles of the parents + even while the parents are still alive—and they are by no means + always associated with official rank, wealth, social position, or + distinction of any kind. There are hundreds of princes and princesses who + have not the right to appear at Court, and who would not be admitted into + what is called in St. Petersburg la societe, or indeed into refined + society in any country. + </p> + <p> + The only genuine Russian title is Knyaz, commonly translated "Prince." It + is borne by the descendants of Rurik, of the Lithuanian Prince Ghedimin, + and of the Tartar Khans and Murzi officially recognised by the Tsars. + Besides these, there are fourteen families who have adopted it by Imperial + command during the last two centuries. The titles of count and baron are + modern importations, beginning with the time of Peter the Great. From + Peter and his successors about seventy families have received the title of + count and ten that of baron. The latter are all, with two exceptions, of + foreign extraction, and are mostly descended from Court bankers.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Besides these, there are of course the German counts and + barons of the Baltic Provinces, who are Russian subjects. +</pre> + <p> + There is a very common idea that Russian nobles are as a rule enormously + rich. This is a mistake. The majority of them are poor. At the time of the + Emancipation, in 1861, there were 100,247 landed proprietors, and of + these, more than 41,000 were possessors of less than twenty-one male serfs—that + is to say, were in a condition of poverty. A proprietor who was owner of + 500 serfs was not considered as by any means very rich, and yet there were + only 3,803 proprietors belonging in that category. There were a few, + indeed, whose possessions were enormous. Count Sheremetief, for instance, + possessed more than 150,000 male serfs, or in other words more than + 300,000 souls; and thirty years ago Count Orloff-Davydof owned + considerably more than half a million of acres. The Demidof family derive + colossal revenues from their mines, and the Strogonofs have estates which, + if put together, would be sufficient in extent to form a good-sized + independent State in Western Europe. The very rich families, however, are + not numerous. The lavish expenditure in which Russian nobles often indulge + indicates too frequently not large fortune, but simply foolish ostentation + and reckless improvidence. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, after having spoken so much about the past history of the + Noblesse, I ought to endeavour to cast its horoscope, or at least to say + something of its probable future. Though predictions are always hazardous, + it is sometimes possible, by tracing the great lines of history in the + past, to follow them for a little distance into the future. If it be + allowable to apply this method of prediction in the present matter, I + should say that the Russian Dvoryanstvo will assimilate with the other + classes, rather than form itself into an exclusive corporation. Hereditary + aristocracies may be preserved—or at least their decomposition may + be retarded—where they happen to exist, but it seems that they can + no longer be created. In Western Europe there is a large amount of + aristocratic sentiment, both in the nobles and in the people; but it + exists in spite of, rather than in consequence of, actual social + conditions. It is not a product of modern society, but an heirloom that + has come down to us from feudal times, when power, wealth, and culture + were in the hands of a privileged few. If there ever was in Russia a + period corresponding to the feudal times in Western Europe, it has long + since been forgotten. There is very little aristocratic sentiment either + in the people or in the nobles, and it is difficult to imagine any source + from which it could now be derived. More than this, the nobles do not + desire to make such an acquisition. In so far as they have any political + aspirations, they aim at securing the political liberty of the people as a + whole, and not at acquiring exclusive rights and privileges for their own + class. + </p> + <p> + In that section which I have called a social aristocracy there are a few + individuals who desire to gain exclusive political influence for the class + to which they belong, but there is very little chance of their succeeding. + If their desires were ever by chance realised, we should probably have a + repetition of the scene which occurred in 1730. When in that year some of + the great families raised the Duchess of Courland to the throne on + condition of her ceding part of her power to a supreme council, the lower + ranks of the Noblesse compelled her to tear up the constitution which she + had signed! Those who dislike the autocratic power dislike the idea of an + aristocratic oligarchy infinitely more. Nobles and people alike seem to + hold instinctively the creed of the French philosopher, who thought it + better to be governed by a lion of good family than by a hundred rats of + his own species. + </p> + <p> + Of the present condition of the Noblesse I shall again have occasion to + speak when I come to consider the consequences of the Emancipation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI + </h2> + <h3> + LANDED PROPRIETORS OF THE OLD SCHOOL + </h3> + <p> + Russian Hospitality—A Country-House—Its Owner Described—His + Life, Past and Present—Winter Evenings—Books—-Connection + with the Outer World—The Crimean War and the Emancipation—A + Drunken, Dissolute Proprietor—An Old General and his Wife—"Name + Days"—A Legendary Monster—A Retired Judge—A Clever + Scribe—Social Leniency—Cause of Demoralisation. + </p> + <p> + Of all the foreign countries in which I have travelled, Russia certainly + bears off the palm in the matter of hospitality. Every spring I found + myself in possession of a large number of invitations from landed + proprietors in different parts of the country—far more than I could + possibly accept—and a great part of the summer was generally spent + in wandering about from one country-house to another. I have no intention + of asking the reader to accompany me in all these expeditions—for + though pleasant in reality, they might be tedious in description—but + I wish to introduce him to some typical examples of the landed + proprietors. Among them are to be found nearly all ranks and conditions of + men, from the rich magnate, surrounded with the refined luxury of + West-European civilisation, to the poor, ill-clad, ignorant owner of a few + acres which barely supply him with the necessaries of life. Let us take, + first of all, a few specimens from the middle ranks. + </p> + <p> + In one of the central provinces, near the bank of a sluggish, meandering + stream, stands an irregular group of wooden constructions—old, + unpainted, blackened by time, and surmounted by high, sloping roofs of + moss-covered planks. The principal building is a long, one-storied + dwelling-house, constructed at right angles to the road. At the front of + the house is a spacious, ill-kept yard, and at the back an equally + spacious shady garden, in which art carries on a feeble conflict with + encroaching nature. At the other side of the yard, and facing the front + door—or rather the front doors, for there are two—stand the + stables, hay-shed, and granary, and near to that end of the house which is + farthest from the road are two smaller houses, one of which is the + kitchen, and the other the Lyudskaya, or servants' apartments. Beyond + these we can perceive, through a single row of lime-trees, another group + of time-blackened wooden constructions in a still more dilapidated + condition. That is the farmyard. + </p> + <p> + There is certainly not much symmetry in the disposition of these + buildings, but there is nevertheless a certain order and meaning in the + apparent chaos. All the buildings which do not require stoves are built at + a considerable distance from the dwelling-house and kitchen, which are + more liable to take fire; and the kitchen stands by itself, because the + odour of cookery where oil is used is by no means agreeable, even for + those whose olfactory nerves are not very sensitive. The plan of the house + is likewise not without a certain meaning. The rigorous separation of the + sexes, which formed a characteristic trait of old Russian society, has + long since disappeared, but its influence may still be traced in houses + built on the old model. The house in question is one of these, and + consequently it is composed of three sections—at the one end the + male apartments, at the other the female apartments, and in the middle the + neutral territory, comprising the dining-room and the salon. This + arrangement has its conveniences, and explains the fact that the house has + two front doors. At the back is a third door, which opens from the neutral + territory into a spacious verandah overlooking the garden. + </p> + <p> + Here lives, and has lived for many years, Ivan Ivanovitch K——, + a gentleman of the old school, and a very worthy man of his kind. If we + look at him as he sits in his comfortable armchair, with his capacious + dressing-gown hanging loosely about him, we shall be able to read at a + glance something of his character. Nature endowed him with large bones and + broad shoulders, and evidently intended him to be a man of great muscular + power, but he has contrived to frustrate this benevolent intention, and + has now more fat than muscle. His close-cropped head is round as a bullet, + and his features are massive and heavy, but the heaviness is relieved by + an expression of calm contentment and imperturbable good-nature, which + occasionally blossoms into a broad grin. His face is one of those on which + no amount of histrionic talent could produce a look of care and anxiety, + and for this it is not to blame, for such an expression has never been + demanded of it. Like other mortals, he sometimes experiences little + annoyances, and on such occasions his small grey eyes sparkle and his face + becomes suffused with a crimson glow that suggests apoplexy; but + ill-fortune has never been able to get sufficiently firm hold of him to + make him understand what such words as care and anxiety mean. Of struggle, + disappointment, hope, and all the other feelings which give to human life + a dramatic interest, he knows little by hearsay and nothing by experience. + He has, in fact, always lived outside of that struggle for existence which + modern philosophers declare to be the law of nature. + </p> + <p> + Somewhere about seventy years ago Ivan Ivan'itch was born in the house + where he still lives. His first lessons he received from the parish + priest, and afterwards he was taught by a deacon's son, who had studied in + the ecclesiastical seminary to so little purpose that he was unable to + pass the final examination. By both of these teachers he was treated with + extreme leniency, and was allowed to learn as little as he chose. His + father wished him to study hard, but his mother was afraid that study + might injure his health, and accordingly gave him several holidays every + week. Under these circumstances his progress was naturally not very rapid, + and he was still very slightly acquainted with the elementary rules of + arithmetic, when his father one day declared that he was already eighteen + years of age, and must at once enter the service. + </p> + <p> + But what kind of service? Ivan had no natural inclination for any kind of + activity. The project of entering him as a Junker in a cavalry regiment, + the colonel of which was an old friend of the family, did not at all + please him. He had no love for military service, and positively disliked + the prospect of an examination. Whilst seeming, therefore, to bow + implicitly to the paternal authority, he induced his mother to oppose the + scheme. + </p> + <p> + The dilemma in which Ivan found himself was this: in deference to his + father he wished to be in the service and gain that official rank which + every Russian noble desires to possess, and at the same time, in deference + to his mother and his own tastes, he wished to remain at home and continue + his indolent mode of life. The Marshal of the Noblesse, who happened to + call one day, helped him out of the difficulty by offering to inscribe him + as secretary in the Dvoryanskaya Opeka, a bureau which acts as curator for + the estates of minors. All the duties of this office could be fulfilled by + a paid secretary, and the nominal occupant would be periodically promoted + as if he were an active official. This was precisely what Ivan required. + He accepted eagerly the proposal, and obtained, in the course of seven + years, without any effort on his part, the rank of "collegiate secretary," + corresponding to the "capitaine-en-second" of the military hierarchy. To + mount higher he would have had to seek some place where he could not have + fulfilled his duty by proxy, so he determined to rest on his laurels, and + sent in his resignation. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the termination of his official life his married life + began. Before his resignation had been accepted he suddenly found himself + one morning on the high road to matrimony. Here again there was no effort + on his part. The course of true love, which is said never to run smooth + for ordinary mortals, ran smooth for him. He never had even the trouble of + proposing. The whole affair was arranged by his parents, who chose as + bride for their son the only daughter of their nearest neighbour. The + young lady was only about sixteen years of age, and was not remarkable for + beauty, talent, or any other peculiarity, but she had one very important + qualification—she was the daughter of a man who had an estate + contiguous to their own, and who might give as a dowry a certain bit of + land which they had long desired to add to their own property. The + negotiations, being of a delicate nature, were entrusted to an old lady + who had a great reputation for diplomatic skill in such matters, and she + accomplished her mission with such success that in the course of a few + weeks the preliminaries were arranged and the day fixed for the wedding. + Thus Ivan Ivan'itch won his bride as easily as he had won his tchin of + "collegiate secretary." + </p> + <p> + Though the bridegroom had received rather than taken to himself a wife, + and did not imagine for a moment that he was in love, he had no reason to + regret the choice that was made for him. Maria Petrovna was exactly suited + by character and education to be the wife of a man like Ivan Ivan'itch. + She had grown up at home in the society of nurses and servant-maids, and + had never learned anything more than could be obtained from the parish + priest and from "Ma'mselle," a personage occupying a position midway + between a servant-maid and a governess. The first events of her life were + the announcement that she was to be married and the preparations for the + wedding. She still remembers the delight which the purchase of her + trousseau afforded her, and keeps in her memory a full catalogue of the + articles bought. The first years of her married life were not very happy, + for she was treated by her mother-in-law as a naughty child who required + to be frequently snubbed and lectured; but she bore the discipline with + exemplary patience, and in due time became her own mistress and autocratic + ruler in all domestic affairs. From that time she has lived an active, + uneventful life. Between her and her husband there is as much mutual + attachment as can reasonably be expected in phlegmatic natures after half + a century of matrimony. She has always devoted her energies to satisfying + his simple material wants—of intellectual wants he has none—and + securing his comfort in every possible way. Under this fostering care he + "effeminated himself" (obabilsya), as he is wont to say. His love of + shooting died out, he cared less and less to visit his neighbours, and + each successive year he spent more and more time in his comfortable + arm-chair. + </p> + <p> + The daily life of this worthy couple is singularly regular and monotonous, + varying only with the changing seasons. In summer Ivan Ivan'itch gets up + about seven o'clock, and puts on, with the assistance of his valet de + chambre, a simple costume, consisting chiefly of a faded, plentifully + stained dressing-gown. Having nothing particular to do, he sits down at + the open window and looks into the yard. As the servants pass he stops and + questions them, and then gives them orders, or scolds them, as + circumstances demand. Towards nine o'clock tea is announced, and he goes + into the dining-room—a long, narrow apartment with bare wooden floor + and no furniture but a table and chairs, all in a more or less rickety + condition. Here he finds his wife with the tea-urn before her. In a few + minutes the grandchildren come in, kiss their grandpapa's hand, and take + their places round the table. As this morning meal consists merely of + bread and tea, it does not last long; and all disperse to their several + occupations. The head of the house begins the labours of the day by + resuming his seat at the open window. When he has smoked some cigarettes + and indulged in a proportionate amount of silent contemplation, he goes + out with the intention of visiting the stables and farmyard, but generally + before he has crossed the court he finds the heat unbearable, and returns + to his former position by the open window. Here he sits tranquilly till + the sun has so far moved round that the verandah at the back of the house + is completely in the shade, when he has his arm-chair removed thither, and + sits there till dinner-time. + </p> + <p> + Maria Petrovna spends her morning in a more active way. As soon as the + breakfast table has been cleared she goes to the larder, takes stock of + the provisions, arranges the menu du jour, and gives to the cook the + necessary materials, with detailed instructions as to how they are to be + prepared. The rest of the morning she devotes to her other household + duties. + </p> + <p> + Towards one o'clock dinner is announced, and Ivan Ivan'itch prepares his + appetite by swallowing at a gulp a wineglassful of home-made bitters. + Dinner is the great event of the day. The food is abundant and of good + quality, but mushrooms, onions, and fat play a rather too important part + in the repast, and the whole is prepared with very little attention to the + recognised principles of culinary hygiene. Many of the dishes, indeed, + would make a British valetudinarian stand aghast, but they seem to produce + no bad effect on those Russian organisms which have never been weakened by + town life, nervous excitement, or intellectual exertion. + </p> + <p> + No sooner has the last dish been removed than a deathlike stillness falls + upon the house: it is the time of the after-dinner siesta. The young folks + go into the garden, and all the other members of the household give way to + the drowsiness naturally engendered by a heavy meal on a hot summer day. + Ivan Ivan'itch retires to his own room, from which the flies have been + carefully expelled. Maria Petrovna dozes in an arm-chair in the + sitting-room, with a pocket-handkerchief spread over her face. The + servants snore in the corridors, the garret, or the hay-shed; and even the + old watch-dog in the corner of the yard stretches himself out at full + length on the shady side of his kennel. + </p> + <p> + In about two hours the house gradually re-awakens. Doors begin to creak; + the names of various servants are bawled out in all tones, from bass to + falsetto; and footsteps are heard in the yard. Soon a man-servant issues + from the kitchen bearing an enormous tea-urn, which puffs like a little + steam-engine. The family assembles for tea. In Russia, as elsewhere, sleep + after a heavy meal produces thirst, so that the tea and other beverages + are very acceptable. Then some little delicacies are served—such as + fruit and wild berries, or cucumbers with honey, or something else of the + kind, and the family again disperses. Ivan Ivan'itch takes a turn in the + fields on his begovuiya droshki—an extremely light vehicle composed + of two pairs of wheels joined together by a single board, on which the + driver sits stride-legged; and Maria Petrovna probably receives a visit + from the Popadya (the priest's wife), who is the chief gossipmonger of the + neighbourhood. There is not much scandal in the district, but what little + there is the Popadya carefully collects, and distributes among her + acquaintances with undiscriminating generosity. + </p> + <p> + In the evening it often happens that a little group of peasants come into + the court, and ask to see the "master." The master goes to the door, and + generally finds that they have some favour to request. In reply to his + question, "Well, children, what do you want?" they tell their story in a + confused, rambling way, several of them speaking at a time, and he has to + question and cross-question them before he comes to understand clearly + what they desire. If he tells them he cannot grant it, they probably do + not accept a first refusal, but endeavour by means of supplication to make + him reconsider his decision. Stepping forward a little, and bowing low, + one of the group begins in a half-respectful, half-familiar, caressing + tone: "Little Father, Ivan Ivan'itch, be gracious; you are our father, and + we are your children"—and so on. Ivan Ivan'itch good-naturedly + listens, and again explains that he cannot grant what they ask; but they + have still hopes of gaining their point by entreaty, and continue their + supplications till at last his patience is exhausted and he says to them + in a paternal tone, "Now, enough! enough! you are blockheads—blockheads + all round! There's no use talking; it can't be done." And with these words + he enters the house, so as to prevent all further discussion. + </p> + <p> + A regular part of the evening's occupation is the interview with the + steward. The work that has just been done, and the programme for the + morrow, are always discussed at great length; and much time is spent in + speculating as to the weather during the next few days. On this latter + point the calendar is always carefully consulted, and great confidence is + placed in its predictions, though past experience has often shown that + they are not to be implicitly trusted. The conversation drags on till + supper is announced, and immediately after that meal, which is an abridged + repetition of dinner, all retire for the night. + </p> + <p> + Thus pass the days and weeks and months in the house of Ivan Ivan'itch, + and rarely is there any deviation from the ordinary programme. The climate + necessitates, of course, some slight modifications. When it is cold, the + doors and windows have to be kept shut, and after heavy rains those who do + not like to wade in mud have to remain in the house or garden. In the long + winter evenings the family assembles in the sitting-room, and all kill + time as best they can. Ivan Ivan'itch smokes and meditates or listens to + the barrel-organ played by one of the children. Maria Petrovna knits a + stocking. The old aunt, who commonly spends the winter with them, plays + Patience, and sometimes draws from the game conclusions as to the future. + Her favourite predictions are that a stranger will arrive, or that a + marriage will take place, and she can determine the sex of the stranger + and the colour of the bridegroom's hair; but beyond this her art does not + go, and she cannot satisfy the young ladies' curiosity as to further + details. + </p> + <p> + Books and newspapers are rarely seen in the sitting-room, but for those + who wish to read there is a book-case full of miscellaneous literature, + which gives some idea of the literary tastes of the family during several + generations. The oldest volumes were bought by Ivan Ivan'itch's + grandfather—a man who, according to the family traditions, enjoyed + the confidence of the great Catherine. Though wholly overlooked by recent + historians, he was evidently a man who had some pretensions to culture. He + had his portrait painted by a foreign artist of considerable talent—it + still hangs in the sitting-room—and he bought several pieces of + Sevres ware, the last of which stands on a commode in the corner and + contrasts strangely with the rude home-made furniture and squalid + appearance of the apartment. Among the books which bear his name are the + tragedies of Sumarokof, who imagined himself to be "the Russian Voltaire"; + the amusing comedies of Von-Wisin, some of which still keep the stage; the + loud-sounding odes of the courtly Derzhavin; two or three books containing + the mystic wisdom of Freemasonry as interpreted by Schwarz and Novikoff; + Russian translations of Richardson's "Pamela," "Sir Charles Grandison," + and "Clarissa Harlowe"; Rousseau's "Nouvelle Heloise," in Russian garb; + and three or four volumes of Voltaire in the original. Among the works + collected at a somewhat later period are translations of Ann Radcliffe, of + Scott's early novels, and of Ducray Dumenil, whose stories, "Lolotte et + Fanfan" and "Victor," once enjoyed a great reputation. At this point the + literary tastes of the family appear to have died out, for the succeeding + literature is represented exclusively by Kryloff's Fables, a farmer's + manual, a handbook of family medicine, and a series of calendars. There + are, however, some signs of a revival, for on the lowest shelf stand + recent editions of Pushkin, Lermontof, and Gogol, and a few works by + living authors. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the monotony of the winter is broken by visiting neighbours and + receiving visitors in return, or in a more decided way by a visit of a few + days to the capital of the province. In the latter case Maria Petrovna + spends nearly all her time in shopping, and brings home a large collection + of miscellaneous articles. The inspection of these by the assembled family + forms an important domestic event, which completely throws into the shade + the occasional visits of peddlers and colporteurs. Then there are the + festivities at Christmas and Easter, and occasionally little incidents of + less agreeable kind. It may be that there is a heavy fall of snow, so that + it is necessary to cut roads to the kitchen and stables; or wolves enter + the courtyard at night and have a fight with the watch-dogs; or the news + is brought that a peasant who had been drinking in a neighbouring village + has been found frozen to death on the road. + </p> + <p> + Altogether the family live a very isolated life, but they have one bond of + connection with the great outer world. Two of the sons are officers in the + army and both of them write home occasionally to their mother and sisters. + To these two youths is devoted all the little stock of sentimentality + which Maria Petrovna possesses. She can talk of them by the hour to any + one who will listen to her, and has related to the Popadya a hundred times + every trivial incident of their lives. Though they have never given her + much cause for anxiety, and they are now men of middle age, she lives in + constant fear that some evil may befall them. What she most fears is that + they may be sent on a campaign or may fall in love with actresses. War and + actresses are, in fact, the two bug-bears of her existence, and whenever + she has a disquieting dream she asks the priest to offer up a moleben for + the safety of her absent ones. Sometimes she ventures to express her + anxiety to her husband, and recommends him to write to them; but he + considers writing a letter a very serious bit of work, and always replies + evasively, "Well, well, we must think about it." + </p> + <p> + During the Crimean War Ivan Ivan'itch half awoke from his habitual + lethargy, and read occasionally the meagre official reports published by + the Government. He was a little surprised that no great victories were + reported, and that the army did not at once advance on Constantinople. As + to causes he never speculated. Some of his neighbours told him that the + army was disorganised, and the whole system of Nicholas had been proved to + be utterly worthless. That might all be very true, but he did not + understand military and political matters. No doubt it would all come + right in the end. All did come right, after a fashion, and he again gave + up reading newspapers; but ere long he was startled by reports much more + alarming than any rumours of war. People began to talk about the peasant + question, and to say openly that the serfs must soon be emancipated. For + once in his life Ivan Ivan'itch asked explanations. Finding one of his + neighbours, who had always been a respectable, sensible man, and a severe + disciplinarian, talking in this way, he took him aside and asked what it + all meant. The neighbour explained that the old order of things had shown + itself bankrupt and was doomed, that a new epoch was opening, that + everything was to be reformed, and that the Emperor, in accordance with a + secret clause of the Treaty with the Allies, was about to grant a + Constitution! Ivan Ivan'itch listened for a little in silence, and then, + with a gesture of impatience, interrupted the speaker: "Polno + duratchitsya! enough of fun and tomfoolery. Vassili Petrovitch, tell me + seriously what you mean." + </p> + <p> + When Vassili Petrovitch vowed that he spoke in all seriousness, his friend + gazed at him with a look of intense compassion, and remarked, as he turned + away, "So you, too, have gone out of your mind!" + </p> + <p> + The utterances of Vassili Petrovitch, which his lethargic, sober-minded + friend regarded as indicating temporary insanity in the speaker, + represented fairly the mental condition of very many Russian nobles at + that time, and were not without a certain foundation. The idea about a + secret clause in the Treaty of Paris was purely imaginary, but it was + quite true that the country was entering on an epoch of great reforms, + among which the Emancipation question occupied the chief place. Of this + even the sceptical Ivan Ivan'itch was soon convinced. The Emperor formally + declared to the Noblesse of the province of Moscow that the actual state + of things could not continue forever, and called on the landed proprietors + to consider by what means the condition of their serfs might be + ameliorated. Provincial committees were formed for the purpose of + preparing definite projects, and gradually it became apparent that the + emancipation of the serfs was really at hand. + </p> + <p> + Ivan Ivan'itch was alarmed at the prospect of losing his authority over + his serfs. Though he had never been a cruel taskmaster, he had not spared + the rod when he considered it necessary, and he believed birch twigs to be + a necessary instrument in the Russian system of agriculture. For some time + he drew consolation from the thought that peasants were not birds of the + air, that they must under all circumstances require food and clothing, and + that they would be ready to serve him as agricultural labourers; but when + he learned that they were to receive a large part of the estate for their + own use, his hopes fell, and he greatly feared that he would be inevitably + ruined. + </p> + <p> + These dark forebodings have not been by any means realised. His serfs were + emancipated and received about a half of the estate, but in return for the + land ceded they paid him annually a considerable sum, and they were always + ready to cultivate his fields for a fair remuneration. The yearly outlay + was considerably greater, but the price of grain rose, and this + counterbalanced the additional yearly expenditure. The administration of + the estate has become much less patriarchal; much that was formerly left + to custom and tacit understanding is now regulated by express agreement on + purely commercial principles; a great deal more money is paid out and a + great deal more received; there is much less authority in the hands of the + master, and his responsibilities are proportionately diminished; but in + spite of all these changes, Ivan Ivan'itch would have great difficulty in + deciding whether he is a richer or a poorer man. He has fewer horses and + fewer servants, but he has still more than he requires, and his mode of + life has undergone no perceptible alteration. Maria Petrovna complains + that she is no longer supplied with eggs, chickens, and homespun linen by + the peasants, and that everything is three times as dear as it used to be; + but somehow the larder is still full, and abundance reigns in the house as + of old. + </p> + <p> + Ivan Ivan'itch certainly does not possess transcendent qualities of any + kind. It would be impossible to make a hero out of him, even though his + own son should be his biographer. Muscular Christians may reasonably + despise him, an active, energetic man may fairly condemn him for his + indolence and apathy. But, on the other hand, he has no very bad + qualities. His vices are of the passive, negative kind. He is a + respectable if not a distinguished member of society, and appears a very + worthy man when compared with many of his neighbours who have been brought + up in similar conditions. Take, for instance, his younger brother Dimitri, + who lives a short way off. + </p> + <p> + Dimitri Ivanovitch, like his brother Ivan, had been endowed by nature with + a very decided repugnance to prolonged intellectual exertion, but as he + was a man of good parts he did not fear a Junker's examination—especially + when he could count on the colonel's protection—and accordingly + entered the army. In his regiment were a number of jovial young officers + like himself, always ready to relieve the monotony of garrison life by + boisterous dissipation, and among these he easily acquired the reputation + of being a thoroughly good fellow. In drinking bouts he could hold his own + with the best of them, and in all mad pranks invariably played the chief + part. By this means he endeared himself to his comrades, and for a time + all went well. The colonel had himself sown wild oats plentifully in his + youth, and was quite disposed to overlook, as far as possible, the + bacchanalian peccadilloes of his subordinates. But before many years had + passed, the regiment suddenly changed its character. Certain rumours had + reached headquarters, and the Emperor Nicholas appointed as colonel a + stern disciplinarian of German origin, who aimed at making the regiment a + kind of machine that should work with the accuracy of a chronometer. + </p> + <p> + This change did not at all suit the tastes of Dimitri Ivan'itch. He chafed + under the new restraints, and as soon as he had gained the rank of + lieutenant retired from the service to enjoy the freedom of country life. + Shortly afterwards his father died, and he thereby became owner of an + estate, with two hundred serfs. He did not, like his elder brother, marry, + and "effeminate himself," but he did worse. In his little independent + kingdom—for such was practically a Russian estate in the good old + times—he was lord of all he surveyed, and gave full scope to his + boisterous humour, his passion for sport, and his love of drinking and + dissipation. Many of the mad pranks in which he indulged will long be + preserved by popular tradition, but they cannot well be related here. + </p> + <p> + Dimitri Ivan'itch is now a man long past middle age, and still continues + his wild, dissipated life. His house resembles an ill-kept, disreputable + tavern. The floor is filthy, the furniture chipped and broken, the + servants indolent, slovenly, and in rags. Dogs of all breeds and sizes + roam about the rooms and corridors. The master, when not asleep, is always + in a more or less complete state of intoxication. Generally he has one or + two guests staying with him—men of the same type as himself—and + days and nights are spent in drinking and card-playing. When he cannot + have his usual boon-companions he sends for one or two small proprietors + who live near—men who are legally nobles, but who are so poor that + they differ little from peasants. Formerly, when ordinary resources + failed, he occasionally had recourse to the violent expedient of ordering + his servants to stop the first passing travellers, whoever they might be, + and bring them in by persuasion or force, as circumstances might demand. + If the travellers refused to accept such rough, undesired hospitality, a + wheel would be taken off their tarantass, or some indispensable part of + the harness would be secreted, and they might consider themselves + fortunate if they succeeded in getting away next morning.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This custom has fortunately gone out of fashion even in + outlying districts, but an incident of the kind happened to + a friend of mine as late as 1871. He was detained against + his will for two whole days by a man whom he had never seen + before, and at last effected his escape by bribing the + servants of his tyrannical host. +</pre> + <p> + In the time of serfage the domestic serfs had much to bear from their + capricious, violent master. They lived in an atmosphere of abusive + language, and were subjected not unfrequently to corporal punishment. + Worse than this, their master was constantly threatening to "shave their + forehead"—that is to say, to give them as recruits—and + occasionally he put his threat into execution, in spite of the wailings + and entreaties of the culprit and his relations. And yet, strange to say, + nearly all of them remained with him as free servants after the + Emancipation. + </p> + <p> + In justice to the Russian landed proprietors, I must say that the class + represented by Dimitri Ivan'itch has now almost disappeared. It was the + natural result of serfage and social stagnation—of a state of + society in which there were few legal and moral restraints, and few + inducements to honourable activity. + </p> + <p> + Among the other landed proprietors of the district, one of the best known + is Nicolai Petrovitch B——, an old military man with the rank + of general. Like Ivan Ivan'itch, he belongs to the old school; but the two + men must be contrasted rather than compared. The difference in their lives + and characters is reflected in their outward appearance. Ivan Ivan'itch, + as we know, is portly in form and heavy in all his movements, and loves to + loll in his arm-chair or to loaf about the house in a capacious + dressing-gown. The General, on the contrary, is thin, wiry, and muscular, + wears habitually a close-buttoned military tunic, and always has a stern + expression, the force of which is considerably augmented by a bristly + moustache resembling a shoe-brush. As he paces up and down the room, + knitting his brows and gazing at the floor, he looks as if he were forming + combinations of the first magnitude; but those who know him well are aware + that this is an optical delusion, of which he is himself to some extent a + victim. He is quite innocent of deep thought and concentrated intellectual + effort. Though he frowns so fiercely he is by no means of a naturally + ferocious temperament. Had he passed all his life in the country he would + probably have been as good-natured and phlegmatic as Ivan Ivan'itch + himself, but, unlike that worshipper of tranquillity, he had aspired to + rise in the service, and had adopted the stern, formal bearing which the + Emperor Nicholas considered indispensable in an officer. The manner which + he had at first put on as part of his uniform became by the force of habit + almost a part of his nature, and at the age of thirty he was a stern + disciplinarian and uncompromising formalist, who confined his attention + exclusively to drill and other military duties. Thus he rose steadily by + his own merit, and reached the goal of his early ambition—the rank + of general. + </p> + <p> + As soon as this point was reached he determined to leave the service and + retire to his property. Many considerations urged him to take this step. + He enjoyed the title of Excellency which he had long coveted, and when he + put on his full uniform his breast was bespangled with medals and + decorations. Since the death of his father the revenues of his estate had + been steadily decreasing, and report said that the best wood in his forest + was rapidly disappearing. His wife had no love for the country, and would + have preferred to settle in Moscow or St. Petersburg, but they found that + with their small income they could not live in a large town in a style + suitable to their rank. + </p> + <p> + The General determined to introduce order into his estate, and become a + practical farmer; but a little experience convinced him that his new + functions were much more difficult than the commanding of a regiment. He + has long since given over the practical management of the property to a + steward, and he contents himself with exercising what he imagines to be an + efficient control. Though he wishes to do much, he finds small scope for + his activity, and spends his days in pretty much the same way as Ivan + Ivan'itch, with this difference, that he plays cards whenever he gets an + opportunity, and reads regularly the Moscow Gazette and Russki Invalid, + the official military paper. What specially interests him is the list of + promotions, retirements, and Imperial rewards for merit and seniority. + When he sees the announcement that some old comrade has been made an + officer of his Majesty's suite or has received a grand cordon, he frowns a + little more than usual, and is tempted to regret that he retired from the + service. Had he waited patiently, perhaps a bit of good fortune might have + fallen likewise to his lot. This idea takes possession of him, and during + the remainder of the day he is taciturn and morose. His wife notices the + change, and knows the reason of it, but has too much good sense and tact + to make any allusion to the subject. + </p> + <p> + Anna Alexandrovna—as the good lady is called—is an elderly + dame who does not at all resemble the wife of Ivan Ivan'itch. She was long + accustomed to a numerous military society, with dinner-parties, dancing, + promenades, card-playing, and all the other amusements of garrison life, + and she never contracted a taste for domestic concerns. Her knowledge of + culinary affairs is extremely vague, and she has no idea of how to make + preserves, nalivka, and other home-made delicacies, though Maria Petrovna, + who is universally acknowledged to be a great adept in such matters, has + proposed a hundred times to give her some choice recipes. In short, + domestic affairs are a burden to her, and she entrusts them as far as + possible to the housekeeper. Altogether she finds country life very + tiresome, but, possessing that placid, philosophical temperament which + seems to have some casual connection with corpulence, she submits without + murmuring, and tries to lighten a little the unavoidable monotony by + paying visits and receiving visitors. The neighbours within a radius of + twenty miles are, with few exceptions, more or less of the Ivan Ivan'itch + and Maria Petrovna type—decidedly rustic in their manners and + conceptions; but their company is better than absolute solitude, and they + have at least the good quality of being always able and willing to play + cards for any number of hours. Besides this, Anna Alexandrovna has the + satisfaction of feeling that amongst them she is almost a great personage, + and unquestionably an authority in all matters of taste and fashion; and + she feels specially well disposed towards those of them who frequently + address her as "Your Excellency." + </p> + <p> + The chief festivities take place on the "name-days" of the General and his + spouse—that is to say, the days sacred to St. Nicholas and St. Anna. + On these occasions all the neighbours come to offer their congratulations, + and remain to dinner as a matter of course. After dinner the older + visitors sit down to cards, and the young people extemporise a dance. The + fete is specially successful when the eldest son comes home to take part + in it, and brings a brother officer with him. He is now a general like his + father.* In days gone by one of his comrades was expected to offer his + hand to Olga Nekola'vna, the second daughter, a delicate young lady who + had been educated in one of the great Instituts—gigantic + boarding-schools, founded and kept up by the Government, for the daughters + of those who are supposed to have deserved well of their country. + Unfortunately the expected offer was never made, and she and her sister + live at home as old maids, bewailing the absence of "civilised" society, + and killing time in a harmless, elegant way by means of music, needlework, + and light literature. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Generals are much more common in Russia than in other + countries. A few years ago there was an old lady in Moscow + who had a family of ten sons, all of whom were generals! + The rank may be obtained in the civil as well as the + military service. +</pre> + <p> + At these "name-day" gatherings one used to meet still more interesting + specimens of the old school. One of them I remember particularly. He was a + tall, corpulent old man, in a threadbare frock-coat, which wrinkled up + about his waist. His shaggy eyebrows almost covered his small, dull eyes, + his heavy moustache partially concealed a large mouth strongly indicating + sensuous tendencies. His hair was cut so short that it was difficult to + say what its colour would be if it were allowed to grow. He always arrived + in his tarantass just in time for the zakuska—the appetising + collation that is served shortly before dinner—grunted out a few + congratulations to the host and hostess and monosyllabic greetings to his + acquaintances, ate a copious meal, and immediately afterwards placed + himself at a card-table, where he sat in silence as long as he could get + any one to play with him. People did not like, however, to play with + Andrei Vassil'itch, for his society was not agreeable, and he always + contrived to go home with a well-filled purse. + </p> + <p> + Andrei Vassil'itch was a noted man in the neighbourhood. He was the centre + of a whole cycle of legends, and I have often heard that his name was used + with effect by nurses to frighten naughty children. I never missed an + opportunity of meeting him, for I was curious to see and study a legendary + monster in the flesh. How far the numerous stories told about him were + true I cannot pretend to say, but they were certainly not without + foundation. In his youth he had served for some time in the army, and was + celebrated, even in an age when martinets had always a good chance of + promotion, for his brutality to his subordinates. His career was cut + short, however, when he had only the rank of captain. Having compromised + himself in some way, he found it advisable to send in his resignation and + retire to his estate. Here he organised his house on Mahometan rather than + Christian principles, and ruled his servants and peasants as he had been + accustomed to rule his soldiers—using corporal punishment in + merciless fashion. His wife did not venture to protest against the + Mahometan arrangements, and any peasant who stood in the way of their + realisation was at once given as a recruit, or transported to Siberia, in + accordance with his master's demand.* At last his tyranny and extortion + drove his serfs to revolt. One night his house was surrounded and set on + fire, but he contrived to escape the fate that was prepared for him, and + caused all who had taken part in the revolt to be mercilessly punished. + This was a severe lesson, but it had no effect upon him. Taking + precautions against a similar surprise, he continued to tyrannise and + extort as before, until in 1861 the serfs were emancipated, and his + authority came to an end. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * When a proprietor considered any of his serfs unruly he + could, according to law, have them transported to Siberia + without trial, on condition of paying the expenses of + transport. Arrived at their destination, they received + land, and lived as free colonists, with the single + restriction that they were not allowed to leave the locality + where they settled. +</pre> + <p> + A very different sort of man was Pavel Trophim'itch, who likewise came + regularly to pay his respects and present his congratulations to the + General and "Gheneralsha."* It was pleasant to turn from the hard, + wrinkled, morose features of the legendary monster to the soft, smooth, + jovial face of this man, who had been accustomed to look at the bright + side of things, till his face had caught something of their brightness. "A + good, jovial, honest face!" a stranger might exclaim as he looked at him. + Knowing something of his character and history, I could not endorse such + an opinion. Jovial he certainly was, for few men were more capable of + making and enjoying mirth. Good he might be also called, if the word were + taken in the sense of good-natured, for he never took offence, and was + always ready to do a kindly action if it did not cost him any trouble. But + as to his honesty, that required some qualification. Wholly untarnished + his reputation certainly could not be, for he had been a judge in the + District Court before the time of the judicial reforms; and, not being a + Cato, he had succumbed to the usual temptations. He had never studied law, + and made no pretensions to the possession of great legal knowledge. To all + who would listen to him he declared openly that he knew much more about + pointers and setters than about legal formalities. But his estate was very + small, and he could not afford to give up his appointment. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The female form of the word General. +</pre> + <p> + Of these unreformed Courts, which are happily among the things of the + past, I shall have occasion to speak in the sequel. For the present I wish + merely to say that they were thoroughly corrupt, and I hasten to add that + Pavel Trophim'itch was by no means a judge of the worst kind. He had been + known to protect widows and orphans against those who wished to despoil + them, and no amount of money would induce him to give an unjust decision + against a friend who had privately explained the case to him; but when he + knew nothing of the case or of the parties he readily signed the decision + prepared by the secretary, and quietly pocketed the proceeds, without + feeling any very disagreeable twinges of conscience. All judges, he knew, + did likewise, and he had no pretension to being better than his fellows. + </p> + <p> + When Pavel Trophim'itch played cards at the General's house or elsewhere, + a small, awkward, clean-shaven man, with dark eyes and a Tartar cast of + countenance, might generally be seen sitting at the same table. His name + was Alexei Petrovitch T——. Whether he really had any Tartar + blood in him it is impossible to say, but certainly his ancestors for one + or two generations were all good orthodox Christians. His father had been + a poor military surgeon in a marching regiment, and he himself had become + at an early age a scribe in one of the bureaux of the district town. He + was then very poor, and had great difficulty in supporting life on the + miserable pittance which he received as a salary; but he was a sharp, + clever youth, and soon discovered that even a scribe had a great many + opportunities of extorting money from the ignorant public. + </p> + <p> + These opportunities Alexei Petrovitch used with great ability, and became + known as one of the most accomplished bribe-takers (vzyatotchniki) in the + district. His position, however, was so very subordinate that he would + never have become rich had he not fallen upon a very ingenious expedient + which completely succeeded. Hearing that a small proprietor, who had an + only daughter, had come to live in the town for a few weeks, he took a + room in the inn where the newcomers lived, and when he had made their + acquaintance he fell dangerously ill. Feeling his last hours approaching, + he sent for a priest, confided to him that he had amassed a large fortune, + and requested that a will should be drawn up. In the will he bequeathed + large sums to all his relations, and a considerable sum to the parish + church. The whole affair was to be kept a secret till after his death, but + his neighbour—the old gentleman with the daughter—was called + in to act as a witness. When all this had been done he did not die, but + rapidly recovered, and now induced the old gentleman to whom he had + confided his secret to grant him his daughter's hand. The daughter had no + objections to marry a man possessed of such wealth, and the marriage was + duly celebrated. Shortly after this the father died—without + discovering, it is to be hoped, the hoax that had been perpetrated—and + Alexei Petrovitch became virtual possessor of a very comfortable little + estate. With the change in his fortunes he completely changed his + principles, or at least his practice. In all his dealings he was strictly + honest. He lent money, it is true, at from ten to fifteen per cent., but + that was considered in these parts not a very exorbitant rate of interest, + nor was he unnecessarily hard upon his debtors. + </p> + <p> + It may seem strange that an honourable man like the General should receive + in his house such a motley company, comprising men of decidedly tarnished + reputation; but in this respect he was not at all peculiar. One constantly + meets in Russian society persons who are known to have been guilty of + flagrant dishonesty, and we find that men who are themselves honourable + enough associate with them on friendly terms. This social leniency, moral + laxity, or whatever else it may be called, is the result of various + causes. Several concurrent influences have tended to lower the moral + standard of the Noblesse. Formerly, when the noble lived on his estate, he + could play with impunity the petty tyrant, and could freely indulge his + legitimate and illegitimate caprices without any legal or moral restraint. + I do not at all mean to assert that all proprietors abused their + authority, but I venture to say that no class of men can long possess such + enormous arbitrary power over those around them without being thereby more + or less demoralised. When the noble entered the service he had not the + same immunity from restraint—on the contrary, his position resembled + rather that of the serf—but he breathed an atmosphere of peculation + and jobbery, little conducive to moral purity and uprightness. If an + official had refused to associate with those who were tainted with the + prevailing vices, he would have found himself completely isolated, and + would have been ridiculed as a modern Don Quixote. Add to this that all + classes of the Russian people have a certain kindly, apathetic good-nature + which makes them very charitable towards their neighbours, and that they + do not always distinguish between forgiving private injury and excusing + public delinquencies. If we bear all this in mind, we may readily + understand that in the time of serfage and maladministration a man could + be guilty of very reprehensible practises without incurring social + excommunication. + </p> + <p> + During the period of moral awakening, after the Crimean War and the death + of Nicholas I., society revelled in virtuous indignation against the + prevailing abuses, and placed on the pillory the most prominent + delinquents; but the intensity of the moral feeling has declined, and + something of the old apathy has returned. This might have been predicted + by any one well acquainted with the character and past history of the + Russian people. Russia advances on the road of progress, not in that + smooth, gradual, prosaic way to which we are accustomed, but by a series + of unconnected, frantic efforts, each of which is naturally followed by a + period of temporary exhaustion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII + </h2> + <h3> + PROPRIETORS OF THE MODERN SCHOOL + </h3> + <p> + A Russian Petit Maitre—His House and Surroundings—Abortive + Attempts to Improve Agriculture and the Condition of the Serfs—A + Comparison—A "Liberal" Tchinovnik—His Idea of Progress—A + Justice of the Peace—His Opinion of Russian Literature, Tchinovniks, + and Petits Maitres—His Supposed and Real Character—An Extreme + Radical—Disorders in the Universities—Administrative Procedure—Russia's + Capacity for Accomplishing Political and Social Evolutions—A Court + Dignitary in his Country House. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto I have presented to the reader old-fashioned types which were + common enough thirty years ago, when I first resided in Russia, but which + are rapidly disappearing. Let me now present a few of the modern school. + </p> + <p> + In the same district as Ivan Ivan'itch and the General lives Victor + Alexandr'itch L——. As we approach his house we can at once + perceive that he differs from the majority of his neighbours. The gate is + painted and moves easily on its hinges, the fence is in good repair, the + short avenue leading up to the front door is well kept, and in the garden + we can perceive at a glance that more attention is paid to flowers than to + vegetables. The house is of wood, and not large, but it has some + architectural pretensions in the form of a great, pseudo-Doric wooden + portico that covers three-fourths of the façade. In the interior we remark + everywhere the influence of Western civilisation. Victor Alexandr'itch is + by no means richer than Ivan Ivan'itch, but his rooms are much more + luxuriously furnished. The furniture is of a lighter model, more + comfortable, and in a much better state of preservation. Instead of the + bare, scantily furnished sitting-room, with the old-fashioned barrel-organ + which played only six airs, we find an elegant drawing-room, with a piano + by one of the most approved makers, and numerous articles of foreign + manufacture, comprising a small buhl table and two bits of genuine old + Wedgwood. The servants are clean, and dressed in European costume. The + master, too, is very different in appearance. He pays great attention to + his toilette, wearing a dressing-gown only in the early morning, and a + fashionable lounging coat during the rest of the day. The Turkish pipes + which his grandfather loved he holds in abhorrence, and habitually smokes + cigarettes. With his wife and daughters he always speaks French, and calls + them by French or English names. + </p> + <p> + But the part of the house which most strikingly illustrates the difference + between old and new is "le cabinet de monsieur." In the cabinet of Ivan + Ivan'itch the furniture consists of a broad sofa which serves as a bed, a + few deal chairs, and a clumsy deal table, on which are generally to be + found a bundle of greasy papers, an old chipped ink-bottle, a pen, and a + calendar. The cabinet of Victor Alexandr'itch has an entirely different + appearance. It is small, but at once comfortable and elegant. The + principal objects which it contains are a library-table, with ink-stand, + presse-papier, paper-knives, and other articles in keeping, and in the + opposite corner a large bookcase. The collection of books is remarkable, + not from the number of volumes or the presence of rare editions, but from + the variety of the subjects. History, art, fiction, the drama, political + economy, and agriculture are represented in about equal proportions. Some + of the works are in Russian, others in German, a large number in French, + and a few in Italian. The collection illustrates the former life and + present occupations of the owner. + </p> + <p> + The father of Victor Alexandr'itch was a landed proprietor who had made a + successful career in the civil service, and desired that his son should + follow the same profession. For this purpose Victor was first carefully + trained at home, and then sent to the University of Moscow, where he spent + four years as a student of law. From the University he passed to the + Ministry of the Interior in St. Petersburg, but he found the monotonous + routine of official life not at all suited to his taste, and very soon + sent in his resignation. The death of his father had made him proprietor + of an estate, and thither he retired, hoping to find there plenty of + occupation more congenial than the writing of official papers. + </p> + <p> + At the University of Moscow he had attended lectures on history and + philosophy, and had got through a large amount of desultory reading. The + chief result of his studies was the acquisition of many ill-digested + general principles, and certain vague, generous, humanitarian aspirations. + With this intellectual capital he hoped to lead a useful life in the + country. When he had repaired and furnished the house he set himself to + improve the estate. In the course of his promiscuous reading he had + stumbled on some descriptions of English and Tuscan agriculture, and had + there learned what wonders might be effected by a rational system of + farming. Why should not Russia follow the example of England and Tuscany? + By proper drainage, plentiful manure, good ploughs, and the cultivation of + artificial grasses, the production might be multiplied tenfold; and by the + introduction of agricultural machines the manual labour might be greatly + diminished. All this seemed as simple as a sum in arithmetic, and Victor + Alexandr'itch, more scholarum rei familiaris ignarus, without a moment's + hesitation expended his ready money in procuring from England a + threshing-machine, ploughs, harrows, and other implements of the newest + model. + </p> + <p> + The arrival of these was an event that was long remembered. The peasants + examined them with attention, not unmixed with wonder, but said nothing. + When the master explained to them the advantages of the new instruments, + they still remained silent. Only one old man, gazing at the + threshing-machine, remarked, in an audible "aside," "A cunning people, + these Germans!"* On being asked for their opinion, they replied vaguely, + "How should we know? It OUGHT to be so." But when their master had + retired, and was explaining to his wife and the French governess that the + chief obstacle to progress in Russia was the apathetic indolence and + conservative spirit of the peasantry, they expressed their opinions more + freely. "These may be all very well for the Germans, but they won't do for + us. How are our little horses to drag these big ploughs? And as for that + [the threshing-machine], it's of no use." Further examination and + reflection confirmed this first impression, and it was unanimously decided + that no good would come of the new-fangled inventions. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Russian peasant comprehends all the inhabitants of + Western Europe under the term Nyemtsi, which in the language + of the educated designates only Germans. The rest of + humanity is composed of Pravoslavniye (Greek Orthodox), + Busurmanye (Mahometans), and Poliacki (Poles). +</pre> + <p> + These apprehensions proved to be only too well founded. The ploughs were + much too heavy for the peasants' small horses, and the threshing-machine + broke down at the first attempt to use it. For the purchase of lighter + implements or stronger horses there was no ready money, and for the + repairing of the threshing-machine there was not an engineer within a + radius of a hundred and fifty miles. The experiment was, in short, a + complete failure, and the new purchases were put away out of sight. + </p> + <p> + For some weeks after this incident Victor Alexandr'itch felt very + despondent, and spoke more than usual about the apathy and stupidity of + the peasantry. His faith in infallible science was somewhat shaken, and + his benevolent aspirations were for a time laid aside. But this eclipse of + faith was not of long duration. Gradually he recovered his normal + condition, and began to form new schemes. From the study of certain works + on political economy he learned that the system of communal property was + ruinous to the fertility of the soil, and that free labour was always more + productive than serfage. By the light of these principles he discovered + why the peasantry in Russia were so poor, and by what means their + condition could he ameliorated. The Communal land should be divided into + family lots, and the serfs, instead of being forced to work for the + proprietor, should pay a yearly sum as rent. The advantages of this change + he perceived clearly—as clearly as he had formerly perceived the + advantages of English agricultural implements—and he determined to + make the experiment on his own estate. + </p> + <p> + His first step was to call together the more intelligent and influential + of his serfs, and to explain to them his project; but his efforts at + explanation were eminently unsuccessful. Even with regard to ordinary + current affairs he could not express himself in that simple, homely + language with which alone the peasants are familiar, and when he spoke on + abstract subjects he naturally became quite unintelligible to his + uneducated audience. The serfs listened attentively, but understood + nothing. He might as well have spoken to them, as he often did in another + kind of society, about the comparative excellence of Italian and German + music. At a second attempt he had rather more success. The peasants came + to understand that what he wished was to break up the Mir, or rural + Commune, and to put them all on obrok—that is to say, make them pay + a yearly sum instead of giving him a certain amount of agricultural + labour. Much to his astonishment, his scheme did not meet with any + sympathy. As to being put on obrok, the serfs did not much object, though + they preferred to remain as they were; but his proposal to break up the + Mir astonished and bewildered them. They regarded it as a sea-captain + might regard the proposal of a scientific wiseacre to knock a hole in the + ship's bottom in order to make her sail faster. Though they did not say + much, he was intelligent enough to see that they would offer a strenuous + passive resistance, and as he did not wish to act tyrannically, he let the + matter drop. Thus a second benevolent scheme was shipwrecked. Many other + schemes had a similar fate, and Victor Alexandr'itch began to perceive + that it was very difficult to do good in this world, especially when the + persons to be benefited were Russian peasants. + </p> + <p> + In reality the fault lay less with the serfs than with their master. + Victor Alexandr'itch was by no means a stupid man. On the contrary, he had + more than average talents. Few men were more capable of grasping a new + idea and forming a scheme for its realisation, and few men could play more + dexterously with abstract principles. What he wanted was the power of + dealing with concrete facts. The principles which he had acquired from + University lectures and desultory reading were far too vague and abstract + for practical use. He had studied abstract science without gaining any + technical knowledge of details, and consequently when he stood face to + face with real life he was like a student who, having studied mechanics in + text-books, is suddenly placed in a workshop and ordered to construct a + machine. Only there was one difference: Victor Alexandr'itch was not + ordered to do anything. Voluntarily, without any apparent necessity, he + set himself to work with tools which he could not handle. It was this that + chiefly puzzled the peasants. Why should he trouble himself with these new + schemes, when he might live comfortably as he was? In some of his projects + they could detect a desire to increase the revenue, but in others they + could discover no such motive. In these latter they attributed his conduct + to pure caprice, and put it into the same category as those mad pranks in + which proprietors of jovial humour sometimes indulged. + </p> + <p> + In the last years of serfage there were a good many landed proprietors + like Victor Alexandr'itch—men who wished to do something beneficent, + and did not know how to do it. When serfage was being abolished the + majority of these men took an active part in the great work and rendered + valuable service to their country. Victor Alexandr'itch acted otherwise. + At first he sympathised warmly with the proposed emancipation and wrote + several articles on the advantages of free labour, but when the Government + took the matter into its own hands he declared that the officials had + deceived and slighted the Noblesse, and he went over to the opposition. + Before the Imperial Edict was signed he went abroad, and travelled for + three years in Germany, France, and Italy. Shortly after his return he + married a pretty, accomplished young lady, the daughter of an eminent + official in St. Petersburg, and since that time he has lived in his + country-house. + </p> + <p> + Though a man of education and culture, Victor Alexandr'itch spends his + time in almost as indolent a way as the men of the old school. He rises + somewhat later, and instead of sitting by the open window and gazing into + the courtyard, he turns over the pages of a book or periodical. Instead of + dining at midday and supping at nine o'clock, he takes dejeuner at twelve + and dines at five. He spends less time in sitting in the verandah and + pacing up and down with his hands behind his back, for he can vary the + operation of time-killing by occasionally writing a letter, or by standing + behind his wife at the piano while she plays selections from Mozart and + Beethoven. But these peculiarities are merely variations in detail. If + there is any essential difference between the lives of Victor + Alexandr'itch and of Ivan Ivan'itch, it is in the fact that the former + never goes out into the fields to see how the work is done, and never + troubles himself with the state of the weather, the condition of the + crops, and cognate subjects. He leaves the management of his estate + entirely to his steward, and refers to that personage all peasants who + come to him with complaints or petitions. Though he takes a deep interest + in the peasant as an impersonal, abstract entity, and loves to contemplate + concrete examples of the genus in the works of certain popular authors, he + does not like to have any direct relations with peasants in the flesh. If + he has to speak with them he always feels awkward, and suffers from the + odour of their sheepskins. Ivan Ivan'itch is ever ready to talk with the + peasants, and give them sound, practical advice or severe admonitions; and + in the old times he was apt, in moments of irritation, to supplement his + admonitions by a free use of his fists. Victor Alexandr'itch, on the + contrary, never could give any advice except vague commonplace, and as to + using his fist, he would have shrunk from that, not only from respect to + humanitarian principles, but also from motives which belong to the region + of aesthetic sensitiveness. + </p> + <p> + This difference between the two men has an important influence on their + pecuniary affairs. The stewards of both steal from their masters; but that + of Ivan Ivan'itch steals with difficulty, and to a very limited extent, + whereas that of Victor Alexandr'itch steals regularly and methodically, + and counts his gains, not by kopecks, but by roubles. Though the two + estates are of about the same size and value, they give a very different + revenue. The rough, practical man has a much larger income than his + elegant, well-educated neighbour, and at the same time spends very much + less. The consequences of this, if not at present visible, must some day + become painfully apparent. Ivan Ivan'itch will doubtless leave to his + children an unencumbered estate and a certain amount of capital. The + children of Victor Alexandr'itch have a different prospect. He has already + begun to mortgage his property and to cut down the timber, and he always + finds a deficit at the end of the year. What will become of his wife and + children when the estate comes to be sold for payment of the mortgage, it + is difficult to predict. He thinks very little of that eventuality, and + when his thoughts happen to wander in that direction he consoles himself + with the thought that before the crash comes he will have inherited a + fortune from a rich uncle who has no children. + </p> + <p> + The proprietors of the old school lead the same uniform, monotonous life + year after year, with very little variation. Victor Alexandr'itch, on the + contrary, feels the need of a periodical return to "civilised society," + and accordingly spends a few weeks every winter in St. Petersburg. During + the summer months he has the society of his brother—un homme tout a + fait civilise—who possesses an estate a few miles off. + </p> + <p> + This brother, Vladimir Alexandr'itch, was educated in the School of Law in + St. Petersburg, and has since risen rapidly in the service. He holds now a + prominent position in one of the Ministries, and has the honourary court + title of "Chambellan de sa Majeste." He is a marked man in the higher + circles of the Administration, and will, it is thought, some day become + Minister. Though an adherent of enlightened views, and a professed + "Liberal," he contrives to keep on very good terms with those who imagine + themselves to be "Conservatives." In this he is assisted by his soft, oily + manner. If you express an opinion to him he will always begin by telling + you that you are quite right; and if he ends by showing you that you are + quite wrong, he will at least make you feel that your error is not only + excusable, but in some way highly creditable to your intellectual + acuteness or goodness of heart. In spite of his Liberalism he is a staunch + Monarchist, and considers that the time has not yet come for the Emperor + to grant a Constitution. He recognises that the present order of things + has its defects, but thinks that, on the whole, it acts very well, and + would act much better if certain high officials were removed, and more + energetic men put in their places. Like all genuine St. Petersburg + tchinovniks (officials), he has great faith in the miraculous power of + Imperial ukazes and Ministerial circulars, and believes that national + progress consists in multiplying these documents, and centralising the + Administration, so as to give them more effect. As a supplementary means + of progress he highly approves of aesthetic culture, and he can speak with + some eloquence of the humanising influence of the fine arts. For his own + part he is well acquainted with French and English classics, and + particularly admires Macaulay, whom he declares to have been not only a + great writer, but also a great statesman. Among writers of fiction he + gives the palm to George Eliot, and speaks of the novelists of his own + country, and, indeed, of Russian literature as a whole, in the most + disparaging terms. + </p> + <p> + A very different estimate of Russian literature is held by Alexander + Ivan'itch N——, formerly arbiter in peasant affairs, and + afterwards justice of the peace. Discussions on this subject often take + place between the two. The admirer of Macaulay declares that Russia has, + properly speaking, no literature whatever, and that the works which bear + the names of Russian authors are nothing but a feeble echo of the + literature of Western Europe. "Imitators," he is wont to say, "skilful + imitators, we have produced in abundance. But where is there a man of + original genius? What is our famous poet Zhukofski? A translator. What is + Pushkin? A clever pupil of the romantic school. What is Lermontoff? A + feeble imitator of Byron. What is Gogol?" + </p> + <p> + At this point Alexander Ivan'itch invariable intervenes. He is ready to + sacrifice all the pseudo-classic and romantic poetry, and, in fact, the + whole of Russian literature anterior to about the year 1840, but he will + not allow anything disrespectful to be said of Gogol, who about that time + founded the Russian realistic school. "Gogol," he holds, "was a great and + original genius. Gogol not only created a new kind of literature; he at + the same time transformed the reading public, and inaugurated a new era in + the intellectual development of the nation. By his humorous, satirical + sketches he swept away the metaphysical dreaming and foolish romantic + affectation then in fashion, and taught men to see their country as it + was, in all its hideous ugliness. With his help the young generation + perceived the rottenness of the Administration, and the meanness, + stupidity, dishonesty, and worthlessness of the landed proprietors, whom + he made the special butt of his ridicule. The recognition of defects + produced a desire for reform. From laughing at the proprietors there was + but one step to despising them, and when we learned to despise the + proprietors we naturally came to sympathise with the serfs. Thus the + Emancipation was prepared by the literature; and when the great question + had to be solved, it was the literature that discovered a satisfactory + solution." + </p> + <p> + This is a subject on which Alexander Ivan'itch feels very strongly, and on + which he always speaks with warmth. He knows a good deal regarding the + intellectual movement which began about 1840, and culminated in the great + reforms of the sixties. As a University student he troubled himself very + little with serious academic work, but he read with intense interest all + the leading periodicals, and adopted the doctrine of Belinski that art + should not be cultivated for its own sake, but should be made subservient + to social progress. This belief was confirmed by a perusal of some of + George Sand's earlier works, which were for him a kind of revelation. + Social questions engrossed his thoughts, and all other subjects seemed + puny by comparison. When the Emancipation question was raised he saw an + opportunity of applying some of his theories, and threw himself + enthusiastically into the new movement as an ardent abolitionist. When the + law was passed he helped to put it into execution by serving for three + years as an Arbiter of the Peace. Now he is an old man, but he has + preserved some of his youthful enthusiasm, attends regularly the annual + assemblies of the Zemstvo, and takes a lively interest in all public + affairs. + </p> + <p> + As an ardent partisan of local self-government he habitually scoffs at the + centralised bureaucracy, which he proclaims to be the great bane of his + unhappy country. "These tchinovniks," he is wont to say in moments of + excitement, "who live in St. Petersburg and govern the Empire, know about + as much of Russia as they do of China. They live in a world of official + documents, and are hopelessly ignorant of the real wants and interests of + the people. So long as all the required formalities are duly observed they + are perfectly satisfied. The people may be allowed to die of starvation if + only the fact do not appear in the official reports. Powerless to do any + good themselves, they are powerful enough to prevent others from working + for the public good, and are extremely jealous of all private initiative. + How have they acted, for instance, towards the Zemstvo? The Zemstvo is + really a good institution, and might have done great things if it had been + left alone, but as soon as it began to show a little independent energy + the officials at once clipped its wings and then strangled it. Towards the + Press they have acted in the same way. They are afraid of the Press, + because they fear above all things a healthy public opinion, which the + Press alone can create. Everything that disturbs the habitual routine + alarms them. Russia cannot make any real progress so long as she is ruled + by these cursed tchinovniks." + </p> + <p> + Scarcely less pernicious than the tchinovnik, in the eyes of our would-be + reformer, is the baritch—that is to say, the pampered, capricious, + spoiled child of mature years, whose life is spent in elegant indolence + and fine talking. Our friend Victor Alexandr'itch is commonly selected as + a representative of this type. "Look at him!" exclaims Alexander + Ivan'itch. "What a useless, contemptible member of society! In spite of + his generous aspirations he never succeeds in doing anything useful to + himself or to others. When the peasant question was raised and there was + work to be done, he went abroad and talked liberalism in Paris and + Baden-Baden. Though he reads, or at least professes to read, books on + agriculture, and is always ready to discourse on the best means of + preventing the exhaustion of the soil, he knows less of farming than a + peasant-boy of twelve, and when he goes into the fields he can hardly + distinguish rye from oats. Instead of babbling about German and Italian + music, he would do well to learn a little about practical farming, and + look after his estate." + </p> + <p> + Whilst Alexander Ivan'itch thus censures his neighbours, he is himself not + without detractors. Some staid old proprietors regard him as a dangerous + man, and quote expressions of his which seem to indicate that his notions + of property are somewhat loose. Many consider that his liberalism is of a + very violent kind, and that he has strong republican sympathies. In his + decisions as Justice he often leaned, it is said, to the side of the + peasants against the proprietors. Then he was always trying to induce the + peasants of the neighbouring villages to found schools, and he had + wonderful ideas about the best method of teaching children. These and + similar facts make many people believe that he has very advanced ideas, + and one old gentleman habitually calls him—half in joke and half in + earnest—"our friend the communist." + </p> + <p> + In reality Alexander Ivan'itch has nothing of the communist about him. + Though he loudly denounces the tchinovnik spirit—or, as we should + say, red-tape in all its forms—and is an ardent partisan of local + self-government, he is one of the last men in the world to take part in + any revolutionary movement, he would like to see the Central Government + enlightened and controlled by public opinion and by a national + representation, but he believes that this can only be effected by + voluntary concessions on the part of the autocratic power. He has, + perhaps, a sentimental love of the peasantry, and is always ready to + advocate its interests; but he has come too much in contact with + individual peasants to accept those idealised descriptions in which some + popular writers indulge, and it may safely be asserted that the accusation + of his voluntarily favouring peasants at the expense of the proprietors is + wholly unfounded. Alexander Ivan'itch is, in fact, a quiet, sensible man, + who is capable of generous enthusiasm, and is not at all satisfied with + the existing state of things; but he is not a dreamer and a + revolutionnaire, as some of his neighbours assert. + </p> + <p> + I am afraid I cannot say as much for his younger brother Nikolai, who + lives with him. Nikolai Ivan'itch is a tall, slender man, about sixty + years of age, with emaciated face, bilious complexion and long black hair—evidently + a person of excitable, nervous temperament. When he speaks he articulates + rapidly, and uses more gesticulation than is common among his countrymen. + His favourite subject of conversation, or rather of discourse, for he more + frequently preaches than talks, is the lamentable state of the country and + the worthlessness of the Government. Against the Government he has a great + many causes for complaint, and one or two of a personal kind. In 1861 he + was a student in the University of St. Petersburg. At that time there was + a great deal of public excitement all over Russia, and especially in the + capital. The serfs had just been emancipated, and other important reforms + had been undertaken. There was a general conviction among the young + generation—and it must be added among many older men—that the + autocratic, paternal system of government was at an end, and that Russia + was about to be reorganised according to the most advanced principles of + political and social science. The students, sharing this conviction, + wished to be freed from all academical authority, and to organise a kind + of academic self-government. They desired especially the right of holding + public meetings for the discussion of their common affairs. The + authorities would not allow this, and issued a list of rules prohibiting + meetings and raising the class-fees, so as practically to exclude many of + the poorer students. This was felt to be a wanton insult to the spirit of + the new era. In spite of the prohibition, indignation meetings were held, + and fiery speeches made by male and female orators, first in the + class-rooms, and afterwards in the courtyard of the University. On one + occasion a long procession marched through the principal streets to the + house of the Curator. Never had such a spectacle been seen before in St. + Petersburg. Timid people feared that it was the commencement of a + revolution, and dreamed about barricades. At last the authorities took + energetic measures; about three hundred students were arrested, and of + these, thirty-two were expelled from the University. + </p> + <p> + Among those who were expelled was Nicolai Ivan'itch. All his hopes of + becoming a professor, as he had intended, were thereby shipwrecked, and he + had to look out for some other profession. A literary career now seemed + the most promising, and certainly the most congenial to his tastes. It + would enable him to gratify his ambition of being a public man, and give + him opportunities of attacking and annoying his persecutors. He had + already written occasionally for one of the leading periodicals, and now + he became a regular contributor. His stock of positive knowledge was not + very large, but he had the power of writing fluently and of making his + readers believe that he had an unlimited store of political wisdom which + the Press-censure prevented him from publishing. Besides this, he had the + talent of saying sharp, satirical things about those in authority, in such + a way that even a Press censor could not easily raise objections. Articles + written in this style were sure at that time to be popular, and his had a + very great success. He became a known man in literary circles, and for a + time all went well. But gradually he became less cautious, whilst the + authorities became more vigilant. Some copies of a violent seditious + proclamation fell into the hands of the police, and it was generally + believed that the document proceeded from the coterie to which he + belonged. From that moment he was carefully watched, till one night he was + unexpectedly roused from his sleep by a gendarme and conveyed to the + fortress. + </p> + <p> + When a man is arrested in this way for a real or supposed political + offence, there are two modes of dealing with him. He may be tried before a + regular tribunal, or he may be dealt with "by administrative procedure" + (administrativnym poryadkom). In the former case he will, if convicted, be + condemned to imprisonment for a certain term; or, if the offence be of a + graver nature, he may be transported to Siberia either for a fixed period + or for life. By the administrative procedure he is simply removed without + a trial to some distant town, and compelled to live there under police + supervision during his Majesty's pleasure. Nikolai Ivan'itch was treated + "administratively," because the authorities, though convinced that he was + a dangerous character, could not find sufficient evidence to procure his + conviction before a court of justice. For five years he lived under police + supervision in a small town near the White Sea, and then one day he was + informed, without any explanation, that he might go and live anywhere he + pleased except in St. Petersburg and Moscow. + </p> + <p> + Since that time he has lived with his brother, and spends his time in + brooding over his grievances and bewailing his shattered illusions. He has + lost none of that fluency which gained him an ephemeral literary + reputation, and can speak by the hour on political and social questions to + any one who will listen to him. It is extremely difficult, however, to + follow his discourses, and utterly impossible to retain them in the + memory. They belong to what may be called political metaphysics—for + though he professes to hold metaphysics in abhorrence, he is himself a + thorough metaphysician in his modes of thought. He lives, indeed, in a + world of abstract conceptions, in which he can scarcely perceive concrete + facts, and his arguments are always a kind of clever juggling with such + equivocal, conventional terms as aristocracy, bourgeoisie, monarchy, and + the like. At concrete facts he arrives, not directly by observation, but + by deductions from general principles, so that his facts can never by any + possibility contradict his theories. Then he has certain axioms which he + tacitly assumes, and on which all his arguments are based; as, for + instance, that everything to which the term "liberal" can be applied must + necessarily be good at all times and under all conditions. + </p> + <p> + Among a mass of vague conceptions which it is impossible to reduce to any + clearly defined form he has a few ideas which are perhaps not strictly + true, but which are at least intelligible. Among these is his conviction + that Russia has let slip a magnificent opportunity of distancing all + Europe on the road of progress. She might, he thinks, at the time of the + Emancipation, have boldly accepted all the most advanced principles of + political and social science, and have completely reorganised the + political and social structure in accordance with them. Other nations + could not take such a step, because they are old and decrepit, filled with + stubborn, hereditary prejudices, and cursed with an aristocracy and a + bourgeoisie; but Russia is young, knows nothing of social castes, and has + no deep-rooted prejudices to contend with. The population is like potter's + clay, which can be made to assume any form that science may recommend. + Alexander II. began a magnificent sociological experiment, but he stopped + half-way. + </p> + <p> + Some day, he believes, the experiment will be completed, but not by the + autocratic power. In his opinion autocracy is "played out," and must give + way to Parliamentary institutions. For him a Constitution is a kind of + omnipotent fetish. You may try to explain to him that a Parliamentary + regime, whatever its advantages may be, necessarily produces political + parties and political conflicts, and is not nearly so suitable for grand + sociological experiments as a good paternal despotism. You may try to + convince him that, though it may be difficult to convert an autocrat, it + is infinitely more difficult to convert a House of Commons. But all your + efforts will be in vain. He will assure you that a Russian Parliament + would be something quite different from what Parliaments commonly are. It + would contain no parties, for Russia has no social castes, and would be + guided entirely by scientific considerations—as free from prejudice + and personal influences as a philosopher speculating on the nature of the + Infinite! In short, he evidently imagines that a national Parliament would + be composed of himself and his friends, and that the nation would calmly + submit to their ukazes, as it has hitherto submitted to the ukazes of the + Tsars. + </p> + <p> + Pending the advent of this political Millennium, when unimpassioned + science is to reign supreme, Nikolai Ivan'itch allows himself the luxury + of indulging in some very decided political animosities, and he hates with + the fervour of a fanatic. Firstly and chiefly, he hates what he calls the + bourgeoisie—he is obliged to use the French word, because his native + language does not contain an equivalent term—and especially + capitalists of all sorts and dimensions. Next, he hates aristocracy, + especially a form of aristocracy called Feudalism. To these abstract terms + he does not attach a very precise meaning, but he hates the entities which + they are supposed to represent quite as heartily as if they were personal + enemies. Among the things which he hates in his own country, the + Autocratic Power holds the first place. Next, as an emanation from the + Autocratic Power, come the tchinovniks, and especially the gendarmes. Then + come the landed proprietors. Though he is himself a landed proprietor, he + regards the class as cumberers of the ground, and thinks that all their + land should be confiscated and distributed among the peasantry. + </p> + <p> + All proprietors have the misfortune to come under his sweeping + denunciations, because they are inconsistent with his ideal of a peasant + Empire, but he recognises amongst them degrees of depravity. Some are + simply obstructive, whilst others are actively prejudicial to the public + welfare. Among these latter a special object of aversion is Prince S——, + because he not only possesses very large estates, but at the same time has + aristocratic pretensions, and calls himself Conservative. + </p> + <p> + Prince S—— is by far the most important man in the district. + His family is one of the oldest in the country, but he does not owe his + influence to his pedigree, for pedigree pure and simple does not count for + much in Russia. He is influential and respected because he is a great + land-holder with a high official position, and belongs by birth to that + group of families which forms the permanent nucleus of the ever-changing + Court society. His father and grandfather were important personages in the + Administration and at Court, and his sons and grandsons will probably in + this respect follow in the footsteps of their ancestors. Though in the eye + of the law all nobles are equal, and, theoretically speaking, promotion is + gained exclusively by personal merit, yet, in reality, those who have + friends at Court rise more easily and more rapidly. + </p> + <p> + The Prince has had a prosperous but not very eventful life. He was + educated, first at home, under an English tutor, and afterwards in the + Corps des Pages. On leaving this institution he entered a regiment of the + Guards, and rose steadily to high military rank. His activity, however, + has been chiefly in the civil administration, and he now has a seat in the + Council of State. Though he has always taken a certain interest in public + affairs, he did not play an important part in any of the great reforms. + When the peasant question was raised he sympathised with the idea of + Emancipation, but did not at all sympathise with the idea of giving land + to the emancipated serfs and preserving the Communal institutions. What he + desired was that the proprietors should liberate their serfs without any + pecuniary indemnity, and should receive in return a certain share of + political power. His scheme was not adopted, but he has not relinquished + the hope that the great landed proprietors may somehow obtain a social and + political position similar to that of the great land-owners in England. + </p> + <p> + Official duties and social relations compel the Prince to live for a large + part of the year in the capital. He spends only a few weeks yearly on his + estate. The house is large, and fitted up in the English style, with a + view to combining elegance and comfort. It contains several spacious + apartments, a library, and a billiard-room. There is an extensive park, an + immense garden with hot houses, numerous horses and carriages, and a + legion of servants. In the drawing-room is a plentiful supply of English + and French books, newspapers, and periodicals, including the Journal de + St. Petersbourg, which gives the news of the day. + </p> + <p> + The family have, in short, all the conveniences and comforts which money + and refinement can procure, but it cannot be said that they greatly enjoy + the time spent in the country. The Princess has no decided objection to + it. She is devoted to a little grandchild, is fond of reading and + correspondence, amuses herself with a school and hospital which she has + founded for the peasantry, and occasionally drives over to see her friend, + the Countess N——, who lives about fifteen miles off. + </p> + <p> + The Prince, however, finds country life excessively dull. He does not care + for riding or shooting, and he finds nothing else to do. He knows nothing + about the management of his estate, and holds consultations with the + steward merely pro forma—this estate and the others which he + possesses in different provinces being ruled by a head-steward in St. + Petersburg, in whom he has the most complete confidence. In the vicinity + there is no one with whom he cares to associate. Naturally he is not a + sociable man, and he has acquired a stiff, formal, reserved manner that is + rarely met with in Russia. This manner repels the neighbouring proprietors—a + fact that he does not at all regret, for they do not belong to his monde, + and they have in their manners and habits a free-and-easy rusticity which + is positively disagreeable to him. His relations with them are therefore + confined to formal calls. The greater part of the day he spends in + listless loitering, frequently yawning, regretting the routine of St. + Petersburg life—the pleasant chats with his colleagues, the opera, + the ballet, the French theatre, and the quiet rubber at the Club Anglais. + His spirits rise as the day of his departure approaches, and when he + drives off to the station he looks bright and cheerful. If he consulted + merely his own tastes he would never visit his estates at all, and would + spend his summer holidays in Germany, France, or Switzerland, as he did in + his bachelor days; but as a large landowner he considers it right to + sacrifice his personal inclinations to the duties of his position. + </p> + <p> + There is, by the way, another princely magnate in the district, and I + ought perhaps to introduce him to my readers, because he represents + worthily a new type. Like Prince S——, of whom I have just + spoken, he is a great land-owner and a descendant of the half-mythical + Rurik; but he has no official rank, and does not possess a single grand + cordon. In that respect he has followed in the footsteps of his father and + grandfather, who had something of the frondeur spirit, and preferred the + position of a grand seigneur and a country gentleman to that of a + tchinovnik and a courtier. In the Liberal camp he is regarded as a + Conservative, but he has little in common with the Krepostnik, who + declares that the reforms of the last half-century were a mistake, that + everything is going to the bad, that the emancipated serfs are all + sluggards, drunkards, and thieves, that the local self-government is an + ingenious machine for wasting money, and that the reformed law-courts have + conferred benefits only on the lawyers. On the contrary, he recognises the + necessity and beneficent results of the reforms, and with regard to the + future he has none of the despairing pessimism of the incorrigible old + Tory. + </p> + <p> + But in order that real progress should be made, he thinks that certain + current and fashionable errors must be avoided, and among these errors he + places, in the first rank, the views and principles of the advanced + Liberals, who have a blind admiration for Western Europe, and for what + they are pleased to call the results of science. Like the Liberals of the + West, these gentlemen assume that the best form of government is + constitutionalism, monarchical or republican, on a broad democratic basis, + and towards the realisation of this ideal all their efforts are directed. + Not so our Conservative friend. While admitting that democratic + Parliamentary institutions may be the best form of government for the more + advanced nations of the West, he maintains that the only firm foundation + for the Russian Empire, and the only solid guarantee of its future + prosperity, is the Autocratic Power, which is the sole genuine + representative of the national spirit. Looking at the past from this point + of view, he perceives that the Tsars have ever identified themselves with + the nation, and have always understood, in part instinctively and in part + by reflection, what the nation really required. Whenever the infiltration + of Western ideas threatened to swamp the national individuality, the + Autocratic Power intervened and averted the danger by timely precautions. + Something of the kind may be observed, he believes, at present, when the + Liberals are clamouring for a Parliament and a Constitution; but the + Autocratic Power is on the alert, and is making itself acquainted with the + needs of the people by means far more effectual than could be supplied by + oratorical politicians. + </p> + <p> + With the efforts of the Zemstvo in this direction, and with the activity + of the Zemstvo generally, the Prince has little sympathy, partly because + the institution is in the hands of the Liberals and is guided by their + unpractical ideas, and partly because it enables some ambitious outsiders + to acquire the influence in local affairs which ought to be exercised by + the old-established noble families of the neighbourhood. What he would + like to see is an enlightened, influential gentry working in conjunction + with the Autocratic Power for the good of the country. If Russia could + produce a few hundred thousand men like himself, his ideal might perhaps + be realised. For the present, such men are extremely rare—I should + have difficulty in naming a dozen of them—and aristocratic ideas are + extremely unpopular among the great majority of the educated classes. When + a Russian indulges in political speculation, he is pretty sure to show + himself thoroughly democratic, with a strong leaning to socialism. + </p> + <p> + The Prince belongs to the highest rank of the Russian Noblesse. If we wish + to get an idea of the lowest rank, we can find in the neighbourhood a + number of poor, uneducated men, who live in small, squalid houses, and are + not easily to be distinguished from peasants. They are nobles, like his + Highness; but, unlike him, they enjoy no social consideration, and their + landed property consists of a few acres of land which barely supply them + with the first necessaries of life. If we went to other parts of the + country we might find men in this condition bearing the title of Prince! + This is the natural result of the Russian law of inheritance, which does + not recognise the principle of primogeniture with regard to titles and + estates. All the sons of a Prince are Princes, and at his death his + property, movable and immovable, is divided amongst them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII + </h2> + <h3> + SOCIAL CLASSES + </h3> + <p> + Do Social Classes or Castes Exist in Russia?—Well-marked Social + Types—Classes Recognised by the Legislation and the Official + Statistics—Origin and Gradual Formation of these Classes—Peculiarity + in the Historical Development of Russia—Political Life and Political + Parties. + </p> + <p> + In the preceding pages I have repeatedly used the expression "social + classes," and probably more than once the reader has felt inclined to ask, + What are social classes in the Russian sense of the term? It may be well, + therefore, before going farther, to answer this question. + </p> + <p> + If the question were put to a Russian it is not at all unlikely that he + would reply somewhat in this fashion: "In Russia there are no social + classes, and there never have been any. That fact constitutes one of the + most striking peculiarities of her historical development, and one of the + surest foundations of her future greatness. We know nothing, and have + never known anything, of those class distinctions and class enmities which + in Western Europe have often rudely shaken society in past times, and + imperil its existence in the future." + </p> + <p> + This statement will not be readily accepted by the traveller who visits + Russia with no preconceived ideas and forms his opinions from his own + observations. To him it seems that class distinctions form one of the most + prominent characteristics of Russian society. In a few days he learns to + distinguish the various classes by their outward appearance. He easily + recognises the French-speaking nobles in West-European costume; the burly, + bearded merchant in black cloth cap and long, shiny, double-breasted coat; + the priest with his uncut hair and flowing robes; the peasant with his + full, fair beard and unsavoury, greasy sheepskin. Meeting everywhere those + well-marked types, he naturally assumes that Russian society is composed + of exclusive castes; and this first impression will be fully confirmed by + a glance at the Code. On examining that monumental work, he finds that an + entire volume—and by no means the smallest—is devoted to the + rights and obligations of the various classes. From this he concludes that + the classes have a legal as well as an actual existence. To make assurance + doubly sure he turns to official statistics, and there he finds the + following table: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Hereditary nobles........652,887 + Personal nobles..........374,367 + Clerical classes.........695,905 + Town classes...........7,196,005 + Rural classes.........63,840,291 + Military classes.......4,767,703 + Foreigners...............153,185 + ————— 77,680,293* +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Livron: "Statistitcheskoe Obozrenie Rossiiskoi Imperii," + St. Petersburg, 1875. The above figures include the whole + Empire. The figures according to the latest census (1897) + are not yet available. +</pre> + <p> + Armed with these materials, the traveller goes to his Russian friends who + have assured him that their country knows nothing of class distinctions. + He is confident of being able to convince them that they have been + labouring under a strange delusion, but he will be disappointed. They will + tell him that these laws and statistics prove nothing, and that the + categories therein mentioned are mere administrative fictions. + </p> + <p> + This apparent contradiction is to be explained by the equivocal meaning of + the Russian terms Sosloviya and Sostoyaniya, which are commonly translated + "social classes." If by these terms are meant "castes" in the Oriental + sense, then it may be confidently asserted that such do not exist in + Russia. Between the nobles, the clergy, the burghers, and the peasants + there are no distinctions of race and no impassable barriers. The peasant + often becomes a merchant, and there are many cases on record of peasants + and sons of parish priests becoming nobles. Until very recently the parish + clergy composed, as we have seen, a peculiar and exclusive class, with + many of the characteristics of a caste; but this has been changed, and it + may now be said that in Russia there are no castes in the Oriental sense. + </p> + <p> + If the word Sosloviya be taken to mean an organised political unit with an + esprit de corps and a clearly conceived political aim, it may likewise be + admitted that there are none in Russia. As there has been for centuries no + political life among the subjects of the Tsars, there have been no + political parties. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, to say that social classes have never existed in Russia + and that the categories which appear in the legislation and in the + official statistics are mere administrative fictions, is a piece of gross + exaggeration. + </p> + <p> + From the very beginning of Russian history we can detect unmistakably the + existence of social classes, such as the Princes, the Boyars, the armed + followers of the Princes, the peasantry, the slaves, and various others; + and one of the oldest legal documents which we possess—the "Russian + Right" (Russkaya Pravda) of the Grand Prince Yaroslaff (1019-1054)—contains + irrefragable proof, in the penalties attached to various crimes, that + these classes were formally recognised by the legislation. Since that time + they have frequently changed their character, but they have never at any + period ceased to exist. + </p> + <p> + In ancient times, when there was very little administrative regulation, + the classes had perhaps no clearly defined boundaries, and the + peculiarities which distinguished them from each other were actual rather + than legal—lying in the mode of life and social position rather than + in peculiar obligations and privileges. But as the autocratic power + developed and strove to transform the nation into a State with a highly + centralised administration, the legal element in the social distinctions + became more and more prominent. For financial and other purposes the + people had to be divided into various categories. The actual distinctions + were of course taken as the basis of the legal classification, but the + classifying had more than a merely formal significance. The necessity of + clearly defining the different groups entailed the necessity of elevating + and strengthening the barriers which already existed between them, and the + difficulty of passing from one group to another was thereby increased. + </p> + <p> + In this work of classification Peter the Great especially distinguished + himself. With his insatiable passion for regulation, he raised formidable + barriers between the different categories, and defined the obligations of + each with microscopic minuteness. After his death the work was carried on + in the same spirit, and the tendency reached its climax in the reign of + Nicholas, when the number of students to be received in the universities + was determined by Imperial ukaz! + </p> + <p> + In the reign of Catherine a new element was introduced into the official + conception of social classes. Down to her time the Government had thought + merely of class obligations; under the influence of Western ideas she + introduced the conception of class rights. She wished, as we have seen, to + have in her Empire a Noblesse and tiers-etat like those which existed in + France, and for this purpose she granted, first to the Dvoryanstvo and + afterwards to the towns, an Imperial Charter, or Bill of Rights. + Succeeding sovereigns have acted in the same spirit, and the Code now + confers on each class numerous privileges as well as numerous obligations. + </p> + <p> + Thus, we see, the oft-repeated assertion that the Russian social classes + are simply artificial categories created by the legislature is to a + certain extent true, but is by no means accurate. The social groups, such + as peasants, landed proprietors, and the like, came into existence in + Russia, as in other countries, by the simple force of circumstances. The + legislature merely recognised and developed the social distinctions which + already existed. The legal status, obligations, and rights of each group + were minutely defined and regulated, and legal barriers were added to the + actual barriers which separated the groups from each other. + </p> + <p> + What is peculiar in the historical development of Russia is this: until + lately she remained an almost exclusively agricultural Empire with + abundance of unoccupied land. Her history presents, therefore, few of + those conflicts which result from the variety of social conditions and the + intensified struggle for existence. Certain social groups were, indeed, + formed in the course of time, but they were never allowed to fight out + their own battles. The irresistible autocratic power kept them always in + check and fashioned them into whatever form it thought proper, defining + minutely and carefully their obligations, their rights, their mutual + relations, and their respective positions in the political organisation. + Hence we find in the history of Russia almost no trace of those class + hatreds which appear so conspicuously in the history of Western Europe.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is, I believe, the true explanation of an important + fact, which the Slavophils endeavoured to explain by an + ill-authenticated legend (vide supra p.151). +</pre> + <p> + The practical consequence of all this is that in Russia at the present day + there is very little caste spirit or caste prejudice. Within half-a-dozen + years after the emancipation of the serfs, proprietors and peasants, + forgetting apparently their old relationship of master and serf, were + working amicably together in the new local administration, and not a few + similar curious facts might be cited. The confident anticipation of many + Russians that their country will one day enjoy political life without + political parties is, if not a contradiction in terms, at least a Utopian + absurdity; but we may be sure that when political parties do appear they + will be very different from those which exist in Germany, France, and + England. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, let us see how the country is governed without political + parties and without political life in the West-European sense of the term. + This will form the subject of our next chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV + </h2> + <h3> + THE IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION AND THE OFFICIALS + </h3> + <p> + The Officials in Norgorod Assist Me in My Studies—The Modern + Imperial Administration Created by Peter the Great, and Developed by his + Successors—A Slavophil's View of the Administration—The + Administration Briefly Described—The Tchinovniks, or Officials—Official + Titles, and Their Real Significance—What the Administration Has Done + for Russia in the Past—Its Character Determined by the Peculiar + Relation between the Government and the People—Its Radical Vices—Bureaucratic + Remedies—Complicated Formal Procedure—The Gendarmerie: My + Personal Relations with this Branch of the Administration; Arrest and + Release—A Strong, Healthy Public Opinion the Only Effectual Remedy + for Bad Administration. + </p> + <p> + My administrative studies were begun in Novgorod. One of my reasons for + spending a winter in that provincial capital was that I might study the + provincial administration, and as soon as I had made the acquaintance of + the leading officials I explained to them the object I had in view. With + the kindly bonhomie which distinguishes the Russian educated classes, they + all volunteered to give me every assistance in their power, but some of + them, on mature reflection, evidently saw reason to check their first + generous impulse. Among these was the Vice-Governor, a gentleman of German + origin, and therefore more inclined to be pedantic than a genuine Russian. + When I called on him one evening and reminded him of his friendly offer, I + found to my surprise that he had in the meantime changed his mind. Instead + of answering my first simple inquiry, he stared at me fixedly, as if for + the purpose of detecting some covert, malicious design, and then, putting + on an air of official dignity, informed me that as I had not been + authorised by the Minister to make these investigations, he could not + assist me, and would certainly not allow me to examine the archives. + </p> + <p> + This was not encouraging, but it did not prevent me from applying to the + Governor, and I found him a man of a very different stamp. Delighted to + meet a foreigner who seemed anxious to study seriously in an unbiassed + frame of mind the institutions of his much-maligned native country, he + willingly explained to me the mechanism of the administration which he + directed and controlled, and kindly placed at my disposal the books and + documents in which I could find the historical and practical information + which I required. + </p> + <p> + This friendly attitude of his Excellency towards me soon became generally + known in the town, and from that moment my difficulties were at an end. + The minor officials no longer hesitated to initiate me into the mysteries + of their respective departments, and at last even the Vice-Governor threw + off his reserve and followed the example of his colleagues. The elementary + information thus acquired I had afterwards abundant opportunities of + completing by observation and study in other parts of the Empire, and I + now propose to communicate to the reader a few of the more general + results. + </p> + <p> + The gigantic administrative machine which holds together all the various + parts of the vast Empire has been gradually created by successive + generations, but we may say roughly that it was first designed and + constructed by Peter the Great. Before his time the country was governed + in a rude, primitive fashion. The Grand Princes of Moscow, in subduing + their rivals and annexing the surrounding principalities, merely cleared + the ground for a great homogeneous State. Wily, practical politicians, + rather than statesmen of the doctrinaire type, they never dreamed of + introducing uniformity and symmetry into the administration as a whole. + They developed the ancient institutions so far as these were useful and + consistent with the exercise of autocratic power, and made only such + alterations as practical necessity demanded. And these necessary + alterations were more frequently local than general. Special decisions, + instruction to particular officials, and charters for particular communes + of proprietors were much more common than general legislative measures. + </p> + <p> + In short, the old Muscovite Tsars practised a hand-to-mouth policy, + destroying whatever caused temporary inconvenience, and giving little heed + to what did not force itself upon their attention. Hence, under their rule + the administration presented not only territorial peculiarities, but also + an ill-assorted combination of different systems in the same district—a + conglomeration of institutions belonging to different epochs, like a fleet + composed of triremes, three-deckers, and iron-clads. + </p> + <p> + This irregular system, or rather want of system, seemed highly + unsatisfactory to the logical mind of Peter the Great, and he conceived + the grand design of sweeping it away, and putting in its place a + symmetrical bureaucratic machine. It is scarcely necessary to say that + this magnificent project, so foreign to the traditional ideas and customs + of the people, was not easily realised. Imagine a man, without technical + knowledge, without skilled workmen, without good tools, and with no better + material than soft, crumbling sandstone, endeavouring to build a palace on + a marsh! The undertaking would seem to reasonable minds utterly absurd, + and yet it must be admitted that Peter's project was scarcely more + feasible. He had neither technical knowledge, nor the requisite materials, + nor a firm foundation to build on. With his usual Titanic energy he + demolished the old structure, but his attempts to construct were little + more than a series of failures. In his numerous ukazes he has left us a + graphic description of his efforts, and it is at once instructive and + pathetic to watch the great worker toiling indefatigably at his + self-imposed task. His instruments are constantly breaking in his hands. + The foundations of the building are continually giving way, and the lower + tiers crumbling under the superincumbent weight. Now and then a whole + section is found to be unsuitable, and is ruthlessly pulled down, or falls + of its own accord. And yet the builder toils on, with a perseverance and + an energy of purpose that compel admiration, frankly confessing his + mistakes and failures, and patiently seeking the means of remedying them, + never allowing a word of despondency to escape him, and never despairing + of ultimate success. And at length death comes, and the mighty builder is + snatched away suddenly in the midst of his unfinished labours, bequeathing + to his successors the task of carrying on the great work. + </p> + <p> + None of these successors possessed Peter's genius and energy—with + the exception perhaps of Catherine II.—but they were all compelled + by the force of circumstances to adopt his plans. A return to the old + rough-and-ready rule of the local Voyevods was impossible. As the + Autocratic Power became more and more imbued with Western ideas, it felt + more and more the need of new means for carrying them out, and accordingly + it strove to systematise and centralise the administration. + </p> + <p> + In this change we may perceive a certain analogy with the history of the + French administration from the reign of Philippe le Bel to that of Louis + XIV. In both countries we see the central power bringing the local + administrative organs more and more under its control, till at last it + succeeds in creating a thoroughly centralised bureaucratic organisation. + But under this superficial resemblance lie profound differences. The + French kings had to struggle with provincial sovereignties and feudal + rights, and when they had annihilated this opposition they easily found + materials with which to build up the bureaucratic structure. The Russian + sovereigns, on the contrary, met with no such opposition, but they had + great difficulty in finding bureaucratic material amongst their + uneducated, undisciplined subjects, notwithstanding the numerous schools + and colleges which were founded and maintained simply for the purpose of + preparing men for the public service. + </p> + <p> + The administration was thus brought much nearer to the West-European + ideal, but some people have grave doubts as to whether it became thereby + better adapted to the practical wants of the people for whom it was + created. On this point a well-known Slavophil once made to me some remarks + which are worthy of being recorded. "You have observed," he said, "that + till very recently there was in Russia an enormous amount of official + peculation, extortion, and misgovernment of every kind, that the courts of + law were dens of iniquity, that the people often committed perjury, and + much more of the same sort, and it must be admitted that all this has not + yet entirely disappeared. But what does it prove? That the Russian people + are morally inferior to the German? Not at all. It simply proves that the + German system of administration, which was forced upon them without their + consent, was utterly unsuited to their nature. If a young growing boy be + compelled to wear very tight boots, he will probably burst them, and the + ugly rents will doubtless produce an unfavourable impression on the + passers-by; but surely it is better that the boots should burst than that + the feet should be deformed. Now, the Russian people was compelled to put + on not only tight boots, but also a tight jacket, and, being young and + vigorous, it burst them. Narrow-minded, pedantic Germans can neither + understand nor provide for the wants of the broad Slavonic nature." + </p> + <p> + In its present form the Russian administration seems at first sight a very + imposing edifice. At the top of the pyramid stands the Emperor, "the + autocratic monarch," as Peter the Great described him, "who has to give an + account of his acts to no one on earth, but has power and authority to + rule his States and lands as a Christian sovereign according to his own + will and judgment." Immediately below the Emperor we see the Council of + State, the Committee of Ministers, and the Senate, which represent + respectively the legislative, the administrative, and the judicial power. + An Englishman glancing over the first volume of the great Code of Laws + might imagine that the Council of State is a kind of Parliament, and the + Committee of Ministers a cabinet in our sense of the term, but in reality + both institutions are simply incarnations of the Autocratic Power. Though + the Council is entrusted by law with many important functions—such + as discussing Bills, criticising the annual budget, declaring war and + concluding peace—it has merely a consultative character, and the + Emperor is not in any way bound by its decisions. The Committee is not at + all a cabinet as we understand the word. The Ministers are directly and + individually responsible to the Emperor, and therefore the Committee has + no common responsibility or other cohesive force. As to the Senate, it has + descended from its high estate. It was originally entrusted with the + supreme power during the absence or minority of the monarch, and was + intended to exercise a controlling influence in all sections of the + administration, but now its activity is restricted to judicial matters, + and it is little more than a supreme court of appeal. + </p> + <p> + Immediately below these three institutions stand the Ministries, ten in + number. They are the central points in which converge the various kinds of + territorial administration, and from which radiates the Imperial will all + over the Empire. + </p> + <p> + For the purpose of territorial administration Russia proper—that is + to say, European Russia, exclusive of Poland, the Baltic Provinces, + Finland and the Caucasus—is divided into forty-nine provinces or + "Governments" (gubernii), and each Government is subdivided into Districts + (uyezdi). The average area of a province is about the size of Portugal, + but some are as small as Belgium, whilst one at least is twenty-five times + as big. The population, however, does not correspond to the amount of + territory. In the largest province, that of Archangel, there are only + about 350,000 inhabitants, whilst in two of the smaller ones there are + over three millions. The districts likewise vary greatly in size. Some are + smaller than Oxfordshire or Buckingham, and others are bigger than the + whole of the United Kingdom. + </p> + <p> + Over each province is placed a Governor, who is assisted in his duties by + a Vice-Governor and a small council. According to the legislation of + Catherine II., which still appears in the Code and has only been partially + repealed, the Governor is termed "the steward of the province," and is + entrusted with so many and such delicate duties, that in order to obtain + qualified men for the post it would be necessary to realise the great + Empress's design of creating, by education, "a new race of people." Down + to the time of the Crimean War the Governors understood the term + "stewards" in a very literal sense, and ruled in a most arbitrary, + high-handed style, often exercising an important influence on the civil + and criminal tribunals. These extensive and vaguely defined powers have + now been very much curtailed, partly by positive legislation, and partly + by increased publicity and improved means of communication. All judicial + matters have been placed theoretically beyond the Governor's control, and + many of his former functions are now fulfilled by the Zemstvo—the + new organ of local self-government. Besides this, all ordinary current + affairs are regulated by an already big and ever-growing body of + instructions, in the form of Imperial orders and ministerial circulars, + and as soon as anything not provided for by the instructions happens to + occur, the minister is consulted through the post-office or by telegraph. + </p> + <p> + Even within the sphere of their lawful authority the Governors have now a + certain respect for public opinion and occasionally a very wholesome dread + of casual newspaper correspondents. Thus the men who were formerly + described by the satirists as "little satraps" have sunk to the level of + subordinate officials. I can confidently say that many (I believe the + majority) of them are honest, upright men, who are perhaps not endowed + with any unusual administrative capacities, but who perform their duties + faithfully according to their lights. If any representatives of the old + "satraps" still exist, they must be sought for in the outlying Asiatic + provinces. + </p> + <p> + Independent of the Governor, who is the local representative of the + Ministry of the Interior, are a number of resident officials, who + represent the other ministries, and each of them has a bureau, with the + requisite number of assistants, secretaries, and scribes. + </p> + <p> + To keep this vast and complex bureaucratic machine in motion it is + necessary to have a large and well-drilled army of officials. These are + drawn chiefly from the ranks of the Noblesse and the clergy, and form a + peculiar social class called Tchinovniks, or men with Tchins. As the Tchin + plays an important part in Russia, not only in the official world, but + also to some extent in social life, it may be well to explain its + significance. + </p> + <p> + All offices, civil and military, are, according to a scheme invented by + Peter the Great, arranged in fourteen classes or ranks, and to each class + or rank a particular name is attached. As promotion is supposed to be + given according to personal merit, a man who enters the public service for + the first time must, whatever be his social position, begin in the lower + ranks, and work his way upwards. Educational certificates may exempt him + from the necessity of passing through the lowest classes, and the Imperial + will may disregard the restrictions laid down by law; but as general rule + a man must begin at or near the bottom of the official ladder, and he must + remain on each step a certain specified time. The step on which he is for + the moment standing, or, in other words, the official rank or tchin which + he possesses determines what offices he is competent to hold. Thus rank or + tchin is a necessary condition for receiving an appointment, but it does + not designate any actual office, and the names of the different ranks are + extremely apt to mislead a foreigner. + </p> + <p> + We must always bear this in mind when we meet with those imposing titles + which Russian tourists sometimes put on their visiting cards, such as + "Conseiller de Cour," "Conseiller d'Etat," "Conseiller prive de S. M. + l'Empereur de toutes les Russies." It would be uncharitable to suppose + that these titles are used with the intention of misleading, but that they + do sometimes mislead there cannot be the least doubt. I shall never forget + the look of intense disgust which I once saw on the face of an American + who had invited to dinner a "Conseiller de Cour," on the assumption that + he would have a Court dignitary as his guest, and who casually discovered + that the personage in question was simply an insignificant official in one + of the public offices. No doubt other people have had similar experiences. + The unwary foreigner who has heard that there is in Russia a very + important institution called the "Conseil d'Etat," naturally supposes that + a "Conseiller d'Etat" is a member of that venerable body; and if he meets + "Son Excellence le Conseiller prive," he is pretty sure to assume—especially + if the word "actuel" has been affixed—that he sees before him a real + living member of the Russian Privy Council. When to the title is added, + "de S. M. l'Empereur de toutes les Russies," a boundless field is opened + up to the non-Russian imagination. In reality these titles are not nearly + so important as they seem. The soi-disant "Conseiller de Cour" has + probably nothing to do with the Court. The Conseiller d'Etat is so far + from being a member of the Conseil d'Etat that he cannot possibly become a + member till he receives a higher tchin.* As to the Privy Councillor, it is + sufficient to say that the Privy Council, which had a very odious + reputation in its lifetime, died more than a century ago, and has not + since been resuscitated. The explanation of these anomalies is to be found + in the fact that the Russian tchins, like the German honorary titles—Hofrath, + Staatsrath, Geheimrath—of which they are a literal translation, + indicate not actual office, but simply official rank. Formerly the + appointment to an office generally depended on the tchin; now there is a + tendency to reverse the old order of things and make the tchin depend upon + the office actually held. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In Russian the two words are quite different; the Council + is called Gosudarstvenny sovet, and the title Statski + sovetnik. +</pre> + <p> + The reader of practical mind who is in the habit of considering results + rather than forms and formalities desires probably no further description + of the Russian bureaucracy, but wishes to know simply how it works in + practice. What has it done for Russia in the past, and what is it doing in + the present? + </p> + <p> + At the present day, when faith in despotic civilisers and paternal + government has been rudely shaken, and the advantages of a free, + spontaneous national development are fully recognised, centralised + bureaucracies have everywhere fallen into bad odour. In Russia the dislike + to them is particularly strong, because it has there something more than a + purely theoretical basis. The recollection of the reign of Nicholas I., + with its stern military regime, and minute, pedantic formalism, makes many + Russians condemn in no measured terms the administration under which they + live, and most Englishmen will feel inclined to endorse this condemnation. + Before passing sentence, however, we ought to know that the system has at + least an historical justification, and we must not allow our love of + constitutional liberty and local self-government to blind us to the + distinction between theoretical and historical possibility. What seems to + political philosophers abstractly the best possible government may be + utterly inapplicable in certain concrete cases. We need not attempt to + decide whether it is better for humanity that Russia should exist as a + nation, but we may boldly assert that without a strongly centralised + administration Russia would never have become one of the great European + Powers. Until comparatively recent times the part of the world which is + known as the Russian Empire was a conglomeration of independent or + semi-independent political units, animated with centrifugal as well as + centripetal forces; and even at the present day it is far from being a + compact homogeneous State. It was the autocratic power, with the + centralised administration as its necessary complement, that first created + Russia, then saved her from dismemberment and political annihilation, and + ultimately secured for her a place among European nations by introducing + Western civilisation. + </p> + <p> + Whilst thus recognising clearly that autocracy and a strongly centralised + administration were necessary first for the creation and afterwards for + the preservation of national independence, we must not shut our eyes to + the evil consequences which resulted from this unfortunate necessity. It + was in the nature of things that the Government, aiming at the realisation + of designs which its subjects neither sympathised with nor clearly + understood, should have become separated from the nation; and the reckless + haste and violence with which it attempted to carry out its schemes + aroused a spirit of positive opposition among the masses. A considerable + section of the people long looked on the reforming Tsars as incarnations + of the spirit of evil, and the Tsars in their turn looked upon the people + as raw material for the realisation of their political designs. This + peculiar relation between the nation and the Government has given the + key-note to the whole system of administration. The Government has always + treated the people as minors, incapable of understanding its political + aims, and only very partially competent to look after their own local + affairs. The officials have naturally acted in the same spirit. Looking + for direction and approbation merely to their superiors, they have + systematically treated those over whom they were placed as a conquered or + inferior race. The State has thus come to be regarded as an abstract + entity, with interests entirely different from those of the human beings + composing it; and in all matters in which State interests are supposed to + be involved, the rights of individuals are ruthlessly sacrificed. + </p> + <p> + If we remember that the difficulties of centralised administration must be + in direct proportion to the extent and territorial variety of the country + to be governed, we may readily understand how slowly and imperfectly the + administrative machine necessarily works in Russia. The whole of the vast + region stretching from the Polar Ocean to the Caspian, and from the shores + of the Baltic to the confines of the Celestial Empire, is administered + from St. Petersburg. The genuine bureaucrat has a wholesome dread of + formal responsibility, and generally tries to avoid it by taking all + matters out of the hands of his subordinates, and passing them on to the + higher authorities. As soon, therefore, as affairs are caught up by the + administrative machine they begin to ascend, and probably arrive some day + at the cabinet of the minister. Thus the ministries are flooded with + papers—many of the most trivial import—from all parts of the + Empire; and the higher officials, even if they had the eyes of an Argus + and the hands of a Briareus, could not possibly fulfil conscientiously the + duties imposed on them. In reality the Russian administrators of the + higher ranks recall neither Argus nor Briareus. They commonly show neither + an extensive nor a profound knowledge of the country which they are + supposed to govern, and seem always to have a fair amount of leisure time + at their disposal. + </p> + <p> + Besides the unavoidable evils of excessive centralisation, Russia has had + to suffer much from the jobbery, venality, and extortion of the officials. + When Peter the Great one day proposed to hang every man who should steal + as much as would buy a rope, his Procurator-General frankly replied that + if his Majesty put his project into execution there would be no officials + left. "We all steal," added the worthy official; "the only difference is + that some of us steal larger amounts and more openly than others." Since + these words were spoken nearly two centuries have passed, and during all + that time Russia has been steadily making progress, but until the + accession of Alexander II. in 1855 little change took place in the moral + character of the administration. Some people still living can remember the + time when they could have repeated, without much exaggeration, the + confession of Peter's Procurator-General. + </p> + <p> + To appreciate aright this ugly phenomenon we must distinguish two kinds of + venality. On the one hand there was the habit of exacting what are + vulgarly termed "tips" for services performed, and on the other there were + the various kinds of positive dishonesty. Though it might not be always + easy to draw a clear line between the two categories, the distinction was + fully recognised in the moral consciousness of the time, and many an + official who regularly received "sinless revenues" (bezgreshniye dokhodi), + as the tips were sometimes called, would have been very indignant had he + been stigmatised as a dishonest man. The practice was, in fact, universal, + and could be, to a certain extent, justified by the smallness of the + official salaries. In some departments there was a recognised tariff. The + "brandy farmers," for example, who worked the State Monopoly for the + manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors, paid regularly a fixed sum to + every official, from the Governor to the policeman, according to his rank. + I knew of one case where an official, on receiving a larger sum than was + customary, conscientiously handed back the change! The other and more + heinous offences were by no means so common, but were still fearfully + frequent. Many high officials and important dignitaries were known to + receive large revenues, to which the term "sinless" could not by any means + be applied, and yet they retained their position, and were received in + society with respectful deference. + </p> + <p> + The Sovereigns were well aware of the abuses, and strove more or less to + root them out, but the success which attended their efforts does not give + us a very exalted idea of the practical omnipotence of autocracy. In a + centralised bureaucratic administration, in which each official is to a + certain extent responsible for the sins of his subordinates, it is always + extremely difficult to bring an official culprit to justice, for he is + sure to be protected by his superiors; and when the superiors are + themselves habitually guilty of malpractices, the culprit is quite safe + from exposure and punishment. The Tsar, indeed, might do much towards + exposing and punishing offenders if he could venture to call in public + opinion to his assistance, but in reality he is very apt to become a party + to the system of hushing up official delinquencies. He is himself the + first official in the realm, and he knows that the abuse of power by a + subordinate has a tendency to produce hostility towards the fountain of + all official power. Frequent punishment of officials might, it is thought, + diminish public respect for the Government, and undermine that social + discipline which is necessary for the public tranquillity. It is therefore + considered expedient to give to official delinquencies as little publicity + as possible. + </p> + <p> + Besides this, strange as it may seem, a Government which rests on the + arbitrary will of a single individual is, notwithstanding occasional + outbursts of severity, much less systematically severe than authority + founded on free public opinion. When delinquencies occur in very high + places the Tsar is almost sure to display a leniency approaching to + tenderness. If it be necessary to make a sacrifice to justice, the + sacrificial operation is made as painless as may be, and illustrious + scapegoats are not allowed to die of starvation in the wilderness—the + wilderness being generally Paris or the Riviera. This fact may seem + strange to those who are in the habit of associating autocracy with + Neapolitan dungeons and the mines of Siberia, but it is not difficult to + explain. No individual, even though he be the Autocrat of all the Russias, + can so case himself in the armour of official dignity as to be completely + proof against personal influences. The severity of autocrats is reserved + for political offenders, against whom they naturally harbour a feeling of + personal resentment. It is so much easier for us to be lenient and + charitable towards a man who sins against public morality than towards one + who sins against ourselves! + </p> + <p> + In justice to the bureaucratic reformers in Russia, it must be said that + they have preferred prevention to cure. Refraining from all Draconian + legislation, they have put their faith in a system of ingenious checks and + a complicated formal procedure. When we examine the complicated + formalities and labyrinthine procedure by which the administration is + controlled, our first impression is that administrative abuses must be + almost impossible. Every possible act of every official seems to have been + foreseen, and every possible outlet from the narrow path of honesty seems + to have been carefully walled up. As the English reader has probably no + conception of formal procedure in a highly centralised bureaucracy, let me + give, by way of illustration, an instance which accidentally came to my + knowledge. + </p> + <p> + In the residence of a Governor-General one of the stoves is in need of + repairs. An ordinary mortal may assume that a man with the rank of + Governor-General may be trusted to expend a few shillings conscientiously, + and that consequently his Excellency will at once order the repairs to be + made and the payment to be put down among the petty expenses. To the + bureaucratic mind the case appears in a very different light. All possible + contingencies must be carefully provided for. As a Governor-General may + possibly be possessed with a mania for making useless alterations, the + necessity for the repairs ought to be verified; and as wisdom and honesty + are more likely to reside in an assembly than in an individual, it is well + to entrust the verification to a council. A council of three or four + members accordingly certifies that the repairs are necessary. This is + pretty strong authority, but it is not enough. Councils are composed of + mere human beings, liable to error and subject to be intimidated by a + Governor-General. It is prudent, therefore, to demand that the decision of + the council be confirmed by the Procureur, who is directly subordinated to + the Minister of Justice. When this double confirmation has been obtained, + an architect examines the stove, and makes an estimate. But it would be + dangerous to give carte blanche to an architect, and therefore the + estimate has to be confirmed, first by the aforesaid council and + afterwards by the Procureur. When all these formalities—which + require sixteen days and ten sheets of paper—have been duly + observed, his Excellency is informed that the contemplated repairs will + cost two roubles and forty kopecks, or about five shillings of our money. + Even here the formalities do not stop, for the Government must have the + assurance that the architect who made the estimate and superintended the + repairs has not been guilty of negligence. A second architect is therefore + sent to examine the work, and his report, like the estimate, requires to + be confirmed by the council and the Procureur. The whole correspondence + lasts thirty days, and requires no less than thirty sheets of paper! Had + the person who desired the repairs been not a Governor-General, but an + ordinary mortal, it is impossible to say how long the procedure might have + lasted.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In fairness I feel constrained to add that incidents of + this kind occasionally occur—or at least occurred as late + as 1886—in our Indian Administration. I remember an + instance of a pane of glass being broken in the Viceroy's + bedroom in the Viceregal Lodge at Simla, and it would have + required nearly a week, if the official procedure had been + scrupulously observed, to have it replaced by the Public + Works Department. +</pre> + <p> + It might naturally be supposed that this circuitous and complicated + method, with its registers, ledgers, and minutes of proceedings, must at + least prevent pilfering; but this a priori conclusion has been + emphatically belied by experience. Every new ingenious device had merely + the effect of producing a still more ingenious means of avoiding it. The + system did not restrain those who wished to pilfer, and it had a + deleterious effect on honest officials by making them feel that the + Government reposed no confidence in them. Besides this, it produced among + all officials, honest and dishonest alike, the habit of systematic + falsification. As it was impossible for even the most pedantic of men—and + pedantry, be it remarked, is a rare quality among Russians—to fulfil + conscientiously all the prescribed formalities, it became customary to + observe the forms merely on paper. Officials certified facts which they + never dreamed of examining, and secretaries gravely wrote the minutes of + meetings that had never been held! Thus, in the case above cited, the + repairs were in reality begun and ended long before the architect was + officially authorised to begin the work. The comedy was nevertheless + gravely played out to the end, so that any one afterwards revising the + documents would have found that everything had been done in perfect order. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the most ingenious means for preventing administrative abuses was + devised by the Emperor Nicholas I. Fully aware that he was regularly and + systematically deceived by the ordinary officials, he formed a body of + well-paid officers, called the gendarmerie, who were scattered over the + country, and ordered to report directly to his Majesty whatever seemed to + them worthy of attention. Bureaucratic minds considered this an admirable + expedient; and the Tsar confidently expected that he would, by means of + these official observers who had no interest in concealing the truth, be + able to know everything, and to correct all official abuses. In reality + the institution produced few good results, and in some respects had a very + pernicious influence. Though picked men and provided with good salaries, + these officers were all more or less permeated with the prevailing spirit. + They could not but feel that they were regarded as spies and informers—a + humiliating conviction, little calculated to develop that feeling of + self-respect which is the main foundation of uprightness—and that + all their efforts could do but little good. They were, in fact, in pretty + much the same position as Peter's Procurator-General, and, with true + Russian bonhomie, they disliked ruining individuals who were no worse than + the majority of their fellows. Besides this, according to the received + code of official morality insubordination was a more heinous sin than + dishonesty, and political offences were regarded as the blackest of all. + The gendarmerie officers shut their eyes, therefore, to the prevailing + abuses, which were believed to be incurable, and directed their attention + to real or imaginary political delinquencies. Oppression and extortion + remained unnoticed, whilst an incautious word or a foolish joke at the + expense of the Government was too often magnified into an act of high + treason. + </p> + <p> + This force still exists under a slightly modified form. Towards the close + of the reign of Alexander II. (1880), when Count Loris Melikof, with the + sanction and approval of his august master, was preparing to introduce a + system of liberal political reforms, it was intended to abolish the + gendarmerie as an organ of political espionage, and accordingly the + direction of it was transferred from the so-called Third Section of his + Imperial Majesty's Chancery to the Ministry of the Interior; but when the + benevolent monarch was a few months afterwards assassinated by + revolutionists, the project was naturally abandoned, and the Corps of + Gendarmes, while remaining nominally under the Minister of the Interior, + was practically reinstated in its former position. Now, as then, it serves + as a kind of supplement to the ordinary police, and is generally employed + for matters in which secrecy is required. Unfortunately it is not bound by + those legal restrictions which protect the public against the arbitrary + will of the ordinary authorities. In addition to its regular duties it has + a vaguely defined roving commission to watch and arrest all persons who + seem to it in any way dangerous or suspectes, and it may keep such in + confinement for an indefinite time, or remove them to some distant and + inhospitable part of the Empire, without making them undergo a regular + trial. It is, in short, the ordinary instrument for punishing political + dreamers, suppressing secret societies, counteracting political + agitations, and in general executing the extra-legal orders of the + Government. + </p> + <p> + My relations with this anomalous branch of the administration were + somewhat peculiar. After my experience with the Vice-Governor of Novgorod + I determined to place myself above suspicion, and accordingly applied to + the "Chef des Gendarmes" for some kind of official document which would + prove to all officials with whom I might come in contact that I had no + illicit designs. My request was granted, and I was furnished with the + necessary documents; but I soon found that in seeking to avoid Scylla I + had fallen into Charybdis. In calming official suspicions, I inadvertently + aroused suspicions of another kind. The documents proving that I enjoyed + the protection of the Government made many people suspect that I was an + emissary of the gendarmerie, and greatly impeded me in my efforts to + collect information from private sources. As the private were for me more + important than the official sources of information, I refrained from + asking for a renewal of the protection, and wandered about the country as + an ordinary unprotected traveller. For some time I had no cause to regret + this decision. I knew that I was pretty closely watched, and that my + letters were occasionally opened in the post-office, but I was subjected + to no further inconvenience. At last, when I had nearly forgotten all + about Scylla and Charybdis, I one night unexpectedly ran upon the former, + and, to my astonishment, found myself formally arrested! The incident + happened in this wise. + </p> + <p> + I had been visiting Austria and Servia, and after a short absence returned + to Russia through Moldavia. On arriving at the Pruth, which there forms + the frontier, I found an officer of gendarmerie, whose duty it was to + examine the passports of all passers-by. Though my passport was completely + en regle, having been duly vise by the British and Russian Consuls at + Galatz, this gentleman subjected me to a searching examination regarding + my past life, actual occupation, and intentions for the future. On + learning that I had been for more than two years travelling in Russia at + my own expense, for the simple purpose of collecting miscellaneous + information, he looked incredulous, and seemed to have some doubts as to + my being a genuine British subject; but when my statements were confirmed + by my travelling companion, a Russian friend who carried awe-inspiring + credentials, he countersigned my passport, and allowed us to depart. The + inspection of our luggage by the custom-house officers was soon got over; + and as we drove off to the neighbouring village where we were to spend the + night we congratulated ourselves on having escaped for some time from all + contact with the official world. In this we were "reckoning without the + host." As the clock struck twelve that night I was roused by a loud + knocking at my door, and after a good deal of parley, during which some + one proposed to effect an entrance by force, I drew the bolt. The officer + who had signed my passport entered, and said, in a stiff, official tone, + "I must request you to remain here for twenty-four hours." + </p> + <p> + Not a little astonished by this announcement, I ventured to inquire the + reason for this strange request. + </p> + <p> + "That is my business," was the laconic reply. + </p> + <p> + "Perhaps it is; still you must, on mature consideration, admit that I too + have some interest in the matter. To my extreme regret I cannot comply + with your request, and must leave at sunrise." + </p> + <p> + "You shall not leave. Give me your passport." + </p> + <p> + "Unless detained by force, I shall start at four o'clock; and as I wish to + get some sleep before that time, I must request you instantly to retire. + You had the right to stop me at the frontier, but you have no right to + come and disturb me in this fashion, and I shall certainly report you. My + passport I shall give to none but a regular officer of police." + </p> + <p> + Here followed a long discussion on the rights, privileges, and general + character of the gendarmerie, during which my opponent gradually laid + aside his dictatorial tone, and endeavoured to convince me that the + honourable body to which he belonged was merely an ordinary branch of the + administration. Though evidently irritated, he never, I must say, + overstepped the bounds of politeness, and seemed only half convinced that + he was justified in interfering with my movements. When he found that he + could not induce me to give up my passport, he withdrew, and I again lay + down to rest; but in about half an hour I was again disturbed. This time + an officer of regular police entered, and demanded my "papers." To my + inquiries as to the reason of all this disturbance, he replied, in a very + polite, apologetic way, that he knew nothing about the reason, but he had + received orders to arrest me, and must obey. To him I delivered my + passport, on condition that I should receive a written receipt, and should + be allowed to telegraph to the British ambassador in St. Petersburg. + </p> + <p> + Early next morning I telegraphed to the ambassador, and waited impatiently + all day for a reply. I was allowed to walk about the village and the + immediate vicinity, but of this permission I did not make much use. The + village population was entirely Jewish, and Jews in that part of the world + have a wonderful capacity for spreading intelligence. By the early morning + there was probably not a man, woman, or child in the place who had not + heard of my arrest, and many of them felt a not unnatural curiosity to see + the malefactor who had been caught by the police. To be stared at as a + malefactor is not very agreeable, so I preferred to remain in my room, + where, in the company of my friend, who kindly remained with me and made + small jokes about the boasted liberty of British subjects, I spent the + time pleasantly enough. The most disagreeable part of the affair was the + uncertainty as to how many days, weeks, or months I might be detained, and + on this point the police-officer would not even hazard a conjecture. + </p> + <p> + The detention came to an end sooner than I expected. On the following day—that + is to say, about thirty-six hours after the nocturnal visit—the + police-officer brought me my passport, and at the same time a telegram + from the British Embassy informed me that the central authorities had + ordered my release. On my afterwards pertinaciously requesting an + explanation of the unceremonious treatment to which I had been subjected, + the Minister for Foreign Affairs declared that the authorities expected a + person of my name to cross the frontier about that time with a quantity of + false bank-notes, and that I had been arrested by mistake. I must confess + that this explanation, though official, seemed to me more ingenious than + satisfactory, but I was obliged to accept it for what it was worth. At a + later period I had again the misfortune to attract the attention of the + secret police, but I reserve the incident till I come to speak of my + relations with the revolutionists. + </p> + <p> + From all I have seen and heard of the gendarmerie I am disposed to believe + that the officers are for the most part polite, well-educated men, who + seek to fulfil their disagreeable duties in as inoffensive a way as + possible. It must, however, be admitted that they are generally regarded + with suspicion and dislike, even by those people who fear the attempts at + revolutionary propaganda which it is the special duty of the gendarmerie + to discover and suppress. Nor need this surprise us. Though very many + people believe in the necessity of capital punishment, there are few who + do not feel a decided aversion to the public executioner. + </p> + <p> + The only effectual remedy for administrative abuses lies in placing the + administration under public control. This has been abundantly proved in + Russia. All the efforts of the Tsars during many generations to check the + evil by means of ingenious bureaucratic devices proved utterly fruitless. + Even the iron will and gigantic energy of Nicholas I. were insufficient + for the task. But when, after the Crimean War, there was a great moral + awakening, and the Tsar called the people to his assistance, the stubborn, + deep-rooted evils immediately disappeared. For a time venality and + extortion were unknown, and since that period they have never been able to + regain their old force. + </p> + <p> + At the present moment it cannot be said that the administration is + immaculate, but it is incomparably purer than it was in old times. Though + public opinion is no longer so powerful as it was in the early sixties, it + is still strong enough to repress many malpractices which in the time of + Nicholas I. and his predecessors were too frequent to attract attention. + On this subject I shall have more to say hereafter. + </p> + <p> + If administrative abuses are rife in the Empire of the Tsars, it is not + from any want of carefully prepared laws. In no country in the world, + perhaps, is the legislation more voluminous, and in theory, not only the + officials, but even the Tsar himself, must obey the laws he has + sanctioned, like the meanest of his subjects. This is one of those cases, + not infrequent in Russia, in which theory differs somewhat from practice. + In real life the Emperor may at any moment override the law by means of + what is called a Supreme Command (vysotchaishiye povelenie), and a + minister may "interpret" a law in any way he pleases by means of a + circular. This is a frequent cause of complaint even among those who wish + to uphold the Autocratic Power. In their opinion law-respecting autocracy + wielded by a strong Tsar is an excellent institution for Russia; it is + arbitrary autocracy wielded by irresponsible ministers that they object + to. + </p> + <p> + As Englishmen may have some difficulty in imagining how laws can come into + being without a Parliament or Legislative Chamber of some sort, I shall + explain briefly how they are manufactured by the Russian bureaucratic + machine without the assistance of representative institutions. + </p> + <p> + When a minister considers that some institution in his branch of the + service requires to be reformed, he begins by submitting to the Emperor a + formal report on the matter. If the Emperor agrees with his minister as to + the necessity for reform, he orders a Commission to be appointed for the + purpose of considering the subject and preparing a definite legislative + project. The Commission meets and sets to work in what seems a very + thorough way. It first studies the history of the institution in Russia + from the earliest times downwards—or rather, it listens to an essay + on the subject, especially prepared for the occasion by some official who + has a taste for historical studies, and can write in a pleasant style. The + next step—to use a phrase which often occurs in the minutes of such + commissions—consists in "shedding the light of science on the + question" (prolit' na dyelo svet nauki). This important operation is + performed by preparing a memorial containing the history of similar + institutions in foreign countries, and an elaborate exposition of numerous + theories held by French and German philosophical jurists. In these + memorials it is often considered necessary to include every European + country except Turkey, and sometimes the small German States and principal + Swiss cantons are treated separately. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate the character of these wonderful productions, let me give an + example. From a pile of such papers lying before me I take one almost at + random. It is a memorial relating to a proposed reform of benevolent + institutions. First I find a philosophical disquisition on benevolence in + general; next, some remarks on the Talmud and the Koran; then a reference + to the treatment of paupers in Athens after the Peloponnesian War, and in + Rome under the emperors: then some vague observations on the Middle Ages, + with a quotation that was evidently intended to be Latin; lastly, comes an + account of the poor-laws of modern times, in which I meet with "the + Anglo-Saxon domination," King Egbert, King Ethelred, "a remarkable book of + Icelandic laws, called Hragas"; Sweden and Norway, France, Holland, + Belgium, Prussia, and nearly all the minor German States. The most + wonderful thing is that all this mass of historical information, extending + from the Talmud to the most recent legislation of Hesse-Darmstadt, is + compressed into twenty-one octavo pages! The doctrinal part of the + memorandum is not less rich. Many respected names from the literature of + Germany, France, and England are forcibly dragged in; and the general + conclusion drawn from this mass of raw, undigested materials is believed + to be "the latest results of science." + </p> + <p> + Does the reader suspect that I have here chosen an extremely exceptional + case? If so, let us take the next paper in the file. It refers to a + project of law regarding imprisonment for debt. On the first page I find + references to "the Salic laws of the fifth century," and the "Assises de + Jerusalem, A.D 1099." That, I think, will suffice. Let us pass, then, to + the next step. + </p> + <p> + When the quintessence of human wisdom and experience has thus been + extracted, the commission considers how the valuable product may be + applied to Russia, so as to harmonise with the existing general conditions + and local peculiarities. For a man of practical mind this is, of course, + the most interesting and most important part of the operation, but from + Russian legislators it receives comparatively little attention. Very often + have I turned to this section of official papers in order to obtain + information regarding the actual state of the country, and in every case I + have been grievously disappointed. Vague general phrases, founded on a + priori reasoning rather than on observation, together with a few + statistical tables—which the cautious investigator should avoid as + he would an ambuscade—are too often all that is to be found. Through + the thin veil of pseudo-erudition the real facts are clear enough. These + philosophical legislators, who have spent their lives in the official + atmosphere of St. Petersburg, know as much about Russia as the genuine + cockney knows about Great Britain, and in this part of their work they + derive no assistance from the learned German treatises which supply an + unlimited amount of historical facts and philosophical speculation. + </p> + <p> + From the commission the project passes to the Council of State, where it + is certainly examined and criticised, and perhaps modified, but it is not + likely to be improved from the practical point of view, because the + members of the Council are merely ci-devant members of similar + commissions, hardened by a few additional years of official routine. The + Council is, in fact, an assembly of tchinovniks who know little of the + practical, everyday wants of the unofficial classes. No merchant, + manufacturer, or farmer ever enters its sacred precincts, so that its + bureaucratic serenity is rarely disturbed by practical objections. It is + not surprising, therefore, that it has been known to pass laws which were + found at once to be absolutely unworkable. + </p> + <p> + From the Council of State the Bill is taken to the Emperor, and he + generally begins by examining the signatures. The "Ayes" are in one column + and the "Noes" in another. If his Majesty is not specially acquainted with + the matter—and he cannot possibly be acquainted with all the matters + submitted to him—he usually signs with the majority, or on the side + where he sees the names of officials in whose judgment he has special + confidence; but if he has strong views of his own, he places his signature + in whichever column he thinks fit, and it outweighs the signatures of any + number of Councillors. Whatever side he supports, that side "has it," and + in this way a small minority may be transformed into a majority. When the + important question, for example, as to how far classics should be taught + in the ordinary schools was considered by the Council, it is said that + only two members signed in favour of classical education, which was + excessively unpopular at the moment, but the Emperor Alexander III., + disregarding public opinion and the advice of his Councillors, threw his + signature into the lighter scale, and the classicists were victorious. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV + </h2> + <h3> + MOSCOW AND THE SLAVOPHILS + </h3> + <p> + Two Ancient Cities—Kief Not a Good Point for Studying Old Russian + National Life—Great Russians and Little Russians—Moscow—Easter + Eve in the Kremlin—Curious Custom—Anecdote of the Emperor + Nicholas—Domiciliary Visits of the Iberian Madonna—The Streets + of Moscow—Recent Changes in the Character of the City—Vulgar + Conception of the Slavophils—Opinion Founded on Personal + Acquaintance—Slavophil Sentiment a Century Ago—Origin and + Development of the Slavophil Doctrine—Slavophilism Essentially + Muscovite—The Panslavist Element—The Slavophils and the + Emancipation. + </p> + <p> + In the last chapter, as in many of the preceding ones, the reader must + have observed that at one moment there was a sudden break, almost a + solution of continuity, in Russian national life. The Tsardom of Muscovy, + with its ancient Oriental costumes and Byzantine traditions, unexpectedly + disappears, and the Russian Empire, clad in modern garb and animated with + the spirit of modern progress, steps forward uninvited into European + history. Of the older civilisation, if civilisation it can be called, very + little survived the political transformation, and that little is generally + supposed to hover ghostlike around Kief and Moscow. To one or other of + these towns, therefore, the student who desires to learn something of + genuine old Russian life, untainted by foreign influences, naturally wends + his way. For my part I thought first of settling for a time in Kief, the + oldest and most revered of Russian cities, where missionaries from + Byzantium first planted Christianity on Russian soil, and where thousands + of pilgrims still assemble yearly from far and near to prostrate + themselves before the Holy Icons in the churches and to venerate the + relics of the blessed saints and martyrs in the catacombs of the great + monastery. I soon discovered, however, that Kief, though it represents in + a certain sense the Byzantine traditions so dear to the Russian people, is + not a good point of observation for studying the Russian character. It was + early exposed to the ravages of the nomadic tribes of the Steppe, and when + it was liberated from those incursions it was seized by the Poles and + Lithuanians, and remained for centuries under their domination. Only in + comparatively recent times did it begin to recover its Russian character—a + university having been created there for that purpose after the Polish + insurrection of 1830. Even now the process of Russification is far from + complete, and the Russian elements in the population are far from being + pure in the nationalist sense. The city and the surrounding country are, + in fact, Little Russian rather than Great Russian, and between these two + sections of the population there are profound differences—differences + of language, costume, traditions, popular songs, proverbs, folk-lore, + domestic arrangements, mode of life, and Communal organisation. In these + and other respects the Little Russians, South Russians, Ruthenes, or + Khokhly, as they are variously designated, differ from the Great Russians + of the North, who form the predominant factor in the Empire, and who have + given to that wonderful structure its essential characteristics. Indeed, + if I did not fear to ruffle unnecessarily the patriotic susceptibilities + of my Great Russian friends who have a pet theory on this subject, I + should say that we have here two distinct nationalities, further apart + from each other than the English and the Scotch. The differences are due, + I believe, partly to ethnographical peculiarities and partly to historic + conditions. + </p> + <p> + As it was the energetic Great Russian empire-builders and not the + half-dreamy, half-astute, sympathetic descendants of the Free Cossacks + that I wanted to study, I soon abandoned my idea of settling in the Holy + City on the Dnieper, and chose Moscow as my point of observation; and + here, during several years, I spent regularly some of the winter months. + </p> + <p> + The first few weeks of my stay in the ancient capital of the Tsars were + spent in the ordinary manner of intelligent tourists. After mastering the + contents of a guide-book I carefully inspected all the officially + recognised objects of interest—the Kremlin, with its picturesque + towers and six centuries of historical associations; the Cathedrals, + containing the venerated tombs of martyrs, saints, and Tsars; the old + churches, with their quaint, archaic, richly decorated Icons; the + "Patriarchs' Treasury," rich in jewelled ecclesiastical vestments and + vessels of silver and gold; the ancient and the modern palace; the + Ethnological Museum, showing the costumes and physiognomy of all the + various races in the Empire; the archaeological collections, containing + many objects that recall the barbaric splendour of old Muscovy; the + picture-gallery, with Ivanof's gigantic picture, in which patriotic + Russian critics discover occult merits which place it above anything that + Western Europe has yet produced! Of course I climbed up to the top of the + tall belfry which rejoices in the name of "Ivan the Great," and looked + down on the "gilded domes"* of the churches, and bright green roofs of the + houses, and far away, beyond these, the gently undulating country with the + "Sparrow Hills," from which Napoleon is said, in cicerone language, to + have "gazed upon the doomed city." Occasionally I walked about the bazaars + in the hope of finding interesting specimens of genuine native + art-industry, and was urgently invited to purchase every conceivable + article which I did not want. At midday or in the evening I visited the + most noted traktirs, and made the acquaintance of the caviar, sturgeons, + sterlets, and other native delicacies for which these institutions are + famous—deafened the while by the deep tones of the colossal + barrel-organ, out of all proportion to the size of the room; and in order + to see how the common people spent their evenings I looked in at some of + the more modest traktirs, and gazed with wonder, not unmixed with fear, at + the enormous quantity of weak tea which the inmates consumed. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Allowance must be made here for poetical licence. In + reality, very few of the domes are gilt. The great majority + of them are painted green, like the roofs of the houses. +</pre> + <p> + Since these first weeks of my sojourn in Moscow more than thirty years + have passed, and many of my early impressions have been blurred by time, + but one scene remains deeply graven on my memory. It was Easter Eve, and I + had gone with a friend to the Kremlin to witness the customary religious + ceremonies. Though the rain was falling heavily, an immense number of + people had assembled in and around the Cathedral of the Assumption. The + crowd was of the most mixed kind. There stood the patient bearded muzhik + in his well-worn sheepskin; the big, burly, self-satisfied merchant in his + long black glossy kaftan; the noble with fashionable great-coat and + umbrella; thinly clad old women shivering in the cold, and bright-eyed + young damsels with their warm cloaks drawn closely round them; old men + with long beard, wallet, and pilgrim's staff; and mischievous urchins with + faces for the moment preternaturally demure. Each right hand, of old and + young alike, held a lighted taper, and these myriads of flickering little + flames produced a curious illumination, giving to the surrounding + buildings a weird picturesqueness which they do not possess in broad + daylight. All stood patiently waiting for the announcement of the glad + tidings: "He is risen!" As midnight approached, the hum of voices + gradually ceased, till, as the clock struck twelve, the deep-toned bell on + "Ivan the Great" began to toll, and in answer to this signal all the bells + in Moscow suddenly sent forth a merry peal. Each bell—and their name + is legion—seemed frantically desirous of drowning its neighbour's + voice, the solemn boom of the great one overhead mingling curiously with + the sharp, fussy "ting-a-ting-ting" of diminutive rivals. If demons dwell + in Moscow and dislike bell-ringing, as is generally supposed, then there + must have been at that moment a general stampede of the powers of darkness + such as is described by Milton in his poem on the Nativity, and as if this + deafening din were not enough, big guns were fired in rapid succession + from a battery of artillery close at hand! The noise seemed to stimulate + the religious enthusiasm, and the general excitement had a wonderful + effect on a Russian friend who accompanied me. When in his normal + condition that gentleman was a quiet, undemonstrative person, devoted to + science, an ardent adherent of Western civilisation in general and of + Darwinism in particular, and a thorough sceptic with regard to all forms + of religious belief; but the influence of the surroundings was too much + for his philosophical equanimity. For a moment his orthodox Muscovite soul + awoke from its sceptical, cosmopolitan lethargy. After crossing himself + repeatedly—an act of devotion which I had never before seen him + perform—he grasped my arm, and, pointing to the crowd, said in an + exultant tone of voice, "Look there! There is a sight that you can see + nowhere but in the 'White-stone City.'* Are not the Russians a religious + people?" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *Belokamenny, meaning "of white stone," is one of the + popular names of Moscow. +</pre> + <p> + To this unexpected question I gave a monosyllabic assent, and refrained + from disturbing my friend's new-born enthusiasm by any discordant note; + but I must confess that this sudden outburst of deafening noise and the + dazzling light aroused in my heretical breast feelings of a warlike rather + than a religious kind. For a moment I could imagine myself in ancient + Moscow, and could fancy the people being called out to repel a Tartar + horde already thundering at the gates! + </p> + <p> + The service lasted two or three hours, and terminated with the curious + ceremony of blessing the Easter cakes, which were ranged—each one + with a lighted taper stuck in it—in long rows outside of the + cathedral. A not less curious custom practised at this season is that of + exchanging kisses of fraternal love. Theoretically one ought to embrace + and be embraced by all present—indicating thereby that all are + brethren in Christ—but the refinements of modern life have made + innovations in the practice, and most people confine their salutations to + their friends and acquaintances. When two friends meet during that night + or on the following day, the one says, "Christos voskres!" ("Christ hath + risen!"); and the other replies, "Vo istine voskres!" ("In truth he hath + risen!"). They then kiss each other three times on the right and left + cheek alternately. The custom is more or less observed in all classes of + society, and the Emperor himself conforms to it. + </p> + <p> + This reminds me of an anecdote which is related of the Emperor Nicholas + I., tending to show that he was not so devoid of kindly human feelings as + his imperial and imperious exterior suggested. On coming out of his + cabinet one Easter morning he addressed to the soldier who was mounting + guard at the door the ordinary words of salutation, "Christ hath risen!" + and received instead of the ordinary reply, a flat contradiction—"Not + at all, your Imperial Majesty!" Astounded by such an unexpected answer—for + no one ventured to dissent from Nicholas even in the most guarded and + respectful terms—he instantly demanded an explanation. The soldier, + trembling at his own audacity, explained that he was a Jew, and could not + conscientiously admit the fact of the Resurrection. This boldness for + conscience' sake so pleased the Tsar that he gave the man a handsome + Easter present. + </p> + <p> + A quarter of a century after the Easter Eve above mentioned—or, to + be quite accurate, on the 26th of May, 1896—I again find myself in + the Kremlin on the occasion of a great religious ceremony—a ceremony + which shows that "the White-stone City" on the Moskva is still in some + respects the capital of Holy Russia. This time my post of observation is + inside the cathedral, which is artistically draped with purple hangings + and crowded with the most distinguished personages of the Empire, all + arrayed in gorgeous apparel—Grand Dukes and Grand Duchesses, + Imperial Highnesses and High Excellencies, Metropolitans and Archbishops, + Senators and Councillors of State, Generals and Court dignitaries. In the + centre of the building, on a high, richly decorated platform, sits the + Emperor with his Imperial Consort, and his mother, the widowed Consort of + Alexander III. Though Nicholas II. has not the colossal stature which has + distinguished so many of the Romanofs, he is well built, holds himself + erect, and shows a quiet dignity in his movements; while his face, which + resembles that of his cousin, the Prince of Wales, wears a kindly, + sympathetic expression. The Empress looks even more than usually + beautiful, in a low dress cut in the ancient fashion, her thick brown + hair, dressed most simply without jewellery or other ornaments, falling in + two long ringlets over her white shoulders. For the moment, her attire is + much simpler than that of the Empress Dowager, who wears a diamond crown + and a great mantle of gold brocade, lined and edged with ermine, the long + train displaying in bright-coloured embroidery the heraldic double-headed + eagle of the Imperial arms. + </p> + <p> + Each of these august personages sits on a throne of curious workmanship, + consecrated by ancient historic associations. That of the Emperor, the + gift of the Shah of Persia to Ivan the Terrible, and commonly called the + Throne of Tsar Michael, the founder of the Romanof dynasty, is covered + with gold plaques, and studded with hundreds of big, roughly cut precious + stones, mostly rubies, emeralds, and turquoises. Of still older date is + the throne of the young Empress, for it was given by Pope Paul II. to Tsar + Ivan III., grandfather of the Terrible, on the occasion of his marriage + with a niece of the last Byzantine Emperor. More recent but not less + curious is that of the Empress Dowager. It is the throne of Tsar Alexis, + the father of Peter the Great, covered with countless and priceless + diamonds, rubies, and pearls, and surmounted by an Imperial eagle of solid + gold, together with golden statuettes of St. Peter and St. Nicholas, the + miracle-worker. Over each throne is a canopy of purple velvet fringed with + gold, out of which rise stately plumes representing the national colours. + </p> + <p> + Their Majesties have come hither, in accordance with time-honoured custom, + to be crowned in this old Cathedral of the Assumption, the central point + of the Kremlin, within a stone-throw of the Cathedral of the Archangel + Michael, in which lie the remains of the old Grand Dukes and Tsars of + Muscovy. Already the Emperor has read aloud, in a clear, unfaltering + voice, from a richly bound parchment folio, held by the Metropolitan of + St. Petersburg, the Orthodox creed; and his Eminence, after invoking on + his Majesty the blessing of the Holy Spirit, has performed the mystic rite + of placing his hands in the form of a cross on the Imperial forehead. Thus + all is ready for the most important part of the solemn ceremony. Standing + erect, the Emperor doffs his small diadem and puts on with his own hands + the great diamond crown, offered respectfully by the Metropolitan; then he + reseats himself on his throne, holding in his right hand the Sceptre and + in his left the Orb of Dominion. After sitting thus in state for a few + minutes, he stands up and proceeds to crown his august spouse, kneeling + before him. First he touches her forehead with his own crown, and then he + places on her head a smaller one, which is immediately attached to her + hair by four ladies-in-waiting, dressed in the old Muscovite + Court-costume. At the same time her Majesty is invested with a mantle of + heavy gold brocade, similar to those of the Emperor and Empress Dowager, + lined and bordered with ermine. + </p> + <p> + Thus crowned and robed their Majesties sit in state, while a proto-deacon + reads, in a loud stentorian voice, the long list of sonorous hereditary + titles belonging of right to the Imperator and Autocrat of all the + Russias, and the choir chants a prayer invoking long life and happiness—"Many + years! Many years! Many years!"—on the high and mighty possessor of + the titles aforesaid. And now begins the Mass, celebrated with a pomp and + magnificence that can be witnessed only once or twice in a generation. + Sixty gorgeously robed ecclesiastical dignitaries of the highest orders + fulfil their various functions with due solemnity and unction; but the + magnificence of the vestments and the pomp of the ceremonial are soon + forgotten in the exquisite solemnising music, as the deep double-bass + tones of the adult singers in the background—carefully selected for + the occasion in all parts of the Empire—peal forth as from a great + organ, and blend marvellously with the clear, soft, gentle notes of the + red-robed chorister boys in front of the Iconostase. Listening with + intense emotion, I involuntarily recall to mind Fra Angelico's pictures of + angelic choirs, and cannot help thinking that the pious old Florentine, + whose soul was attuned to all that was sacred and beautiful, must have + heard in imagination such music as this. So strong is the impression that + the subsequent details of the long ceremony, including the anointing with + the holy chrism, fail to engrave themselves on my memory. One incident, + however, remains; and if it had happened in an earlier and more + superstitious age it would doubtless have been chronicled as an omen full + of significance. As the Emperor is on the point of descending from the + dais, duly crowned and anointed, a staggering ray of sunshine steals + through one of the narrow upper windows and, traversing the dimly lit + edifice, falls full on the Imperial crown, lighting up for a moment the + great mass of diamonds with a hundredfold brilliance. + </p> + <p> + In a detailed account of the Coronation which I wrote on leaving the + Kremlin, I find the following: "The magnificent ceremony is at an end, and + now Nicholas II. is the crowned Emperor and anointed Autocrat of all the + Russias. May the cares of Empire rest lightly on him! That must be the + earnest prayer of every loyal subject and every sincere well-wisher, for + of all living mortals he is perhaps the one who has been entrusted by + Providence with the greatest power and the greatest responsibilities." In + writing those words I did not foresee how heavy his responsibilities would + one day weigh upon him, when his Empire would be sorely tried, by foreign + war and internal discontent. + </p> + <p> + One more of these old Moscow reminiscences, and I have done. A day or two + after the Coronation I saw the Khodinskoye Polye, a great plain in the + outskirts of Moscow, strewn with hundreds of corpses! During the previous + night enormous crowds from the city and the surrounding districts had + collected here in order to receive at sunrise, by the Tsar's command, a + little memento of the coronation ceremony, in the form of a packet + containing a metal cup and a few eatables; and as day dawned, in their + anxiety to get near the row of booths from which the distribution was to + be made, about two thousand had been crushed to death. It was a sight more + horrible than a battlefield, because among the dead were a large + proportion of women and children, terribly mutilated in the struggle. + Altogether, "a sight to shudder at, not to see!" + </p> + <p> + To return to the remark of my friend in the Kremlin on Easter Eve, the + Russians in general, and the Muscovites in particular, as the quintessence + of all that is Russian, are certainly a religious people, but their piety + sometimes finds modes of expression which rather shock the Protestant + mind. As an instance of these, I may mention the domiciliary visits of the + Iberian Madonna. This celebrated Icon, for reasons which I have never + heard satisfactorily explained, is held in peculiar veneration by the + Muscovites, and occupies in popular estimation a position analogous to the + tutelary deities of ancient pagan cities. Thus when Napoleon was about to + enter the city in 1812, the populace clamorously called upon the + Metropolitan to take the Madonna, and lead them out armed with hatchets + against the hosts of the infidel; and when the Tsar visits Moscow he + generally drives straight from the railway-station to the little chapel + where the Icon resides—near one of the entrances to the Kremlin—and + there offers up a short prayer. Every Orthodox Russian, as he passes this + chapel, uncovers and crosses himself, and whenever a religious service is + performed in it there is always a considerable group of worshippers. Some + of the richer inhabitants, however, are not content with thus performing + their devotions in public before the Icon. They like to have it from time + to time in their houses, and the ecclesiastical authorities think fit to + humour this strange fancy. Accordingly every morning the Iberian Madonna + may be seen driving about the city from one house to another in a carriage + and four! The carriage may be at once recognised, not from any peculiarity + in its structure, for it is an ordinary close carriage such as may be + obtained at livery stables, but by the fact that the coachman sits + bare-headed, and all the people in the street uncover and cross themselves + as it passes. Arrived at the house to which it has been invited, the Icon + is carried through all the rooms, and in the principal apartment a short + religious service is performed before it. As it is being brought in or + taken away, female servants may sometimes be seen to kneel on the floor so + that it may be carried over them. During its absence from its chapel it is + replaced by a copy not easily distinguishable from the original, and thus + the devotions of the faithful and the flow of pecuniary contributions do + not suffer interruption. These contributions, together with the sums paid + for the domiciliary visits, amount to a considerable yearly sum, and go—if + I am rightly informed—to swell the revenues of the Metropolitan. + </p> + <p> + A single drive or stroll through Moscow will suffice to convince the + traveller, even if he knows nothing of Russian history, that the city is + not, like its modern rival on the Neva, the artificial creation of a + far-seeing, self-willed autocrat, but rather a natural product which has + grown up slowly and been modified according to the constantly changing + wants of the population. A few of the streets have been Europeanised—in + all except the paving, which is everywhere execrably Asiatic—to suit + the tastes of those who have adopted European culture, but the great + majority of them still retain much of their ancient character and + primitive irregularity. As soon as we diverge from the principal + thoroughfares, we find one-storied houses—some of them still of wood—which + appear to have been transported bodily from the country, with courtyard, + garden, stables, and other appurtenances. The whole is no doubt a little + compressed, for land has here a certain value, but the character is in no + way changed, and we have some difficulty in believing that we are not in + the suburbs but near the centre of a great town. There is nothing that can + by any possibility be called street architecture. Though there is + unmistakable evidence of the streets having been laid out according to a + preconceived plan, many of them show clearly that in their infancy they + had a wayward will of their own, and bent to the right or left without any + topographical justification. The houses, too, display considerable + individuality of character, having evidently during the course of their + construction paid no attention to their neighbours. Hence we find no + regularly built terraces, crescents, or squares. There is, it is true, a + double circle of boulevards, but the houses which flank them have none of + that regularity which we commonly associate with the term. Dilapidated + buildings which in West-European cities would hide themselves in some + narrow lane or back slum here stand composedly in the face of day by the + side of a palatial residence, without having the least consciousness of + the incongruity of their position, just as the unsophisticated muzhik, in + his unsavoury sheepskin, can stand in the midst of a crowd of well-dressed + people without feeling at all awkward or uncomfortable. + </p> + <p> + All this incongruity, however, is speedily disappearing. Moscow has become + the centre of a great network of railways, and the commercial and + industrial capital of the Empire. Already her rapidly increasing + population has nearly reached a million.* The value of land and property + is being doubled and trebled, and building speculations, with the aid of + credit institutions of various kinds, are being carried on with feverish + rapidity. Well may the men of the old school complain that the world is + turned upside down, and regret the old times of traditional somnolence and + comfortable routine! Those good old times are gone now, never to return. + The ancient capital, which long gloried in its past historical + associations, now glories in its present commercial prosperity, and looks + forward with confidence to the future. Even the Slavophils, the obstinate + champions of the ultra-Muscovite spirit, have changed with the times, and + descended to the level of ordinary prosaic life. These men, who formerly + spent years in seeking to determine the place of Moscow in the past and + future history of humanity, have—to their honour be it said—become + in these latter days town-counsellors, and have devoted much of their time + to devising ways and means of improving the drainage and the + street-paving! But I am anticipating in a most unjustifiable way. I ought + first to tell the reader who these Slavophils were, and why they sought to + correct the commonly received conceptions of universal history. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to the census of 1897 it was 988,610. +</pre> + <p> + The reader may have heard of the Slavophils as a set of fanatics who, + about half a century ago, were wont to go about in what they considered + the ancient Russian costume, who wore beards in defiance of Peter the + Great's celebrated ukaz and Nicholas's clearly-expressed wish anent + shaving, who gloried in Muscovite barbarism, and had solemnly "sworn a + feud" against European civilisation and enlightenment. By the tourists of + the time who visited Moscow they were regarded as among the most + noteworthy lions of the place, and were commonly depicted in not very + flattering colours. At the beginning of the Crimean War they were among + the extreme Chauvinists who urged the necessity of planting the Greek + cross on the desecrated dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople, and hoped to + see the Emperor proclaimed "Panslavonic Tsar"; and after the termination + of the war they were frequently accused of inventing Turkish atrocities, + stirring up discontent among the Slavonic subjects of the Sultan, and + secretly plotting for the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire. All this was + known to me before I went to Russia, and I had consequently invested the + Slavophils with a halo of romance. Shortly after my arrival in St. + Petersburg I heard something more which tended to increase my interest in + them—they had caused, I was told, great trepidation among the + highest official circles by petitioning the Emperor to resuscitate a + certain ancient institution, called Zemskiye Sobory, which might be made + to serve the purposes of a parliament! This threw a new light upon them—under + the disguise of archaeological conservatives they were evidently aiming at + important liberal reforms. + </p> + <p> + As a foreigner and a heretic, I expected a very cold and distant reception + from these uncompromising champions of Russian nationality and the + Orthodox faith; but in this I was agreeably disappointed. By all of them I + was received in the most amiable and friendly way, and I soon discovered + that my preconceived ideas of them were very far from the truth. Instead + of wild fanatics I found quiet, extremely intelligent, highly educated + gentlemen, speaking foreign languages with ease and elegance, and deeply + imbued with that Western culture which they were commonly supposed to + despise. And this first impression was amply confirmed by subsequent + experience during several years of friendly intercourse. They always + showed themselves men of earnest character and strong convictions, but + they never said or did anything that could justify the appellation of + fanatics. Like all philosophical theorists, they often allowed their logic + to blind them to facts, but their reasonings were very plausible—so + plausible, indeed, that, had I been a Russian they would have almost + persuaded me to be a Slavophil, at least during the time they were talking + to me. + </p> + <p> + To understand their doctrine we must know something of its origin and + development. + </p> + <p> + The origin of the Slavophil sentiment, which must not be confounded with + the Slavophil doctrine, is to be sought in the latter half of the + seventeenth century, when the Tsars of Muscovy were introducing + innovations in Church and State. These innovations were profoundly + displeasing to the people. A large portion of the lower classes, as I have + related in a previous chapter, sought refuge in Old Ritualism or + sectarianism, and imagined that Tsar Peter, who called himself by the + heretical title of "Imperator," was an emanation of the Evil Principle. + The nobles did not go quite so far. They remained members of the official + Church, and restricted themselves to hinting that Peter was the son, not + of Satan, but of a German surgeon—a lineage which, according to the + conceptions of the time, was a little less objectionable; but most of them + were very hostile to the changes, and complained bitterly of the new + burdens which these changes entailed. Under Peter's immediate successors, + when not only the principles of administration but also many of the + administrators were German, this hostility greatly increased. + </p> + <p> + So long as the innovations appeared only in the official activity of the + Government, the patriotic, conservative spirit was obliged to keep + silence; but when the foreign influence spread to the social life of the + Court aristocracy, the opposition began to find a literary expression. In + the time of Catherine II., when Gallomania was at its height in Court + circles, comedies and satirical journals ridiculed those who, "blinded by + some externally brilliant gifts of foreigners, not only prefer foreign + countries to their native land, but even despise their fellow-countrymen, + and think that a Russian ought to borrow all—even personal + character. As if nature arranging all things with such wisdom, and + bestowing on all regions the gifts and customs which are appropriate to + the climate, had been so unjust as to refuse to the Russians a character + of their own! As if she condemned them to wander over all regions, and to + adopt by bits the various customs of various nations, in order to compose + out of the mixture a new character appropriate to no nation whatever!" + Numerous passages of this kind might be quoted, attacking the "monkeyism" + and "parrotism" of those who indiscriminately adopted foreign manners and + customs—those who + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Sauntered Europe round, + And gathered ev'ry vice in ev'ry ground." +</pre> + <p> + Sometimes the terms and metaphors employed were more forcible than + refined. One satirical journal, for instance, relates an amusing story + about certain little Russian pigs that went to foreign lands to enlighten + their understanding, and came back to their country full-grown swine. The + national pride was wounded by the thought that Russians could be called + "clever apes who feed on foreign intelligence," and many writers, stung by + such reproaches, fell into the opposite extreme, discovering unheard-of + excellences in the Russian mind and character, and vociferously decrying + everything foreign in order to place these imagined excellences in a + stronger light by contrast. Even when they recognised that their country + was not quite so advanced in civilisation as certain other nations, they + congratulated themselves on the fact, and invented by way of justification + an ingenious theory, which was afterwards developed by the Slavophils. + "The nations of the West," they said, "began to live before us, and are + consequently more advanced than we are; but we have on that account no + reason to envy them, for we can profit by their errors, and avoid those + deep-rooted evils from which they are suffering. He who has just been born + is happier than he who is dying." + </p> + <p> + Thus, we see, a patriotic reaction against the introduction of foreign + institutions and the inordinate admiration of foreign culture already + existed in Russia more than a century ago. It did not, however, take the + form of a philosophical theory till a much later period, when a similar + movement was going on in various countries of Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + After the overthrow of the great Napoleonic Empire a reaction against + cosmopolitanism took place and a romantic enthusiasm for nationality + spread over Europe like an epidemic. Blind, enthusiastic patriotism became + the fashionable sentiment of the time. Each nation took to admiring itself + complacently, to praising its own character and achievements, and to + idealising its historical and mythical past. National peculiarities, + "local colour," ancient customs, traditional superstitions—in short, + everything that a nation believed to be specially and exclusively its own, + now raised an enthusiasm similar to that which had been formerly excited + by cosmopolitan conceptions founded on the law of nature. The movement + produced good and evil results. In serious minds it led to a deep and + conscientious study of history, national literature, popular mythology, + and the like; whilst in frivolous, inflammable spirits it gave birth + merely to a torrent of patriotic fervour and rhetorical exaggeration. The + Slavophils were the Russian representatives of this nationalistic + reaction, and displayed both its serious and its frivolous elements. + </p> + <p> + Among the most important products of this movement in Germany was the + Hegelian theory of universal history. According to Hegel's views, which + were generally accepted by those who occupied themselves with + philosophical questions, universal history was described as "Progress in + the consciousness of freedom" (Fortschritt im Bewusstsein der Freiheit). + In each period of the world's history, it was explained, some one nation + or race had been intrusted with the high mission of enabling the Absolute + Reason, or Weltgeist, to express itself in objective existence, while the + other nations and races had for the time no metaphysical justification for + their existence, and no higher duty than to imitate slavishly the favoured + rival in which the Weltgeist had for the moment chosen to incorporate + itself. The incarnation had taken place first in the Eastern Monarchies, + then in Greece, next in Rome, and lastly in the Germanic race; and it was + generally assumed, if not openly asserted, that this mystical + Metempsychosis of the Absolute was now at an end. The cycle of existence + was complete. In the Germanic peoples the Weltgeist had found its highest + and final expression. + </p> + <p> + Russians in general knew nothing about German philosophy, and were + consequently not in any way affected by these ideas, but there was in + Moscow a small group of young men who ardently studied German literature + and metaphysics, and they were much shocked by Hegel's views. Ever since + the brilliant reign of Catherine II., who had defeated the Turks and had + dreamed of resuscitating the Byzantine Empire, and especially since the + memorable events of 1812-15, when Alexander I. appeared as the liberator + of enthralled Europe and the arbiter of her destinies, Russians were + firmly convinced that their country was destined to play a most important + part in human history. Already the great Russian historian Karamzin had + declared that henceforth Clio must be silent or accord to Russia a + prominent place in the history of the nations. Now, by the Hegelian + theory, the whole of the Slav race was left out in the cold, with no high + mission, with no new truths to divulge, with nothing better to do, in + fact, than to imitate the Germans. + </p> + <p> + The patriotic philosophers of Moscow could not, of course, adopt this + view. Whilst accepting the fundamental principles, they declared the + theory to be incomplete. The incompleteness lay in the assumption that + humanity had already entered on the final stages of its development. The + Teutonic nations were perhaps for the moment the leaders in the march of + civilisation, but there was no reason to suppose that they would always + retain that privileged position. On the contrary, there were already + symptoms that their ascendency was drawing to a close. "Western Europe," + it was said, "presents a strange, saddening spectacle. Opinion struggles + against opinion, power against power, throne against throne. Science, Art, + and Religion, the three chief motors of social life, have lost their + force. We venture to make an assertion which to many at present may seem + strange, but which will be in a few years only too evident: Western Europe + is on the highroad to ruin! We Russians, on the contrary, are young and + fresh, and have taken no part in the crimes of Europe. We have a great + mission to fulfil. Our name is already inscribed on the tablets of + victory, and now we have to inscribe our spirit in the history of the + human mind. A higher kind of victory—the victory of Science, Art and + Faith—awaits us on the ruins of tottering Europe!"* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These words were written by Prince Odoefski. +</pre> + <p> + This conclusion was supported by arguments drawn from history—or, at + least, what was believed to be history. The European world was represented + as being composed of two hemispheres—the Eastern or Graeco-Slavonic + on the one hand, and the Western, or Roman Catholic and Protestant, on the + other. These two hemispheres, it was said, are distinguished from each + other by many fundamental characteristics. In both of them Christianity + formed originally the basis of civilisation, but in the West it became + distorted and gave a false direction to the intellectual development. By + placing the logical reason of the learned above the conscience of the + whole Church, Roman Catholicism produced Protestantism, which proclaimed + the right of private judgment and consequently became split up into + innumerable sects. The dry, logical spirit which was thus fostered created + a purely intellectual, one-sided philosophy, which must end in pure + scepticism, by blinding men to those great truths which lie above the + sphere of reasoning and logic. The Graeco-Slavonic world, on the contrary, + having accepted Christianity not from Rome, but from Byzantium, received + pure orthodoxy and true enlightenment, and was thus saved alike from Papal + tyranny and from Protestant free-thinking. Hence the Eastern Christians + have preserved faithfully not only the ancient dogmas, but also the + ancient spirit of Christianity—that spirit of pious humility, + resignation, and brotherly love which Christ taught by precept and + example. If they have not yet a philosophy, they will create one, and it + will far surpass all previous systems; for in the writings of the Greek + Fathers are to be found the germs of a broader, a deeper, and a truer + philosophy than the dry, meagre rationalism of the West—a philosophy + founded not on the logical faculty alone, but on the broader basis of + human nature as a whole. + </p> + <p> + The fundamental characteristics of the Graeco-Slavonic world—so runs + the Slavophil theory—have been displayed in the history of Russia. + Throughout Western Christendom the principal of individual judgment and + reckless individual egotism have exhausted the social forces and brought + society to the verge of incurable anarchy and inevitable dissolution, + whereas the social and political history of Russia has been harmonious and + peaceful. It presents no struggles between the different social classes, + and no conflicts between Church and State. All the factors have worked in + unison, and the development has been guided by the spirit of pure + orthodoxy. But in this harmonious picture there is one big, ugly black + spot—Peter, falsely styled "the Great," and his so-called reforms. + Instead of following the wise policy of his ancestors, Peter rejected the + national traditions and principles, and applied to his country, which + belonged to the Eastern world, the principles of Western civilisation. His + reforms, conceived in a foreign spirit, and elaborated by men who did not + possess the national instincts, were forced upon the nation against its + will, and the result was precisely what might have been expected. The + "broad Slavonic nature" could not be controlled by institutions which had + been invented by narrow-minded, pedantic German bureaucrats, and, like + another Samson, it pulled down the building in which foreign legislators + sought to confine it. The attempt to introduce foreign culture had a still + worse effect. The upper classes, charmed and dazzled by the glare and + glitter of Western science, threw themselves impulsively on the newly + found treasures, and thereby condemned themselves to moral slavery and + intellectual sterility. Fortunately—and herein lay one of the + fundamental principles of the Slavophil doctrine—the imported + civilisation had not at all infected the common people. Through all the + changes which the administration and the Noblesse underwent the peasantry + preserved religiously in their hearts "the living legacy of antiquity," + the essence of Russian nationality, "a clear spring welling up living + waters, hidden and unknown, but powerful."* To recover this lost legacy by + studying the character, customs, and institutions of the peasantry, to + lead the educated classes back to the path from which they had strayed, + and to re-establish that intellectual and moral unity which had been + disturbed by the foreign importations—such was the task which the + Slavophils proposed to themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This was one of the favourite themes of Khomiakof, the + Slavophil poet and theologian. +</pre> + <p> + Deeply imbued with that romantic spirit which distorted all the + intellectual activity of the time, the Slavophils often indulged in the + wildest exaggerations, condemning everything foreign and praising + everything Russian. When in this mood they saw in the history of the West + nothing but violence, slavery, and egotism, and in that of their own + country free-will, liberty, and peace. The fact that Russia did not + possess free political institutions was adduced as a precious fruit of + that spirit of Christian resignation and self-sacrifice which places the + Russian at such an immeasurable height above the proud, selfish European; + and because Russia possessed few of the comforts and conveniences of + common life, the West was accused of having made comfort its God! We need + not, however, dwell on these puerilities, which only gained for their + authors the reputation of being ignorant, narrow-minded men, imbued with a + hatred of enlightenment and desirous of leading their country back to its + primitive barbarism. What the Slavophils really condemned, at least in + their calmer moments, was not European culture, but the uncritical, + indiscriminate adoption of it by their countrymen. Their tirades against + foreign culture must appear excusable when we remember that many Russians + of the upper ranks could speak and write French more correctly than their + native language, and that even the great national poet Pushkin was not + ashamed to confess—what was not true, and a mere piece of + affectation—that "the language of Europe" was more familiar to him + than his mother-tongue! + </p> + <p> + The Slavophil doctrine, though it made a great noise in the world, never + found many adherents. The society of St. Petersburg regarded it as one of + those harmless provincial eccentricities which are always to be found in + Moscow. In the modern capital, with its foreign name, its streets and + squares on the European model, its palaces and churches in the Renaissance + style, and its passionate love of everything French, any attempt to + resuscitate the old Boyaric times would have been eminently ridiculous. + Indeed, hostility to St. Petersburg and to "the Petersburg period of + Russian history" is one of the characteristic traits of genuine + Slavophilism. In Moscow the doctrine found a more appropriate home. There + the ancient churches, with the tombs of Grand Princes and holy martyrs, + the palace in which the Tsars of Muscovy had lived, the Kremlin which had + resisted—not always successfully—the attacks of savage Tartars + and heretical Poles, the venerable Icons that had many a time protected + the people from danger, the block of masonry from which, on solemn + occasions, the Tsar and the Patriarch had addressed the assembled + multitude—these, and a hundred other monuments sanctified by + tradition, have kept alive in the popular memory some vague remembrance of + the olden time, and are still capable of awakening antiquarian patriotism. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants, too, have preserved something of the old Muscovite + character. Whilst successive sovereigns have been striving to make the + country a progressive European empire, Moscow has remained the home of + passive conservatism and an asylum for the discontented, especially for + the disappointed aspirants to Imperial favour. Abandoned by the modern + Emperors, she can glory in her ancient Tsars. But even the Muscovites were + not prepared to accept the Slavophil doctrine in the extreme form which it + assumed, and were not a little perplexed by the eccentricities of those + who professed it. Plain, sensible people, though they might be proud of + being citizens of the ancient capital, and might thoroughly enjoy a joke + at the expense of St. Petersburg, could not understand a little coterie of + enthusiasts who sought neither official rank nor decorations, who slighted + many of the conventionalities of the higher classes to which by birth and + education they belonged, who loved to fraternise with the common people, + and who occasionally dressed in the national costume which had been + discarded by the nobles since the time of Peter the Great. + </p> + <p> + The Slavophils thus remained merely a small literary party, which probably + did not count more than a dozen members, but their influence was out of + all proportion to their numbers. They preached successfully the doctrine + that the historical development of Russia has been peculiar, that her + present social and political organisation is radically different from that + of the countries of Western Europe, and that consequently the social and + political evils from which she suffers are not to be cured by the remedies + which have proved efficacious in France and Germany. These truths, which + now appear commonplace, were formerly by no means generally recognised, + and the Slavophils deserve credit for directing attention to them. Besides + this, they helped to awaken in the upper classes a lively sympathy with + the poor, oppressed, and despised peasantry. So long as the Emperor + Nicholas lived they had to confine themselves to a purely literary + activity; but during the great reforms initiated by his successor, + Alexander II., they descended into the arena of practical politics, and + played a most useful and honourable part in the emancipation of the serfs. + In the new local self-government, too—the Zemstvo and the new + municipal institutions—they laboured energetically and to good + purpose. Of all this I shall have occasion to speak more fully in future + chapters. + </p> + <p> + But what of their Panslavist aspirations? By their theory they were + constrained to pay attention to the Slav race as a whole, but they were + more Russian than Slav, and more Muscovite than Russian. The Panslavist + element consequently occupied a secondary place in Slavophil doctrine. + Though they did much to stimulate popular sympathy with the Southern + Slavs, and always cherished the hope that the Serbs, Bulgarians, and + cognate Slav nationalities would one day throw off the bondage of the + German and the Turk, they never proposed any elaborate project for the + solution of the Eastern Question. So far as I was able to gather from + their conversation, they seemed to favour the idea of a grand Slavonic + Confederation, in which the hegemony would, of course, belong to Russia. + In ordinary times the only steps which they took for the realisation of + this idea consisted in contributing money for schools and churches among + the Slav population of Austria and Turkey, and in educating young + Bulgarians in Russia. During the Cretan insurrection they sympathised + warmly with the insurgents as co-religionists, but afterwards—especially + during the crisis of the Eastern Question which culminated in the Treaty + of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin (1878)—their Hellenic + sympathies cooled, because the Greeks showed that they had political + aspirations inconsistent with the designs of Russia, and that they were + likely to be the rivals rather than the allies of the Slavs in the + struggle for the Sick Man's inheritance. + </p> + <p> + Since the time when I was living in Moscow in constant intercourse with + the leading Slavophils more than a quarter of a century has passed, and of + those with whom I spent so many pleasant evenings discussing the past + history and future destinies of the Slav races, not one remains alive. All + the great prophets of the old Slavophil doctrine—Jun Samarin, Prince + Tcherkaski, Ivan Aksakof, Kosheleff—have departed without leaving + behind them any genuine disciples. The present generation of Muscovite + frondeurs, who continue to rail against Western Europe and the pedantic + officialism of St. Petersburg, are of a more modern and less academic + type. Their philippics are directed not against Peter the Great and his + reforms, but rather against recent Ministers of Foreign Affairs who are + thought to have shown themselves too subservient to foreign Powers, and + against M. Witte, the late Minister of Finance, who is accused of + favouring the introduction of foreign capital and enterprise, and of + sacrificing to unhealthy industrial development the interests of the + agricultural classes. These laments and diatribes are allowed free + expression in private conversation and in the Press, but they do not + influence very deeply the policy of the Government or the natural course + of events; for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs continues to cultivate + friendly relations with the Cabinets of the West, and Moscow is rapidly + becoming, by the force of economic conditions, the great industrial and + commercial centre of the Empire. + </p> + <p> + The administrative and bureaucratic centre—if anything on the + frontier of a country can be called its centre—has long been, and is + likely to remain, Peter's stately city at the mouth of the Neva, to which + I now invite the reader to accompany me. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI + </h2> + <h3> + ST. PETERSBURG AND EUROPEAN INFLUENCE + </h3> + <p> + St. Petersburg and Berlin—Big Houses—The "Lions"—Peter + the Great—His Aims and Policy—The German Regime—Nationalist + Reaction—French Influence—Consequent Intellectual Sterility—Influence + of the Sentimental School—Hostility to Foreign Influences—A + New Period of Literary Importation—Secret Societies—The + Catastrophe—The Age of Nicholas—A Terrible War on Parnassus—Decline + of Romanticism and Transcendentalism—Gogol—The Revolutionary + Agitation of 1848—New Reaction—Conclusion. + </p> + <p> + From whatever side the traveller approaches St. Petersburg, unless he goes + thither by sea, he must traverse several hundred miles of forest and + morass, presenting few traces of human habitation or agriculture. This + fact adds powerfully to the first impression which the city makes on his + mind. In the midst of a waste howling wilderness, he suddenly comes on a + magnificent artificial oasis. + </p> + <p> + Of all the great European cities, the one that most resembles the capital + of the Tsars is Berlin. Both are built on perfectly level ground; both + have wide, regularly arranged streets; in both there is a general look of + stiffness and symmetry which suggests military discipline and German + bureaucracy. But there is at least one profound difference. Though Berlin + is said by geographers to be built on the Spree, we might live a long time + in the city without noticing the sluggish little stream on which the name + of a river has been undeservedly conferred. St. Petersburg, on the + contrary, is built on a magnificent river, which forms the main feature of + the place. By its breadth, and by the enormous volume of its clear, blue, + cold water, the Neva is certainly one of the noblest rivers of Europe. A + few miles before reaching the Gulf of Finland it breaks up into several + streams and forms a delta. It is here that St. Petersburg stands. + </p> + <p> + Like the river, everything in St. Petersburg is on a colossal scale. The + streets, the squares, the palaces, the public buildings, the churches, + whatever may be their defects, have at least the attribute of greatness, + and seem to have been designed for the countless generations to come, + rather than for the practical wants of the present inhabitants. In this + respect the city well represents the Empire of which it is the capital. + Even the private houses are built in enormous blocks and divided into many + separate apartments. Those built for the working classes sometimes + contain, I am assured, more than a thousand inhabitants. How many cubic + feet of air is allowed to each person, I do not know; not so many, I fear, + as is recommended by the most advanced sanitary authorities. + </p> + <p> + For a detailed description of the city I must refer the reader to the + guide books. Among its numerous monuments, of which the Russians are + justly proud, I confess that the one which interested me most was neither + St. Isaac's Cathedral, with its majestic gilded dome, its colossal + monolithic columns of red granite, and its gaudy interior; nor the + Hermitage, with its magnificent collection of Dutch pictures; nor the + gloomy, frowning fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul, containing the tombs + of the Emperors. These and other "sights" may deserve all the praise which + enthusiastic tourists have lavished upon them, but what made a far deeper + impression on me was the little wooden house in which Peter the Great + lived whilst his future capital was being built. In its style and + arrangement it looks more like the hut of a navvy than the residence of a + Tsar, but it was quite in keeping with the character of the illustrious + man who occupied it. Peter could and did occasionally work like a navvy + without feeling that his Imperial dignity was thereby impaired. When he + determined to build a new capital on a Finnish marsh, inhabited chiefly by + wildfowl, he did not content himself with exercising his autocratic power + in a comfortable arm chair. Like the Greek gods, he went down from his + Olympus and took his place in the ranks of ordinary mortals, + superintending the work with his own eyes, and taking part in it with his + own hands. If he was as arbitrary and oppressive as any of the + pyramid-building Pharaohs, he could at least say in self-justification + that he did not spare himself any more than his people, but exposed + himself freely to the discomforts and dangers under which thousands of his + fellow-labourers succumbed. + </p> + <p> + In reading the account of Peter's life, written in part by his own pen, we + can easily understand how the piously Conservative section of his subjects + failed to recognise in him the legitimate successor of the orthodox Tsars. + The old Tsars had been men of grave, pompous demeanour, deeply imbued with + the consciousness of their semi-religious dignity. Living habitually in + Moscow or its immediate neighbourhood, they spent their time in attending + long religious services, in consulting with their Boyars, in being present + at ceremonious hunting-parties, in visiting the monasteries, and in + holding edifying conversations with ecclesiastical dignitaries or revered + ascetics. If they undertook a journey, it was probably to make a + pilgrimage to some holy shrine; and, whether in Moscow or elsewhere, they + were always protected from contact with ordinary humanity by a formidable + barricade of court ceremonial. In short, they combined the characters of a + Christian monk and of an Oriental potentate. + </p> + <p> + Peter was a man of an entirely different type, and played in the calm, + dignified, orthodox, ceremonious world of Moscow the part of the bull in + the china shop, outraging ruthlessly and wantonly all the time-honored + traditional conceptions of propriety and etiquette. Utterly regardless of + public opinion and popular prejudices, he swept away the old formalities, + avoided ceremonies of all kinds, scoffed at ancient usage, preferred + foreign secular books to edifying conversations, chose profane heretics as + his boon companions, travelled in foreign countries, dressed in heretical + costume, defaced the image of God and put his soul in jeopardy by shaving + off his beard, compelled his nobles to dress and shave like himself, + rushed about the Empire as if goaded on by the demon of unrest, employed + his sacred hands in carpentering and other menial occupations, took part + openly in the uproarious orgies of his foreign soldiery, and, in short, + did everything that "the Lord's anointed" might reasonably be expected not + to do. No wonder the Muscovites were scandalised by his conduct, and that + some of them suspected he was not the Tsar at all, but Antichrist in + disguise. And no wonder he felt the atmosphere of Moscow oppressive, and + preferred living in the new capital which he had himself created. + </p> + <p> + His avowed object in building St. Petersburg was to have "a window by + which the Russians might look into civilised Europe"; and well has the + city fulfilled its purpose. From its foundation may be dated the European + period of Russian history. Before Peter's time Russia belonged to Asia + rather than to Europe, and was doubtless regarded by Englishmen and + Frenchmen pretty much as we nowadays regard Bokhara or Kashgar; since that + time she has formed an integral part of the European political system, and + her intellectual history has been but a reflection of the intellectual + history of Western Europe, modified and coloured by national character and + by peculiar local conditions. + </p> + <p> + When we speak of the intellectual history of a nation we generally mean in + reality the intellectual history of the upper classes. With regard to + Russia, more perhaps than with regard to any other country, this + distinction must always carefully be borne in mind. Peter succeeded in + forcing European civilisation on the nobles, but the people remained + unaffected. The nation was, as it were, cleft in two, and with each + succeeding generation the cleft has widened. Whilst the masses clung + obstinately to their time-honoured customs and beliefs, the nobles came to + look on the objects of popular veneration as the relics of a barbarous + past, of which a civilised nation ought to be ashamed. + </p> + <p> + The intellectual movement inaugurated by Peter had a purely practical + character. He was himself a thorough utilitarian, and perceived clearly + that what his people needed was not theological or philosophical + enlightment, but plain, practical knowledge suitable for the requirements + of everyday life. He wanted neither theologians nor philosophers, but + military and naval officers, administrators, artisans, miners, + manufacturers, and merchants, and for this purpose he introduced secular + technical education. For the young generation primary schools were + founded, and for more advanced pupils the best foreign works on + fortification, architecture, navigation, metallurgy, engineering and + cognate subjects were translated into the native tongue. Scientific men + and cunning artificers were brought into the country, and young Russians + were sent abroad to learn foreign languages and the useful arts. In a + word, everything was done that seemed likely to raise the Russians to the + level of material well-being already attained by the more advanced + nations. + </p> + <p> + We have here an important peculiarity in the intellectual development of + Russia. In Western Europe the modern scientific spirit, being the natural + offspring of numerous concomitant historical causes, was born in the + natural way, and Society had, consequently, before giving birth to it, to + endure the pains of pregnancy and the throes of prolonged labour. In + Russia, on the contrary, this spirit appeared suddenly as an adult + foreigner, adopted by a despotic paterfamilias. Thus Russia made the + transition from mediaeval to modern times without any violent struggle + between the old and the new conceptions such as had taken place in the + West. The Church, effectually restrained from all active opposition by the + Imperial power, preserved unmodified her ancient beliefs; whilst the + nobles, casting their traditional conceptions and beliefs to the winds, + marched forward unfettered on that path which their fathers and + grandfathers had regarded as the direct road to perdition. + </p> + <p> + During the first part of Peter's reign Russia was not subjected to the + exclusive influence of any one particular country. Thoroughly cosmopolitan + in his sympathies, the great reformer, like the Japanese of the present + day, was ready to borrow from any foreign nation—German, Dutch, + Danish, or French—whatever seemed to him to suit his purpose. But + soon the geographical proximity to Germany, the annexation of the Baltic + Provinces in which the civilisation was German, and intermarriages between + the Imperial family and various German dynasties, gave to German influence + a decided preponderance. When the Empress Anne, Peter's niece, who had + been Duchess of Courland, entrusted the whole administration of the + country to her favourite Biron, the German influence became almost + exclusive, and the Court, the official world, and the schools were + Germanised. + </p> + <p> + The harsh, cruel, tyrannical rule of Biron produced a strong reaction, + ending in a revolution, which raised to the throne the Princess Elizabeth, + Peter's unmarried daughter, who had lived in retirement and neglect during + the German regime. She was expected to rid the country of foreigners, and + she did what she could to fulfil the expectations that were entertained of + her. With loud protestations of patriotic feelings, she removed the + Germans from all important posts, demanded that in future the members of + the Academy should be chosen from among born Russians, and gave orders + that the Russian youth should be carefully prepared for all kinds of + official activity. + </p> + <p> + This attempt to throw off the German bondage did not lead to intellectual + independence. During Peter's violent reforms Russia had ruthlessly thrown + away her own historic past with whatever germs it contained, and now she + possessed none of the elements of a genuine national culture. She was in + the position of a fugitive who has escaped from slavery, and, finding + himself in danger of starvation, looks about for a new master. The upper + classes, who had acquired a taste for foreign civilisation, no sooner + threw off everything German than they sought some other civilisation to + put in its place. And they could not long hesitate in making a choice, for + at that time all who thought of culture and refinement turned their eyes + to Paris and Versailles. All that was most brilliant and refined was to be + found at the Court of the French kings, under whose patronage the art and + literature of the Renaissance had attained their highest development. Even + Germany, which had resisted the ambitious designs of Louis XIV., imitated + the manners of his Court. Every petty German potentate strove to ape the + pomp and dignity of the Grand Monarque; and the courtiers, affecting to + look on everything German as rude and barbarous, adopted French fashions, + and spoke a hybrid jargon which they considered much more elegant than the + plain mother tongue. In a word, Gallomania had become the prevailing + social epidemic of the time, and it could not fail to attack and + metamorphose such a class as the Russian Noblesse, which possessed few + stubborn deep-rooted national convictions. + </p> + <p> + At first the French influence was manifested chiefly in external forms—that + is to say, in dress, manners, language, and upholstery—but + gradually, and very rapidly after the accession of Catherine II., the + friend of Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, it sank deeper. Every noble + who had pretensions to being "civilised" learned to speak French fluently, + and gained some superficial acquaintance with French literature. The + tragedies of Corneille and Racine and the comedies of Moliere were played + regularly at the Court theatre in presence of the Empress, and awakened a + real or affected enthusiasm among the audience. For those who preferred + reading in their native language, numerous translations were published, a + simple list of which would fill several pages. Among them we find not only + Voltaire, Rousseau, Lesage, Marmontel, and other favourite French authors, + but also all the masterpieces of European literature, ancient and modern, + which at that time enjoyed a high reputation in the French literary world—Homer + and Demosthenes, Cicero and Virgil, Ariosto and Camoens, Milton and Locke, + Sterne and Fielding. + </p> + <p> + It is related of Byron that he never wrote a description whilst the scene + was actually before him; and this fact points to an important + psychological principle. The human mind, so long as it is compelled to + strain the receptive faculties, cannot engage in that "poetic" activity—to + use the term in its Greek sense—which is commonly called "original + creation." And as with individuals, so with nations. By accepting in a + lump a foreign culture a nation inevitably condemns itself for a time to + intellectual sterility. So long as it is occupied in receiving and + assimilating a flood of new ideas, unfamiliar conceptions, and foreign + modes of thought, it will produce nothing original, and the result of its + highest efforts will be merely successful imitation. We need not be + surprised therefore to find that the Russians, in becoming acquainted with + foreign literature, became imitators and plagiarists. In this kind of work + their natural pliancy of mind and powerful histrionic talent made them + wonderfully successful. Odes, pseudo-classical tragedies, satirical + comedies, epic poems, elegies, and all the other recognised forms of + poetical composition, appeared in great profusion, and many of the writers + acquired a remarkable command over their native language, which had + hitherto been regarded as uncouth and barbarous. But in all this mass of + imitative literature, which has since fallen into well-merited oblivion, + there are very few traces of genuine originality. To obtain the title of + the Russian Racine, the Russian Lafontaine, the Russian Pindar, or the + Russian Homer, was at that time the highest aim of Russian literary + ambition. + </p> + <p> + Together with the fashionable literature the Russian educated classes + adopted something of the fashionable philosophy. They were peculiarly + unfitted to resist that hurricane of "enlightenment" which swept over + Europe during the latter half of the eighteenth century, first breaking or + uprooting the received philosophical systems, theological conceptions, and + scientific theories, and then shaking to their foundations the existing + political and social institutions. The Russian Noblesse had neither the + traditional conservative spirit, nor the firm, well-reasoned, logical + beliefs which in England and Germany formed a powerful barrier against the + spread of French influence. They had been too recently metamorphosed, and + were too eager to acquire a foreign civilisation, to have even the germs + of a conservative spirit. The rapidity and violence with which Peter's + reforms had been effected, together with the peculiar spirit of Greek + Orthodoxy and the low intellectual level of the clergy, had prevented + theology from associating itself with the new order of things. The upper + classes had become estranged from the beliefs of their forefathers without + acquiring other beliefs to supply the place of those which had been lost. + The old religious conceptions were inseparably interwoven with what was + recognised as antiquated and barbarous, whilst the new philosophical ideas + were associated with all that was modern and civilised. Besides this, the + sovereign, Catherine II., who enjoyed the unbounded admiration of the + upper classes, openly professed allegiance to the new philosophy, and + sought the advice and friendship of its high priests. If we bear in mind + these facts we shall not be surprised to find among the Russian nobles of + that time a considerable number of so-called "Voltaireans" and numerous + unquestioning believers in the infallibility of the Encyclopedie. What is + a little more surprising is, that the new philosophy sometimes found its + way into the ecclesiastical seminaries. The famous Speranski relates that + in the seminary of St. Petersburg one of his professors, when not in a + state of intoxication, was in the habit of preaching the doctrines of + Voltaire and Diderot! + </p> + <p> + The rise of the sentimental school in Western Europe produced an important + change in Russian literature, by undermining the inordinate admiration for + the French pseudo-classical school. Florian, Richardson, Sterne, Rousseau, + and Bernardin de St. Pierre found first translators, and then imitators, + and soon the loud-sounding declamation and wordy ecstatic despair of the + stage heroes were drowned in the deep-drawn sighs and plaintive wailings + of amorous swains and peasant-maids forsaken. The mania seems to have been + in Russia even more severe than in the countries where it originated. + Full-grown, bearded men wept because they had not been born in peaceful + primitive times, "when all men were shepherds and brothers." Hundreds of + sighing youths and maidens visited the scenes described by the sentimental + writers, and wandered by the rivers and ponds in which despairing heroines + had drowned themselves. People talked, wrote, and meditated about "the + sympathy of hearts created for each other," "the soft communion of + sympathetic souls," and much more of the same kind. Sentimental journeys + became a favourite amusement, and formed the subject of very popular + books, containing maudlin absurdities likely to produce nowadays mirth + rather than tears. One traveller, for instance, throws himself on his + knees before an old oak and makes a speech to it; another weeps daily on + the grave of a favourite dog, and constantly longs to marry a peasant + girl; a third talks love to the moon, sends kisses to the stars, and + wishes to press the heavenly orbs to his bosom! For a time the public + would read nothing but absurd productions of this sort, and Karamzin, the + great literary authority of the time, expressly declared that the true + function of Art was "to disseminate agreeable impressions in the region of + the sentimental." + </p> + <p> + The love of French philosophy vanished as suddenly as the inordinate + admiration of the French pseudo-classical literature. When the great + Revolution broke out in Paris the fashionable philosophic literature in + St. Petersburg disappeared. Men who talked about political freedom and the + rights of man, without thinking for a moment of limiting the autocratic + power or of emancipating their serfs, were naturally surprised and + frightened on discovering what the liberal principles could effect when + applied to real life. Horrified by the awful scenes of the Terror, they + hastened to divest themselves of the principles which led to such results, + and sank into a kind of optimistic conservatism that harmonised well with + the virtuous sentimentalism in vogue. In this the Empress herself gave the + example. The Imperial disciple and friend of the Encyclopaedists became in + the last years of her reign a decided reactionnaire. + </p> + <p> + During the Napoleonic wars, when the patriotic feelings were excited, + there was a violent hostility to foreign intellectual influence; and + feeble intermittent attempts were made to throw off the intellectual + bondage. The invasion of the country in 1812 by the Grande Armee, and the + burning of Moscow, added abundant fuel to this patriotic fire. For some + time any one who ventured to express even a moderate admiration for French + culture incurred the risk of being stigmatised as a traitor to his country + and a renegade to the national faith. But this patriotic fanaticism soon + evaporated, and exaggerations of the ultra-national party became the + object of satire and parody. When the political danger was past, and + people resumed their ordinary occupations, those who loved foreign + literature returned to their old favourites—or, as the + ultra-patriots called it, to their "wallowing in the mire"—simply + because the native literature did not supply them with what they desired. + "We are quite ready," they said to their upbraiders, "to admire your great + works as soon as they appear, but in the meantime please allow us to enjoy + what we possess." Thus in the last years of the reign of Alexander I. the + patriotic opposition to West European literature gradually ceased, and a + new period of unrestricted intellectual importation began. + </p> + <p> + The intellectual merchandise now brought into the country was very + different from that which had been imported in the time of Catherine. The + French Revolution, the Napoleonic domination, the patriotic wars, the + restoration of the Bourbons, and the other great events of that memorable + epoch, had in the interval produced profound changes in the intellectual + as well as the political condition of Western Europe. During the + Napoleonic wars Russia had become closely associated with Germany; and now + the peculiar intellectual fermentation which was going on among the German + educated classes was reflected in the society of St. Petersburg. It did + not appear, indeed, in the printed literature, for the Press-censure had + been recently organised on the principles laid down by Metternich, but it + was none the less violent on that account. Whilst the periodicals were + filled with commonplace meditations on youth, spring, the love of Art, and + similar innocent topics, the young generation was discussing in the salons + all the burning questions which Metternich and his adherents were + endeavouring to extinguish. + </p> + <p> + These discussions, if discussions they might be called, were not of a very + serious kind. In true dilettante style the fashionable young philosophers + culled from the newest books the newest thoughts and theories, and + retailed them in the salon or the ballroom. And they were always sure to + find attentive listeners. The more astounding the idea or dogma, the more + likely was it to be favourably received. No matter whether it came from + the Rationalists, the Mystics, the Freemasons, or the Methodists, it was + certain to find favour, provided it was novel and presented in an elegant + form. The eclectic minds of that curious time could derive equal + satisfaction from the brilliant discourses of the reactionary jesuitical + De Maistre, the revolutionary odes of Pushkin, and the mysticism of Frau + von Krudener. For the majority the vague theosophic doctrines and the + projects for a spiritual union of governments and peoples had perhaps the + greatest charm, being specially commended by the fact that they enjoyed + the protection and sympathy of the Emperor. Pious souls discovered in the + mystical lucubrations of Jung-Stilling and Baader the final solution of + all existing difficulties—political, social, and philosophical. Men + of less dreamy temperament put their faith in political economy and + constitutional theories, and sought a foundation for their favourite + schemes in the past history of the country and in the supposed fundamental + peculiarities of the national character. Like the young German democrats, + who were then talking enthusiastically about Teutons, Cheruskers, Skalds, + the shade of Arminius, and the heroes of the Niebelungen, these young + Russian savants recognised in early Russian history—when + reconstructed according to their own fancy—lofty political ideals, + and dreamed of resuscitating the ancient institutions in all their + pristine imaginary splendour. + </p> + <p> + Each age has its peculiar social and political panaceas. One generation + puts its trust in religion, another in philanthropy, a third in written + constitutions, a fourth in universal suffrage, a fifth in popular + education. In the Epoch of the Restoration, as it is called, the favourite + panacea all over the Continent was secret political association. Very soon + after the overthrow of Napoleon the peoples who had risen in arms to + obtain political independence discovered that they had merely changed + masters. The Princes reconstructed Europe according to their own + convenience, without paying much attention to patriotic aspirations, and + forgot their promises of liberal institutions as soon as they were again + firmly seated on their thrones. This was naturally for many a bitter + deception. The young generation, excluded from all share in political life + and gagged by the stringent police supervision, sought to realise its + political aspirations by means of secret societies, resembling more or + less the Masonic brotherhoods. There were the Burschenschaften in Germany; + the Union, and the "Aide toi et le ciel t'aidera," in France; the Order of + the Hammer in Spain; the Carbonari in Italy; and the Hetairai in Greece. + In Russia the young nobles followed the prevailing fashion. Secret + societies were formed, and in December, 1825, an attempt was made to raise + a military insurrection in St. Petersburg, for the purpose of deposing the + Imperial family and proclaiming a republic; but the attempt failed, and + the vague Utopian dreams of the romantic would-be reformers were swept + away by grape-shot. + </p> + <p> + This "December catastrophe," still vividly remembered, was for the society + of St. Petersburg like the giving way of the floor in a crowded ball-room. + But a moment before, all had been animated, careless, and happy; now + consternation was depicted on every face. The salons, that but yesterday + had been ringing with lively discussions on morals, aesthetics, politics, + and theology, were now silent and deserted. Many of those who had been + wont to lead the causeries had been removed to the cells of the fortress, + and those who had not been arrested trembled for themselves or their + friends; for nearly all had of late dabbled more or less in the theory and + practice of revolution. The announcement that five of the conspirators had + been condemned to the gallows and the others sentenced to transportation + did not tend to calm the consternation. Society was like a discomfited + child, who, amidst the delight and excitement of letting off fireworks, + has had its fingers severely burnt. + </p> + <p> + The sentimental, wavering Alexander I. had been succeeded by his stern, + energetic brother Nicholas, and the command went forth that there should + be no more fireworks, no more dilettante philosophising or political + aspirations. There was, however, little need for such an order. Society + had been, for the moment at least, effectually cured of all tendencies to + political dreaming. It had discovered, to its astonishment and dismay, + that these new ideas, which were to bring temporal salvation to humanity, + and to make all men happy, virtuous, refined, and poetical, led in reality + to exile and the scaffold! The pleasant dream was at an end, and the + fashionable world, giving up its former habits, took to harmless + occupations—card-playing, dissipation, and the reading of French + light literature. "The French quadrille," as a writer of the time tersely + expresses it, "has taken the place of Adam Smith." + </p> + <p> + When the storm had passed, the life of the salons began anew, but it was + very different from what it had been. There was no longer any talk about + political economy, theology, popular education, administrative abuses, + social and political reforms. Everything that had any relation to politics + in the wider sense of the term was by tacit consent avoided. Discussions + there were as of old, but they were now confined to literary topics, + theories of art, and similar innocent subjects. + </p> + <p> + This indifference or positive repugnance to philosophy and political + science, strengthened and prolonged by the repressive system of + administration adopted by Nicholas, was of course fatal to the many-sided + intellectual activity which had flourished during the preceding reign, but + it was by no means unfavourable to the cultivation of imaginative + literature. On the contrary, by excluding those practical interests which + tend to disturb artistic production and to engross the attention of the + public, it fostered what was called in the phraseology of that time "the + pure-hearted worship of the Muses." We need not, therefore, be surprised + to find that the reign of Nicholas, which is commonly and not unjustly + described as an epoch of social and intellectual stagnation, may be called + in a certain sense the Golden Age of Russian literature. + </p> + <p> + Already in the preceding reign the struggle between the Classical and the + Romantic school—between the adherents of traditional aesthetic + principles and the partisans of untrammelled poetic inspiration—which + was being carried on in Western Europe, was reflected in Russia. A group + of young men belonging to the aristocratic society of St. Petersburg + embraced with enthusiasm the new doctrines, and declared war against + "classicism," under which term they understood all that was antiquated, + dry, and pedantic. Discarding the stately, lumbering, unwieldy periods + which had hitherto been in fashion, they wrote a light, elastic, vigorous + style, and formed a literary society for the express purpose of ridiculing + the most approved classical writers. The new principles found many + adherents, and the new style many admirers, but this only intensified the + hostility of the literary Conservatives. The staid, respectable leaders of + the old school, who had all their lives kept the fear of Boileau before + their eyes and considered his precepts as the infallible utterances of + aesthetic wisdom, thundered against the impious innovations as + unmistakable symptoms of literary decline and moral degeneracy—representing + the boisterous young iconoclasts as dissipated Don Juans and dangerous + freethinkers. + </p> + <p> + Thus for some time in Russia, as in Western Europe, "a terrible war raged + on Parnassus." At first the Government frowned at the innovators, on + account of certain revolutionary odes which one of their number had + written; but when the Romantic Muse, having turned away from the present + as essentially prosaic, went back into the distant past and soared into + the region of sublime abstractions, the most keen-eyed Press Censors found + no reason to condemn her worship, and the authorities placed almost no + restrictions on free poetic inspiration. Romantic poetry acquired the + protection of the Government and the patronage of the Court, and the names + of Zhukofski, Pushkin, and Lermontof—the three chief representatives + of the Russian Romantic school—became household words in all ranks + of the educated classes. + </p> + <p> + These three great luminaries of the literary world were of course attended + by a host of satellites of various magnitudes, who did all in their power + to refute the romantic principles by reductiones ad absurdum. Endowed for + the most part with considerable facility of composition, the poetasters + poured forth their feelings with torrential recklessness, demanding + freedom for their inspiration, and cursing the age that fettered them with + its prosaic cares, its cold reason, and its dry science. At the same time + the dramatists and novelists created heroes of immaculate character and + angelic purity, endowed with all the cardinal virtues in the superlative + degree; and, as a contrast to these, terrible Satanic personages with + savage passions, gleaming daggers, deadly poisons, and all manner of + aimless melodramatic villainy. These stilted productions, interspersed + with light satirical essays, historical sketches, literary criticism, and + amusing anecdotes, formed the contents of the periodical literature, and + completely satisfied the wants of the reading public. Almost no one at + that time took any interest in public affairs or foreign politics. The + acts of the Government which were watched most attentively were the + promotions in the service and the conferring of decorations. The + publication of a new tale by Zagoskin or Marlinski—two writers now + well-nigh forgotten—seemed of much greater importance than any + amount of legislation, and such events as the French Revolution of 1830 + paled before the publication of a new poem by Pushkin. + </p> + <p> + The Transcendental philosophy, which in Germany went hand in hand with the + Romantic literature, found likewise a faint reflection in Russia. A number + of young professors and students in Moscow, who had become ardent admirers + of German literature, passed from the works of Schiller, Goethe, and + Hoffmann to the writing of Schelling and Hegel. Trained in the Romantic + school, these young philosophers found at first a special charm in + Schelling's mystical system, teeming with hazy poetical metaphors, and + presenting a misty grandiose picture of the universe; but gradually they + felt the want of some logical basis for their speculations, and Hegel + became their favourite. Gallantly they struggled with the uncouth + terminology and epigrammatic paradoxes of the great thinker, and strove to + force their way through the intricate mazes of his logical formulae. With + the ardour of neophytes they looked at every phenomenon—even the + most trivial incident of common life—from the philosophical point of + view, talked day and night about principles, ideas, subjectivity, + Weltauffassung, and similar abstract entities, and habitually attacked the + "hydra of unphilosophy" by analysing the phenomena presented and + relegating the ingredient elements to the recognised categories. In + ordinary life they were men of quiet, grave, contemplative demeanour, but + their faces could flush and their blood boil when they discussed the + all-important question, whether it is possible to pass logically from Pure + Being through Nonentity to the conception of Development and Definite + Existence! + </p> + <p> + We know how in Western Europe Romanticism and Transcendentalism, in their + various forms, sank into oblivion, and were replaced by a literature which + had a closer connection with ordinary prosaic wants and plain everyday + life. The educated public became weary of the Romantic writers, who were + always "sighing like a furnace," delighting in solitude, cold eternity, + and moonshine, deluging the world with their heart-gushings, and calling + on the heavens and the earth to stand aghast at their Promethean agonising + or their Wertherean despair. Healthy human nature revolted against the + poetical enthusiasts who had lost the faculty of seeing things in their + natural light, and who constantly indulged in that morbid self-analysis + which is fatal to genuine feeling and vigorous action. And in this healthy + reaction the philosophers fared no better than the poets, with whom, + indeed, they had much in common. Shutting their eyes to the visible world + around them, they had busied themselves with burrowing in the mysterious + depths of Absolute Being, grappling with the ego and the non-ego, + constructing the great world, visible and invisible, out of their own puny + internal self-consciousness, endeavouring to appropriate all departments + of human thought, and imparting to every subject they touched the dryness + and rigidity of an algebraical formula. Gradually men with real human + sympathies began to perceive that from all this philosophical turmoil + little real advantage was to be derived. It became only too evident that + the philosophers were perfectly reconciled with all the evil in the world, + provided it did not contradict their theories; that they were men of the + same type as the physician in Moliere's comedy, whose chief care was that + his patients should die selon les ordonnances de la medicine. + </p> + <p> + In Russia the reaction first appeared in the aesthetic literature. Its + first influential representative was Gogol (b. 1808, d. 1852), who may be + called, in a certain sense, the Russian Dickens. A minute comparison of + those two great humourists would perhaps show as many points of contrast + as of similarity, but there is a strong superficial resemblance between + them. They both possessed an inexhaustible supply of broad humour and an + imagination of singular vividness. Both had the power of seeing the + ridiculous side of common things, and the talent of producing caricatures + that had a wonderful semblance of reality. A little calm reflection would + suffice to show that the characters presented are for the most part + psychological impossibilities; but on first making their acquaintance we + are so struck with one or two life-like characteristics and various little + details dexterously introduced, and at the same time we are so carried + away by the overflowing fun of the narrative, that we have neither time + nor inclination to use our critical faculties. In a very short time + Gogol's fame spread throughout the length and breadth of the Empire, and + many of his characters became as familiar to his countrymen as Sam Weller + and Mrs. Gamp were to Englishmen. His descriptions were so graphic—so + like the world which everybody knew! The characters seemed to be old + acquaintances hit off to the life; and readers revelled in that peculiar + pleasure which most of us derive from seeing our friends successfully + mimicked. Even the Iron Tsar could not resist the fun and humour of "The + Inspector" (Revizor), and not only laughed heartily, but also protected + the author against the tyranny of the literary censors, who considered + that the piece was not written in a sufficiently "well-intentioned" tone. + In a word, the reading public laughed as it had never laughed before, and + this wholesome genuine merriment did much to destroy the morbid appetite + for Byronic heroes and Romantic affectation. + </p> + <p> + The Romantic Muse did not at once abdicate, but with the spread of Gogol's + popularity her reign was practically at an end. In vain some of the + conservative critics decried the new favourite as talentless, prosaic, and + vulgar. The public were not to be robbed of their amusement for the sake + of any abstract aesthetic considerations; and young authors, taking Gogol + for their model, chose their subjects from real life, and endeavoured to + delineate with minute truthfulness. + </p> + <p> + This new intellectual movement was at first purely literary, and affected + merely the manner of writing novels, tales, and poems. The critics who had + previously demanded beauty of form and elegance of expression now demanded + accuracy of description, condemned the aspirations towards so-called high + art, and praised loudly those who produced the best literary photographs. + But authors and critics did not long remain on this purely aesthetic + standpoint. The authors, in describing reality, began to indicate moral + approval and condemnation, and the critics began to pass from the + criticism of the representations to the criticism of the realities + represented. A poem or a tale was often used as a peg on which to hang a + moral lecture, and the fictitious characters were soundly rated for their + sins of omission and commission. Much was said about the defence of the + oppressed, female emancipation, honour, and humanitarianism; and ridicule + was unsparingly launched against all forms of ignorance, apathy, and the + spirit of routine. The ordinary refrain was that the public ought now to + discard what was formerly regarded as poetical and sublime, and to occupy + itself with practical concerns—with the real wants of social life. + </p> + <p> + The literary movement was thus becoming a movement in favour of social and + political reforms when it was suddenly arrested by political events in the + West. The February Revolution in Paris, and the political fermentation + which appeared during 1848-49 in almost every country of Europe, alarmed + the Emperor Nicholas and his counsellors. A Russian army was sent into + Austria to suppress the Hungarian insurrection and save the Hapsburg + dynasty, and the most stringent measures were taken to prevent disorders + at home. One of the first precautions for the preservation of domestic + tranquillity was to muzzle the Press more firmly than before, and to + silence the aspirations towards reform and progress; thenceforth nothing + could be printed which was not in strict accordance with the + ultra-patriotic theory of Russian history, as expressed by a leading + official personage: "The past has been admirable, the present is more than + magnificent, and the future will surpass all that the human imagination + can conceive!" The alarm caused by the revolutionary disorders spread to + the non-official world, and gave rise to much patriotic + self-congratulation. "The nations of the West," it was said, "envy us, and + if they knew us better—if they could see how happy and prosperous we + are—they would envy us still more. We ought not, however, to + withdraw from Europe our solicitude; its hostility should not deprive us + of our high mission of saving order and restoring rest to the nations; we + ought to teach them to obey authority as we do. It is for us to introduce + the saving principle of order into a world that has fallen a prey to + anarchy. Russia ought not to abandon that mission which has been entrusted + to her by the heavenly and by the earthly Tsar."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These words were written by Tchaadaef, who, a few years + before, had vigorously attacked the Slavophils for enouncing + similar views. +</pre> + <p> + Men who saw in the significant political eruption of 1848 nothing but an + outburst of meaningless, aimless anarchy, and who believed that their + country was destined to restore order throughout the civilised world, had + of course little time or inclination to think of putting their own house + in order. No one now spoke of the necessity of social reorganisation: the + recently awakened aspirations and expectations seemed to be completely + forgotten. The critics returned to their old theory that art and + literature should be cultivated for their own sake and not used as a + vehicle for the propagation of ideas foreign to their nature. It seemed, + in short, as if all the prolific ideas which had for a time occupied the + public attention had been merely "writ in water," and had now disappeared + without leaving a trace behind them. + </p> + <p> + In reality the new movement was destined to reappear very soon with + tenfold force; but the account of its reappearance and development belongs + to a future chapter. Meanwhile I may formulate the general conclusion to + be drawn from the foregoing pages. Ever since the time of Peter the Great + there has been such a close connection between Russia and Western Europe + that every intellectual movement which has appeared in France and Germany + has been reflected—albeit in an exaggerated, distorted form—in + the educated society of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Thus the window which + Peter opened in order to enable his subjects to look into Europe has well + served its purpose. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII + </h2> + <h3> + THE CRIMEAN WAR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES + </h3> + <p> + The Emperor Nicholas and his System—The Men with Aspirations and the + Apathetically Contented—National Humiliation—Popular + Discontent and the Manuscript Literature—Death of Nicholas—Alexander + II.—New Spirit—Reform Enthusiasm—Change in the + Periodical Literature—The Kolokol—The Conservatives—The + Tchinovniks—First Specific Proposals—Joint-Stock Companies—The + Serf Question Comes to the Front. + </p> + <p> + The Russians frankly admit that they were beaten in the Crimean War, but + they regard the heroic defence of Sebastopol as one of the most glorious + events in the military annals of their country. Nor do they altogether + regret the result of the struggle. Often in a half-jocular, half-serious + tone they say that they had reason to be grateful to the Allies. And there + is much truth in this paradoxical statement. The Crimean War inaugurated a + new epoch in the national history. It gave the death-blow to the + repressive system of the Emperor Nicholas, and produced an intellectual + movement and a moral revival which led to gigantic results. + </p> + <p> + "The affair of December," 1825—I mean the abortive attempt at a + military insurrection in St. Petersburg, to which I have alluded in the + foregoing chapter—gave the key-note to Nicholas's reign. The armed + attempt to overthrow the Imperial power, ending in the execution or exile + of many young members of the first families, struck terror into the + Noblesse, and prepared the way for a period of repressive police + administration. Nicholas had none of the moral limpness and vacillating + character of his predecessor. His was one of those simple, vigorous, + tenacious, straightforward natures—more frequently to be met with + among the Teutonic than among the Slav races—whose conceptions are + all founded on a few deep-rooted, semi-instinctive convictions, and who + are utterly incapable of accommodating themselves with histrionic + cleverness to the changes of external circumstances. From his early youth + he had shown a strong liking for military discipline and a decided + repugnance to the humanitarianism and liberal principles then in fashion. + With "the rights of man," "the spirit of the age," and similar + philosophical abstractions his strong, domineering nature had no sympathy; + and for the vague, loud-sounding phrases of philosophic liberalism he had + a most profound contempt. "Attend to your military duties," he was wont to + say to his officers before his accession; "don't trouble your heads with + philosophy. I cannot bear philosophers!" The tragic event which formed the + prelude to his reign naturally confirmed and fortified his previous + convictions. The representatives of liberalism, who could talk so + eloquently about duty in the abstract, had, whilst wearing the uniform of + the Imperial Guard, openly disobeyed the repeated orders of their superior + officers and attempted to shake the allegiance of the troops for the + purpose of overthrowing the Imperial power! A man who was at once soldier + and autocrat, by nature as well as by position, could of course admit no + extenuating circumstances. The incident stereotyped his character for + life, and made him the sworn enemy of liberalism and the fanatical + defender of autocracy, not only in his own country, but throughout Europe. + In European politics he saw two forces struggling for mastery—monarchy + and democracy, which were in his opinion identical with order and anarchy; + and he was always ready to assist his brother sovereigns in putting down + democratic movements. In his own Empire he endeavoured by every means in + his power to prevent the introduction of the dangerous ideas. For this + purpose a stringent intellectual quarantine was established on the western + frontier. All foreign books and newspapers, except those of the most + harmless kind, were rigorously excluded. Native writers were placed under + strict supervision, and peremptorily silenced as soon as they departed + from what was considered a "well-intentioned" tone. The number of + university students was diminished, the chairs for political science were + suppressed, and the military schools multiplied. Russians were prevented + from travelling abroad, and foreigners who visited the country were + closely watched by the police. By these and similar measures it was hoped + that Russia would be preserved from the dangers of revolutionary + agitation. + </p> + <p> + Nicholas has been called the Don Quixote of Autocracy, and the comparison + which the term implies is true in many points. By character and aims he + belonged to a time that had passed away; but failure and mishap could not + shake his faith in his ideal, and made no change in his honest, stubborn + nature, which was as loyal and chivalresque as that of the ill-fated + Knight of La Mancha. In spite of all evidence to the contrary, he believed + in the practical omnipotence of autocracy. He imagined that as his + authority was theoretically unlimited, so his power could work miracles. + By nature and training a soldier, he considered government a slightly + modified form of military discipline, and looked on the nation as an army + which might be made to perform any intellectual or economic evolutions + that he might see fit to command. All social ills seemed to him the + consequence of disobedience to his orders, and he knew only one remedy—more + discipline. Any expression of doubt as to the wisdom of his policy, or any + criticism of existing regulations, he treated as an act of insubordination + which a wise sovereign ought not to tolerate. If he never said, "L'Etat—c'est + moi!" it was because he considered the fact so self-evident that it did + not need to be stated. Hence any attack on the administration, even in the + person of the most insignificant official, was an attack on himself and on + the monarchical principle which he represented. The people must believe—and + faith, as we know, comes not by sight—that they lived under the best + possible government. To doubt this was political heresy. An incautious + word or a foolish joke against the Government was considered a serious + crime, and might be punished by a long exile in some distant and + inhospitable part of the Empire. Progress should by all means be made, but + it must be made by word of command, and in the way ordered. Private + initiative in any form was a thing on no account to be tolerated. Nicholas + never suspected that a ruler, however well-intentioned, energetic, and + legally autocratic he may be, can do but little without the co-operation + of his people. Experience constantly showed him the fruitlessness of his + efforts, but he paid no attention to its teachings. He had formed once for + all his theory of government, and for thirty years he acted according to + it with all the blindness and obstinacy of a reckless, fanatical + doctrinaire. Even at the close of his reign, when the terrible logic of + facts had proved his system to be a mistake—when his armies had been + defeated, his best fleet destroyed, his ports blockaded, and his treasury + well-nigh emptied—he could not recant. "My successor," he is + reported to have said on his deathbed, "may do as he pleases, but I cannot + change." + </p> + <p> + Had Nicholas lived in the old patriarchal times, when kings were the + uncontrolled "shepherds of the people," he would perhaps have been an + admirable ruler; but in the nineteenth century he was a flagrant + anachronism. His system of administration completely broke down. In vain + he multiplied formalities and inspectors, and punished severely the few + delinquents who happened by some accident to be brought to justice; the + officials continued to pilfer, extort, and misgovern in every possible + way. Though the country was reduced to what would be called in Europe "a + state of siege," the inhabitants might still have said—as they are + reported to have declared a thousand years before—"Our land is great + and fertile, but there is no order in it." + </p> + <p> + In a nation accustomed to political life and to a certain amount of + self-government, any approach to the system of Nicholas would, of course, + have produced wide-spread dissatisfaction and violent hatred against the + ruling power. But in Russia at that time no such feelings were awakened. + The educated classes—and a fortiori the uneducated—were + profoundly indifferent not only to political questions, but also to + ordinary public affairs, whether local or Imperial, and were quite content + to leave them in the hands of those who were paid for attending to them. + In common with the uneducated peasantry, the nobles had a boundless + respect—one might almost say a superstitious reverence—not + only for the person, but also for the will of the Tsar, and were ready to + show unquestioning obedience to his commands, so long as these did not + interfere with their accustomed mode of life. The Tsar desired them not to + trouble their heads with political questions, and to leave all public + matters to the care of the Administration; and in this respect the + Imperial will coincided so well with their personal inclinations that they + had no difficulty in complying with it. + </p> + <p> + When the Tsar ordered those of them who held office to refrain from + extortion and peculation, his orders were not so punctiliously obeyed, but + in this disobedience there was no open opposition—no assertion of a + right to pilfer and extort. As the disobedience proceeded, not from a + feeling of insubordination, but merely from the weakness that official + flesh is heir to, it was not regarded as very heinous. In the aristocratic + circles of St. Petersburg and Moscow there was the same indifference to + political questions and public affairs. All strove to have the reputation + of being "well-intentioned," which was the first requisite for those who + desired Court favour or advancement in the public service; and those whose + attention was not entirely occupied with official duties, card-playing, + and the ordinary routine of everyday life, cultivated belles-lettres or + the fine arts. In short, the educated classes in Russia at that time + showed a complete indifference to political and social questions, an + apathetic acquiescence in the system of administration adopted by the + Government, and an unreasoning contentment with the existing state of + things. + </p> + <p> + About the year 1845, when the reaction against Romanticism was awakening + in the reading public an interest in the affairs of real life,* began to + appear what may be called "the men with aspirations," a little band of + generous enthusiasts, strongly resembling the youth in Longfellow's poem + who carries a banner with the device "Excelsior," and strives ever to + climb higher, without having any clear notion of where he was going or of + what he is to do when he reaches the summit. At first they had little more + than a sentimental enthusiasm for the true, the beautiful, and the good, + and a certain Platonic love for free institutions, liberty, enlightenment, + progress, and everything that was generally comprehended at that period + under the term "liberal." Gradually, under the influence of current French + literature, their ideas became a little clearer, and they began to look on + reality around them with a critical eye. They could perceive, without much + effort, the unrelenting tyranny of the Administration, the notorious + venality of the tribunals, the reckless squandering of the public money, + the miserable condition of the serfs, the systematic strangulation of all + independent opinion or private initiative, and, above all, the profound + apathy of the upper classes, who seemed quite content with things as they + were. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Vide supra, p. 377 et seq. +</pre> + <p> + With such ugly facts staring them in the face, and with the habit of + looking at things from the moral point of view, these men could understand + how hollow and false were the soothing or triumphant phrases of official + optimism. They did not, indeed, dare to express their indignation + publicly, for the authorities would allow no public expression of + dissatisfaction with the existing state of things, but they disseminated + their ideas among their friends and acquaintances by means of conversation + and manuscript literature, and some of them, as university professors and + writers in the periodical Press, contrived to awaken in a certain section + of the young generation an ardent enthusiasm for enlightenment and + progress, and a vague hope that a brighter day was about to dawn. + </p> + <p> + Not a few sympathised with these new conceptions and aspirations, but the + great majority of the nobles regarded them—especially after the + French Revolution of 1848—as revolutionary and dangerous. Thus the + educated classes became divided into two sections, which have sometimes + been called the Liberals and the Conservatives, but which might be more + properly designated the men with aspirations and the apathetically + contented. These latter doubtless felt occasionally the irksomeness of the + existing system, but they had always one consolation—if they were + oppressed at home they were feared abroad. The Tsar was at least a + thorough soldier, possessing an enormous and well-equipped army by which + he might at any moment impose his will on Europe. Ever since the glorious + days of 1812, when Napoleon was forced to make an ignominious retreat from + the ruins of Moscow, the belief that the Russian soldiers were superior to + all others, and that the Russian army was invincible, had become an + article of the popular creed; and the respect which the voice of Nicholas + commanded in Western Europe seemed to prove that the fact was admitted by + foreign nations. In these and similar considerations the apathetically + contented found a justification for their lethargy. + </p> + <p> + When it became evident that Russia was about to engage in a trial of + strength with the Western Powers, this optimism became general. "The heavy + burdens," it was said, "which the people have had to bear were necessary + to make Russia the first military Power in Europe, and now the nation will + reap the fruits of its long-suffering and patient resignation. The West + will learn that her boasted liberty and liberal institutions are of little + service in the hour of danger, and the Russians who admire such + institutions will be constrained to admit that a strong, all-directing + autocracy is the only means of preserving national greatness." As the + patriotic fervour and military enthusiasm increased, nothing was heard but + praises of Nicholas and his system. The war was regarded by many as a kind + of crusade—even the Emperor spoke about the defence of "the native + soil and the holy faith"—and the most exaggerated expectations were + entertained of its results. The old Eastern Question was at last to be + solved in accordance with Russian aspirations, and Nicholas was about to + realise Catherine II.'s grand scheme of driving the Turks out of Europe. + The date at which the troops would arrive at Constantinople was actively + discussed, and a Slavophil poet called on the Emperor to lie down in + Constantinople, and rise up as Tsar of a Panslavonic Empire. Some + enthusiasts even expected the speedy liberation of Jerusalem from the + power of the Infidel. To the enemy, who might possibly hinder the + accomplishment of these schemes, very little attention was paid. "We have + only to throw our hats at them!" (Shapkami zakidaem) became a favourite + expression. + </p> + <p> + There were, however, a few men in whom the prospect of the coming struggle + awoke very different thoughts and feelings. They could not share the + sanguine expectations of those who were confident of success. "What + preparations have we made," they asked, "for the struggle with + civilisation, which now sends its forces against us? With all our vast + territory and countless population we are incapable of coping with it. + When we talk of the glorious campaign against Napoleon, we forget that + since that time Europe has been steadily advancing on the road of progress + while we have been standing still. We march not to victory, but to defeat, + and the only grain of consolation which we have is that Russia will learn + by experience a lesson that will be of use to her in the future."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the words of Granovski. +</pre> + <p> + These prophets of evil found, of course, few disciples, and were generally + regarded as unworthy sons of the Fatherland—almost as traitors to + their country. But their predictions were confirmed by events. The Allies + were victorious in the Crimea, and even the despised Turks made a + successful stand on the line of the Danube. In spite of the efforts of the + Government to suppress all unpleasant intelligence, it soon became known + that the military organisation was little, if at all, better than the + civil administration—that the individual bravery of soldiers and + officers was neutralised by the incapacity of the generals, the venality + of the officials, and the shameless peculation of the commissariat + department. The Emperor, it was said, had drilled out of the officers all + energy, individuality, and moral force. Almost the only men who showed + judgment, decision, and energy were the officers of the Black Sea fleet, + which had been less subjected to the prevailing system. As the struggle + went on, it became evident how weak the country really was—how + deficient in the resources necessary to sustain a prolonged conflict. + "Another year of war," writes an eye-witness in 1855, "and the whole of + Southern Russia will be ruined." To meet the extraordinary demands on the + Treasury, recourse was had to an enormous issue of paper money; but the + rapid depreciation of the currency showed that this resource would soon be + exhausted. Militia regiments were everywhere raised throughout the + country, and many proprietors spent large sums in equipping volunteer + corps; but very soon this enthusiasm cooled when it was found that the + patriotic efforts enriched the jobbers without inflicting any serious + injury on the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Under the sting of the great national humiliation, the upper classes awoke + from their optimistic resignation. They had borne patiently the oppression + of a semi-military administration, and for this! The system of Nicholas + had been put to a crucial test, and found wanting. The policy which had + sacrificed all to increase the military power of the Empire was seen to be + a fatal error, and the worthlessness of the drill-sergeant regime was + proved by bitter experience. Those administrative fetters which had for + more than a quarter of a century cramped every spontaneous movement had + failed to fulfil even the narrow purpose for which they had been forged. + They had, indeed, secured a certain external tranquillity during those + troublous times when Europe was convulsed by revolutionary agitation; but + this tranquillity was not that of healthy normal action, but of death—and + underneath the surface lay secret and rapidly spreading corruption. The + army still possessed that dashing gallantry which it had displayed in the + campaigns of Suvorof, that dogged, stoical bravery which had checked the + advance of Napoleon on the field of Borodino, and that wondrous power of + endurance which had often redeemed the negligence of generals and the + defects of the commissariat; but the result was now not victory, but + defeat. How could this be explained except by the radical defects of that + system which had been long practised with such inflexible perseverance? + The Government had imagined that it could do everything by its own wisdom + and energy, and in reality it had done nothing, or worse than nothing. The + higher officers had learned only too well to be mere automata; the + ameliorations in the military organisation, on which Nicholas had always + bestowed special attention, were found to exist for the most part only in + the official reports; the shameful exploits of the commissariat department + were such as to excite the indignation of those who had long lived in an + atmosphere of official jobbery and peculation; and the finances, which + people had generally supposed to be in a highly satisfactory condition, + had become seriously crippled by the first great national effort. + </p> + <p> + This deep and wide-spread dissatisfaction was not allowed to appear in the + Press, but it found very free expression in the manuscript literature and + in conversation. In almost every house—I mean, of course, among the + educated classes—words were spoken which a few months before would + have seemed treasonable, if not blasphemous. Philippics and satires in + prose and verse were written by the dozen, and circulated in hundreds of + copies. A pasquil on the Commander in Chief, or a tirade against the + Government, was sure to be eagerly read and warmly approved of. As a + specimen of this kind of literature, and an illustration of the public + opinion of the time, I may translate here one of those metrical tirades. + Though it was never printed, it obtained a wide circulation: + </p> + <p> + "'God has placed me over Russia,' said the Tsar to us, 'and you must bow + down before me, for my throne is His altar. Trouble not yourselves with + public affairs, for I think for you and watch over you every hour. My + watchful eye detects internal evils and the machinations of foreign + enemies; and I have no need of counsel, for God inspires me with wisdom. + Be proud, therefore, of being my slaves, O Russians, and regard my will as + your law.' + </p> + <p> + "We listened to these words with deep reverence, and gave a tacit consent; + and what was the result? Under mountains of official papers real interests + were forgotten. The letter of the law was observed, but negligence and + crime were allowed to go unpunished. While grovelling in the dust before + ministers and directors of departments in the hope of receiving tchins and + decorations, the officials stole unblushingly; and theft became so common + that he who stole the most was the most respected. The merits of officers + were decided at reviews; and he who obtained the rank of General was + supposed capable of becoming at once an able governor, an excellent + engineer, or a most wise senator. Those who were appointed governors were + for the most part genuine satraps, the scourges of the provinces entrusted + to their care. The other offices were filled up with as little attention + to the merits of the candidates. A stable-boy became Press censor! an + Imperial fool became admiral! Kleinmichel became a count! In a word, the + country was handed over to the tender mercies of a band of robbers. + </p> + <p> + "And what did we Russians do all this time? + </p> + <p> + "We Russians slept! With groans the peasant paid his yearly dues; with + groans the proprietor mortgaged the second half of his estate; groaning, + we all paid our heavy tribute to the officials. Occasionally, with a grave + shaking of the head, we remarked in a whisper that it was a shame and a + disgrace—that there was no justice in the courts—that millions + were squandered on Imperial tours, kiosks, and pavilions—that + everything was wrong; and then, with an easy conscience, we sat down to + our rubber, praised the acting of Rachel, criticised the singing of + Frezzolini, bowed low to venal magnates, and squabbled with each other for + advancement in the very service which we so severely condemned. If we did + not obtain the place we wished we retired to our ancestral estates, where + we talked of the crops, fattened in indolence and gluttony, and lived a + genuine animal life. If any one, amidst the general lethargy, suddenly + called upon us to rise and fight for the truth and for Russia, how + ridiculous did he appear! How cleverly the Pharisaical official ridiculed + him, and how quickly the friends of yesterday showed him the cold + shoulder! Under the anathema of public opinion, in some distant Siberian + mine he recognised what a heinous sin it was to disturb the heavy sleep of + apathetic slaves. Soon he was forgotten, or remembered as an unfortunate + madman; and the few who said, 'Perhaps after all he was right,' hastened + to add, 'but that is none of our business.' + </p> + <p> + "But amidst all this we had at least one consolation, one thing to be + proud of—the might of Russia in the assembly of kings. 'What need we + care,' we said, 'for the reproaches of foreign nations? We are stronger + than those who reproach us.' And when at great reviews the stately + regiments marched past with waving standards, glittering helmets, and + sparkling bayonets, when we heard the loud hurrah with which the troops + greeted the Emperor, then our hearts swelled with patriotic pride, and we + were ready to repeat the words of the poet— + </p> + <p> + "Strong is our native country, and great the Russian Tsar." + </p> + <p> + "Then British statesmen, in company with the crowned conspirator of + France, and with treacherous Austria, raised Western Europe against us, + but we laughed scornfully at the coming storm. 'Let the nations rave,' we + said; 'we have no cause to be afraid. The Tsar doubtless foresaw all, and + has long since made the necessary preparations.' Boldly we went forth to + fight, and confidently awaited the moment of the struggle. + </p> + <p> + "And lo! after all our boasting we were taken by surprise, and caught + unawares, as by a robber in the dark. The sleep of innate stupidity + blinded our Ambassadors, and our Foreign Minister sold us to our enemies.* + Where were our millions of soldiers? Where was the well-considered plan of + defence? One courier brought the order to advance; another brought the + order to retreat; and the army wandered about without definite aim or + purpose. With loss and shame we retreated from the forts of Silistria, and + the pride of Russia was humbled before the Hapsburg eagle. The soldiers + fought well, but the parade-admiral (Menshikof)—the amphibious hero + of lost battles—did not know the geography of his own country, and + sent his troops to certain destruction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Many people at that time imagined that Count Nesselrode, + who was then Minister for Foreign Affairs, was a traitor to + his adopted country. +</pre> + <p> + "Awake, O Russia! Devoured by foreign enemies, crushed by slavery, + shamefully oppressed by stupid authorities and spies, awaken from your + long sleep of ignorance and apathy! You have been long enough held in + bondage by the successors of the Tartar Khan. Stand forward calmly before + the throne of the despot, and demand from him an account of the national + disaster. Say to him boldly that his throne is not the altar of God, and + that God did not condemn us to be slaves. Russia entrusted to you, O Tsar, + the supreme power, and you were as a God upon earth. And what have you + done? Blinded by ignorance and passion, you have lusted after power and + have forgotten Russia. You have spent your life in reviewing troops, in + modifying uniforms, and in appending your signature to the legislative + projects of ignorant charlatans. You created the despicable race of Press + censors, in order to sleep in peace—in order not to know the wants + and not to hear the groans of the people—in order not to listen to + Truth. You buried Truth, rolled a great stone to the door of the + sepulchre, placed a strong guard over it, and said in the pride of your + heart: For her there is no resurrection! But the third day has dawned, and + Truth has arisen from the dead. + </p> + <p> + "Stand forward, O Tsar, before the judgment-seat of history and of God! + You have mercilessly trampled Truth under foot, you have denied Freedom, + you have been the slave of your own passions. By your pride and obstinacy + you have exhausted Russia and raised the world in arms against us. Bow + down before your brethren and humble yourself in the dust! Crave pardon + and ask advice! Throw yourself into the arms of the people! There is now + no other salvation!" + </p> + <p> + The innumerable tirades of which the above is a fair specimen were not + very remarkable for literary merit or political wisdom. For the most part + they were simply bits of bombastic rhetoric couched in doggerel rhyme, and + they have consequently been long since consigned to well-merited oblivion—so + completely that it is now difficult to obtain copies of them.* They have, + however, an historical interest, because they express in a more or less + exaggerated form the public opinion and prevalent ideas of the educated + classes at that moment. In order to comprehend their real significance, we + must remember that the writers and readers were not a band of + conspirators, but ordinary, respectable, well-intentioned people, who + never for a moment dreamed of embarking in revolutionary designs. It was + the same society that had been a few months before so indifferent to all + political questions, and even now there was no clear conception as to how + the loud-sounding phrases could be translated into action. We can imagine + the comical discomfiture of those who read and listened to these appeals, + if the "despot" had obeyed their summons, and suddenly appeared before + them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I am indebted for the copies which I possess to friends + who copied and collected these pamphlets at the time. +</pre> + <p> + Was the movement, then, merely an outburst of childish petulance? + Certainly not. The public were really and seriously convinced that things + were all wrong, and they were seriously and enthusiastically desirous that + a new and better order of things should be introduced. It must be said to + their honour that they did not content themselves with accusing and + lampooning the individuals who were supposed to be the chief culprits. On + the contrary, they looked reality boldly in the face, made a public + confession of their past sins, sought conscientiously the causes which had + produced the recent disasters, and endeavoured to find means by which such + calamities might be prevented in the future. The public feeling and + aspirations were not strong enough to conquer the traditional respect for + the Imperial will and create an open opposition to the Autocratic Power, + but they were strong enough to do great things by aiding the Government, + if the Emperor voluntarily undertook a series of radical reforms. + </p> + <p> + What Nicholas would have done, had he lived, in face of this national + awakening, it is difficult to say. He declared, indeed, that he could not + change, and we can readily believe that his proud spirit would have + scorned to make concessions to the principles which he had always + condemned; but he gave decided indications in the last days of his life + that his old faith in his system was somewhat shaken, and he did not + exhort his son to persevere in the path along which he himself had forced + his way with such obstinate consistency. It is useless, however, to + speculate on possibilities. Whilst the Government had still to concentrate + all its energies on the defence of the country, the Iron Tsar died, and + was succeeded by his son, a man of a very different type. + </p> + <p> + Of a kind-hearted, humane disposition, sincerely desirous of maintaining + the national honour, but singularly free from military ambition and imbued + with no fanatical belief in the drill-sergeant system of government, + Alexander II. was by no means insensible to the spirit of the time. He + had, however, none of the sentimental enthusiasm for liberal institutions + which had characterised his uncle, Alexander I. On the contrary, he had + inherited from his father a strong dislike to sentimentalism and rhetoric + of all kinds. This dislike, joined to a goodly portion of sober + common-sense, a limited confidence in his own judgment, and a + consciousness of enormous responsibility, prevented him from being carried + away by the prevailing excitement. With all that was generous and humane + in the movement he thoroughly sympathised, and he allowed the popular + ideas and aspirations to find free utterance; but he did not at once + commit himself to any definite policy, and carefully refrained from all + exaggerated expressions of reforming zeal. + </p> + <p> + As soon, however, as peace had been concluded, there were unmistakable + symptoms that the rigorously repressive system of Nicholas was about to be + abandoned. In the manifesto announcing the termination of hostilities the + Emperor expressed his conviction that by the combined efforts of the + Government and the people, the public administration would be improved, + and that justice and mercy would reign in the courts of law. Apparently as + a preparation for this great work, to be undertaken by the Tsar and his + people in common, the ministers began to take the public into their + confidence, and submitted to public criticism many official data which had + hitherto been regarded as State secrets. The Minister of the Interior, for + instance, in his annual report, spoke almost in the tone of a penitent, + and confessed openly that the morality of the officials under his orders + left much to be desired. He declared that the Emperor now showed a + paternal confidence in his people, and as a proof of this he mentioned the + significant fact that 9,000 persons had been liberated from police + supervision. The other branches of the Administration underwent a similar + transformation. The haughty, dictatorial tone which had hitherto been used + by superiors to their subordinates, and by all ranks of officials to the + public, was replaced by one of considerate politeness. About the same time + those of the Decembrists who were still alive were pardoned. The + restrictions regarding the number of students in each university were + abolished, the difficulty of obtaining foreign passports was removed, and + the Press censors became singularly indulgent. Though no decided change + had been made in the laws, it was universally felt that the spirit of + Nicholas was no more. + </p> + <p> + The public, anxiously seeking after a sign, readily took these symptoms of + change as a complete confirmation of their ardent hopes, and leaped at + once to the conclusion that a vast, all-embracing system of radical reform + was about to be undertaken—not secretly by the Administration, as + had been the custom in the preceding reign when any little changes had to + be made, but publicly, by the Government and the people in common. "The + heart trembles with joy," said one of the leading organs of the Press, "in + expectation of the great social reforms that are about to be effected—reforms + that are thoroughly in accordance with the spirit, the wishes, and the + expectations of the public." "The old harmony and community of feeling," + said another, "which has always existed between the government and the + people, save during short exceptional periods, has been fully + re-established. The absence of all sentiment of caste, and the feeling of + common origin and brotherhood which binds all classes of the Russian + people into a homogeneous whole, will enable Russia to accomplish + peacefully and without effort not only those great reforms which cost + Europe centuries of struggle and bloodshed, but also many which the + nations of the West are still unable to accomplish, in consequence of + feudal traditions and caste prejudices." The past was depicted in the + blackest colours, and the nation was called upon to begin a new and + glorious epoch of its history. "We have to struggle," it was said, "in the + name of the highest truth against egotism and the puny interests of the + moment; and we ought to prepare our children from their infancy to take + part in that struggle which awaits every honest man. We have to thank the + war for opening our eyes to the dark sides of our political and social + organisation, and it is now our duty to profit by the lesson. But it must + not be supposed that the Government can, single-handed, remedy the + defects. The destinies of Russia are, as it were, a stranded vessel which + the captain and crew cannot move, and which nothing, indeed, but the + rising tide of the national life can raise and float." + </p> + <p> + Hearts beat quicker at the sound of these calls to action. Many heard this + new teaching, if we may believe a contemporary authority, "with tears in + their eyes"; then, "raising boldly their heads, they made a solemn vow + that they would act honourably, perseveringly, fearlessly." Some of those + who had formerly yielded to the force of circumstances now confessed their + misdemeanours with bitterness of heart. "Tears of repentance," said a + popular poet, "give relief, and call us to new exploits." Russia was + compared to a strong giant who awakes from sleep, stretches his brawny + limbs, collects his thoughts, and prepares to atone for his long + inactivity by feats of untold prowess. All believed, or at least assumed, + that the recognition of defects would necessarily entail their removal. + When an actor in one of the St. Petersburg theatres shouted from the + stage, "Let us proclaim throughout all Russia that the time has come for + tearing up evil by the roots!" the audience gave way to the most frantic + enthusiasm. "Altogether a joyful time," says one who took part in the + excitement, "as when, after the long winter, the genial breath of spring + glides over the cold, petrified earth, and nature awakens from her + deathlike sleep. Speech, long restrained by police and censorial + regulations, now flows smoothly, majestically, like a mighty river that + has just been freed from ice." + </p> + <p> + Under these influences a multitude of newspapers and periodicals were + founded, and the current literature entirely changed its character. The + purely literary and historical questions which had hitherto engaged the + attention of the reading public were thrown aside and forgotten, unless + they could be made to illustrate some principle of political or social + science. Criticisms on style and diction, explanations of aesthetic + principles, metaphysical discussions—all this seemed miserable + trifling to men who wished to devote themselves to gigantic practical + interests. "Science," it was said, "has now descended from the heights of + philosophic abstraction into the arena of real life." The periodicals were + accordingly filled with articles on railways, banks, free-trade, + education, agriculture, communal institutions, local self-government, + joint-stock companies, and with crushing philippics against personal and + national vanity, inordinate luxury, administrative tyranny, and the + habitual peculation of the officials. This last-named subject received + special attention. During the preceding reign any attempt to criticise + publicly the character or acts of an official was regarded as a very + heinous offence; now there was a deluge of sketches, tales, comedies, and + monologues, describing the corruption of the Administration, and + explaining the ingenious devices by which the tchinovniks increased their + scanty salaries. The public would read nothing that had not a direct or + indirect bearing on the questions of the day, and whatever had such a + bearing was read with interest. It did not seem at all strange that a + drama should be written in defence of free-trade, or a poem in advocacy of + some peculiar mode of taxation; that an author should expound his + political ideas in a tale, and his antagonist reply by a comedy. A few men + of the old school protested feebly against this "prostitution of art," but + they received little attention, and the doctrine that art should be + cultivated for its own sake was scouted as an invention of aristocratic + indolence. Here is an ipsa pinxit of the literature of the time: + "Literature has come to look at Russia with her own eyes, and sees that + the idyllic romantic personages which the poets formerly loved to describe + have no objective existence. Having taken off her French glove, she offers + her hand to the rude, hard-working labourer, and observing lovingly + Russian village life, she feels herself in her native land. The writers of + the present have analysed the past, and, having separated themselves from + aristocratic litterateurs and aristocratic society, have demolished their + former idols." + </p> + <p> + By far the most influential periodical at the commencement of the movement + was the Kolokol, or Bell, a fortnightly journal published in London by + Herzen, who was at that time an important personage among the political + refugees. Herzen was a man of education and culture, with ultra-radical + opinions, and not averse to using revolutionary methods of reform when he + considered them necessary. His intimate relations with many of the leading + men in Russia enabled him to obtain secret information of the most + important and varied kind, and his sparkling wit, biting satire, and + clear, terse, brilliant style secured him a large number of readers. He + seemed to know everything that was done in the ministries and even in the + Cabinet of the Emperor,* and he exposed most mercilessly every abuse that + came to his knowledge. We who are accustomed to free political discussion + can hardly form a conception of the avidity with which his articles were + read, and the effect which they produced. Though strictly prohibited by + the Press censure, the Kolokol found its way across the frontier in + thousands of copies, and was eagerly perused and commented on by all ranks + of the educated classes. The Emperor himself received it regularly, and + high-priced delinquents examined it with fear and trembling. In this way + Herzen was for some years, though an exile, an important political + personage, and did much to awaken and keep up the reform enthusiasm. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As an illustration of this, the following anecdote is + told: One number of the Kolokol contained a violent attack + on an important personage of the court, and the accused, or + some one of his friends, considered it advisable to have a + copy specially printed for the Emperor without the + objectionable article. The Emperor did not at first + discover the trick, but shortly afterwards he received from + London a polite note containing the article which had been + omitted, and informing him how he had been deceived. +</pre> + <p> + But where were the Conservatives all this time? How came it that for two + or three years no voice was raised and no protest made even against the + rhetorical exaggerations of the new-born liberalism? Where were the + representatives of the old regime, who had been so thoroughly imbued with + the spirit of Nicholas? Where were those ministers who had systematically + extinguished the least indication of private initiative, those "satraps" + who had stamped out the least symptom of insubordination or discontent, + those Press censors who had diligently suppressed the mildest expression + of liberal opinion, those thousands of well-intentioned proprietors who + had regarded as dangerous free-thinkers and treasonable republicans all + who ventured to express dissatisfaction with the existing state of things? + A short time before, the Conservatives composed at least nine-tenths of + the upper classes, and now they had suddenly and mysteriously disappeared. + </p> + <p> + It is scarcely necessary to say that in a country accustomed to political + life, such a sudden, unopposed revolution in public opinion could not + possibly take place. The key to the mystery lies in the fact that for + centuries Russia had known nothing of political life or political parties. + Those who were sometimes called Conservatives were in reality not at all + Conservatives in our sense of the term. If we say that they had a certain + amount of conservatism, we must add that it was of the latent, passive, + unreasoned kind—the fruit of indolence and apathy. Their political + creed had but one article: Thou shalt love the Tsar with all thy might, + and carefully abstain from all resistance to his will—especially + when it happens that the Tsar is a man of the Nicholas type. So long as + Nicholas lived they had passively acquiesced in his system—active + acquiescence had been neither demanded nor desired—but when he died, + the system of which he was the soul died with him. What then could they + seek to defend? They were told that the system which they had been taught + to regard as the sheet-anchor of the State was in reality the chief cause + of the national disasters; and to this they could make no reply, because + they had no better explanation of their own to offer. They were convinced + that the Russian soldier was the best soldier in the world, and they knew + that in the recent war the army had not been victorious; the system, + therefore, must be to blame. They were told that a series of gigantic + reforms was necessary in order to restore Russia to her proper place among + the nations; and to this they could make no answer, for they had never + studied such abstract questions. And one thing they did know: that those + who hesitated to admit the necessity of gigantic reforms were branded by + the Press as ignorant, narrow-minded, prejudiced, and egotistical, and + were held up to derision as men who did not know the most elementary + principles of political and economic science. Freely expressed public + opinion was such a new phenomenon in Russia that the Press was able for + some time to exercise a "Liberal" tyranny scarcely less severe than the + "Conservative" tyranny of the censors in the preceding reign. Men who + would have stood fire gallantly on the field of battle quailed before the + poisoned darts of Herzen in the Kolokol. Under such circumstances, even + the few who possessed some vague Conservative convictions refrained from + publicly expressing them. + </p> + <p> + The men who had played a more or less active part during the preceding + reign, and who might therefore be expected to have clearer and deeper + convictions, were specially incapable of offering opposition to the + prevailing Liberal enthusiasm. Their Conservatism was of quite as limp a + kind as that of the landed proprietors who were not in the public service, + for under Nicholas the higher a man was placed the less likely was he to + have political convictions of any kind outside the simple political creed + above referred to. Besides this, they belonged to that class which was for + the moment under the anathema of public opinion, and they had drawn direct + personal advantage from the system which was now recognised as the chief + cause of the national disasters. + </p> + <p> + For a time the name of tchinovnik became a term of reproach and derision, + and the position of those who bore it was comically painful. They strove + to prove that, though they held a post in the public service, they were + entirely free from the tchinovnik spirit—that there was nothing of + the genuine tchinovnik about them. Those who had formerly paraded their + tchin (official rank) on all occasions, in season and out of season, + became half ashamed to admit that they had the rank of General; for the + title no longer commanded respect, and had become associated with all that + was antiquated, formal, and stupid. Among the young generation it was used + most disrespectfully as equivalent to "pompous blockhead." Zealous + officials who had lately regarded the acquisition of Stars and Orders as + among the chief ends of man, were fain to conceal those hard-won trophies, + lest some cynical "Liberal" might notice them and make them the butt of + his satire. "Look at the depth of humiliation to which you have brought + the country"—such was the chorus of reproach that was ever ringing + in their ears—"with your red tape, your Chinese formalism, and your + principle of lifeless, unreasoning, mechanical obedience! You asserted + constantly that you were the only true patriots, and branded with the name + of traitor those who warned you of the insane folly of your conduct. You + see now what it has all come to. The men whom you helped to send to the + mines turn out to have been the true patriots."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It was a common saying at that time that nearly all the + best men in Russia had spent a part of their lives in + Siberia, and it was proposed to publish a biographical + dictionary of remarkable men, in which every article was to + end thus: "Exiled to —— in 18—." I am not aware how far + the project was seriously entertained, but, of course, the + book was never published. +</pre> + <p> + And to these reproaches what could they reply? Like a child who has in his + frolics inadvertently set the house on fire, they could only look + contrite, and say they did not mean it. They had simply accepted without + criticism the existing order of things, and ranged themselves among those + who were officially recognised as "the well-intentioned." If they had + always avoided the Liberals, and perhaps helped to persecute them, it was + simply because all "well-intentioned" people said that Liberals were + "restless" and dangerous to the State. Those who were not convinced of + their errors simply kept silence, but the great majority passed over to + the ranks of the Progressists, and many endeavoured to redeem their past + by showing extreme zeal for the Liberal cause. + </p> + <p> + In explanation of this extraordinary outburst of reform enthusiasm, we + must further remember that the Russian educated classes, in spite of the + severe northern climate which is supposed to make the blood circulate + slowly, are extremely impulsive. They are fettered by no venerable + historical prejudices, and are wonderfully sensitive to the seductive + influence of grandiose projects, especially when these excite the + patriotic feelings. Then there was the simple force of reaction—the + rebound which naturally followed the terrific compression of the preceding + reign. Without disrespect, the Russians of that time may be compared to + schoolboys who have just escaped from the rigorous discipline of a severe + schoolmaster. In the first moments of freedom it was supposed that there + would be no more discipline or compulsion. The utmost respect was to be + shown to "human dignity," and every Russian was to act spontaneously and + zealously at the great work of national regeneration. All thirsted for + reforming activity. The men in authority were inundated with projects of + reform—some of them anonymous, and others from obscure individuals; + some of them practical, and very many wildly fantastic. Even the + grammarians showed their sympathy with the spirit of the time by proposing + to expel summarily all redundant letters from the Russian alphabet! + </p> + <p> + The fact that very few people had clear, precise ideas as to what was to + be done did not prevent, but rather tended to increase, the reform + enthusiasm. All had at least one common feeling—dislike to what had + previously existed. It was only when it became necessary to forsake pure + negation, and to create something, that the conceptions became clearer, + and a variety of opinions appeared. At the first moment there was merely + unanimity in negation, and an impulsive enthusiasm for beneficent reforms + in general. + </p> + <p> + The first specific proposals were direct deductions from the lessons + taught by the war. The war had shown in a terrible way the disastrous + consequences of having merely primitive means of communication; the Press + and the public began, accordingly, to speak about the necessity of + constructing railways, roads and river-steamers. The war had shown that a + country which has not developed its natural resources very soon becomes + exhausted if it has to make a great national effort; accordingly the + public and the Press talked about the necessity of developing the natural + resources, and about the means by which this desirable end might be + attained. It had been shown by the war that a system of education which + tends to make men mere apathetic automata cannot produce even a good army; + accordingly the public and the Press began to discuss the different + systems of education and the numerous questions of pedagogical science. It + had been shown by the war that the best intentions of a Government will + necessarily be frustrated if the majority of the officials are dishonest + or incapable; accordingly the public and the Press began to speak about + the paramount necessity of reforming the Administration in all its + branches. + </p> + <p> + It must not, however, be supposed that in thus laying to heart the lessons + taught by the war and endeavouring to profit by them, the Russians were + actuated by warlike feelings, and desired to avenge themselves as soon as + possible on their victorious enemies. On the contrary, the whole movement + and the spirit which animated it were eminently pacific. Prince + Gortchakof's saying, "La Russie ne boude pas, elle se recueille," was more + than a diplomatic repartee—it was a true and graphic statement of + the case. Though the Russians are very inflammable, and can be very + violent when their patriotic feelings are aroused, they are, individually + and as a nation, singularly free from rancour and the spirit of revenge. + After the termination of hostilities they really bore little malice + towards the Western Powers, except towards Austria, which was believed to + have been treacherous and ungrateful to the country that had saved her in + 1849. Their patriotism now took the form, not of revenge, but of a desire + to raise their country to the level of the Western nations. If they + thought of military matters at all, they assumed that military power would + be obtained as a natural and inevitable result of high civilisation and + good government. + </p> + <p> + As a first step towards the realisation of the vast schemes contemplated, + voluntary associations began to be formed for industrial and commercial + purposes, and a law was issued for the creation of limited liability + companies. In the space of two years forty-seven companies of this kind + were founded, with a combined capital of 358 millions of roubles. To + understand the full significance of these figures, we must know that from + the founding of the first joint-stock company in 1799 down to 1853 only + twenty-six companies had been formed, and their united capital amounted + only to thirty-two millions of roubles. Thus in the space of two years + (1857-58) eleven times as much capital was subscribed to joint-stock + companies as had been subscribed during half a century previous to the + war. The most exaggerated expectations were entertained as to the national + and private advantages which must necessarily result from these + undertakings, and it became a patriotic duty to subscribe liberally. The + periodical literature depicted in glowing terms the marvellous results + that had been obtained in other countries by the principle of + co-operation, and sanguine readers believed that they had discovered a + patriotic way of speedily becoming rich. + </p> + <p> + These were, however, mere secondary matters, and the public were anxiously + waiting for the Government to begin the grand reforming campaign. When the + educated classes awoke to the necessity of great reforms, there was no + clear conception as to how the great work should be undertaken. There was + so much to be done that it was no easy matter to decide what should be + done first. Administrative, judicial, social, economical, financial, and + political reforms seemed all equally pressing. Gradually, however, it + became evident that precedence must be given to the question of serfage. + It was absurd to speak about progress, humanitarianism, education, + self-government, equality in the eye of the law, and similar matters, so + long as one half of the population was excluded from the enjoyment of + ordinary civil rights. So long as serfage existed it was mere mockery to + talk about re-organising Russia according to the latest results of + political and social science. How could a system of even-handed justice be + introduced when twenty millions of the peasantry were subject to the + arbitrary will of the landed proprietors? How could agricultural or + industrial progress be made without free labour? How could the Government + take active measures for the spread of national education when it had no + direct control over one-half of the peasantry? Above all, how could it be + hoped that a great moral regeneration could take place, so long as the + nation voluntarily retained the stigma of serfage and slavery? + </p> + <p> + All this was very generally felt by the educated classes, but no one + ventured to raise the question until it should be known what were the + views of the Emperor on the subject. How the question was gradually + raised, how it was treated by the nobles, and how it was ultimately solved + by the famous law of February 19th (March 3d), 1861,* I now propose to + relate. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * February 19th according to the old style, which is still + used in Russia, and March 3d according to our method of + reckoning. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE SERFS + </h3> + <p> + The Rural Population in Ancient Times—The Peasantry in the + Eighteenth Century—How Was This Change Effected?—The Common + Explanation Inaccurate—Serfage the Result of Permanent Economic and + Political Causes—Origin of the Adscriptio Glebae—Its + Consequences—Serf Insurrection—Turning-point in the History of + Serfage—Serfage in Russia and in Western Europe—State Peasants—Numbers + and Geographical Distribution of the Serf Population—Serf Dues—Legal + and Actual Power of the Proprietors—The Serfs' Means of Defence—Fugitives—Domestic + Serfs—Strange Advertisements in the Moscow Gazette—Moral + Influence of Serfage. + </p> + <p> + Before proceeding to describe the Emancipation, it may be well to explain + briefly how the Russian peasants became serfs, and what serfage in Russia + really was. + </p> + <p> + In the earliest period of Russian history the rural population was + composed of three distinct classes. At the bottom of the scale stood the + slaves, who were very numerous. Their numbers were continually augmented + by prisoners of war, by freemen who voluntarily sold themselves as slaves, + by insolvent debtors, and by certain categories of criminals. Immediately + above the slaves were the free agricultural labourers, who had no + permanent domicile, but wandered about the country and settled temporarily + where they happened to find work and satisfactory remuneration. In the + third place, distinct from these two classes, and in some respects higher + in the social scale, were the peasants properly so called.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * My chief authority for the early history of the peasantry + has been Belaef, "Krestyanye na Rusi," Moscow, 1860; a most + able and conscientious work. +</pre> + <p> + These peasants proper, who may be roughly described as small farmers or + cottiers, were distinguished from the free agricultural labourers in two + respects: they were possessors of land in property or usufruct, and they + were members of a rural Commune. The Communes were free primitive + corporations which elected their office-bearers from among the heads of + families, and sent delegates to act as judges or assessors in the Prince's + Court. Some of the Communes possessed land of their own, whilst others + were settled on the estates of the landed proprietors or on the extensive + domains of the monasteries. In the latter case the peasant paid a fixed + yearly rent in money, in produce, or in labour, according to the terms of + his contract with the proprietor or the monastery; but he did not thereby + sacrifice in any way his personal liberty. As soon as he had fulfilled the + engagements stipulated in the contract and had settled accounts with the + owner of the land, he was free to change his domicile as he pleased. + </p> + <p> + If we turn now from these early times to the eighteenth century, we find + that the position of the rural population has entirely changed in the + interval. The distinction between slaves, agricultural labourers, and + peasants has completely disappeared. All three categories have melted + together into a common class, called serfs, who are regarded as the + property of the landed proprietors or of the State. "The proprietors sell + their peasants and domestic servants not even in families, but one by one, + like cattle, as is done nowhere else in the whole world, from which + practice there is not a little wailing."* And yet the Government, whilst + professing to regret the existence of the practice, takes no energetic + measures to prevent it. On the contrary, it deprives the serfs of all + legal protection, and expressly commands that if any serf shall dare to + present a petition against his master, he shall be punished with the knout + and transported for life to the mines of Nertchinsk. (Ukaz of August 22d, + 1767.**) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These words are taken from an Imperial ukaz of April 15th, + 1721. Polnoye Sobranye Zakonov, No. 3,770. + + ** This is an ukaz of the liberal and tolerant Catherine! + How she reconciled it with her respect and admiration for + Beccaria's humane views on criminal law she does not + explain. +</pre> + <p> + How did this important change take place, and how is it to be explained? + </p> + <p> + If we ask any educated Russian who has never specially occupied himself + with historical investigations regarding the origin of serfage in Russia, + he will probably reply somewhat in this fashion: + </p> + <p> + "In Russia slavery has never existed (!), and even serfage in the + West-European sense has never been recognised by law! In ancient times the + rural population was completely free, and every peasant might change his + domicile on St. George's Day—that is to say, at the end of the + agricultural year. This right of migration was abolished by Tsar Boris + Godunof—who, by the way, was half a Tartar and more than half a + usurper—and herein lies the essence of serfage in the Russian sense. + The peasants have never been the property of the landed proprietors, but + have always been personally free; and the only legal restriction on their + liberty was that they were not allowed to change their domicile without + the permission of the proprietor. If so-called serfs were sometimes sold, + the practice was simply an abuse not justified by legislation." + </p> + <p> + This simple explanation, in which may be detected a note of patriotic + pride, is almost universally accepted in Russia; but it contains, like + most popular conceptions of the distant past, a curious mixture of fact + and fiction. Serious historical investigation tends to show that the power + of the proprietors over the peasants came into existence, not suddenly, as + the result of an ukaz, but gradually, as a consequence of permanent + economic and political causes, and that Boris Godunof was not more to + blame than many of his predecessors and successors.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See especially Pobedonostsef, in the Russki Vestnik, 1858, + No. 11, and "Istoritcheskiya izsledovaniya i statyi" (St. + Petersburg, 1876), by the same author; also Pogodin, in the + Russkaya Beseda, 1858, No. 4. +</pre> + <p> + Although the peasants in ancient Russia were free to wander about as they + chose, there appeared at a very early period—long before the reign + of Boris Godunof—a decided tendency in the Princes, in the + proprietors, and in the Communes, to prevent migration. This tendency will + be easily understood if we remember that land without labourers is + useless, and that in Russia at that time the population was small in + comparison with the amount of reclaimed and easily reclaimable land. The + Prince desired to have as many inhabitants as possible in his + principality, because the amount of his regular revenues depended on the + number of the population. The landed proprietor desired to have as many + peasants as possible on his estate, to till for him the land which he + reserved for his own use, and to pay him for the remainder a yearly rent + in money, produce, or labour. The free Communes desired to have a number + of members sufficient to keep the whole of the Communal land under + cultivation, because each Commune had to pay yearly to the Prince a fixed + sum in money or agricultural produce, and the greater the number of + able-bodied members, the less each individual had to pay. To use the + language of political economy, the Princes, the landed proprietors, and + the free Communes all appeared as buyers in the labour market; and the + demand was far in excess of the supply. Nowadays when young colonies or + landed proprietors in an outlying corner of the world are similarly in + need of labour, they seek to supply the want by organising a regular + system of importing labourers—using illegal violent means, such as + kidnapping expeditions, merely as an exceptional expedient. In old Russia + any such regularly organised system was impossible, and consequently + illegal or violent measures were not the exception, but the rule. The + chief practical advantage of the frequent military expeditions for those + who took part in them was the acquisition of prisoners of war, who were + commonly transformed into slaves by their captors. If it be true, as some + assert, that only unbaptised prisoners were legally considered lawful + booty, it is certain that in practice, before the unification of the + principalities under the Tsars of Moscow, little distinction was made in + this respect between unbaptised foreigners and Orthodox Russians.* A + similar method was sometimes employed for the acquisition of free + peasants: the more powerful proprietors organised kidnapping expeditions, + and carried off by force the peasants settled on the land of their weaker + neighbours. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * On this subject see Tchitcherin, "Opyty po istorii + Russkago prava," Moscow, 1858, p. 162 et seq.; and + Lokhvitski, "O plennykh po drevnemu Russkomu pravu," Moscow, + 1855. +</pre> + <p> + Under these circumstances it was only natural that those who possessed + this valuable commodity should do all in their power to keep it. Many, if + not all, of the free Communes adopted the simple measure of refusing to + allow a member to depart until he had found some one to take his place. + The proprietors never, so far as we know, laid down formally such a + principle, but in practice they did all in their power to retain the + peasants actually settled on their estates. For this purpose some simply + employed force, whilst others acted under cover of legal formalities. The + peasant who accepted land from a proprietor rarely brought with him the + necessary implements, cattle, and capital to begin at once his + occupations, and to feed himself and his family till the ensuing harvest. + He was obliged, therefore, to borrow from his landlord, and the debt thus + contracted was easily converted into a means of preventing his departure + if he wished to change his domicile. We need not enter into further + details. The proprietors were the capitalists of the time. Frequent bad + harvests, plagues, fires, military raids, and similar misfortunes often + reduced even prosperous peasants to beggary. The muzhik was probably then, + as now, only too ready to accept a loan without taking the necessary + precautions for repaying it. The laws relating to debt were terribly + severe, and there was no powerful judicial organisation to protect the + weak. If we remember all this, we shall not be surprised to learn that a + considerable part of the peasantry were practically serfs before serfage + was recognised by law. + </p> + <p> + So long as the country was broken up into independent principalities, and + each land-owner was almost an independent Prince on his estate, the + peasants easily found a remedy for these abuses in flight. They fled to a + neighbouring proprietor who could protect them from their former landlord + and his claims, or they took refuge in a neighbouring principality, where + they were, of course, still safer. All this was changed when the + independent principalities were transformed into the Tsardom of Muscovy. + The Tsars had new reasons for opposing the migration of the peasants and + new means for preventing it. The old Princes had simply given grants of + land to those who served them, and left the grantee to do with his land + what seemed good to him; the Tsars, on the contrary, gave to those who + served them merely the usufruct of a certain quantity of land, and + carefully proportioned the quantity to the rank and the obligations of the + receiver. In this change there was plainly a new reason for fixing the + peasants to the soil. The real value of a grant depended not so much on + the amount of land as on the number of peasants settled on it, and hence + any migration of the population was tantamount to a removal of the ancient + landmarks—that is to say, to a disturbance of the arrangements made + by the Tsar. Suppose, for instance, that the Tsar granted to a Boyar or + some lesser dignitary an estate on which were settled twenty peasant + families, and that afterwards ten of these emigrated to neighbouring + proprietors. In this case the recipient might justly complain that he had + lost half of his estate—though the amount of land was in no way + diminished—and that he was consequently unable to fulfil his + obligations. Such complaints would be rarely, if ever, made by the great + dignitaries, for they had the means of attracting peasants to their + estates;* but the small proprietors had good reason to complain, and the + Tsar was bound to remove their grievances. The attaching of the peasants + to the soil was, in fact, the natural consequence of feudal tenures—an + integral part of the Muscovite political system. The Tsar compelled the + nobles to serve him, and was unable to pay them in money. He was obliged, + therefore, to procure for them some other means of livelihood. Evidently + the simplest method of solving the difficulty was to give them land, with + a certain number of labourers, and to prevent the labourers from + migrating. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There are plain indications in the documents of the time + that the great dignitaries were at first hostile to the + adscriptio glebae. We find a similar phenomenon at a much + more recent date in Little Russia. Long after serfage had + been legalised in that region by Catherine II., the great + proprietors, such as Rumyantsef, Razumofski, Bezborodko, + continued to attract to their estates the peasants of the + smaller proprietors. See the article of Pogodin in the + Russkaya Beseda, 1858, No. 4, p. 154. +</pre> + <p> + Towards the free Communes the Tsar had to act in the same way for similar + reasons. The Communes, like the nobles, had obligations to the Sovereign, + and could not fulfil them if the peasants were allowed to migrate from one + locality to another. They were, in a certain sense, the property of the + Tsar, and it was only natural that the Tsar should do for himself what he + had done for his nobles. + </p> + <p> + With these new reasons for fixing the peasants to the soil came, as has + been said, new means of preventing migration. Formerly it was an easy + matter to flee to a neighbouring principality, but now all the + principalities were combined under one ruler, and the foundations of a + centralised administration were laid. Severe fugitive laws were issued + against those who attempted to change their domicile and against the + proprietors who should harbour the runaways. Unless the peasant chose to + face the difficulties of "squatting" in the inhospitable northern forests, + or resolved to brave the dangers of the steppe, he could nowhere escape + the heavy hand of Moscow.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The above account of the origin of serfage in Russia is + founded on a careful examination of the evidence which we + possess on the subject, but I must not conceal the fact that + some of the statements are founded on inference rather than + on direct, unequivocal documentary evidence. The whole + question is one of great difficulty, and will in all + probability not be satisfactorily solved until a large + number of the old local Land-Registers (Pistsoviya Knigi) + have been published and carefully studied. +</pre> + <p> + The indirect consequences of thus attaching the peasants to the soil did + not at once become apparent. The serf retained all the civil rights he had + hitherto enjoyed, except that of changing his domicile. He could still + appear before the courts of law as a free man, freely engage in trade or + industry, enter into all manner of contracts, and rent land for + cultivation. + </p> + <p> + But as time wore on, the change in the legal relation between the two + classes became apparent in real life. In attaching the peasantry to the + soil, the Government had been so thoroughly engrossed with the direct + financial aim that it entirely overlooked, or wilfully shut its eyes to, + the ulterior consequences which must necessarily flow from the policy it + adopted. It was evident that as soon as the relation between proprietor + and peasant was removed from the region of voluntary contract by being + rendered indissoluble, the weaker of the two parties legally tied together + must fall completely under the power of the stronger, unless energetically + protected by the law and the Administration. To this inevitable + consequence the Government paid no attention. So far from endeavouring to + protect the peasantry from the oppression of the proprietors, it did not + even determine by law the mutual obligations which ought to exist between + the two classes. Taking advantage of this omission, the proprietors soon + began to impose whatever obligations they thought fit; and as they had no + legal means of enforcing fulfilment, they gradually introduced a + patriarchal jurisdiction similar to that which they exercised over their + slaves, with fines and corporal punishment as means of coercion. From this + they ere long proceeded a step further, and began to sell their peasants + without the land on which they were settled. At first this was merely a + flagrant abuse unsanctioned by law, for the peasant had never been + declared the private property of the landed proprietor; but the Government + tacitly sanctioned the practice, and even exacted dues on such sales, as + on the sale of slaves. Finally the right to sell peasants without land was + formally recognised by various Imperial ukazes.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * For instance, the ukazes of October 13th, 1675, and June + 25th, 1682. See Belaef, pp. 203-209. +</pre> + <p> + The old Communal organisation still existed on the estates of the + proprietors, and had never been legally deprived of its authority, but it + was now powerless to protect the members. The proprietor could easily + overcome any active resistance by selling or converting into domestic + servants the peasants who dared to oppose his will. + </p> + <p> + The peasantry had thus sunk to the condition of serfs, practically + deprived of legal protection and subject to the arbitrary will of the + proprietors; but they were still in some respects legally and actually + distinguished from the slaves on the one hand and the "free wandering + people" on the other. These distinctions were obliterated by Peter the + Great and his immediate successors. + </p> + <p> + To effect his great civil and military reforms, Peter required an annual + revenue such as his predecessors had never dreamed of, and he was + consequently always on the look-out for some new object of taxation. When + looking about for this purpose, his eye naturally fell on the slaves, the + domestic servants, and the free agricultural labourers. None of these + classes paid taxes—a fact which stood in flagrant contradiction with + his fundamental principle of polity, that every subject should in some way + serve the State. He caused, therefore, a national census to be taken, in + which all the various classes of the rural population—slaves, + domestic servants, agricultural labourers, peasants—should be + inscribed in one category; and he imposed equally on all the members of + this category a poll-tax, in lieu of the former land-tax, which had lain + exclusively on the peasants. To facilitate the collection of this tax the + proprietors were made responsible for their serfs; and the "free wandering + people" who did not wish to enter the army were ordered, under pain of + being sent to the galleys, to inscribe themselves as members of a Commune + or as serfs to some proprietor. + </p> + <p> + These measures had a considerable influence, if not on the actual position + of the peasantry, at least on the legal conceptions regarding them. By + making the proprietor pay the poll-tax for his serfs, as if they were + slaves or cattle, the law seemed to sanction the idea that they were part + of his goods and chattels. Besides this, it introduced the entirely new + principle that any member of the rural population not legally attached to + the land or to a proprietor should be regarded as a vagrant, and treated + accordingly. Thus the principle that every subject should in some way + serve the State had found its complete realisation. There was no longer + any room in Russia for free men. + </p> + <p> + The change in the position of the peasantry, together with the hardships + and oppression by which it was accompanied, naturally increased fugitivism + and vagrancy. Thousands of serfs ran away from their masters and fled to + the steppe or sought enrolment in the army. To prevent this the Government + considered it necessary to take severe and energetic measures. The serfs + were forbidden to enlist without the permission of their masters, and + those who persisted in presenting themselves for enrolment were to be + beaten "cruelly" (zhestoko) with the knout, and sent to the mines.* The + proprietors, on the other hand, received the right to transport without + trial their unruly serfs to Siberia, and even to send them to the mines + for life.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ukaz of June 2d, 1742. + + ** See ukaz of January 17th, 1765, and of January 28th, + 1766. +</pre> + <p> + If these stringent measures had any effect it was not of long duration, + for there soon appeared among the serfs a still stronger spirit of + discontent and insubordination, which threatened to produce a general + agrarian rising, and actually did create a movement resembling in many + respects the Jacquerie in France and the Peasant War in Germany. A glance + at the causes of this movement will help us to understand the real nature + of serfage in Russia. + </p> + <p> + Up to this point serfage had, in spite of its flagrant abuses, a certain + theoretical justification. It was, as we have seen, merely a part of a + general political system in which obligatory service was imposed on all + classes of the population. The serfs served the nobles in order that the + nobles might serve the Tsar. In 1762 this theory was entirely overturned + by a manifesto of Peter III. abolishing the obligatory service of the + Noblesse. According to strict justice this act ought to have been followed + by the liberation of the serfs, for if the nobles were no longer obliged + to serve the State they had no just claim to the service of the peasants. + The Government had so completely forgotten the original meaning of serfage + that it never thought of carrying out the measure to its logical + consequences, but the peasantry held tenaciously to the ancient + conceptions, and looked impatiently for a second manifesto liberating them + from the power of the proprietors. Reports were spread that such a + manifesto really existed, and was being concealed by the nobles. A spirit + of insubordination accordingly appeared among the rural population, and + local insurrections broke out in several parts of the Empire. + </p> + <p> + At this critical moment Peter III. was dethroned and assassinated by a + Court conspiracy. The peasants, who, of course, knew nothing of the real + motives of the conspirators, supposed that the Tsar had been assassinated + by those who wished to preserve serfage, and believed him to be a martyr + in the cause of Emancipation. At the news of the catastrophe their hopes + of Emancipation fell, but soon they were revived by new rumours. The Tsar, + it was said, had escaped from the conspirators and was in hiding. Soon he + would appear among his faithful peasants, and with their aid would regain + his throne and punish the wicked oppressors. Anxiously he was awaited, and + at last the glad tidings came that he had appeared in the Don country, + that thousands of Cossacks had joined his standard, that he was everywhere + putting the proprietors to death without mercy, and that he would soon + arrive in the ancient capital! + </p> + <p> + Peter III. was in reality in his grave, but there was a terrible element + of truth in these reports. A pretender, a Cossack called Pugatchef, had + really appeared on the Don, and had assumed the role which the peasants + expected the late Tsar to play. Advancing through the country of the Lower + Volga, he took several places of importance, put to death all the + proprietors he could find, defeated on more than one occasion the troops + sent against him, and threatened to advance into the heart of the Empire. + It seemed as if the old troublous times were about to be renewed—as + if the country was once more to be pillaged by those wild Cossacks of the + southern steppe. But the pretender showed himself incapable of playing the + part he had assumed. His inhuman cruelty estranged many who would + otherwise have followed him, and he was too deficient in decision and + energy to take advantage of favourable circumstances. If it be true that + he conceived the idea of creating a peasant empire (muzhitskoe tsarstvo), + he was not the man to realise such a scheme. After a series of mistakes + and defeats he was taken prisoner, and the insurrection was quelled.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *Whilst living among the Bashkirs of the province of Samara + in 1872 I found some interesting traditions regarding this + pretender. Though nearly a century had elapsed since his + death (1775), his name, his personal appearance, and his + exploits were well known even to the younger generation. My + informants firmly believed that he was not an impostor, but + the genuine Tsar, dethroned by his ambitious consort, and + that he never was taken prisoner, but "went away into + foreign lands." When I asked whether he was still alive, + and whether he might not one day return, they replied that + they did not know. +</pre> + <p> + Meanwhile Peter III. had been succeeded by his consort, Catherine II. As + she had no legal right to the throne, and was by birth a foreigner, she + could not gain the affections of the people, and was obliged to court the + favour of the Noblesse. In such a difficult position she could not venture + to apply her humane principles to the question of serfage. Even during the + first years of her reign, when she had no reason to fear agrarian + disturbances, she increased rather than diminished the power of the + proprietors over their serfs, and the Pugatchef affair confirmed her in + this line of policy. During her reign serfage may be said to have reached + its climax. The serfs were regarded by the law as part of the master's + immovable property*—as part of the working capital of the estate—and + as such they were bought, sold, and given as presents** in hundreds and + thousands, sometimes with the land, and sometimes without it, sometimes in + families, and sometimes individually. The only legal restriction was that + they should not be offered for sale at the time of the conscription, and + that they should at no time be sold publicly by auction, because such a + custom was considered as "unbecoming in a European State." In all other + respects the serfs might be treated as private property; and this view is + to be found not only in the legislation, but also in the popular + conceptions. It became customary—a custom that continued down to the + year 1861—to compute a noble's fortune, not by his yearly revenue or + the extent of his estate, but by the number of his serfs. Instead of + saying that a man had so many hundreds or thousands a year, or so many + acres, it was commonly said that he had so many hundreds or thousands of + "souls." And over these "souls" he exercised the most unlimited authority. + The serfs had no legal means of self-defence. The Government feared that + the granting to them of judicial or administrative protection would + inevitably awaken in them a spirit of insubordination, and hence it was + ordered that those who presented complaints should be punished with the + knout and sent to the mines.*** It was only in extreme cases, when some + instance of atrocious cruelty happened to reach the ears of the Sovereign, + that the authorities interfered with the proprietor's jurisdiction, and + these cases had not the slightest influence on the proprietors in + general.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See ukaz of October 7th, 1792. + + ** As an example of making presents of serfs, the following + may be cited. Count Panin presented some of his + subordinates for an Imperial recompense, and on receiving a + refusal, made them a present of 4000 serfs from his own + estates.—Belaef, p. 320. + + *** See the ukazes of August 22d, 1767, and March 30th, + 1781. + + **** Perhaps the most horrible case on record is that of a + certain lady called Saltykof, who was brought to justice in + 1768. According to the ukaz regarding her crimes, she had + killed by inhuman tortures in the course of ten or eleven + years about a hundred of her serfs, chiefly of the female + sex, and among them several young girls of eleven and twelve + years of age. According to popular belief her cruelty + proceeded from cannibal propensities, but this was not + confirmed by the judicial investigation. Details in the + Russki Arkhiv, 1865, pp. 644-652. The atrocities practised + on the estate of Count Araktcheyef, the favourite of + Alexander I. at the commencement of last century, have been + frequently described, and are scarcely less revolting. +</pre> + <p> + The last years of the eighteenth century may be regarded as the + turning-point in the history of serfage. Up till that time the power of + the proprietors had steadily increased, and the area of serfage had + rapidly expanded. Under the Emperor Paul (1796-1801) we find the first + decided symptoms of a reaction. He regarded the proprietors as his most + efficient officers of police, but he desired to limit their authority, and + for this purpose issued an ukaz to the effect that the serfs should not be + forced to work for their masters more than three days in the week. With + the accession of Alexander I., in 1801, commenced a long series of + abortive projects for a general emancipation, and endless attempts to + correct the more glaring abuses; and during the reign of Nicholas no less + than six committees were formed at different times to consider the + question. But the practical result of these efforts was extremely small. + The custom of giving grants of land with peasants was abolished; certain + slight restrictions were placed on the authority of the proprietors; a + number of the worst specimens of the class were removed from the + administration of their estates; a few who were convicted of atrocious + cruelty were exiled to Siberia;* and some thousands of serfs were actually + emancipated; but no decisive radical measures were attempted, and the + serfs did not receive even the right of making formal complaints. Serfage + had, in fact, come to be regarded as a vital part of the State + organisation, and the only sure basis for autocracy. It was therefore + treated tenderly, and the rights and protection accorded by various ukazes + were almost entirely illusory. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *Speranski, for instance, when Governor of the province of + Penza, brought to justice, among others, a proprietor who + had caused one of his serfs to be flogged to death, and a + lady who had murdered a serf boy by pricking him with a + pen-knife because he had neglected to take proper care of a tame + rabbit committed to his charge!—Korff, "Zhizn Speranskago," + II., p. 127, note. +</pre> + <p> + If we compare the development of serfage in Russia and in Western Europe, + we find very many points in common, but in Russia the movement had certain + peculiarities. One of the most important of these was caused by the rapid + development of the Autocratic Power. In feudal Europe, where there was no + strong central authority to control the Noblesse, the free rural Communes + entirely, or almost entirely, disappeared. They were either appropriated + by the nobles or voluntarily submitted to powerful landed proprietors or + to monasteries, and in this way the whole of the reclaimed land, with a + few rare exceptions, became the property of the nobles or of the Church. + In Russia we find the same movement, but it was arrested by the Imperial + power before all the land had been appropriated. The nobles could reduce + to serfage the peasants settled on their estates, but they could not take + possession of the free Communes, because such an appropriation would have + infringed the rights and diminished the revenues of the Tsar. Down to the + commencement of the last century, it is true, large grants of land with + serfs were made to favoured individuals among the Noblesse, and in the + reign of Paul (1796-1801) a considerable number of estates were affected + to the use of the Imperial family under the name of appanages (Udyelniya + imteniya); but on the other hand, the extensive Church lands, when + secularised by Catherine II., were not distributed among the nobles, as in + many other countries, but were transformed into State Domains. Thus, at + the date of the Emancipation (1861), by far the greater part of the + territory belonged to the State, and one-half of the rural population were + so-called State Peasants (Gosudarstvenniye krestyanye). + </p> + <p> + Regarding the condition of these State Peasants, or Peasants of the + Domains, as they are sometimes called, I may say briefly that they were, + in a certain sense, serfs, being attached to the soil like the others; but + their condition was, as a rule, somewhat better than the serfs in the + narrower acceptation of the term. They had to suffer much from the tyranny + and extortion of the special administration under which they lived, but + they had more land and more liberty than was commonly enjoyed on the + estates of resident proprietors, and their position was much less + precarious. It is often asserted that the officials of the Domains were + worse than the serf-owners, because they had not the same interest in the + prosperity of the peasantry; but this a priori reasoning does not stand + the test of experience. + </p> + <p> + It is not a little interesting to observe the numerical proportion and + geographical distribution of these two rural classes. In European Russia, + as a whole, about three-eighths of the population were composed of serfs + belonging to the nobles;* but if we take the provinces separately we find + great variations from this average. In five provinces the serfs were less + than three per cent., while in others they formed more than seventy per + cent. of the population! This is not an accidental phenomenon. In the + geographical distribution of serfage we can see reflected the origin and + history of the institution. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The exact numbers, according to official data, were—Entire + Population 60,909,309 + Peasantry of all Classes 49,486,665 + + Of these latter there were—State Peasants + 23,138,191 + Peasants on the Lands of Proprietors 23,022,390 + Peasants of the Appanages and other Departments 3,326,084 + ————— + 49,486,665 +</pre> + <p> + If we were to construct a map showing the geographical distribution of the + serf population, we should at once perceive that serfage radiated from + Moscow. Starting from that city as a centre and travelling in any + direction towards the confines of the Empire, we find that, after making + allowance for a few disturbing local influences, the proportion of serfs + regularly declines in the successive provinces traversed. In the region + representing the old Muscovite Tsardom they form considerably more than a + half of the rural population. Immediately to the south and east of this, + in the territory that was gradually annexed during the seventeenth and + first half of the eighteenth century, the proportion varies from + twenty-five to fifty per cent., and in the more recently annexed provinces + it steadily decreases till it almost reaches zero. + </p> + <p> + We may perceive, too, that the percentage of serfs decreases towards the + north much more rapidly than towards the east and south. This points to + the essentially agricultural nature of serfage in its infancy. In the + south and east there was abundance of rich "black earth" celebrated for + its fertility, and the nobles in quest of estates naturally preferred this + region to the inhospitable north, with its poor soil and severe climate. + </p> + <p> + A more careful examination of the supposed map* would bring out other + interesting facts. Let me notice one by way of illustration. Had serfage + been the result of conquest we should have found the Slavonic race settled + on the State Domains, and the Finnish and Tartar tribes supplying the + serfs of the nobles. In reality we find quite the reverse; the Finns and + Tartars were nearly all State Peasants, and the serfs of the proprietors + were nearly all of Slavonic race. This is to be accounted for by the fact + that the Finnish and Tartar tribes inhabit chiefly the outlying regions, + in which serfage never attained such dimensions as in the centre of the + Empire. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Such a map was actually constructed by Troinitski + ("Krepostnoe Naseleniye v Rossii," St. Petersburg, 1861), + but it is not nearly so graphic as is might have been. +</pre> + <p> + The dues paid by the serfs were of three kinds: labour, money, and farm + produce. The last-named is so unimportant that it may be dismissed in a + few words. It consisted chiefly of eggs, chickens, lambs, mushrooms, wild + berries, and linen cloth. The amount of these various products depended + entirely on the will of the master. The other two kinds of dues, as more + important, we must examine more closely. + </p> + <p> + When a proprietor had abundance of fertile land and wished to farm on his + own account, he commonly demanded from his serfs as much labour as + possible. Under such a master the serfs were probably free from money + dues, and fulfilled their obligations to him by labouring in his fields in + summer and transporting his grain to market in winter. When, on the + contrary, a land-owner had more serf labour at his disposal than he + required for the cultivation of his fields, he put the superfluous serfs + "on obrok,"—that is to say, he allowed them to go and work where + they pleased on condition of paying him a fixed yearly sum. Sometimes the + proprietor did not farm at all on his own account, in which case he put + all the serfs "on obrok," and generally gave to the Commune in usufruct + the whole of the arable land and pasturage. In this way the Mir played the + part of a tenant. + </p> + <p> + We have here the basis for a simple and important classification of + estates in the time of serfage: (1) Estates on which the dues were + exclusively in labour; (2) estates on which the dues were partly in labour + and partly in money; and (3) estates on which the dues were exclusively in + money. + </p> + <p> + In the manner of exacting the labour dues there was considerable variety. + According to the famous manifesto of Paul I., the peasant could not be + compelled to work more than three days in the week; but this law was by no + means universally observed, and those who did observe it had various + methods of applying it. A few took it literally and laid down a rule that + the serfs should work for them three definite days in the week—for + example, every Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday—but this was an + extremely inconvenient method, for it prevented the field labour from + being carried on regularly. A much more rational system was that according + to which one-half of the serfs worked the first three days of the week, + and the other half the remaining three. In this way there was, without any + contravention of the law, a regular and constant supply of labour. It + seems, however, that the great majority of the proprietors followed no + strict method, and paid no attention whatever to Paul's manifesto, which + gave to the peasants no legal means of making formal complaints. They + simply summoned daily as many labourers as they required. The evil + consequences of this for the peasants' crops were in part counteracted by + making the peasants sow their own grain a little later than that of the + proprietor, so that the master's harvest work was finished, or nearly + finished, before their grain was ripe. This combination did not, however, + always succeed, and in cases where there was a conflict of interests, the + serf was, of course, the losing party. All that remained for him to do in + such cases was to work a little in his own fields before six o'clock in + the morning and after nine o'clock at night, and in order to render this + possible he economised his strength, and worked as little as possible in + his master's fields during the day. + </p> + <p> + It has frequently been remarked, and with much truth—though the + indiscriminate application of the principle has often led to unjustifiable + legislative inactivity—that the practical result of institutions + depends less on the intrinsic abstract nature of the institutions + themselves than on the character of those who work them. So it was with + serfage. When a proprietor habitually acted towards his serfs in an + enlightened, rational, humane way, they had little reason to complain of + their position, and their life was much easier than that of many men who + live in a state of complete individual freedom and unlimited, unrestricted + competition. However paradoxical the statement may seem to those who are + in the habit of regarding all forms of slavery from the sentimental point + of view, it is unquestionable that the condition of serfs under such a + proprietor as I have supposed was more enviable than that of the majority + of English agricultural labourers. Each family had a house of its own, + with a cabbage-garden, one or more horses, one or two cows, several sheep, + poultry, agricultural implements, a share of the Communal land, and + everything else necessary for carrying on its small farming operations; + and in return for this it had to supply the proprietor with an amount of + labour which was by no means oppressive. If, for instance, a serf had + three adult sons—and the households, as I have said, were at that + time generally numerous—two of them might work for the proprietor + whilst he himself and the remaining son could attend exclusively to the + family affairs. By the events which used to be called "the visitations of + God" he had no fear of being permanently ruined. If his house was burnt, + or his cattle died from the plague, or a series of "bad years" left him + without seed for his fields, he could always count upon temporary + assistance from his master. He was protected, too, against all oppression + and exactions on the part of the officials; for the police, when there was + any call for its interference, applied to the proprietor, who was to a + certain extent responsible for his serfs. Thus the serf might live a + tranquil, contented life, and die at a ripe old age, without ever having + been conscious that serfage was a grievous burden. + </p> + <p> + If all the serfs had lived in this way we might, perhaps, regret that the + Emancipation was ever undertaken. In reality there was, as the French say, + le revers de la medaille, and serfage generally appeared under a form very + different from that which I have just depicted. The proprietors were, + unfortunately, not all of the enlightened, humane type. Amongst them were + many who demanded from their serfs an inordinate amount of labour, and + treated them in a very inhuman fashion. + </p> + <p> + These oppressors of their serfs may be divided into four categories. + First, there were the proprietors who managed their own estates, and + oppressed simply for the purpose of increasing their revenues. Secondly, + there were a number of retired officers who wished to establish a certain + order and discipline on their estates, and who employed for this purpose + the barbarous measures which were at that time used in the army, believing + that merciless corporal punishment was the only means of curing laziness, + disorderliness and other vices. Thirdly, there were the absentees who + lived beyond their means, and demanded from their steward, under pain of + giving him or his son as a recruit, a much greater yearly sum than the + estate could be reasonably expected to yield. Lastly, in the latter years + of serfage, there were a number of men who bought estates as a mercantile + speculation, and made as much money out of them as they could in the + shortest possible space of time. + </p> + <p> + Of all hard masters, the last-named were the most terrible. Utterly + indifferent to the welfare of the serfs and the ultimate fate of the + property, they cut down the timber, sold the cattle, exacted heavy money + dues under threats of giving the serfs or their children as recruits, + presented to the military authorities a number of conscripts greater than + was required by law—selling the conscription receipts (zatchetniya + kvitantsii) to the merchants and burghers who were liable to the + conscription but did not wish to serve—compelled some of the richer + serfs to buy their liberty at an enormous price, and, in a word, used + every means, legal and illegal, for extracting money. By this system of + management they ruined the estate completely in the course of a few years; + but by that time they had realised probably the whole sum paid, with a + very fair profit from the operation; and this profit could be considerably + augmented by selling a number of the peasant families for transportation + to another estate (na svoz), or by mortgaging the property in the + Opekunski Sovet—a Government institution which lent money on landed + property without examining carefully the nature of the security. + </p> + <p> + As to the means which the proprietors possessed of oppressing their + peasants, we must distinguish between the legal and the actual. The legal + were almost as complete as any one could desire. "The proprietor," it is + said in the Laws (Vol. IX, p. 1045, ed. an. 1857), "may impose on his + serfs every kind of labour, may take from them money dues (obrok) and + demand from them personal service, with this one restriction, that they + should not be thereby ruined, and that the number of days fixed by law + should be left to them for their own work."* Besides this, he had the + right to transform peasants into domestic servants, and might, instead of + employing them in his own service, hire them out to others who had the + rights and privileges of Noblesse (pp. 1047-48). For all offences + committed against himself or against any one under his jurisdiction he + could subject the guilty ones to corporal punishment not exceeding forty + lashes with the birch or fifteen blows with the stick (p. 1052); and if he + considered any of his serfs as incorrigible, he could present them to the + authorities to be drafted into the army or transported to Siberia as he + might desire (pp. 1053-55). In cases of insubordination, where the + ordinary domestic means of discipline did not suffice, he could call in + the police and the military to support his authority. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I give here the references to the Code, because Russians + commonly believe and assert that the hiring out of serfs, + the infliction of corporal punishment, and similar practices + were merely abuses unauthorised by law. +</pre> + <p> + Such were the legal means by which the proprietor might oppress his + peasants, and it will be readily understood that they were very + considerable and very elastic. By law he had the power to impose any dues + in labour or money which he might think fit, and in all cases the serfs + were ordered to be docile and obedient (p. 1027). Corporal punishment, + though restricted by law, he could in reality apply to any extent. + Certainly none of the serfs, and very few of the proprietors, were aware + that the law placed any restriction on this right. All the proprietors + were in the habit of using corporal punishment as they thought proper, and + unless a proprietor became notorious for inhuman cruelty the authorities + never thought of interfering. But in the eyes of the peasants corporal + punishment was not the worst. What they feared infinitely more than the + birch or the stick was the proprietor's power of giving them or their sons + as recruits. The law assumed that this extreme means would be employed + only against those serfs who showed themselves incorrigibly vicious or + insubordinate; but the authorities accepted those presented without making + any investigations, and consequently the proprietor might use this power + as an effective means of extortion. + </p> + <p> + Against these means of extortion and oppression the serfs had no legal + protection. The law provided them with no means of resisting any injustice + to which they might be subjected, or of bringing to punishment the master + who oppressed and ruined them. The Government, notwithstanding its sincere + desire to protect them from inordinate burdens and cruel treatment, rarely + interfered between the master and his serfs, being afraid of thereby + undermining the authority of the proprietors, and awakening among the + peasantry a spirit of insubordination. The serfs were left, therefore, to + their own resources, and had to defend themselves as best they could. The + simplest way was open mutiny; but this was rarely employed, for they knew + by experience that any attempt of the kind would be at once put down by + the military and mercilessly punished. Much more favourite and efficient + methods were passive resistance, flight, and fire-raising or murder. + </p> + <p> + We might naturally suppose that an unscrupulous proprietor, armed with the + enormous legal and actual power which I have just described, could very + easily extort from his peasants anything he desired. In reality, however, + the process of extortion, when it exceeded a certain measure, was a very + difficult operation. The Russian peasant has a capacity of patient + endurance that would do honour to a martyr, and a power of continued, + dogged, passive resistance such as is possessed, I believe, by no other + class of men in Europe; and these qualities formed a very powerful barrier + against the rapacity of unconscientious proprietors. As soon as the serfs + remarked in their master a tendency to rapacity and extortion, they at + once took measures to defend themselves. Their first step was to sell + secretly the live stock they did not actually require, and all their + movable property except the few articles necessary for everyday use; then + the little capital realised was carefully hidden. + </p> + <p> + When this had been effected, the proprietor might threaten and punish as + he liked, but he rarely succeeded in unearthing the treasure. Many a + peasant, under such circumstances, bore patiently the most cruel + punishment, and saw his sons taken away as recruits, and yet he persisted + in declaring that he had no money to ransom himself and his children. A + spectator in such a case would probably have advised him to give up his + little store of money, and thereby liberate himself from persecution; but + the peasants reasoned otherwise. They were convinced, and not without + reason, that the sacrifice of their little capital would merely put off + the evil day, and that the persecution would very soon recommence. In this + way they would have to suffer as before, and have the additional + mortification of feeling that they had spent to no purpose the little that + they possessed. Their fatalistic belief in the "perhaps" (avos') came here + to their aid. Perhaps the proprietor might become weary of his efforts + when he saw that they led to no result, or perhaps something might occur + which would remove the persecutor. + </p> + <p> + It always happened, however, that when a proprietor treated his serfs with + extreme injustice and cruelty, some of them lost patience, and sought + refuge in flight. As the estates lay perfectly open on all sides, and it + was utterly impossible to exercise a strict supervision, nothing was + easier than to run away, and the fugitive might be a hundred miles off + before his absence was noticed. But the oppressed serf was reluctant to + adopt such an extreme measure. He had almost always a wife and family, and + he could not possibly take them with him; flight, therefore, was + expatriation for life in its most terrible form. Besides this, the life of + a fugitive was by no means enviable. He was liable at any moment to fall + into the hands of the police, and to be put into prison or sent back to + his master. So little charm, indeed, did this life present that not + infrequently after a few months or a few years the fugitive returned of + his own accord to his former domicile. + </p> + <p> + Regarding fugitives or passportless wanderers in general, I may here + remark parenthetically that there were two kinds. In the first place, + there was the young, able-bodied peasant, who fled from the oppression of + his master or from the conscription. Such a fugitive almost always sought + out for himself a new domicile—generally in the southern provinces, + where there was a great scarcity of labourers, and where many proprietors + habitually welcomed all peasants who presented themselves, without making + any inquiries as to passports. In the second place, there were those who + chose fugitivism as a permanent mode of life. These were, for the most + part, men or women of a certain age—widowers or widows—who had + no close family ties, and who were too infirm or too lazy to work. The + majority of these assumed the character of pilgrims. As such they could + always find enough to eat, and could generally even collect a few roubles + with which to grease the palm of any zealous police-officer who should + arrest them. For a life of this kind Russia presented peculiar facilities. + There was abundance of monasteries, where all comers could live for three + days without questions being asked, and where those who were willing to do + a little work for the patron saint might live for a much longer period. + Then there were the towns, where the rich merchants considered almsgiving + as very profitable for salvation. And, lastly, there were the villages, + where a professing pilgrim was sure to be hospitably received and + entertained so long as he refrained from stealing and other acts too + grossly inconsistent with his assumed character. For those who contented + themselves with simple fare, and did not seek to avoid the usual + privations of a wanderer's life, these ordinary means of subsistence were + amply sufficient. Those who were more ambitious and more cunning often + employed their talents with great success in the world of the Old + Ritualists and Sectarians. + </p> + <p> + The last and most desperate means of defense which the serfs possessed + were fire-raising and murder. With regard to the amount of fire-raising + there are no trustworthy statistics. With regard to the number of agrarian + murders I once obtained some interesting statistical data, but + unfortunately lost them. I may say, however, that these cases were not + very numerous. This is to be explained in part by the patient, + long-suffering character of the peasantry, and in part by the fact that + the great majority of the proprietors were by no means such inhuman + taskmasters as is sometimes supposed. When a case did occur, the + Administration always made a strict investigation—punishing the + guilty with exemplary severity, and taking no account of the provocation + to which they had been subjected. The peasantry, on the contrary—at + least, when the act was not the result of mere personal vengeance—secretly + sympathised with "the unfortunates," and long cherished their memory as + that of men who had suffered for the Mir. + </p> + <p> + In speaking of the serfs I have hitherto confined my attention to the + members of the Mir, or rural Commune—that is to say, the peasants in + the narrower sense of the term; but besides these there were the + Dvorovuye, or domestic servants, and of these I must add a word or two. + </p> + <p> + The Dvorovuye were domestic slaves rather than serfs in the proper sense + of the term. Let us, however, avoid wounding unnecessarily Russian + sensibilities by the use of the ill-sounding word. We may call the class + in question "domestics"—remembering, of course, that they were not + quite domestic servants in the ordinary sense. They received no wages, + were not at liberty to change masters, possessed almost no legal rights, + and might be punished, hired out, or sold by their owners without any + infraction of the written law. + </p> + <p> + These "domestics" were very numerous—out of all proportion to the + work to be performed—and could consequently lead a very lazy life;* + but the peasant considered it a great misfortune to be transferred to + their ranks, for he thereby lost his share of the Communal land and the + little independence which he enjoyed. It very rarely happened, however, + that the proprietor took an able-bodied peasant as domestic. The class + generally kept up its numbers by the legitimate and illegitimate method of + natural increase; and involuntary additions were occasionally made when + orphans were left without near relatives, and no other family wished to + adopt them. To this class belonged the lackeys, servant-girls, cooks, + coachmen, stable-boys, gardeners, and a large number of nondescript old + men and women who had no very clearly defined functions. If the proprietor + had a private theatre or orchestra, it was from this class that the actors + and musicians were drawn. Those of them who were married and had children + occupied a position intermediate between the ordinary domestic servant and + the peasant. On the one hand, they received from the master a monthly + allowance of food and a yearly allowance of clothes, and they were obliged + to live in the immediate vicinity of the mansion-house; but, on the other + hand, they had each a separate house or apartment, with a little + cabbage-garden, and commonly a small plot of flax. The unmarried ones + lived in all respects like ordinary domestic servants. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Those proprietors who kept orchestras, large packs of + hounds, &c., had sometimes several hundred domestic serfs. +</pre> + <p> + The number of these domestic serfs being generally out of all proportion + to the amount of work they had to perform, they were imbued with a + hereditary spirit of indolence, and they performed lazily and carelessly + what they had to do. On the other hand, they were often sincerely attached + to the family they served, and occasionally proved by acts their fidelity + and attachment. Here is an instance out of many for which I can vouch. An + old nurse, whose mistress was dangerously ill, vowed that, in the event of + the patient's recovery, she would make a pilgrimage, first to Kief, the + Holy City on the Dnieper, and afterwards to Solovetsk, a much revered + monastery on an island in the White Sea. The patient recovered, and the + old woman, in fulfilment of her vow, walked more than two thousand miles! + </p> + <p> + This class of serfs might well be called domestic slaves, but I must warn + the reader that he ought not to use the expression when speaking with + Russians, because they are extremely sensitive on the point. Serfage, they + say, was something quite different from slavery, and slavery never existed + in Russia. + </p> + <p> + The first part of this assertion is perfectly true, and the second part + perfectly false. In old times, as I have said above, slavery was a + recognised institution in Russia as in other countries. One can hardly + read a few pages of the old chronicles without stumbling on references to + slaves; and I distinctly remember—though I cannot at this moment + give chapter and verse—that one of the old Russian Princes was so + valiant and so successful in his wars that during his reign a slave might + be bought for a few coppers. As late as the beginning of last century the + domestic serfs were sold very much as domestic slaves used to be sold in + countries where slavery was recognised as a legal institution. Here is an + example of the customary advertisement; I take it almost at random from + the Moscow Gazette of 1801:—"TO BE SOLD: three coachmen, well + trained and handsome; and two girls, the one eighteen, and the other + fifteen years of age, both of them good-looking, and well acquainted with + various kinds of handiwork. In the same house there are for sale two + hairdressers; the one, twenty-one years of age, can read, write, play on a + musical instrument, and act as huntsman; the other can dress ladies' and + gentlemen's hair. In the same house are sold pianos and organs." + </p> + <p> + A little farther on in the same number of the paper, a first-rate clerk, a + carver, and a lackey are offered for sale, and the reason assigned is a + superabundance of the articles in question (za izlishestvom). In some + instances it seems as if the serfs and the cattle were intentionally put + in the same category, as in the following announcement: "In this house one + can buy a coachman and a Dutch cow about to calve." The style of these + advertisements, and the frequent recurrence of the same addresses, show + that there was at this time in Moscow a regular class of slave-dealers. + The humane Alexander I. prohibited advertisements of this kind, but he did + not put down the custom which they represented, and his successor, + Nicholas I., took no effective measures for its repression. + </p> + <p> + Of the whole number of serfs belonging to the proprietors, the domestics + formed, according to the census of 1857, no less than 6 3/4 per cent. + (6.79), and their numbers were evidently rapidly increasing, for in the + preceding census they represented only 4.79 per cent. of the whole. This + fact seems all the more significant when we observe that during this + period the number of peasant serfs had diminished. + </p> + <p> + I must now bring this long chapter to an end. My aim has been to represent + serfage in its normal, ordinary forms rather than in its occasional + monstrous manifestations. Of these latter I have a collection containing + ample materials for a whole series of sensation novels, but I refrain from + quoting them, because I do not believe that the criminal annals of a + country give a fair representation of its real condition. On the other + hand, I do not wish to whitewash serfage or attenuate its evil + consequences. No great body of men could long wield such enormous + uncontrolled power without abusing it,* and no large body of men could + long live under such power without suffering morally and materially from + its pernicious influence. If serfage did not create that moral apathy and + intellectual lethargy which formed, as it were, the atmosphere of Russian + provincial life, it did much at least to preserve it. In short, serfage + was the chief barrier to all material and moral progress, and in a time of + moral awakening such as that which I have described in the preceding + chapter, the question of Emancipation naturally came at once to the front. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The number of deposed proprietors—or rather the number of + estates placed under curators in consequence of the abuse of + authority on the part of their owners—amounted in 1859 to + 215. So at least I found in an official MS. document shown + to me by the late Nicholas Milutin. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX + </h2> + <h3> + THE EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS + </h3> + <p> + The Question Raised—Chief Committee—The Nobles of the + Lithuanian Provinces—The Tsar's Broad Hint to the Noblesse—Enthusiasm + in the Press—The Proprietors—Political Aspirations—No + Opposition—The Government—Public Opinion—Fear of the + Proletariat—The Provincial Committees—The Elaboration + Commission—The Question Ripens—Provincial Deputies—Discontent + and Demonstrations—The Manifesto—Fundamental Principles of the + Law—Illusions and Disappointment of the Serfs—Arbiters of the + Peace—A Characteristic Incident—Redemption—Who Effected + the Emancipation? + </p> + <p> + It is a fundamental principle of Russian political organisation that all + initiative in public affairs proceeds from the Autocratic Power. The + widespread desire, therefore, for the Emancipation of the serfs did not + find free expression so long as the Emperor kept silence regarding his + intentions. The educated classes watched anxiously for some sign, and soon + a sign was given to them. In March, 1856—a few days after the + publication of the manifesto announcing the conclusion of peace with the + Western Powers—his Majesty said to the Marshals of Noblesse in + Moscow: "For the removal of certain unfounded reports I consider it + necessary to declare to you that I have not at present the intention of + annihilating serfage; but certainly, as you yourselves know, the existing + manner of possessing serfs cannot remain unchanged. It is better to + abolish serfage from above than to await the time when it will begin to + abolish itself from below. I request you, gentlemen, to consider how this + can be put into execution, and to submit my words to the Noblesse for + their consideration." + </p> + <p> + These words were intended to sound the Noblesse and induce them to make a + voluntary proposal, but they had not the desired effect. Abolitionist + enthusiasm was rare among the great nobles, and those who really wished to + see serfage abolished considered the Imperial utterance too vague and + oracular to justify them in taking the initiative. As no further steps + were taken for some time, the excitement caused by the incident soon + subsided, and many people assumed that the consideration of the problem + had been indefinitely postponed. "The Government," it was said, "evidently + intended to raise the question, but on perceiving the indifference or + hostility of the landed proprietors, it became frightened and drew back." + </p> + <p> + The Emperor was in reality disappointed. He had expected that his + "faithful Moscow Noblesse," of which he was wont to say he was himself a + member, would at once respond to his call, and that the ancient capital + would have the honour of beginning the work. And if the example were thus + given by Moscow, he had no doubt that it would soon be followed by the + other provinces. He now perceived that the fundamental principles on which + the Emancipation should be effected must be laid down by the Government, + and for this purpose he created a secret committee composed of several + great officers of State. + </p> + <p> + This "Chief Committee for Peasant Affairs," as it was afterwards called, + devoted six months to studying the history of the question. Emancipation + schemes were by no means a new phenomenon in Russia. Ever since the time + of Catherine II. the Government had thought of improving the condition of + the serfs, and on more than one occasion a general emancipation had been + contemplated. In this way the question had slowly ripened, and certain + fundamental principles had come to be pretty generally recognised. Of + these principles the most important was that the State should not consent + to any project which would uproot the peasant from the soil and allow him + to wander about at will; for such a measure would render the collection of + the taxes impossible, and in all probability produce the most frightful + agrarian disorders. And to this general principle there was an important + corollary: if severe restrictions were to be placed on free migration, it + would be necessary to provide the peasantry with land in the immediate + vicinity of the villages; otherwise they must inevitably fall back under + the power of the proprietors, and a new and worse kind of serfage would + thus be created. But in order to give land to the peasantry it would be + necessary to take it from the proprietors; and this expropriation seemed + to many a most unjustifiable infringement of the sacred rights of + property. It was this consideration that had restrained Nicholas from + taking any decisive measures with regard to serfage; and it had now + considerable weight with the members of the committee, who were nearly all + great land-owners. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the strenuous exertions of the Grand Duke Constantine, who + had been appointed a member for the express purpose of accelerating the + proceedings, the committee did not show as much zeal and energy as was + desired, and orders were given to take some decided step. At that moment a + convenient opportunity presented itself. + </p> + <p> + In the Lithuanian Provinces, where the nobles were Polish by origin and + sympathies, the miserable condition of the peasantry had induced the + Government in the preceding reign to limit the arbitrary power of the + serf-owners by so-called Inventories, in which the mutual obligations of + masters and serfs were regulated and defined. These Inventories had caused + great dissatisfaction, and the proprietors now proposed that they should + be revised. Of this the Government determined to take advantage. On the + somewhat violent assumption that these proprietors wished to emancipate + their serfs, an Imperial rescript was prepared approving of their supposed + desire, and empowering them to form committees for the preparation of + definite projects.* In the rescript itself the word emancipation was + studiously avoided, but there could be no doubt as to the implied meaning, + for it was expressly stated in the supplementary considerations that "the + abolition of serfage must be effected not suddenly, but gradually." Four + days later the Minister of the Interior, in accordance with a secret order + from the Emperor, sent a circular to the Governors and Marshals of + Noblesse all over Russia proper, informing them that the nobles of the + Lithuanian Provinces "had recognised the necessity of liberating the + peasants," and that "this noble intention" had afforded peculiar + satisfaction to his Majesty. A copy of the rescript and the fundamental + principles to be observed accompanied the circular, "in case the nobles of + other provinces should express a similar desire." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This celebrated document is known as "The Rescript to + Nazimof." More than once in the course of conversation I did + all in my power, within the limits of politeness and + discretion, to extract from General Nazimof a detailed + account of this important episode, but my efforts were + unsuccessful. +</pre> + <p> + This circular produced an immense sensation throughout the country. No one + could for a moment misunderstand the suggestion that the nobles of other + provinces MIGHT POSSIBLY express a desire to liberate their serfs. Such + vague words, when spoken by an autocrat, have a very definite and + unmistakable meaning, which prudent loyal subjects have no difficulty in + understanding. If any doubted, their doubts were soon dispelled, for the + Emperor, a few weeks later, publicly expressed a hope that, with the help + of God and the co-operation of the nobles, the work would be successfully + accomplished. + </p> + <p> + The die was cast, and the Government looked anxiously to see the result. + </p> + <p> + The periodical Press—which was at once the product and the fomenter + of the liberal aspirations—hailed the raising of the question with + boundless enthusiasm. The Emancipation, it was said, would certainly open + a new and glorious epoch in the national history. Serfage was described as + an ulcer that had long been poisoning the national blood; as an enormous + weight under which the whole nation groaned; as an insurmountable + obstacle, preventing all material and moral progress; as a cumbrous load + which rendered all free, vigorous action impossible, and prevented Russia + from rising to the level of the Western nations. If Russia had succeeded + in stemming the flood of adverse fortune in spite of this millstone round + her neck, what might she not accomplish when free and untrammelled? All + sections of the literary world had arguments to offer in support of the + foregone conclusion. The moralists declared that all the prevailing vices + were the product of serfage, and that moral progress was impossible in an + atmosphere of slavery; the lawyers held that the arbitrary authority of + the proprietors over the peasants had no legal basis; the economists + explained that free labour was an indispensable condition of industrial + and commercial prosperity; the philosophical historians showed that the + normal historical development of the country demanded the immediate + abolition of this superannuated remnant of barbarism; and the writers of + the sentimental, gushing type poured forth endless effusions about + brotherly love to the weak and the oppressed. In a word, the Press was for + the moment unanimous, and displayed a feverish excitement which demanded a + liberal use of superlatives. + </p> + <p> + This enthusiastic tone accorded perfectly with the feelings of a large + section of the nobles. Nearly the whole of the Noblesse was more or less + affected by the newborn enthusiasm for everything just, humanitarian, and + liberal. The aspirations found, of course, their most ardent + representatives among the educated youth; but they were by no means + confined to the younger men, who had passed through the universities and + had always regarded serfage as a stain on the national honour. Many a Saul + was found among the prophets. Many an old man, with grey hairs and + grandchildren, who had all his life placidly enjoyed the fruits of serf + labour, was now heard to speak of serfage as an antiquated institution + which could not be reconciled with modern humanitarian ideas; and not a + few of all ages, who had formerly never thought of reading books or + newspapers, now perused assiduously the periodical literature, and picked + up the liberal and humanitarian phrases with which it was filled. + </p> + <p> + This Abolitionist fervour was considerably augmented by certain political + aspirations which did not appear in the newspapers, but which were at that + time very generally entertained. In spite of the Press-censure a large + section of the educated classes had become acquainted with the political + literature of France and Germany, and had imbibed therefrom an unbounded + admiration for Constitutional government. A Constitution, it was thought, + would necessarily remove all political evils and create something like a + political Millennium. And it was not to be a Constitution of the ordinary + sort—the fruit of compromise between hostile political parties—but + an institution designed calmly according to the latest results of + political science, and so constructed that all classes would voluntarily + contribute to the general welfare. The necessary prelude to this happy era + of political liberty was, of course, the abolition of serfage. When the + nobles had given up their power over their serfs they would receive a + Constitution as an indemnification and reward. + </p> + <p> + There were, however, many nobles of the old school who remained impervious + to all these new feelings and ideas. On them the raising of the + Emancipation question had a very different effect. They had no source of + revenue but their estates, and they could not conceive the possibility of + working their estates without serf labour. If the peasant was indolent and + careless even under strict supervision, what would he become when no + longer under the authority of a master? If the profits from farming were + already small, what would they be when no one would work without wages? + And this was not the worst, for it was quite evident from the circular + that the land question was to be raised, and that a considerable portion + of each estate would be transferred, at least for a time, to the + emancipated peasants. + </p> + <p> + To the proprietors who looked at the question in this way the prospect of + Emancipation was certainly not at all agreeable, but we must not imagine + that they felt as English land-owners would feel if threatened by a + similar danger. In England a hereditary estate has for the family a value + far beyond what it would bring in the market. It is regarded as one and + indivisible, and any dismemberment of it would be looked upon as a grave + family misfortune. In Russia, on the contrary, estates have nothing of + this semi-sacred character, and may be at any time dismembered without + outraging family feeling or traditional associations. Indeed, it is not + uncommon that when a proprietor dies, leaving only one estate and several + children, the property is broken up into fractions and divided among the + heirs. Even the prospect of pecuniary sacrifice did not alarm the Russians + so much as it would alarm Englishmen. Men who keep no accounts and take + little thought for the morrow are much less averse to making pecuniary + sacrifices—whether for a wise or a foolish purpose—than those + who carefully arrange their mode of life according to their income. + </p> + <p> + Still, after due allowance has been made for these peculiarities, it must + be admitted that the feeling of dissatisfaction and alarm was very + widespread. Even Russians do not like the prospect of losing a part of + their land and income. No protest, however, was entered, and no opposition + was made. Those who were hostile to the measure were ashamed to show + themselves selfish and unpatriotic. At the same time they knew very well + that the Emperor, if he wished, could effect the Emancipation in spite of + them, and that resistance on their part would draw down upon them the + Imperial displeasure, without affording any compensating advantage. They + knew, too, that there was a danger from below, so that any useless show of + opposition would be like playing with matches in a powder-magazine. The + serfs would soon hear that the Tsar desired to set them free, and they + might, if they suspected that the proprietors were trying to frustrate the + Tsar's benevolent intentions, use violent measures to get rid of the + opposition. The idea of agrarian massacres had already taken possession of + many timid minds. Besides this, all classes of the proprietors felt that + if the work was to be done, it should be done by the Noblesse and not by + the bureaucracy. If it were effected by the nobles the interests of the + land-owners would be duly considered, but if it were effected by the + Administration without their concurrence and co-operation their interests + would be neglected, and there would inevitably be an enormous amount of + jobbery and corruption. In accordance with this view, the Noblesse + corporations of the various provinces successively requested permission to + form committees for the consideration of the question, and during the year + 1858 a committee was opened in almost every province in which serfage + existed. + </p> + <p> + In this way the question was apparently handed over for solution to the + nobles, but in reality the Noblesse was called upon merely to advise, and + not to legislate. The Government had not only laid down the fundamental + principles of the scheme; it continually supervised the work of + construction, and it reserved to itself the right of modifying or + rejecting the projects proposed by the committees. + </p> + <p> + According to these fundamental principles the serfs should be emancipated + gradually, so that for some time they would remain attached to the glebe + and subject to the authority of the proprietors. During this transition + period they should redeem by money payments or labour their houses and + gardens, and enjoy in usufruct a certain quantity of land, sufficient to + enable them to support themselves and to fulfil their obligations to the + State as well as to the proprietor. In return for this land they should + pay a yearly rent in money, produce or labour over and above the yearly + sum paid for the redemption of their houses and gardens. As to what should + be done after the expiry of the transition period, the Government seems to + have had no clearly conceived intentions. Probably it hoped that by that + time the proprietors and their emancipated serfs would have invented some + convenient modus vivendi, and that nothing but a little legislative + regulation would be necessary. But radical legislation is like the + letting-out of water. These fundamental principles, adopted at first with + a view to mere immediate practical necessity, soon acquired a very + different significance. To understand this we must return to the + periodical literature. + </p> + <p> + Until the serf question came to be discussed, the reform aspirations were + very vague, and consequently there was a remarkable unanimity among their + representatives. The great majority of the educated classes were + unanimously of opinion that Russia should at once adopt from the West all + those liberal principles and institutions the exclusion of which had + prevented the country from rising to the level of the Western nations. But + very soon symptoms of a schism became apparent. Whilst the literature in + general was still preaching the doctrine that Russia should adopt + everything that was "liberal," a few voices began to be heard warning the + unwary that much which bore the name of liberal was in reality already + antiquated and worthless—that Russia ought not to follow blindly in + the footsteps of other nations, but ought rather to profit by their + experience, and avoid the errors into which they had fallen. The chief of + these errors was, according to these new teachers, the abnormal + development of individualism—the adoption of that principle of + laissez faire which forms the basis of what may be called the Orthodox + School of Political Economists. Individualism and unrestricted + competition, it was said, have now reached in the West an abnormal and + monstrous development. Supported by the laissez faire principle, they have + led—and must always lead—to the oppression of the weak, the + tyranny of capital, the impoverishment of the masses for the benefit of + the few, and the formation of a hungry, dangerous Proletariat! This has + already been recognised by the most advanced thinkers of France and + Germany. If the older countries cannot at once cure those evils, that is + no reason for Russia to inoculate herself with them. She is still at the + commencement of her career, and it would be folly for her to wander + voluntarily for ages in the Desert, when a direct route to the Promised + Land has been already discovered. + </p> + <p> + In order to convey some idea of the influence which this teaching + exercised, I must here recall, at the risk of repeating myself, what I + said in a former chapter. The Russians, as I have there pointed out, have + a peculiar way of treating political and social questions. Having received + their political education from books, they naturally attribute to + theoretical considerations an importance which seems to us exaggerated. + When any important or trivial question arises, they at once launch into a + sea of philosophical principles, and pay less attention to the little + objects close at hand than to the big ones that appear on the distant + horizon of the future. And when they set to work at any political reform + they begin ab ovo. As they have no traditional prejudices to fetter them, + and no traditional principles to lead them, they naturally take for their + guidance the latest conclusions of political philosophy. + </p> + <p> + Bearing this in mind, let us see how it affected the Emancipation + question. The Proletariat—described as a dangerous monster which was + about to swallow up society in Western Europe, and which might at any + moment cross the frontier unless kept out by vigorous measures—took + possession of the popular imagination, and aroused the fears of the + reading public. To many it seemed that the best means of preventing the + formation of a Proletariat in Russia was the securing of land for the + emancipated serfs and the careful preservation of the rural Commune. "Now + is the moment," it was said, "for deciding the important question whether + Russia is to fall a prey, like the Western nations, to this terrible evil, + or whether she is to protect herself for ever against it. In the decision + of this question lies the future destiny of the country. If the peasants + be emancipated without land, or if those Communal institutions which give + to every man a share of the soil and secure this inestimable boon for the + generations still unborn be now abolished, a Proletariat will be rapidly + formed, and the peasantry will become a disorganised mass of homeless + wanderers like the English agricultural labourers. If, on the contrary, a + fair share of land be granted to them, and if the Commune be made + proprietor of the land ceded, the danger of a Proletariat is for ever + removed, and Russia will thereby set an example to the civilised world! + Never has a nation had such an opportunity of making an enormous leap + forward on the road of progress, and never again will the opportunity + occur. The Western nations have discovered their error when it is too late—when + the peasantry have been already deprived of their land, and the labouring + classes of the towns have already fallen a prey to the insatiable cupidity + of the capitalists. In vain their most eminent thinkers warn and exhort. + Ordinary remedies are no longer of any avail. But Russia may avoid these + dangers, if she but act wisely and prudently in this great matter. The + peasants are still in actual, if not legal, possession of the land, and + there is as yet no Proletariat in the towns. All that is necessary, + therefore, is to abolish the arbitrary authority of the proprietors + without expropriating the peasants, and without disturbing the existing + Communal institutions, which form the best barrier against pauperism." + </p> + <p> + These ideas were warmly espoused by many proprietors, and exercised a very + great influence on the deliberations of the Provincial Committees. In + these committees there were generally two groups. The majorities, whilst + making large concessions to the claims of justice and expediency, + endeavoured to defend, as far as possible, the interests of their class; + the minorities, though by no means indifferent to the interests of the + class to which they belonged, allowed the more abstract theoretical + considerations to be predominant. At first the majorities did all in their + power to evade the fundamental principles laid down by the Government as + much too favourable to the peasantry; but when they perceived that public + opinion, as represented by the Press, went much further than the + Government, they clung to these fundamental principles—which secured + at least the fee simple of the estate to the landlord—as their + anchor of safety. Between the two parties arose naturally a strong spirit + of hostility, and the Government, which wished to have the support of the + minorities, found it advisable that both should present their projects for + consideration. + </p> + <p> + As the Provincial Committees worked independently, there was considerable + diversity in the conclusions at which they arrived. The task of codifying + these conclusions, and elaborating out of them a general scheme of + Emancipation, was entrusted to a special Imperial Commission, composed + partly of officials and partly of landed proprietors named by the + Emperor.* Those who believed that the question had really been handed over + to the Noblesse assumed that this Commission would merely arrange the + materials presented by the Provincial Committees, and that the + Emancipation Law would thereafter be elaborated by a National Assembly of + deputies elected by the nobles. In reality the Commission, working in St. + Petersburg under the direct guidance and control of the Government, + fulfilled a very different and much more important function. Using the + combined projects merely as a storehouse from which it could draw the + proposals it desired, it formed a new project of its own, which ultimately + received, after undergoing modification in detail, the Imperial assent. + Instead of being a mere chancellerie, as many expected, it became in a + certain sense the author of the Emancipation Law. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Known as the Redaktsionnaya Komissiya, or Elaboration + Commission. Strictly speaking, there were two, but they are + commonly spoken of as one. +</pre> + <p> + There was, as we have seen, in nearly all the Provincial Committees a + majority and a minority, the former of which strove to defend the + interests of the proprietors, whilst the latter paid more attention to + theoretical considerations, and endeavoured to secure for the peasantry a + large amount of land and Communal self-government. In the Commission there + were the same two parties, but their relative strength was very different. + Here the men of theory, instead of forming a minority, were more numerous + than their opponents, and enjoyed the support of the Government, which + regulated the proceedings. In its instructions we see how much the + question had ripened under the influence of the theoretical + considerations. There is no longer any trace of the idea that the + Emancipation should be gradual; on the contrary, it is expressly declared + that the immediate effect of the law should be the complete abolition of + the proprietor's authority. There is even evidence of a clear intention of + preventing the proprietor as far as possible from exercising any influence + over his former serfs. The sharp distinction between the land occupied by + the village and the arable land to be ceded in usufruct likewise + disappears, and it is merely said that efforts should be made to enable + the peasants to become proprietors of the land they required. + </p> + <p> + The aim of the Government had thus become clear and well defined. The task + to be performed was to transform the serfs at once, and with the least + possible disturbance of the existing economic conditions, into a class of + small Communal proprietors—that is to say, a class of free peasants + possessing a house and garden and a share of the Communal land. To effect + this it was merely necessary to declare the serf personally free, to draw + a clear line of demarcation between the Communal land and the rest of the + estate, and to determine the price or rent which should be paid for this + Communal property, inclusive of the land on which the village was built. + </p> + <p> + The law was prepared in strict accordance with these principles. As to the + amount of land to be ceded, it was decided that the existing arrangements, + founded on experience, should, as a general rule, be preserved—in + other words, the land actually enjoyed by the peasants should be retained + by them; and in order to prevent extreme cases of injustice, a maximum and + a minimum were fixed for each district. In like manner, as to the dues, it + was decided that the existing arrangements should be taken as the basis of + the calculation, but that the sum should be modified according to the + amount of land ceded. At the same time facilities were to be given for the + transforming of the labour dues into yearly money payments, and for + enabling the peasants to redeem them, with the assistance of the + Government, in the form of credit. + </p> + <p> + This idea of redemption created, at first, a feeling of alarm among the + proprietors. It was bad enough to be obliged to cede a large part of the + estates in usufruct, but it seemed to be much worse to have to sell it. + Redemption appeared to be a species of wholesale confiscation. But very + soon it became evident that the redeeming of the land was profitable for + both parties. Cession in perpetual usufruct was felt to be in reality + tantamount to alienation of the land, whilst the immediate redemption + would enable the proprietors, who had generally little or no ready money + to pay their debts, to clear their estates from mortgages, and to make the + outlays necessary for the transition to free labour. The majority of the + proprietors, therefore, said openly: "Let the Government give us a + suitable compensation in money for the land that is taken from us, so that + we may be at once freed from all further trouble and annoyance." + </p> + <p> + When it became known that the Commission was not merely arranging and + codifying the materials, but elaborating a law of its own and regularly + submitting its decisions for Imperial confirmation, a feeling of + dissatisfaction appeared all over the country. The nobles perceived that + the question was being taken out of their hands, and was being solved by a + small body composed of bureaucrats and nominees of the Government. After + having made a voluntary sacrifice of their rights, they were being + unceremoniously pushed aside. They had still, however, the means of + correcting this. The Emperor had publicly promised that before the project + should become law deputies from the Provincial Committees should be + summoned to St. Petersburg to make objections and propose amendments. + </p> + <p> + The Commission and the Government would have willingly dispensed with all + further advice from the nobles, but it was necessary to redeem the + Imperial promise. Deputies were therefore summoned to the capital, but + they were not allowed to form, as they hoped, a public assembly for the + discussion of the question. All their efforts to hold meetings were + frustrated, and they were required merely to answer in writing a list of + printed questions regarding matters of detail. The fundamental principles, + they were told, had already received the Imperial sanction, and were + consequently removed from discussion. Those who desired to discuss details + were invited individually to attend meetings of the Commission, where they + found one or two members ready to engage with them in a little dialectical + fencing. This, of course, did not give much satisfaction. Indeed, the + ironical tone in which the fencing was too often conducted served to + increase the existing irritation. It was only too evident that the + Commission had triumphed, and some of the members could justly boast that + they had drowned the deputies in ink and buried them under reams of paper. + </p> + <p> + Believing, or at least professing to believe, that the Emperor was being + deceived in this matter by the Administration, several groups of deputies + presented petitions to his Majesty containing a respectful protest against + the manner in which they had been treated. But by this act they simply + laid themselves open to "the most unkindest cut of all." Those who had + signed the petitions received a formal reprimand through the police. + </p> + <p> + This treatment of the deputies, and, above all, this gratuitous insult, + produced among the nobles a storm of indignation. They felt that they had + been entrapped. The Government had artfully induced them to form projects + for the emancipation of their serfs, and now, after having been used as a + cat's-paw in the work of their own spoliation, they were being + unceremoniously pushed aside as no longer necessary. Those who had + indulged in the hope of gaining political rights felt the blow most + keenly. A first gentle and respectful attempt at remonstrance had been + answered by a dictatorial reprimand through the police! Instead of being + called to take an active part in home and foreign politics, they were + being treated as naughty schoolboys. In view of this insult all + differences of opinion were for the moment forgotten, and all parties + resolved to join in a vigorous protest against the insolence and arbitrary + conduct of the bureaucracy. + </p> + <p> + A convenient opportunity of making this protest in a legal way was offered + by the triennial Provincial Assemblies of the Noblesse about to be held in + several provinces. So at least it was thought, but here again the Noblesse + was checkmated by the Administration. + </p> + <p> + Before the opening of the Assemblies a circular was issued excluding the + Emancipation question from their deliberations. Some Assemblies evaded + this order, and succeeded in making a little demonstration by submitting + to his Majesty that the time had arrived for other reforms, such as the + separation of the administrative and judicial powers, and the creation of + local self-government, public judicial procedure, and trial by jury. + </p> + <p> + All these reforms were voluntarily effected by the Emperor a few years + later, but the manner in which they were suggested seemed to savour of + insubordination, and was a flagrant infraction of the principle that all + initiative in public affairs should proceed from the central Government. + New measures of repression were accordingly used. Some Marshals of + Noblesse were reprimanded and others deposed. Of the conspicuous leaders, + two were exiled to distant provinces and others placed under the + supervision of the police. Worst of all, the whole agitation strengthened + the Commission by convincing the Emperor that the majority of the nobles + were hostile to his benevolent plans.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This was a misinterpretation of the facts. Very many of + those who joined in the protest sincerely sympathised with + the idea of Emancipation, and were ready to be even more + "liberal" than the Government. +</pre> + <p> + When the Commission had finished its labours, its proposals passed to the + two higher instances—the Committee for Peasant Affairs and the + Council of State—and in both of these the Emperor declared plainly + that he could allow no fundamental changes. From all the members he + demanded a complete forgetfulness of former differences and a + conscientious execution of his orders; "For you must remember," he + significantly added, "that in Russia laws are made by the Autocratic + Power." From an historical review of the question he drew the conclusion + that "the Autocratic Power created serfage, and the Autocratic Power ought + to abolish it." On March 3d (February 19th, old style), 1861, the law was + signed, and by that act more than twenty millions of serfs were + liberated.* A Manifesto containing the fundamental principles of the law + was at once sent all over the country, and an order was given that it + should be read in all the churches. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is sometimes said that forty millions of serfs have + been emancipated. The statement is true, if we regard the + State peasants as serfs. They held, as I have already + explained, an intermediate position between serfage and + freedom. The peculiar administration under which they lived + was partly abolished by Imperial Orders of September 7th, + 1859, and October 23d, 1861. In 1866 they were placed, as + regards administration, on a level with the emancipated + serfs of the proprietors. As a general rule, they received + rather more land and had to pay somewhat lighter dues than + the emancipated serfs in the narrower sense of the term. +</pre> + <p> + The three fundamental principles laid down by the law were:—1. That + the serfs should at once receive the civil rights of the free rural + classes, and that the authority of the proprietor should be replaced by + Communal self-government. + </p> + <p> + 2. That the rural Communes should as far as possible retain the land they + actually held, and should in return pay to the proprietor certain yearly + dues in money or labour. + </p> + <p> + 3. That the Government should by means of credit assist the Communes to + redeem these dues, or, in other words, to purchase the lands ceded to them + in usufruct. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the domestic serfs, it was enacted that they should + continue to serve their masters during two years, and that thereafter they + should be completely free, but they should have no claim to a share of the + land. + </p> + <p> + It might be reasonably supposed that the serfs received with boundless + gratitude and delight the Manifesto proclaiming these principles. Here at + last was the realisation of their long-cherished hopes. Liberty was + accorded to them; and not only liberty, but a goodly portion of the soil—about + half of all the arable land possessed by the proprietors. + </p> + <p> + In reality the Manifesto created among the peasantry a feeling of + disappointment rather than delight. To understand this strange fact we + must endeavour to place ourselves at the peasant's point of view. + </p> + <p> + In the first place it must be remarked that all vague, rhetorical phrases + about free labour, human dignity, national progress, and the like, which + may readily produce among educated men a certain amount of temporary + enthusiasm, fall on the ears of the Russian peasant like drops of rain on + a granite rock. The fashionable rhetoric of philosophical liberalism is as + incomprehensible to him as the flowery circumlocutionary style of an + Oriental scribe would be to a keen city merchant. The idea of liberty in + the abstract and the mention of rights which lie beyond the sphere of his + ordinary everyday life awaken no enthusiasm in his breast. And for mere + names he has a profound indifference. What matters it to him that he is + officially called, not a "serf," but a "free village-inhabitant," if the + change in official terminology is not accompanied by some immediate + material advantage? What he wants is a house to live in, food to eat, and + raiment wherewithal to be clothed, and to gain these first necessaries of + life with as little labour as possible. He looked at the question + exclusively from two points of view—that of historical right and + that of material advantage; and from both of these the Emancipation Law + seemed to him very unsatisfactory. + </p> + <p> + On the subject of historical right the peasantry had their own traditional + conceptions, which were completely at variance with the written law. + According to the positive legislation the Communal land formed part of the + estate, and consequently belonged to the proprietor; but according to the + conceptions of the peasantry it belonged to the Commune, and the right of + the proprietor consisted merely in that personal authority over the serfs + which had been conferred on him by the Tsar. The peasants could not, of + course, put these conceptions into a strict legal form, but they often + expressed them in their own homely laconic way by saying to their master, + "Mui vashi no zemlya nasha"—that is to say. "We are yours, but the + land is ours." And it must be admitted that this view, though legally + untenable, had a certain historical justification.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See preceding chapter. +</pre> + <p> + In olden times the Noblesse had held their land by feudal tenure, and were + liable to be ejected as soon as they did not fulfil their obligations to + the State. These obligations had been long since abolished, and the feudal + tenure transformed into an unconditional right of property, but the + peasants clung to the old ideas in a way that strikingly illustrates the + vitality of deep-rooted popular conceptions. In their minds the + proprietors were merely temporary occupants, who were allowed by the Tsar + to exact labour and dues from the serfs. What, then, was Emancipation? + Certainly the abolition of all obligatory labour and money dues, and + perhaps the complete ejectment of the proprietors. On this latter point + there was a difference of opinion. All assumed, as a matter of course, + that the Communal land would remain the property of the Commune, but it + was not so clear what would be done with the rest of the estate. Some + thought that it would be retained by the proprietor, but very many + believed that all the land would be given to the Communes. In this way the + Emancipation would be in accordance with historical right and with the + material advantage of the peasantry, for whose exclusive benefit, it was + assumed, the reform had been undertaken. + </p> + <p> + Instead of this the peasants found that they were still to pay dues, even + for the Communal land which they regarded as unquestionably their own. So + at least said the expounders of the law. But the thing was incredible. + Either the proprietors must be concealing or misinterpreting the law, or + this was merely a preparatory measure, which would be followed by the real + Emancipation. Thus were awakened among the peasantry a spirit of mistrust + and suspicion and a widespread belief that there would be a second + Imperial Manifesto, by which all the land would be divided and all the + dues abolished. + </p> + <p> + On the nobles the Manifesto made a very different impression. The fact + that they were to be entrusted with the putting of the law into execution, + and the flattering allusions made to the spirit of generous self-sacrifice + which they had exhibited, kindled amongst them enthusiasm enough to make + them forget for a time their just grievances and their hostility towards + the bureaucracy. They found that the conditions on which the Emancipation + was effected were by no means so ruinous as they had anticipated; and the + Emperor's appeal to their generosity and patriotism made many of them + throw themselves with ardour into the important task confided to them. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately they could not at once begin the work. The law had been so + hurried through the last stages that the preparations for putting it into + execution were by no means complete when the Manifesto was published. The + task of regulating the future relations between the proprietors and the + peasantry was entrusted to local proprietors in each district, who were to + be called Arbiters of the Peace (Mirovuiye Posredniki); but three months + elapsed before these Arbiters could be appointed. During that time there + was no one to explain the law to the peasants and settle the disputes + between them and the proprietors; and the consequence of this was that + many cases of insubordination and disorder occurred. The muzhik naturally + imagined that, as soon as the Tsar said he was free, he was no longer + obliged to work for his old master—that all obligatory labour ceased + as soon as the Manifesto was read. In vain the proprietor endeavoured to + convince him that, in regard to labour, the old relations must continue, + as the law enjoined, until a new arrangement had been made. To all + explanations and exhortations he turned a deaf ear, and to the efforts of + the rural police he too often opposed a dogged, passive resistance. + </p> + <p> + In many cases the simple appearance of the higher authorities sufficed to + restore order, for the presence of one of the Tsar's servants convinced + many that the order to work for the present as formerly was not a mere + invention of the proprietors. But not infrequently the birch had to be + applied. Indeed, I am inclined to believe, from the numerous descriptions + of this time which I received from eye-witnesses, that rarely, if ever, + had the serfs seen and experienced so much flogging as during these first + three months after their liberation. Sometimes even the troops had to be + called out, and on three occasions they fired on the peasants with ball + cartridge. In the most serious case, where a young peasant had set up for + a prophet and declared that the Emancipation Law was a forgery, fifty-one + peasants were killed and seventy-seven were more or less seriously + wounded. In spite of these lamentable incidents, there was nothing which + even the most violent alarmist could dignify with the name of an + insurrection. Nowhere was there anything that could be called organised + resistance. Even in the case above alluded to, the three thousand peasants + on whom the troops fired were entirely unarmed, made no attempt to resist, + and dispersed in the utmost haste as soon as they discovered that they + were being shot down. Had the military authorities shown a little more + judgment, tact, and patience, the history of the Emancipation would not + have been stained even with those three solitary cases of unnecessary + bloodshed. + </p> + <p> + This interregnum between the eras of serfage and liberty was brought to an + end by the appointment of the Arbiters of the Peace. Their first duty was + to explain the law, and to organise the new peasant self-government. The + lowest instance, or primary organ of this self-government, the rural + Commune, already existed, and at once recovered much of its ancient + vitality as soon as the authority and interference of the proprietors were + removed. The second instance, the Volost—a territorial + administrative unit comprising several contiguous Communes—had to be + created, for nothing of the kind had previously existed on the estates of + the nobles. It had existed, however, for nearly a quarter of a century + among the peasants of the Domains, and it was therefore necessary merely + to copy an existing model. + </p> + <p> + As soon as all the Volosts in his district had been thus organised the + Arbiter had to undertake the much more arduous task of regulating the + agrarian relations between the proprietors and the Communes—with the + individual peasants, be it remembered, the proprietors had no direct + relations whatever. It had been enacted by the law that the future + agrarian relations between the two parties should be left, as far as + possible, to voluntary contract; and accordingly each proprietor was + invited to come to an agreement with the Commune or Communes on his + estate. On the ground of this agreement a statute-charter (ustavnaya + gramota) was prepared, specifying the number of male serfs, the quantity + of land actually enjoyed by them, any proposed changes in this amount, the + dues proposed to be levied, and other details. If the Arbiter found that + the conditions were in accordance with the law and clearly understood by + the peasants, he confirmed the charter, and the arrangement was complete. + When the two parties could not come to an agreement within a year, he + prepared a charter according to his own judgment, and presented it for + confirmation to the higher authorities. + </p> + <p> + The dissolution of partnership, if it be allowable to use such a term, + between the proprietor and his serfs was sometimes very easy and sometimes + very difficult. On many estates the charter did little more than legalise + the existing arrangements, but in many instances it was necessary to add + to, or subtract from, the amount of Communal land, and sometimes it was + even necessary to remove the village to another part of the estate. In all + cases there were, of course, conflicting interests and complicated + questions, so that the Arbiter had always abundance of difficult work. + Besides this, he had to act as mediator in those differences which + naturally arose during the transition period, when the authority of the + proprietor had been abolished but the separation of the two classes had + not yet been effected. The unlimited patriarchal authority which had been + formerly wielded by the proprietor or his steward now passed with certain + restriction into the hands of the Arbiter, and these peacemakers had to + spend a great part of their time in driving about from one estate to + another to put an end to alleged cases of insubordination—some of + which, it must be admitted, existed only in the imagination of the + proprietors. + </p> + <p> + At first the work of amicable settlement proceeded slowly. The proprietors + generally showed a conciliatory spirit, and some of them generously + proposed conditions much more favourable to the peasants than the law + demanded; but the peasants were filled with vague suspicions, and feared + to commit themselves by "putting pen to paper." Even the highly respected + proprietors, who imagined that they possessed the unbounded confidence of + the peasantry, were suspected like the others, and their generous offers + were regarded as well-baited traps. Often I have heard old men, sometimes + with tears in their eyes, describe the distrust and ingratitude of the + muzhik at this time. Many peasants still believed that the proprietors + were hiding the real Emancipation Law, and imaginative or ill-intentioned + persons fostered this belief by professing to know what the real law + contained. The most absurd rumours were afloat, and whole villages + sometimes acted upon them. + </p> + <p> + In the province of Moscow, for instance, one Commune sent a deputation to + the proprietor to inform him that, as he had always been a good master, + the Mir would allow him to retain his house and garden during his + lifetime. In another locality it was rumoured that the Tsar sat daily on a + golden throne in the Crimea, receiving all peasants who came to him, and + giving them as much land as they desired; and in order to take advantage + of the Imperial liberality a large body of peasants set out for the place + indicated, and had to be stopped by the military. + </p> + <p> + As an illustration of the illusions in which the peasantry indulged at + this time, I may mention here one of the many characteristic incidents + related to me by gentlemen who had served as Arbiters of the Peace. + </p> + <p> + In the province of Riazan there was one Commune which had acquired a + certain local notoriety for the obstinacy with which it refused all + arrangements with the proprietor. My informant, who was Arbiter for the + locality, was at last obliged to make a statute-charter for it without its + consent. He wished, however, that the peasants should voluntarily accept + the arrangement he proposed, and accordingly called them together to talk + with them on the subject. After explaining fully the part of the law which + related to their case, he asked them what objection they had to make a + fair contract with their old master. For some time he received no answer, + but gradually by questioning individuals he discovered the cause of their + obstinacy: they were firmly convinced that not only the Communal land, but + also the rest of the estate, belonged to them. To eradicate this false + idea he set himself to reason with them, and the following characteristic + dialogue ensued:—Arbiter: "If the Tsar gave all the land to the + peasantry, what compensation could he give to the proprietors to whom the + land belongs?" + </p> + <p> + Peasant: "The Tsar will give them salaries according to their service." + </p> + <p> + Arbiter: "In order to pay these salaries he would require a great deal + more money. Where could he get that money? He would have to increase the + taxes, and in that way you would have to pay all the same." + </p> + <p> + Peasant: "The Tsar can make as much money as he likes." + </p> + <p> + Arbiter: "If the Tsar can make as much money as he likes, why does he make + you pay the poll-tax every year?" + </p> + <p> + Peasant: "It is not the Tsar that receives the taxes we pay." + </p> + <p> + Arbiter: "Who, then, receives them?" + </p> + <p> + Peasant (after a little hesitation, and with a knowing smite): "The + officials, of course!" + </p> + <p> + Gradually, through the efforts of the Arbiters, the peasants came to know + better their real position, and the work began to advance more rapidly. + But soon it was checked by another influence. By the end of the first year + the "liberal," patriotic enthusiasm of the nobles had cooled. The + sentimental, idyllic tendencies had melted away at the first touch of + reality, and those who had imagined that liberty would have an immediately + salutary effect on the moral character of the serfs confessed themselves + disappointed. Many complained that the peasants showed themselves greedy + and obstinate, stole wood from the forest, allowed their cattle to wander + on the proprietor's fields, failed to fulfil their legal obligations, and + broke their voluntary engagements. At the same time the fears of an + agrarian rising subsided, so that even the timid were tranquillised. From + these causes the conciliatory spirit of the proprietors decreased. + </p> + <p> + The work of conciliating and regulating became consequently more + difficult, but the great majority of the Arbiters showed themselves equal + to the task, and displayed an impartiality, tact and patience beyond all + praise. To them Russia is in great part indebted for the peaceful + character of the Emancipation. Had they sacrificed the general good to the + interests of their class, or had they habitually acted in that stern, + administrative, military spirit which caused the instances of bloodshed + above referred to, the prophecies of the alarmists would, in all + probability, have been realised, and the historian of the Emancipation + would have had a terrible list of judicial massacres to record. + Fortunately they played the part of mediators, as their name signified, + rather than that of administrators in the bureaucratic sense of the term, + and they were animated with a just and humane rather than a merely legal + spirit. Instead of simply laying down the law, and ordering their + decisions to be immediately executed, they were ever ready to spend hours + in trying to conquer, by patient and laborious reasoning, the unjust + claims of proprietors or the false conceptions and ignorant obstinacy of + the peasants. It was a new spectacle for Russia to see a public function + fulfilled by conscientious men who had their heart in their work, who + sought neither promotion nor decorations, and who paid less attention to + the punctilious observance of prescribed formalities than to the real + objects in view. + </p> + <p> + There were, it is true, a few men to whom this description does not apply. + Some of these were unduly under the influence of the feelings and + conceptions created by serfage. Some, on the contrary, erred on the other + side. Desirous of securing the future welfare of the peasantry and of + gaining for themselves a certain kind of popularity, and at the same time + animated with a violent spirit of pseudo-liberalism, these latter + occasionally forgot that their duty was to be, not generous, but just, and + that they had no right to practise generosity at other people's expense. + All this I am quite aware of—I could even name one or two Arbiters + who were guilty of positive dishonesty—but I hold that these were + rare exceptions. The great majority did their duty faithfully and well. + </p> + <p> + The work of concluding contracts for the redemption of the dues, or, in + other words, for the purchase of the land ceded in perpetual usufruct, + proceeded slowly. The arrangement was as follows:—The dues were + capitalised at six per cent., and the Government paid at once to the + proprietors four-fifths of the whole sum. The peasants were to pay to the + proprietor the remaining fifth, either at once or in installments, and to + the Government six per cent. for forty-nine years on the sum advanced. The + proprietors willingly adopted this arrangement, for it provided them with + a sum of ready money, and freed them from the difficult task of collecting + the dues. But the peasants did not show much desire to undertake the + operation. Some of them still expected a second Emancipation, and those + who did not take this possibility into their calculations were little + disposed to make present sacrifices for distant prospective advantages + which would not be realised for half a century. In most cases the + proprietor was obliged to remit, in whole or in part, the fifth to be paid + by the peasants. Many Communes refused to undertake the operation on any + conditions and in consequence of this not a few proprietors demanded the + so-called obligatory redemption, according to which they accepted the + four-fifths from the Government as full payment, and the operation was + thus effected without the peasants being consulted. The total number of + male serfs emancipated was about nine millions and three-quarters,* and of + these, only about seven millions and a quarter had, at the beginning of + 1875, made redemption contracts. Of the contracts signed at that time, + about sixty-three per cent, were "obligatory." In 1887 the redemption was + made obligatory for both parties, so that all Communes are now proprietors + of the land previously held in perpetual usufruct; and in 1932 the debt + will have been extinguished by the sinking fund, and all redemption + payments will have ceased. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This does not include the domestic serfs who did not + receive land. +</pre> + <p> + The serfs were thus not only liberated, but also made possessors of land + and put on the road to becoming Communal proprietors, and the old Communal + institutions were preserved and developed. In answer to the question, Who + effected this gigantic reform? we may say that the chief merit undoubtedly + belongs to Alexander II. Had he not possessed a very great amount of + courage he would neither have raised the question nor allowed it to be + raised by others, and had he not shown a great deal more decision and + energy than was expected, the solution would have been indefinitely + postponed. Among the members of his own family he found an able and + energetic assistant in his brother, the Grand Duke Constantine, and a warm + sympathiser with the cause in the Grand Duchess Helena, a German Princess + thoroughly devoted to the welfare of her adopted country. But we must not + overlook the important part played by the nobles. Their conduct was very + characteristic. As soon as the question was raised a large number of them + adopted the liberal ideas with enthusiasm; and as soon as it became + evident that Emancipation was inevitable, all made a holocaust of their + ancient rights and demanded to be liberated at once from all relations + with their serfs. Moreover, when the law was passed it was the proprietors + who faithfully put it into execution. Lastly, we should remember that + praise is due to the peasantry for their patience under disappointment and + for their orderly conduct as soon as they understood the law and + recognised it to be the will of the Tsar. Thus it may justly be said that + the Emancipation was not the work of one man, or one party, or one class, + but of the nation as a whole.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The names most commonly associated with the Emancipation + are General Rostoftsef, Lanskoi (Minister of the Interior), + Nicholas Milutin, Prince Tchererkassky, G. Samarin, + Koshelef. Many others, such as I. A. Solovief, Zhukofski, + Domontovitch, Giers—brother of M. Giers, afterwards + Minister for Foreign Affairs—are less known, but did + valuable work. To all of these, with the exception of the + first two, who died before my arrival in Russia, I have to + confess my obligations. The late Nicholas Milutin rendered + me special service by putting at my disposal not only all + the official papers in his possession, but also many + documents of a more private kind. By his early and lamented + death Russia lost one of the greatest statesmen she has yet + produced. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX + </h2> + <h3> + THE LANDED PROPRIETORS SINCE THE EMANCIPATION + </h3> + <p> + Two Opposite Opinions—Difficulties of Investigation—The + Problem Simplified—Direct and Indirect Compensation—The Direct + Compensation Inadequate—What the Proprietors Have Done with the + Remainder of Their Estates—Immediate Moral Effect of the Abolition + of Serfage—The Economic Problem—The Ideal Solution and the + Difficulty of Realising It—More Primitive Arrangements—The + Northern Agricultural Zone—The Black-earth Zone—The Labour + Difficulty—The Impoverishment of the Noblesse Not a New Phenomenon—Mortgaging + of Estates—Gradual Expropriation of the Noblesse-Rapid Increase in + the Production and Export of Grain—How Far this Has Benefited the + Landed Proprietors. + </p> + <p> + When the Emancipation question was raised there was a considerable + diversity of opinion as to the effect which the abolition of serfage would + have on the material interests of the two classes directly concerned. The + Press and "the young generation" took an optimistic view, and endeavoured + to prove that the proposed change would be beneficial alike to proprietors + and to peasants. Science, it was said, has long since decided that free + labour is immensely more productive than slavery or serfage, and the + principle has been already proved to demonstration in the countries of + Western Europe. In all those countries modern agricultural progress began + with the emancipation of the serfs, and increased productivity was + everywhere the immediate result of improvements in the method of culture. + Thus the poor light soils of Germany, France, and Holland have been made + to produce more than the vaunted "black earth" of Russia. And from these + ameliorations the land-owning class has everywhere derived the chief + advantages. Are not the landed proprietors of England—the country in + which serfage was first abolished—the richest in the world? And is + not the proprietor of a few hundred morgen in Germany often richer than + the Russian noble who has thousands of dessyatins? By these and similar + plausible arguments the Press endeavoured to prove to the proprietors that + they ought, even in their own interest, to undertake the emancipation of + the serfs. Many proprietors, however, showed little faith in the abstract + principles of political economy and the vague teachings of history as + interpreted by the contemporary periodical literature. They could not + always refute the ingenious arguments adduced by the men of more sanguine + temperament, but they felt convinced that their prospects were not nearly + so bright as these men represented them to be. They believed that Russia + was a peculiar country, and the Russians a peculiar people. The lower + classes in England, France, Holland, and Germany were well known to be + laborious and enterprising, while the Russian peasant was notoriously + lazy, and would certainly, if left to himself, not do more work than was + absolutely necessary to keep him from starving. Free labour might be more + profitable than serfage in countries where the upper classes possessed + traditional practical knowledge and abundance of capital, but in Russia + the proprietors had neither the practical knowledge nor the ready money + necessary to make the proposed ameliorations in the system of agriculture. + To all this it was added that a system of emancipation by which the + peasants should receive land and be made completely independent of the + landed proprietors had nowhere been tried on such a large scale. + </p> + <p> + There were thus two diametrically opposite opinions regarding the economic + results of the abolition of serfage, and we have now to examine which of + these two opinions has been confirmed by experience. + </p> + <p> + Let us look at the question first from the point of view of the + land-owners. + </p> + <p> + The reader who has never attempted to make investigations of this kind may + naturally imagine that the question can be easily decided by simply + consulting a large number of individual proprietors, and drawing a general + conclusion from their evidence. In reality I found the task much more + difficult. After roaming about the country for five years (1870-75), + collecting information from the best available sources, I hesitated to + draw any sweeping conclusions, and my state of mind at that time was + naturally reflected in the early editions of this work. As a rule the + proprietors could not state clearly how much they had lost or gained, and + when definite information was obtained from them it was not always + trustworthy. In the time of serfage very few of them had been in the habit + of keeping accurate accounts, or accounts of any kind, and when they lived + on their estates there were a very large number of items which could not + possibly be reduced to figures. Of course, each proprietor had a general + idea as to whether his position was better or worse than it had been in + the old times, but the vague statements made by individuals regarding + their former and their actual revenues had little or no scientific value. + So many considerations which had nothing to do with purely agrarian + relations entered into the calculations that the conclusions did not help + me much to estimate the economic results of the Emancipation as a whole. + Nor, it must be confessed, was the testimony by any means always + unbiassed. Not a few spoke of the great reform in an epic or dithyrambic + tone, and among these I easily distinguished two categories: the one + desired to prove that the measure was a complete success in every way, and + that all classes were benefited by it, not only morally, but also + materially; whilst the others strove to represent the proprietors in + general, and themselves in particular, as the self-sacrificing victims of + a great and necessary patriotic reform—as martyrs in the cause of + liberty and progress. I do not for a moment suppose that these two groups + of witnesses had a clearly conceived intention of deceiving or misleading, + but as a cautious investigator I had to make allowance for their + idealising and sentimental tendencies. + </p> + <p> + Since that time the situation has become much clearer, and during recent + visits to Russia I have been able to arrive at much more definite + conclusions. These I now proceed to communicate to the reader. + </p> + <p> + The Emancipation caused the proprietors of all classes to pass through a + severe economic crisis. Periods of transition always involve much + suffering, and the amount of suffering is generally in the inverse ratio + of the precautions taken beforehand. In Russia the precautions had been + neglected. Not one proprietor in a hundred had made any serious + preparations for the inevitable change. On the eve of the Emancipation + there were about ten millions of male serfs on private properties, and of + these nearly seven millions remained under the old system of paying their + dues in labour. Of course, everybody knew that Emancipation must come + sooner or later, but fore-thought, prudence, and readiness to take time by + the forelock are not among the prominent traits of the Russian character. + Hence most of the land-owners were taken unawares. But while all suffered, + there were differences of degree. Some were completely shipwrecked. So + long as serfage existed all the relations of life were ill-defined and + extremely elastic, so that a man who was hopelessly insolvent might + contrive, with very little effort, to keep his head above water for half a + lifetime. For such men the Emancipation, like a crisis in the commercial + world, brought a day of reckoning. It did not really ruin them, but it + showed them and the world at large that they were ruined, and they could + no longer continue their old mode of life. For others the crisis was + merely temporary. These emerged with a larger income than they ever had + before, but I am not prepared to say that their material condition has + improved, because the social habits have changed, the cost of living has + become much greater, and the work of administering estates is incomparably + more complicated and laborious than in the old patriarchal times. + </p> + <p> + We may greatly simplify the problem by reducing it to two definite + questions: + </p> + <p> + 1. How far were the proprietors directly indemnified for the loss of serf + labour and for the transfer in perpetual usufruct of a large part of their + estates to the peasantry? + </p> + <p> + 2. What have the proprietors done with the remainder of their estates, and + how far have they been indirectly indemnified by the economic changes + which have taken place since the Emancipation? + </p> + <p> + With the first of these questions I shall deal very briefly, because it is + a controversial subject involving very complicated calculations which only + a specialist can understand. The conclusion at which I have arrived, after + much patient research, is that in most provinces the compensation was + inadequate, and this conclusion is confirmed by excellent native + authorities. M. Bekhteyev, for example, one of the most laborious and + conscientious investigators in this field of research, and the author of + an admirable work on the economic results of the Emancipation,* told me + recently, in course of conversation, that in his opinion the peasant dues + fixed by the Emancipation Law represented, throughout the Black-earth + Zone, only about a half of the value of the labour previously supplied by + the serfs. To this I must add that the compensation was in reality not + nearly so great as it seemed to be according to the terms of the law. As + the proprietors found it extremely difficult to collect the dues from the + emancipated serfs, and as they required a certain amount of capital to + reorganise the estate on the new basis of free labour, most of them were + practically compelled to demand the obligatory redemption of the land + (obiazatelny vuikup), and in adopting this expedient they had to make + considerable sacrifices. Not only had they to accept as full payment + four-fifths of the normal sum, but of this amount the greater portion was + paid in Treasury bonds, which fell at once to 80 per cent. of their + nominal value. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Khozaistvenniye Itogi istekshago Sorokoletiya." St. + Petersburg, 1902. +</pre> + <p> + Let us now pass to the second part of the problem: What have the + proprietors done with the part of their estates which remained to them + after ceding the required amount of land to the Communes? Have they been + indirectly indemnified for the loss of serf labour by subsequent economic + changes? How far have they succeeded in making the transition from serfage + to free labour, and what revenues do they now derive from their estates? + The answer to these questions will necessarily contain some account of the + present economic position of the proprietors. + </p> + <p> + On all proprietors the Emancipation had at least one good effect: it + dragged them forcibly from the old path of indolence and routine and + compelled them to think and calculate regarding their affairs. The + hereditary listlessness and apathy, the traditional habit of looking on + the estate with its serfs as a kind of self-acting machine which must + always spontaneously supply the owner with the means of living, the + inveterate practice of spending all ready money and of taking little heed + for the morrow—all this, with much that resulted from it, was rudely + swept away and became a thing of the past. + </p> + <p> + The broad, easy road on which the proprietors had hitherto let themselves + be borne along by the force of circumstances suddenly split up into a + number of narrow, arduous, thorny paths. Each one had to use his judgement + to determine which of the paths he should adopt, and, having made his + choice, he had to struggle along as he best could. I remember once asking + a proprietor what effect the Emancipation had had on the class to which he + belonged, and he gave me an answer which is worth recording. "Formerly," + he said, "we kept no accounts and drank champagne; now we keep accounts + and content ourselves with kvass." Like all epigrammatic sayings, this + laconic reply is far from giving a complete description of reality, but it + indicates in a graphic way a change that has unquestionably taken place. + As soon as serfage was abolished it was no longer possible to live like + "the flowers of the field." Many a proprietor who had formerly vegetated + in apathetic ease had to ask himself the question: How am I to gain a + living? All had to consider what was the most profitable way of employing + the land that remained to them. + </p> + <p> + The ideal solution of the problem was that as soon as the peasant-land had + been demarcated, the proprietor should take to farming the remainder of + his estate by means of hired labour and agricultural machines in West + European or American fashion. Unfortunately, this solution could not be + generally adopted, because the great majority of the landlords, even when + they had the requisite practical knowledge of agriculture, had not the + requisite capital, and could not easily obtain it. Where were they to find + money for buying cattle, horses, and agricultural implements, for building + stables and cattle-sheds, and for defraying all the other initial + expenses? And supposing they succeeded in starting the new system, where + was the working capital to come from? The old Government institution in + which estates could be mortgaged according to the number of serfs was + permanently closed, and the new land-credit associations had not yet come + into existence. To borrow from private capitalists was not to be thought + of, for money was so scarce than ten per cent. was considered a "friendly" + rate of interest. Recourse might be had, it is true, to the redemption + operation, but in that case the Government would deduct the unpaid portion + of any outstanding mortgage, and would pay the balance in depreciated + Treasury bonds. In these circumstances the proprietors could not, as a + rule, adopt what I have called the ideal solution, and had to content + themselves with some simpler and more primitive arrangement. They could + employ the peasants of the neighbouring villages to prepare the land and + reap the crops either for a fixed sum per acre or on the metayage system, + or they could let their land to the peasants for one, three or six years + at a moderate rent. + </p> + <p> + In the northern agricultural zone, where the soil is poor and primitive + farming with free labour can hardly be made to pay, the proprietors had to + let their land at a small rent, and those of them who could not find + places in the rural administration migrated to the towns and sought + employment in the public service or in the numerous commercial and + industrial enterprises which were springing up at that time. There they + have since remained. Their country-houses, if inhabited at all, are + occupied only for a few months in summer, and too often present a + melancholy spectacle of neglect and dilapidation. In the Black-earth Zone, + on the contrary, where the soil still possesses enough of its natural + fertility to make farming on a large scale profitable, the estates are in + a very different condition. The owners cultivate at least a part of their + property, and can easily let to the peasants at a fair rent the land which + they do not wish to farm themselves. Some have adopted the metayage + system; others get the field-work done by the peasants at so much per + acre. The more energetic, who have capital enough at their disposal, + organise farms with hired labourers on the European model. If they are not + so well off as formerly, it is because they have adopted a less + patriarchal and more expensive style of living. Their land has doubled and + trebled in value during the last thirty years, and their revenues have + increased, if not in proportion, at least considerably. In 1903 I visited + a number of estates in this region and found them in a very prosperous + condition, with agricultural machines of the English or American types, an + increasing variety in the rotation of crops, greatly improved breeds of + cattle and horses, and all the other symptoms of a gradual transition to a + more intensive and more rational system of agriculture. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted, however, that even in the Black-earth Zone the + proprietors have formidable difficulties to contend with, the chief of + which are the scarcity of good farm-labourers, the frequent droughts, the + low price of cereals, and the delay in getting the grain conveyed to the + seaports. On each of these difficulties and the remedies that might be + applied I could write a separate chapter, but I fear to overtax the + reader's patience, and shall therefore confine myself to a few remarks + about the labour question. On this subject the complaints are loud and + frequent all over the country. The peasants, it is said, have become lazy, + careless, addicted to drunkenness, and shamelessly dishonest with regard + to their obligations, so that it is difficult to farm even in the old + primitive fashion and impossible to introduce radical improvements in the + methods of culture. In these sweeping accusations there is a certain + amount of truth. That the muzhik, when working for others, exerts himself + as little as possible; that he pays little attention to the quality of the + work done; that he shows a reckless carelessness with regard to his + employer's property; that he is capable of taking money in advance and + failing to fulfil his contract; that he occasionally gets drunk; and that + he is apt to commit certain acts of petty larceny when he gets the chance—all + this is undoubtedly true, whatever biassed theorists and sentimental + peasant-worshippers may say to the contrary.* It would be a mistake, + however, to suppose that the fault is entirely on the side of the + peasants, and equally erroneous to believe that the evils might be + remedied, as is often suggested, by greater severity on the part of the + tribunals, or by an improved system of passports. Farming with free + labour, like every other department of human activity, requires a fair + amount of knowledge, judgment, prudence, and tact, which cannot be + replaced by ingenious legislation or judicial severity. In engaging + labourers or servants it is necessary to select them carefully and make + such conditions that they feel it to be to their interest to fulfil their + contract loyally. This is too often overlooked by the Russian land-owners. + From false views of economy they are inclined to choose the cheapest + labourer without examining closely his other qualifications, or they take + advantage of the peasant's pecuniary embarrassments and make with him a + contract which it is hardly possible for him to fulfil. In spring, for + instance, when his store of provisions is exhausted and he is being hard + pressed by the tax-collector, they supply him with rye-meal or advance him + a small sum of money on condition of his undertaking to do a relatively + large amount of summer work. He knows that the contract is unfair to him, + but what is he to do? He must get food for himself and his family and a + little ready money for his taxes, for the Communal authorities will + probably sell his cow if he does not pay his arrears.** In desperation he + accepts the conditions and puts off the evil day—consoling himself + with the reflection that perhaps (avos') something may turn up in the + meantime—but when the time comes for fulfilling his engagements the + dilemma revives. According to the contract he ought to work nearly the + whole summer for the proprietor; but he has his own land to attend to, and + he has to make provision for the winter. In such circumstances the + temptation to evade the terms of the contract is probably too strong to be + resisted. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Amongst themselves the peasants are not addicted to + thieving, as is proved by the fact that they habitually + leave their doors unlocked when the inmates of the house are + working in the fields; but if the muzhik finds in the + proprietor's farmyard a piece of iron or a bit of rope, or + any of those little things that he constantly requires and + has difficulty in obtaining, he is very apt to pick it up + and carry it home. Gathering firewood in the landlord's + forest he does not consider as theft, because "God planted + the trees and watered them," and in the time of serfage he + was allowed to supply himself with firewood in this way. + + ** Until last year (1904) they could use also corporal + punishment as a means of pressure, and I am not sure that + they do not occasionally use it still, though it is no + longer permitted by law. +</pre> + <p> + In Russia, as in other countries, the principle holds true that for good + labour a fair price must be paid. Several large proprietors of my + acquaintance who habitually act on this principle assure me that they + always obtain as much good labour as they require. I must add, however, + that these fortunate proprietors have the advantage of possessing a + comfortable amount of working capital, and are therefore not compelled, as + so many of their less fortunate neighbours are, to manage their estates on + the hand-to-mouth principle. + </p> + <p> + It is only, I fear, a minority of the landed proprietors that have + grappled successfully with these and other difficulties of their position. + As a class they are impoverished and indebted, but this state of things is + not due entirely to serf-emancipation. The indebtedness of the Noblesse is + a hereditary peculiarity of much older date. By some authorities it is + attributed to the laws of Peter the Great, by which all nobles were + obliged to spend the best part of their lives in the military or civil + service, and to leave the management of their estates to incompetent + stewards. However that may be, it is certain that from the middle of the + eighteenth century downwards the fact has frequently occupied the + attention of the Government, and repeated attempts have been made to + alleviate the evil. The Empress Elizabeth, Catherine II., Paul, Alexander + I., Nicholas I., Alexander II., and Alexander III. tried successively, as + one of the older ukazes expressed it, "to free the Noblesse from debt and + from greedy money-lenders, and to prevent hereditary estates from passing + into the hands of strangers." The means commonly adopted was the creation + of mortgage banks founded and controlled by the Government for the purpose + of advancing money to landed proprietors at a comparatively low rate of + interest. + </p> + <p> + These institutions may have been useful to the few who desired to improve + their estates, but they certainly did not cure, and rather tended to + foster, the inveterate improvidence of the many. On the eve of the + Emancipation the proprietors were indebted to the Government for the sum + of 425 millions of roubles, and 69 per cent. of their serfs were + mortgaged. A portion of this debt was gradually extinguished by the + redemption operation, so that in 1880 over 300 millions had been paid off, + but in the meantime new debts were being contracted. In 1873-74 nine + private land-mortgage banks were created, and there was such a rush to + obtain money from them that their paper was a glut in the market, and + became seriously depreciated. When the prices of grain rose in 1875-80 the + mortgage debt was diminished, but when they began to fall in 1880 it again + increased, and in 1881 it stood at 396 millions. As the rate of interest + was felt to be very burdensome there was a strong feeling among the landed + proprietors at that time that the Government ought to help them, and in + 1883 the nobles of the province of Orel ventured to address the Emperor on + the subject. In reply to the address, Alexander III., who had strong + Conservative leanings, was graciously pleased to declare in an ukaz that + "it was really time to do something to help the Noblesse," and accordingly + a new land-mortgage bank for the Noblesse was created. The favourable + terms offered by it were taken advantage of to such an extent that in the + first four years of its activity (1886-90) it advanced to the proprietors + over 200 million roubles. Then came two famine years, and in 1894 the + mortgage debt of the Noblesse in that and other credit establishments was + estimated at 994 millions. It has since probably increased rather than + diminished, for in that year the prices of grain began to fall steadily on + all the corn-exchanges of the world, and they have never since recovered. + </p> + <p> + By means of mortgages some proprietors succeeded in weathering the storm, + but many gave up the struggle altogether, and settled in the towns. In the + space of thirty years 20,000 of them sold their estates, and thus, between + 1861 and 1892, the area of land possessed by the Noblesse diminished 30 + per cent.—from 77,804,000 to 55,500,000 dessyatins. + </p> + <p> + This expropriation of the Noblesse, as it is called, was evidently not the + result merely of the temporary economic disturbance caused by the + abolition of serfage, for as time went on it became more rapid. During the + first twenty years the average annual amount of Noblesse land sold was + 517,000 dessyatins, and it rose steadily until 1892-96, when it reached + the amount of 785,000. As I have already stated, the townward movement of + the proprietors was strongest in the barren Northern provinces. In the + province of Olonetz, for example, they have already parted with 87 per + cent. of their land. In the black-soil region, on the contrary, there is + no province in which more than 27 per cent. of the Noblesse land has been + alienated, and in one province (Tula) the amount is only 19 per cent. + </p> + <p> + The habit of mortgaging and selling estates does not necessarily mean the + impoverishment of the landlords as a class. If the capital raised in that + way is devoted to agricultural improvements, the result may be an increase + of wealth. Unfortunately, in Russia the realised capital was usually not + so employed. A very large proportion of it was spent unproductively, + partly in luxuries and living abroad, and partly in unprofitable + commercial and industrial speculations. The industrial and railway fever + which raged at the time induced many to risk and lose their capital, and + it had indirectly an injurious effect on all by making money plentiful in + the towns and creating a more expensive style of living, from which the + landed gentry could not hold entirely aloof. + </p> + <p> + So far I have dwelt on the dark shadows of the picture, but it is not all + shadow. In the last forty years the production and export of grain, which + constitute the chief source of revenue for the Noblesse, have increased + enormously, thanks mainly to the improved means of transport. In the first + decade after the Emancipation (1860-70) the average annual export did not + exceed 88 million puds; in the second decade (1870-80) it leapt up to 218 + millions; and so it went up steadily until in the last decade of the + century it had reached 388 millions—i.e., over six million tons. At + the same time the home trade had increased likewise in consequence of the + rapidly growing population of the towns. All this must have enriched the + land-proprietors. Not to such an extent, it is true, as the figures seem + to indicate, because the old prices could not be maintained. Rye, for + example, which in 1868 stood at 129 kopeks per pud, fell as low as 56, and + during the rest of the century, except during a short time in 1881-82 and + the famine years of 1891-92, when there was very little surplus to sell, + it never rose above 80. Still, the increase in quantity more than + counterbalanced the fall in price. For example: in 1881 the average price + of grain per pud was 119, and in 1894 it had sunk to 59; but the amount + exported during that time rose from 203 to 617 million puds, and the sum + received for it had risen from 242 to 369 millions of roubles. Surely the + whole of that enormous sum was not squandered on luxuries and unprofitable + speculation! + </p> + <p> + The pessimists, however—and in Russia their name is legion—will + not admit that any permanent advantage has been derived from this enormous + increase in exports. On the contrary, they maintain that it is a national + misfortune, because it is leading rapidly to a state of permanent + impoverishment. It quickly exhausted, they say, the large reserves of + grain in the village, so that as soon as there was a very bad harvest the + Government had to come to the rescue and feed the starving peasantry. + Worse than this, it compromised the future prosperity of the country. + Being in pecuniary difficulties, and consequently impatient to make money, + the proprietors increased inordinately the area of grain-producing land at + the expense of pasturage and forests, with the result that the live stock + and the manuring of the land were diminished, the fertility of the soil + impaired, and the necessary quantity of moisture in the atmosphere greatly + lessened. There is some truth in this contention; but it would seem that + the soil and climate have not been affected so much as the pessimists + suppose, because in recent years there have been some very good harvests. + </p> + <p> + On the whole, then, I think it may be justly said that the efforts of the + landed proprietors to work their estates without serf labour have not as + yet been brilliantly successful. Those who have failed are in the habit of + complaining that they have not received sufficient support from the + Government, which is accused of having systematically sacrificed the + interests of agriculture, the mainstay of the national resources, to the + creation of artificial and unnecessary manufacturing industries. How far + such complaints and accusations are well founded I shall not attempt to + decide. It is a complicated polemical question, into which the reader + would probably decline to accompany me. Let us examine rather what + influence the above-mentioned changes have had on the peasantry. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI + </h2> + <h3> + THE EMANCIPATED PEASANTRY + </h3> + <p> + The Effects of Liberty—Difficulty of Obtaining Accurate Information—Pessimist + Testimony of the Proprietors—Vague Replies of the Peasants—My + Conclusions in 1877—Necessity of Revising Them—My + Investigations Renewed in 1903—Recent Researches by Native Political + Economists—Peasant Impoverishment Universally Recognised—Various + Explanations Suggested—Demoralisation of the Common People—Peasant + Self-government—Communal System of Land Tenure—Heavy Taxation—Disruption + of Peasant Families—Natural Increase of Population—Remedies + Proposed—Migration—Reclamation of Waste Land—Land-purchase + by Peasantry—Manufacturing Industry—Improvement of + Agricultural Methods—Indications of Progress. + </p> + <p> + At the commencement of last chapter I pointed out in general terms the + difficulty of describing clearly the immediate consequences of the + Emancipation. In beginning now to speak of the influence which the great + reform has had on the peasantry, I feel that the difficulty has reached + its climax. The foreigner who desires merely to gain a general idea of the + subject cannot be expected to take an interest in details, and even if he + took the trouble to examine them attentively, he would derive from the + labour little real information. What he wishes is a clear, concise, and + dogmatic statement of general results. Has the material and moral + condition of the peasantry improved since the Emancipation? That is the + simple question which he has to put, and he naturally expects a simple, + categorical answer. + </p> + <p> + In beginning my researches in this interesting field of inquiry, I had no + adequate conception of the difficulties awaiting me. I imagined that I had + merely to question intelligent, competent men who had had abundant + opportunities of observation, and to criticise and boil down the + information collected; but when I put this method of investigation to the + test of experience it proved unsatisfactory. Very soon I came to perceive + that my authorities were very far from being impartial observers. Most of + them were evidently suffering from shattered illusions. They had expected + that the Emancipation would produce instantaneously a wonderful + improvement in the life and character of the rural population, and that + the peasant would become at once a sober, industrious, model + agriculturist. + </p> + <p> + These expectations were not realised. One year passed, five years passed, + ten years passed, and the expected transformation did not take place. On + the contrary, there appeared certain very ugly phenomena which were not at + all in the programme. The peasants began to drink more and to work less,* + and the public life which the Communal institutions produced was by no + means of a desirable kind. The "bawlers" (gorlopany) acquired a + prejudicial influence in the Village Assemblies, and in very many Volosts + the peasant judges, elected by their fellow-villagers, acquired a bad + habit of selling their decisions for vodka. The natural consequence of all + this was that those who had indulged in exaggerated expectations sank into + a state of inordinate despondency, and imagined things to be much worse + than they really were. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I am not at all sure that the peasants really drank more, + but such was, and still is, a very general conviction. +</pre> + <p> + For different reasons, those who had not indulged in exaggerated + expectations, and had not sympathised with the Emancipation in the form in + which it was effected, were equally inclined to take a pessimistic view of + the situation. In every ugly phenomenon they found a confirmation of their + opinions. The result was precisely what they had foretold. The peasants + had used their liberty and their privileges to their own detriment and to + the detriment of others! + </p> + <p> + The extreme "Liberals" were also inclined, for reasons of their own, to + join in the doleful chorus. They desired that the condition of the + peasantry should be further improved by legislative enactments, and + accordingly they painted the evils in as dark colours as possible. + </p> + <p> + Thus, from various reasons, the majority of the educated classes were + unduly disposed to represent to themselves and to others the actual + condition of the peasantry in a very unfavourable light, and I felt that + from them there was no hope of obtaining the lumen siccum which I desired. + I determined, therefore, to try the method of questioning the peasants + themselves. Surely they must know whether their condition was better or + worse than it had been before their Emancipation. + </p> + <p> + Again I was doomed to disappointment. A few months' experience sufficed to + convince me that my new method was by no means so effectual as I had + imagined. Uneducated people rarely make generalisations which have no + practical utility, and I feel sure that very few Russian peasants ever put + to themselves the question: Am I better off now than I was in the time of + serfage? When such a question is put to them they feel taken aback. And in + truth it is no easy matter to sum up the two sides of the account and draw + an accurate balance, save in those exceptional cases in which the + proprietor flagrantly abused his authority. The present money-dues and + taxes are often more burdensome than the labour-dues in the old times. If + the serfs had a great many ill-defined obligations to fulfil—such as + the carting of the master's grain to market, the preparing of his + firewood, the supplying him with eggs, chickens, home-made linen, and the + like—they had, on the other hand, a good many ill-defined + privileges. They grazed their cattle during a part of the year on the + manor-land; they received firewood and occasionally logs for repairing + their huts; sometimes the proprietor lent them or gave them a cow or a + horse when they had been visited by the cattle-plague or the + horse-stealer; and in times of famine they could look to their master for + support. All this has now come to an end. Their burdens and their + privileges have been swept away together, and been replaced by clearly + defined, unbending, unelastic legal relations. They have now to pay the + market-price for every stick of firewood which they burn, for every log + which they require for repairing their houses, and for every rood of land + on which to graze their cattle. Nothing is now to be had gratis. The + demand to pay is encountered at every step. If a cow dies or a horse is + stolen, the owner can no longer go to the proprietor with the hope of + receiving a present, or at least a loan without interest, but must, if he + has no ready money, apply to the village usurer, who probably considers + twenty or thirty per cent, as a by no means exorbitant rate of interest. + </p> + <p> + Besides this, from the economic point of view village life has been + completely revolutionised. Formerly the members of a peasant family + obtained from their ordinary domestic resources nearly all they required. + Their food came from their fields, cabbage-garden, and farmyard. Materials + for clothing were supplied by their plots of flax and their sheep, and + were worked up into linen and cloth by the female members of the + household. Fuel, as I have said, and torches wherewith to light the izba—for + oil was too expensive and petroleum was unknown—were obtained + gratis. Their sheep, cattle, and horses were bred at home, and their + agricultural implements, except in so far as a little iron was required, + could be made by themselves without any pecuniary expenditure. Money was + required only for the purchase of a few cheap domestic utensils, such as + pots, pans, knives, hatchets, wooden dishes, and spoons, and for the + payment of taxes, which were small in amount and often paid by the + proprietor. In these circumstances the quantity of money in circulation + among the peasants was infinitesimally small, the few exchanges which took + place in a village being generally effected by barter. The taxes, and the + vodka required for village festivals, weddings, or funerals, were the only + large items of expenditure for the year, and they were generally covered + by the sums brought home by the members of the family who went to work in + the towns. + </p> + <p> + Very different is the present condition of affairs. The spinning, weaving, + and other home industries have been killed by the big factories, and the + flax and wool have to be sold to raise a little ready money for the + numerous new items of expenditure. Everything has to be bought—clothes, + firewood, petroleum, improved agricultural implements, and many other + articles which are now regarded as necessaries of life, whilst + comparatively little is earned by working in the towns, because the big + families have been broken up, and a household now consists usually of + husband and wife, who must both remain at home, and children who are not + yet bread-winners. Recalling to mind all these things and the other + drawbacks and advantages of his actual position, the old muzhik has + naturally much difficulty in striking a balance, and he may well be quite + sincere when, on being asked whether things now are on the whole better or + worse than in the time of serfage, he scratches the back of his head and + replies hesitatingly, with a mystified expression on his wrinkled face: + "How shall I say to you? They are both better and worse!" ("Kak vam + skazat'? I lûtche i khûdzhe!") If, however, you press him further and ask + whether he would himself like to return to the old state of things, he is + pretty sure to answer, with a slow shake of the head and a twinkle in his + eye, as if some forgotten item in the account had suddenly recurred to + him: "Oh, no!" + </p> + <p> + What materially increases the difficulty of this general computation is + that great changes have taken place in the well-being of the particular + households. Some have greatly prospered, while others have become + impoverished. That is one of the most characteristic consequences of the + Emancipation. In the old times the general economic stagnation and the + uncontrolled authority of the proprietor tended to keep all the households + of a village on the same level. There was little opportunity for an + intelligent, enterprising serf to become rich, and if he contrived to + increase his revenue he had probably to give a considerable share of it to + the proprietor, unless he had the good fortune to belong to a grand + seigneur like Count Sheremetief, who was proud of having rich men among + his serfs. On the other hand, the proprietor, for evident reasons of + self-interest, as well as from benevolent motives, prevented the less + intelligent and less enterprising members of the Commune from becoming + bankrupt. The Communal equality thus artificially maintained has now + disappeared, the restrictions on individual freedom of action have been + removed, the struggle for life has become intensified, and, as always + happens in such circumstances, the strong men go up in the world while the + weak ones go to the wall. All over the country we find on the one hand the + beginnings of a village aristocracy—or perhaps we should call it a + plutocracy, for it is based on money—and on the other hand an + ever-increasing pauperism. Some peasants possess capital, with which they + buy land outside the Commune or embark in trade, while others have to sell + their live stock, and have sometimes to cede to neighbours their share of + the Communal property. This change in rural life is so often referred to + that, in order to express it a new, barbarous word, differentsiatsia + (differentiation) has been invented. + </p> + <p> + Hoping to obtain fuller information with the aid of official protection, I + attached myself to one of the travelling sections of an agricultural + Commission appointed by the Government, and during a whole summer I helped + to collect materials in the provinces bordering on the Volga. The inquiry + resulted in a gigantic report of nearly 2,500 folio pages, but the general + conclusions were extremely vague. The peasantry, it was said, were + passing, like the landed proprietors, through a period of transition, in + which the main features of their future normal life had not yet become + clearly defined. In some localities their condition had decidedly + improved, whereas in others it had improved little or not at all. Then + followed a long list of recommendations in favour of Government + assistance, better agronomic education, competitive exhibitions, more + varied rotation of crops, and greater zeal on the part of the clergy in + disseminating among the people moral principles in general and love of + work in particular. + </p> + <p> + Not greatly enlightened by this official activity, I returned to my + private studies, and at the end of six years I published my impressions + and conclusions in the first edition of this work. While recognising that + there was much uncertainty as to the future, I was inclined, on the whole, + to take a hopeful view of the situation. I was unable, however, to + maintain permanently that comfortable frame of mind. After my departure + from Russia in 1878, the accounts which reached me from various parts of + the country became blacker and blacker, and were partly confirmed by short + tours which I made in 1889-1896. At last, in the summer of 1903, I + determined to return to some of my old haunts and look at things with my + own eyes. At that moment some hospitable friends invited me to pay them a + visit at their country-house in the province of Smolensk, and I gladly + accepted the invitation, because Smolensk, when I knew it formerly, was + one of the poorest provinces, and I thought it well to begin my new + studies by examining the impoverishment, of which I had heard so much, at + its maximum. + </p> + <p> + From the railway station at Viazma, where I arrived one morning at + sunrise, I had some twenty miles to drive, and as soon as I got clear of + the little town I began my observations. What I saw around me seemed to + contradict the sombre accounts I had received. The villages through which + I passed had not at all the look of dilapidation and misery which I + expected. On the contrary, the houses were larger and better constructed + than they used to be, and each of them had a chimney! That latter fact was + important because formerly a large proportion of the peasants of this + region had no such luxury, and allowed the smoke to find its exit by the + open door. In vain I looked for a hut of the old type, and my yamstchik + assured me I should have to go a long way to find one. Then I noticed a + good many iron ploughs of the European model, and my yamstchik informed me + that their predecessor, the sokha with which I had been so familiar, had + entirely disappeared from the district. Next I noticed that in the + neighbourhood of the villages flax was grown in large quantities. That was + certainly not an indication of poverty, because flax is a valuable product + which requires to be well manured, and plentiful manure implies a + considerable quantity of live stock. Lastly, before arriving at my + destination, I noticed clover being grown in the fields. This made me open + my eyes with astonishment, because the introduction of artificial grasses + into the traditional rotation of crops indicates the transition to a + higher and more intensive system of agriculture. As I had never seen + clover in Russia except on the estates of very advanced proprietors, I + said to my yamstchik: + </p> + <p> + "Listen, little brother! That field belongs to the landlord?" + </p> + <p> + "Not at all, Master; it is muzhik-land." + </p> + <p> + On arriving at the country-house I told my friends what I had seen, and + they explained it to me. Smolensk is no longer one of the poorer + provinces; it has become comparatively prosperous. In two or three + districts large quantities of flax are produced and give the cultivators a + big revenue; in other districts plenty of remunerative work is supplied by + the forests. Everywhere a considerable proportion of the younger men go + regularly to the towns and bring home savings enough to pay the taxes and + make a little surplus in the domestic budget. A few days afterwards the + village secretary brought me his books, and showed me that there were + practically no arrears of taxation. + </p> + <p> + Passing on to other provinces I found similar proofs of progress and + prosperity, but at the same time not a few indications of impoverishment; + and I was rapidly relapsing into my previous state of uncertainty as to + whether any general conclusions could be drawn, when an old friend, + himself a first-rate authority with many years of practical experience, + came to my assistance.* He informed me that a number of specialists had + recently made detailed investigations into the present economic conditions + of the rural population, and he kindly placed at my disposal, in his + charming country-house near Moscow, the voluminous researches of these + investigators. Here, during a good many weeks, I revelled in the + statistical materials collected, and to the best of my ability I tested + the conclusions drawn from them. Many of these conclusions I had to + dismiss with the Scotch verdict of "not proven," whilst others seemed to + me worthy of acceptance. Of these latter the most important were those + drawn from the arrears of taxation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I hope I am committing no indiscretion when I say that the + old friend in question was Prince Alexander Stcherbatof of + Vasilefskoe. +</pre> + <p> + The arrears in the payment of taxes may be regarded as a pretty safe + barometer for testing the condition of the rural population, because the + peasant habitually pays his rates and taxes when he has the means of doing + so; when he falls seriously and permanently into arrears it may be assumed + that he is becoming impoverished. If the arrears fluctuate from year to + year, the causes of the impoverishment may be regarded as accidental and + perhaps temporary, but if they steadily accumulate, we must conclude that + there is something radically wrong. Bearing these facts in mind, let us + hear what the statistics say. + </p> + <p> + During the first twenty years after the Emancipation (1861-81) things went + on in their old grooves. The poor provinces remained poor, and the fertile + provinces showed no signs of distress. During the next twenty years + (1881-1901) the arrears of the whole of European Russia rose, roughly + speaking, from 27 to 144 millions of roubles, and the increase, strange to + say, took place in the fertile provinces. In 1890, for example, out of 52 + millions, nearly 41 millions, or 78 per cent., fell to the share of the + provinces of the Black-earth Zone. In seven of these the average arrears + per male, which had been in 1882 only 90 kopeks, rose in 1893 to 600, and + in 1899 to 2,200! And this accumulation had taken place in spite of + reductions of taxation to the extent of 37 million roubles in 1881-83, and + successive famine grants from the Treasury in 1891-99 to the amount of 203 + millions.* On the other hand, in the provinces with a poor soil the + arrears had greatly decreased. In Smolensk, for example, they had sunk + from 202 per cent, to 13 per cent. of the annual sum to be paid, and in + nearly all the other provinces of the west and north a similar change for + the better had taken place. + </p> + <p> + These and many other figures which I might quote show that a great and + very curious economic revolution has been gradually effected. The + Black-earth Zone, which was formerly regarded as the inexhaustible granary + of the Empire, has become impoverished, whilst the provinces which were + formerly regarded as hopelessly poor are now in a comparatively + flourishing condition. This fact has been officially recognised. In a + classification of the provinces according to their degree of prosperity, + drawn up by a special commission of experts in 1903, those with a poor + light soil appear at the top, and those with the famous black earth are at + the bottom of the list. In the deliberations of the commission many + reasons for this extraordinary state of things are adduced. Most of them + have merely a local significance. The big fact, taken as a whole, seems to + me to show that, in consequence of certain changes of which I shall speak + presently, the peasantry of European Russia can no longer live by the + traditional modes of agriculture, even in the most fertile districts, and + require for their support some subsidiary occupations such as are + practised in the less fertile provinces. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In 1901 an additional famine grant of 33 1/2 million + roubles had to be made by the Government. +</pre> + <p> + Another sign of impoverishment is the decrease in the quantity of live + stock. According to the very imperfect statistics available, for every + hundred inhabitants the number of horses has decreased from 26 to 17, the + number of cattle from 36 to 25, and the number of sheep from 73 to 40. + This is a serious matter, because it means that the land is not so well + manured and cultivated as formerly, and is consequently not so productive. + Several economists have attempted to fix precisely to what extent the + productivity has decreased, but I confess I have little faith in the + accuracy of their conclusions. M. Polenof, for example, a most able and + conscientious investigator, calculates that between 1861 and 1895, all + over Russia, the amount of food produced, in relation to the number of the + population, has decreased by seven per cent. His methods of calculation + are ingenious, but the statistical data with which he operates are so far + from accurate that his conclusions on this point have, in my opinion, + little or no scientific value. With all due deference to Russian + economists, I may say parenthetically that they are very found of juggling + with carelessly collected statistics, as if their data were mathematical + quantities. + </p> + <p> + Several of the Zemstvos have grappled with this question of peasant + impoverishment, and the data which they have collected make a very doleful + impression. In the province of Moscow, for example, a careful + investigation gave the following results: Forty per cent. of the peasant + households had no longer any horses, 15 per cent. had given up agriculture + altogether, and about 10 per cent. had no longer any land. We must not, + however, assume, as is often done, that the peasant families who have no + live stock and no longer till the land are utterly ruined. In reality many + of them are better off than their neighbours who appear as prosperous in + the official statistics, having found profitable occupation in the home + industries, in the towns, in the factories, or on the estates of the + landed proprietors. It must be remembered that Moscow is the centre of one + of the regions in which manufacturing industry has progressed with + gigantic strides during the last half-century, and it would be strange + indeed if, in such a region, the peasantry who supply the labour to the + towns and factories remained thriving agriculturists. That many Russians + are surprised and horrified at the actual state of things shows to what an + extent the educated classes are still under the illusion that Russia can + create for herself a manufacturing industry capable of competing with that + of Western Europe without uprooting from the soil a portion of her rural + population. + </p> + <p> + It is only in the purely agricultural regions that families officially + classed as belonging to the peasantry may be regarded as on the brink of + pauperism because they have no live stock, and even with regard to them I + should hesitate to make such an assumption, because the muzhiks, as I have + already had occasion to remark, have strange nomadic habits unknown to the + rural population of other countries. It is a mistake, therefore, to + calculate the Russian peasant's budget exclusively on the basis of local + resources. + </p> + <p> + To the pessimists who assure me that according to their calculations the + peasantry in general must be on the brink of starvation, I reply that + there are many facts, even in the statistical tables on which they rely, + which run counter to their deductions. Let me quote one by way of + illustration. The total amount of deposits in savings banks, about + one-fourth of which is believed to belong to the rural population, rose in + the course of six years (1894-1900) from 347 to 680 millions of roubles. + Besides the savings banks, there existed in the rural districts on 1st + December, 1902, no less than 1,614 small-credit institutions, with a total + capital (1st January, 1901) of 69 million roubles, of which only 4,653,000 + had been advanced by the State Bank and the Zemstvo, the remainder coming + in from private sources. This is not much for a big country like Russia, + but it is a beginning, and it suggests that the impoverishment is not so + severe and so universal as the pessimists would have us believe. + </p> + <p> + There is thus room for differences of opinion as to how far the peasantry + have become impoverished, but there is no doubt that their condition is + far from satisfactory, and we have to face the important problem why the + abolition of serfage has not produced the beneficent consequences which + even moderate men so confidently predicted, and how the present + unsatisfactory state of things is to be remedied. + </p> + <p> + The most common explanation among those who have never seriously studied + the subject is that it all comes from the demoralisation of the common + people. In this view there is a modicum of truth. That the peasantry + injure their material welfare by drunkenness and improvidence there can be + no reasonable doubt, as is shown by the comparatively flourishing state of + certain villages of Old Ritualists and Molokanye in which there is no + drunkenness, and in which the community exercises a strong moral control + over the individual members. If the Orthodox Church could make the + peasantry refrain from the inordinate use of strong drink as effectually + as it makes them refrain during a great part of the year from animal food, + and if it could instil into their minds a few simple moral principles as + successfully as it has inspired them with a belief in the efficacy of the + Sacraments, it would certainly confer on them an inestimable benefit. But + this is not to be expected. The great majority of the parish priests are + quite unfit for such a task, and the few who have aspirations in that + direction rarely acquire a perceptible moral influence over their + parishioners. Perhaps more is to be expected from the schoolmaster than + from the priest, but it will be long before the schools can produce even a + partial moral regeneration. Their first influence, strange as the + assertion may seem, is often in a diametrically opposite direction. When + only a few peasants in a village can read and write they have such + facilities for overreaching their "dark" neighbours that they are apt to + employ their knowledge for dishonest purposes; and thus it occasionally + happens that the man who has the most education is the greatest scoundrel + in the Mir. Such facts are often used by the opponents of popular + education, but in reality they supply a good reason for disseminating + primary education as rapidly as possible. When all the peasants have + learned to read and write they will present a less inviting field for + swindling, and the temptations to dishonesty will be proportionately + diminished. Meanwhile, it is only fair to state that the common assertions + about drunkenness being greatly on the increase are not borne out by the + official statistics concerning the consumption of spirituous liquors. + </p> + <p> + After drunkenness, the besetting sin which is supposed to explain the + impoverishment of the peasantry is incorrigible laziness. On that subject + I feel inclined to put in a plea of extenuating circumstances in favour of + the muzhik. Certainly he is very slow in his movements—slower + perhaps than the English rustic—and he has a marvellous capacity for + wasting valuable time without any perceptible qualms of conscience; but he + is in this respect, if I may use a favourite phrase of the Social + Scientists, "the product of environment." To the proprietors who + habitually reproach him with time-wasting he might reply with a very + strong tu quoque argument, and to all the other classes the argument might + likewise be addressed. The St. Petersburg official, for example, who + writes edifying disquisitions about peasant indolence, considers that for + himself attendance at his office for four hours, a large portion of which + is devoted to the unproductive labour of cigarette smoking, constitutes a + very fair day's work. The truth is that in Russia the struggle for life is + not nearly so intense as in more densely populated countries, and society + is so constituted that all can live without very strenuous exertion. The + Russians seem, therefore, to the traveller who comes from the West an + indolent, apathetic race. If the traveller happens to come from the East—especially + if he has been living among pastoral races—the Russians will appear + to him energetic and laborious. Their character in this respect + corresponds to their geographical position: they stand midway between the + laborious, painstaking, industrious population of Western Europe and the + indolent, undisciplined, spasmodically energetic populations of Central + Asia. They are capable of effecting much by vigorous, intermittent effort—witness + the peasant at harvest-time, or the St. Petersburg official when some big + legislative project has to be submitted to the Emperor within a given time—but + they have not yet learned regular laborious habits. In short, the Russians + might move the world if it could be done by a jerk, but they are still + deficient in that calm perseverance and dogged tenacity which characterise + the Teutonic race. + </p> + <p> + Without seeking further to determine how far the moral defects of the + peasantry have a deleterious influence on their material welfare, I + proceed to examine the external causes which are generally supposed to + contribute largely to their impoverishment, and will deal first with the + evils of peasant self-government. + </p> + <p> + That the peasant self-government is very far from being in a satisfactory + condition must be admitted by any impartial observer. The more laborious + and well-to-do peasants, unless they wish to abuse their position directly + or indirectly for their own advantage, try to escape election as + office-bearers, and leave the administration in the hands of the less + respectable members. Not unfrequently a Volost Elder trades with the money + he collects as dues or taxes; and sometimes, when he becomes insolvent, + the peasants have to pay their taxes and dues a second time. The Village + Assemblies, too, have become worse than they were in the days of serfage. + At that time the Heads of Households—who, it must be remembered, + have alone a voice in the decisions—were few in number, laborious, + and well-to-do, and they kept the lazy, unruly members under strict + control. Now that the large families have been broken up and almost every + adult peasant is Head of a Household, the Communal affairs are sometimes + decided by a noisy majority; and certain Communal decisions may be + obtained by "treating the Mir"—that is to say, by supplying a + certain amount of vodka. Often I have heard old peasants speak of these + things, and finish their recital by some such remark as this: "There is no + order now; the people have been spoiled; it was better in the time of the + masters." + </p> + <p> + These evils are very real, and I have no desire to extenuate them, but I + believe they are by no means so great as is commonly supposed. If the + lazy, worthless members of the Commune had really the direction of + Communal affairs we should find that in the Northern Agricultural Zone, + where it is necessary to manure the soil, the periodical redistributions + of the Communal land would be very frequent; for in a new distribution the + lazy peasant has a good chance of getting a well-manured lot in exchange + for the lot which he has exhausted. In reality, so far as my observations + extend, these general distributions of the land are not more frequent than + they were before. + </p> + <p> + Of the various functions of the peasant self-government the judicial are + perhaps the most frequently and the most severely criticised. And + certainly not without reason, for the Volost Courts are too often + accessible to the influence of alcohol, and in some districts the peasants + say that he who becomes a judge takes a sin on his soul. I am not at all + sure, however, that it would be well to abolish these courts altogether, + as some people propose. In many respects they are better suited to peasant + requirements than the ordinary tribunals. Their procedure is infinitely + simpler, more expeditious, and incomparably less expensive, and they are + guided by traditional custom and plain common-sense, whereas the ordinary + tribunals have to judge according to the civil law, which is unknown to + the peasantry and not always applicable to their affairs. + </p> + <p> + Few ordinary judges have a sufficiently intimate knowledge of the minute + details of peasant life to be able to decide fairly the cases that are + brought before the Volost Courts; and even if a Justice had sufficient + knowledge he could not adopt the moral and juridical notions of the + peasantry. These are often very different from those of the upper classes. + In cases of matrimonial separation, for instance, the educated man + naturally assumes that, if there is any question of aliment, it should be + paid by the husband to the wife. The peasant, on the contrary, assumes as + naturally that it should be paid by the wife to the husband—or + rather to the Head of the Household—as a compensation for the loss + of labour which her desertion involves. In like manner, according to + traditional peasant-law, if an unmarried son is working away from home, + his earnings do not belong to himself, but to the family, and in Volost + Court they could be claimed by the Head of the Household. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally, it is true, the peasant judges allow their respect for old + traditional conceptions in general and for the authority of parents in + particular, to carry them a little too far. I was told lately of one + affair which took place not long ago, within a hundred miles of Moscow, in + which the judge decided that a respectable young peasant should be flogged + because he refused to give his father the money he earned as groom in the + service of a neighbouring proprietor, though it was notorious in the + district that the father was a disreputable old drunkard who carried to + the kabak (gin-shop) all the money he could obtain by fair means and foul. + When I remarked to my informant, who was not an admirer of peasant + institutions, that the incident reminded me of the respect for the patria + potestas in old Roman times, he stared at me with a look of surprise and + indignation, and exclaimed laconically, "Patria potestas? . . . Vodka!" He + was evidently convinced that the disreputable father had got his + respectable son flogged by "treating" the judges. In such cases flogging + can no longer be used, for the Volost Courts, as we have seen, were + recently deprived of the right to inflict corporal punishment. + </p> + <p> + These administrative and judicial abuses gradually reached the ears of the + Government, and in 1889 it attempted to remove them by creating a body of + Rural Supervisors (Zemskiye Natchalniki). Under their supervision and + control some abuses may have been occasionally prevented or corrected, and + some rascally Volost secretaries may have been punished or dismissed, but + the peasant self-government as a whole has not been perceptibly improved. + </p> + <p> + Let us glance now at the opinions of those who hold that the material + progress of the peasantry is prevented chiefly, not by the mere abuses of + the Communal administration, but by the essential principles of the + Communal institutions, and especially by the practice of periodically + redistributing the Communal land. From the theoretical point of view this + question is one of great interest, and it may acquire in the future an + immense practical significance; but for the present it has not, in my + opinion, the importance which is usually attributed to it. There can be no + doubt that it is much more difficult to farm well on a large number of + narrow strips of land, many of which are at a great distance from the + farmyard, than on a compact piece of land which the farmer may divide and + cultivate as he pleases; and there can be as little doubt that the + husbandman is more likely to improve his land if his tenure is secure. All + this and much more of the same kind must be accepted as indisputable + truth, but it has little direct bearing on the practical question under + consideration. We are not considering in the abstract whether it would be + better that the peasant should be a farmer with abundant capital and all + the modern scientific appliances, but simply the practical question, What + are the obstructions which at present prevent the peasant from + ameliorating his actual condition? + </p> + <p> + That the Commune prevents its members from adopting various systems of + high farming is a supposition which scarcely requires serious + consideration. The peasants do not yet think of any such radical + innovations; and if they did, they have neither the knowledge nor the + capital necessary to effect them. In many villages a few of the richer and + more intelligent peasants have bought land outside of the Commune and + cultivate it as they please, free from all Communal restraints; and I have + always found that they cultivate this property precisely in the same way + as their share of the Communal land. As to minor changes, we know by + experience that the Mir opposes to them no serious obstacles. + </p> + <p> + The cultivation of beet for the production of sugar has greatly increased + in the central and southwestern provinces, and flax is now largely + produced in Communes in northern districts where it was formerly + cultivated merely for domestic use. The Communal system is, in fact, + extremely elastic, and may be modified as soon as the majority of the + members consider modifications profitable. When the peasants begin to + think of permanent improvements, such as drainage, irrigation, and the + like, they will find the Communal institutions a help rather than an + obstruction; for such improvements, if undertaken at all, must be + undertaken on a larger scale, and the Mir is an already existing + association. The only permanent improvements which can be for the present + profitably undertaken consist in the reclaiming of waste land; and such + improvements are already sometimes attempted. I know at least of one case + in which a Commune in the province of Yaroslavl has reclaimed a + considerable tract of waste land by means of hired labourers. Nor does the + Mir prevent in this respect individual initiative. In many Communes of the + northern provinces it is a received principle of customary law that if any + member reclaims waste land he is allowed to retain possession of it for a + number of years proportionate to the amount of labour expended. + </p> + <p> + But does not the Commune, as it exists, prevent good cultivation according + to the mode of agriculture actually in use? + </p> + <p> + Except in the far north and the steppe region, where the agriculture is of + a peculiar kind, adapted to the local conditions, the peasants invariably + till their land according to the ordinary three-field system, in which + good cultivation means, practically speaking, the plentiful use of manure. + Does, then, the existence of the Mir prevent the peasants from manuring + their fields well? + </p> + <p> + Many people who speak on this subject in an authoritative tone seem to + imagine that the peasants in general do not manure their fields at all. + This idea is an utter mistake. In those regions, it is true, where the + rich black soil still retains a large part of its virgin fertility, the + manure is used as fuel, or simply thrown away, because the peasants + believe that it would not be profitable to put it on their fields, and + their conviction is, at least to some extent, well founded;* but in the + Northern Agricultural Zone, where unmanured soil gives almost no harvest, + the peasants put upon their fields all the manure they possess. If they do + not put enough it is simply because they have not sufficient live stock. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As recently as two years ago (1903) I found that one of + the most intelligent and energetic landlords of the province + of Voronezh followed in this respect the example of the + peasants, and he assured me that he had proved by experience + the advantage of doing so. +</pre> + <p> + It is only in the southern provinces, where no manure is required, that + periodical re-distributions take place frequently. As we travel northward + we find the term lengthens; and in the Northern Agricultural Zone, where + manure is indispensable, general re-distributions are extremely rare. In + the province of Yaroslavl, for example, the Communal land is generally + divided into two parts: the manured land lying near the village, and the + unmanured land lying beyond. The latter alone is subject to frequent + re-distribution. On the former the existing tenures are rarely disturbed, + and when it becomes necessary to give a share to a new household, the + change is effected with the least possible prejudice to vested rights. + </p> + <p> + The policy of the Government has always been to admit redistributions in + principle, but to prevent their too frequent recurrence. For this purpose + the Emancipation Law stipulated that they could be decreed only by a + three-fourths majority of the Village Assembly, and in 1893 a further + obstacle was created by a law providing that the minimum term between two + re-distributions should be twelve years, and that they should never be + undertaken without the sanction of the Rural Supervisor. + </p> + <p> + A certain number of Communes have made the experiment of transforming the + Communal tenure into hereditary allotments, and its only visible effect + has been that the allotments accumulate in the hands of the richer and + more enterprising peasants, and the poorer members of the Commune become + landless, while the primitive system of agriculture remains unimproved. + </p> + <p> + Up to this point I have dealt with the so-called causes of peasant + impoverishment which are much talked of, but which are, in my opinion, + only of secondary importance. I pass now to those which are more tangible + and which have exerted on the condition of the peasantry a more palpable + influence. And, first, inordinate taxation. + </p> + <p> + This is a very big subject, on which a bulky volume might be written, but + I shall cut it very short, because I know that the ordinary reader does + not like to be bothered with voluminous financial statistics. Briefly, + then, the peasant has to pay three kinds of direct taxation: Imperial to + the Central Government, local to the Zemstvo, and Commune to the Mir and + the Volost; and besides these he has to pay a yearly sum for the + redemption of the land-allotment which he received at the time of the + Emancipation. Taken together, these form a heavy burden, but for ten or + twelve years the emancipated peasantry bore it patiently, without falling + very deeply into arrears. Then began to appear symptoms of distress, + especially in the provinces with a poor soil, and in 1872 the Government + appointed a Commission of Inquiry, in which I had the privilege of taking + part unofficially. The inquiry showed that something ought to be done, but + at that moment the Government was so busy with administrative reforms and + with trying to develop industry and commerce that it had little time to + devote to studying and improving the economic position of the silent, + long-suffering muzhik. It was not till nearly ten years later, when the + Government began to feel the pinch of the ever-increasing arrears, that it + recognised the necessity of relieving the rural population. For this + purpose it abolished the salt-tax and the poll-tax and repeatedly lessened + the burden of the redemption-payments. At a later period (1899) it + afforded further relief by an important reform in the mode of collecting + the direct taxes. From the police, who often ruined peasant householders + by applying distraint indiscriminately, the collection of taxes was + transferred to special authorities who took into consideration the + temporary pecuniary embarrassments of the tax-payers. Another benefit + conferred on the peasantry by this reform is that an individual member of + the Commune is no longer responsible for the fiscal obligations of the + Commune as a whole. + </p> + <p> + Since these alleviations have been granted the annual total demanded from + the peasantry for direct taxation and land-redemption payments is 173 + million roubles, and the average annual sum to be paid by each peasant + household varies, according to the locality, from 11 1/2 to 20 roubles + (21s. 6d. to 40s.). In addition to this annuity there is a heavy burden of + accumulated arrears, especially in the central and eastern provinces, + which amounted in 1899 to 143 millions. Of the indirect taxes I can say + nothing definite, because it is impossible to calculate, even + approximately, the share of them which falls on the rural population, but + they must not be left out of account. During the ten years of M. Witte's + term of office the revenue of the Imperial Treasury was nearly doubled, + and though the increase was due partly to improvements in the financial + administration, we can hardly believe that the peasantry did not in some + measure contribute to it. In any case, it is very difficult, if not + impossible, for them, under actual conditions, to improve their economic + position. On that point all Russian economists are agreed. One of the most + competent and sober-minded of them, M. Schwanebach, calculates that the + head of a peasant household, after deducting the grain required to feed + his family, has to pay into the Imperial Treasury, according to the + district in which he resides, from 25 to 100 per cent, of his agricultural + revenue. If that ingenious calculation is even approximately correct, we + must conclude that further financial reforms are urgently required, + especially in those provinces where the population live exclusively by + agriculture. + </p> + <p> + Heavy as the burden of taxation undoubtedly is, it might perhaps be borne + without very serious inconvenience if the peasant families could utilise + productively all their time and strength. Unfortunately in the existing + economic organisation a great deal of their time and energy is necessarily + wasted. Their economic life was radically dislocated by the Emancipation, + and they have not yet succeeded in reorganising it according to the new + conditions. + </p> + <p> + In the time of serfage an estate formed, from the economic point of view, + a co-operative agricultural association, under a manager who possessed + unlimited authority, and sometimes abused it, but who was generally + worldly-wise enough to understand that the prosperity of the whole + required the prosperity of the component parts. By the abolition of + serfage the association was dissolved and liquidated, and the strong, + compact whole fell into a heap of independent units, with separate and + often mutually hostile interests. Some of the disadvantages of this change + for the peasantry I have already enumerated above. The most important I + have now to mention. In virtue of the Emancipation Law each family + received an amount of land which tempted it to continue farming on its own + account, but which did not enable it to earn a living and pay its rates + and taxes. The peasant thus became a kind of amphibious creature—half + farmer and half something else—cultivating his allotment for a + portion of his daily bread, and obliged to have some other occupation + wherewith to cover the inevitable deficit in his domestic budget. If he + was fortunate enough to find near his home a bit of land to be let at a + reasonable rent, he might cultivate it in addition to his own and thereby + gain a livelihood; but if he had not the good luck to find such a piece of + land in the immediate neighbourhood, he had to look for some subsidiary + occupation in which to employ his leisure time; and where was such + occupation to be found in an ordinary Russian village? In former years he + might have employed himself perhaps in carting the proprietor's grain to + distant markets or still more distant seaports, but that means of making a + little money has been destroyed by the extension of railways. Practically, + then, he is now obliged to choose between two alternatives: either to farm + his allotment and spend a great part of the year in idleness, or to leave + the cultivation of his allotment to his wife and children and to seek + employment elsewhere—often at such a distance that his earnings + hardly cover the expenses of the journey. In either case much time and + energy are wasted. + </p> + <p> + The evil results of this state of things were intensified by another + change which was brought about by the Emancipation. In the time of serfage + the peasant families, as I have already remarked, were usually very large. + They remained undivided, partly from the influence of patriarchal + conceptions, but chiefly because the proprietors, recognising the + advantage of large units, prevented them from breaking up. As soon as the + proprietor's authority was removed, the process of disintegration began + and spread rapidly. Every one wished to be independent, and in a very + short time nearly every able-bodied married peasant had a house of his + own. The economic consequences were disastrous. A large amount of money + had to be expended in constructing new houses and farmsteadings; and the + old habit of one male member remaining at home to cultivate the land + allotment with the female members of the family whilst the others went to + earn wages elsewhere had to be abandoned. Many large families, which had + been prosperous and comfortable—rich according to peasant + conceptions—dissolved into three or four small ones, all on the + brink of pauperism. + </p> + <p> + The last cause of peasant impoverishment that I have to mention is perhaps + the most important of all: I mean the natural increase of population + without a corresponding increase in the means of subsistence. Since the + Emancipation in 1861 the population has nearly doubled, whilst the amount + of Communal land has remained the same. It is not surprising, therefore, + that when talking with peasants about their actual condition, one + constantly hears the despairing cry, "Zemli malo!" ("There is not enough + land"); and one notices that those who look a little ahead ask anxiously: + "What is to become of our children? Already the Communal allotment is too + small for our wants, and the land outside is doubling and trebling in + price! What will it be in the future?" At the same time, not a few Russian + economists tell us—and their apprehensions are shared by foreign + observers—that millions of peasants are in danger of starvation in + the near future. + </p> + <p> + Must we, then, accept for Russia the Malthus doctrine that population + increases more rapidly than the means of subsistence, and that starvation + can be avoided only by plague, pestilence, war, and other destructive + forces? I think not. It is quite true that, if the amount of land actually + possessed by the peasantry and the present system of cultivating it + remained unchanged, semi-starvation would be the inevitable result within + a comparatively short space of time; but the danger can be averted, and + the proper remedies are not far to seek. If Russia is suffering from + over-population, it must be her own fault, for she is, with the exception + of Norway and Sweden, the most thinly populated country in Europe, and she + has more than her share of fertile soil and mineral resources. + </p> + <p> + A glance at the map showing the density of population in the various + provinces suggests an obvious remedy, and I am happy to say it is already + being applied. The population of the congested districts of the centre is + gradually spreading out, like a drop of oil on a sheet of soft paper, + towards the more thinly populated regions of the south and east. In this + way the vast region containing millions and millions of acres which lies + to the north of the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian, and Central Asia + is yearly becoming more densely peopled, and agriculture is steadily + encroaching on the pastoral area. Breeders of sheep and cattle, who + formerly lived and throve in the western portion of that great expanse, + are being pushed eastwards by the rapid increase in the value of land, and + their place is being taken by enterprising tillers of the soil. Further + north another stream of emigration is flowing into Central Siberia. It + does not flow so rapidly, because in that part of the Empire, unlike the + bare, fertile steppes of the south, the land has to be cleared before the + seed can be sown, and the pioneer colonists have to work hard for a year + or two before they get any return for their labour; but the Government and + private societies come to their assistance, and for the last twenty years + their numbers have been steadily increasing. During the ten years 1886-96 + the annual contingent rose from 25,000 to 200,000, and the total number + amounted to nearly 800,000. For the subsequent period I have not been able + to obtain the official statistics, but a friend who has access to the + official sources of information on this subject assures me that during the + last twelve years about four millions of peasants from European Russia + have been successfully settled in Siberia. + </p> + <p> + Even in the European portion of the Empire millions of acres which are at + present unproductive might be utilised. Any one who has travelled by rail + from Berlin to St. Petersburg must have noticed how the landscape suddenly + changes its character as soon as he has crossed the frontier. Leaving a + prosperous agricultural country, he traverses for many weary hours a + region in which there is hardly a sign of human habitation, though the + soil and climate of that region resembles closely the soil and climate of + East Prussia. The difference lies in the amount of labour and capital + expended. According to official statistics the area of European Russia + contains, roughly speaking, 406 millions of dessyatins, of which 78 + millions, or 19 per cent., are classified as neudobniya, unfit for + cultivation; 157 millions, or 39 per cent., as forest; 106 millions, or 26 + per cent., as arable land; and 65 millions, or 16 per cent., as pasturage. + Thus the arable and pasture land compose only 42 per cent., or + considerably less than half the area. + </p> + <p> + Of the land classed as unfit for cultivation—19 per cent. of the + whole—a large portion, including the perennially frozen tundri of + the far north, must ever remain unproductive, but in latitudes with a + milder climate this category of land is for the most part ordinary morass + or swamp, which can be transformed into pasturage, or even into arable + land, by drainage at a moderate cost. As a proof of this statement I may + cite the draining of the great Pinsk swamps, which was begun by the + Government in 1872. If we may trust an official report of the progress of + the works in 1897, an area of 2,855,000 dessyatins (more than seven and a + half million acres) had been drained at an average cost of about three + shillings an acre, and the price of land had risen from four to + twenty-eight roubles per dessyatin. + </p> + <p> + Reclamation of marshes might be undertaken elsewhere on a much more + moderate scale. The observant traveller on the highways and byways of the + northern provinces must have noticed on the banks of almost every stream + many acres of marshy land producing merely reeds or coarse rank grass that + no well-brought-up animal would look at. With a little elementary + knowledge of engineering and the expenditure of a moderate amount of + manual labour these marshes might be converted into excellent pasture or + even into highly productive kitchen-gardens; but the peasants have not yet + learned to take advantage of such opportunities, and the reformers, who + deal only in large projects and scientific panaceas for the cure of + impoverishment, consider such trifles as unworthy of their attention. The + Scotch proverb that if the pennies be well looked after, the pounds will + look after themselves, contains a bit of homely wisdom totally unknown to + the Russian educated classes. + </p> + <p> + After the morasses, swamps, and marshes come the forests, constituting 39 + per cent. of the whole area, and the question naturally arises whether + some portions of them might not be advantageously transformed into + pasturage or arable land. In the south and east they have been diminished + to such an extent as to affect the climate injuriously, so that the area + of them should be increased rather than lessened; but in the northern + provinces the vast expanses of forest, covering millions of acres, might + perhaps be curtailed with advantage. The proprietors prefer, however, to + keep them in their present condition because they give a modest revenue + without any expenditure of capital. + </p> + <p> + Therein lies the great obstacle to land-reclamation in Russia: it requires + an outlay of capital, and capital is extremely scarce in the Empire of the + Tsars. Until it becomes more plentiful, the area of arable land and + pasturage is not likely to be largely increased, and other means of + checking the impoverishment of the peasantry must be adopted. + </p> + <p> + A less expensive means is suggested by the statistics of foreign trade. In + the preceding chapter we have seen that from 1860 to 1900 the average + annual export of grain rose steadily from under 1 1/2 millions to over 6 + millions of tons. It is evident, therefore, that in the food supply, so + far from there being a deficiency, there has been a large and constantly + increasing surplus. If the peasantry have been on short rations, it is not + because the quantity of food produced has fallen short of the requirements + of the population, but because it has been unequally distributed. The + truth is that the large landed proprietors produce more and the peasants + less than they consume, and it has naturally occurred to many people that + the present state of things might be improved if a portion of the arable + land passed, without any socialistic, revolutionary measures, from the one + class to the other. This operation began spontaneously soon after the + Emancipation. Well-to-do peasants who had saved a little money bought from + the proprietors bits of land near their villages and cultivated them in + addition to their allotments. At first this extension of peasant land was + confined within very narrow limits, because the peasants had very little + capital at their disposal, but in 1882 the Government came to their aid by + creating the Peasant Land Bank, the object of which was to advance money + to purchasers of the peasant class on the security of the land purchased, + at the rate of 7 1/2 per cent., including sinking fund.* From that moment + the purchases increased rapidly. They were made by individual peasants, by + rural Communes, and, most of all, by small voluntary associations composed + of three, four, or more members. In the course of twenty years (1883-1903) + the Bank made 47,791 advances, and in this way were purchased about + eighteen million acres. This sounds a very big acquisition, but it will + not do much to relieve the pressure on the peasantry as a whole, because + it adds only about 6 per cent. to the amount they already possessed in + virtue of the Emancipation Law. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This arrangement extinguishes the debt in 34 1/2 years; an + additional 1 per cent, extinguishes it in 24 1/2 years. By + recent legislation other arrangements are permitted. +</pre> + <p> + Nearly all of this land purchased by the peasantry comes directly or + indirectly from the Noblesse, and much more will doubtless pass from the + one class to the other if the Government continues to encourage the + operation; but already symptoms of a change of policy are apparent. In the + higher official regions it is whispered that the existing policy is + objectionable from the political point of view, and one sometimes hears + the question asked: Is it right and desirable that the Noblesse, who have + ever done their duty in serving faithfully the Tsar and Fatherland, and + who have ever been the representatives of civilisation and culture in + Russian country life, should be gradually expropriated in favour of other + and less cultivated social classes? Not a few influential personages are + of opinion that such a change is unjust and undesirable, and they argue + that it is not advantageous to the peasants themselves, because the price + of land has risen much more than the rents. It is not at all uncommon, for + example, to find that land can be rented at five roubles per dessyatin, + whereas it cannot be bought under 200 roubles. In that case the peasant + can enjoy the use of the land at the moderate rate of 2 1/2 per cent. of + the capital value, whereas by purchasing the land with the assistance of + the bank he would have to pay, without sinking fund, more than double that + rate. The muzhik, however, prefers to be owner of the land, even at a + considerable sacrifice. When he can be induced to give his reasons, they + are usually formulated thus: "With my own land I can do as I like; if I + hire land from the neighbouring proprietor, who knows whether, at the end + of the term, he may not raise the rent or refuse to renew the contract at + any price?" + </p> + <p> + Even if the Government should continue to encourage the purchase of land + by the peasantry, the process is too slow to meet all the requirements of + the situation. Some additional expedient must be found, and we naturally + look for it in the experience of older countries with a denser population. + </p> + <p> + In the more densely populated countries of Western Europe a safety-valve + for the inordinate increase of the rural population has been provided by + the development of manufacturing industry. High wages and the attractions + of town life draw the rural population to the industrial centres, and the + movement has increased to such an extent that already complaints are heard + of the rural districts becoming depopulated. In Russia a similar movement + is taking place on a smaller scale. During the last forty years, under the + fostering influence of a protective tariff, the manufacturing industry has + made gigantic strides, as we shall see in a future chapter, and it has + already absorbed about two millions of the redundant hands in the + villages; but it cannot keep pace with the rapid increasing surplus. Two + millions are less than two per cent. of the population. The great mass of + the people has always been, and must long continue to be, purely + agricultural; and it is to their fields that they must look for the means + of subsistence. If the fields do not supply enough for their support under + the existing primitive methods of cultivation, better methods must be + adopted. To use a favourite semi-scientific phrase, Russia has now reached + the point in her economic development at which she must abandon her + traditional extensive system of agriculture and adopt a more intensive + system. So far all competent authorities are agreed. But how is the + transition, which requires technical knowledge, a spirit of enterprise, an + enormous capital, and a dozen other things which the peasantry do not at + present possess, to be effected? Here begin the well-marked differences of + opinion. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto the momentous problem has been dealt with chiefly by the + theorists and doctrinaires who delight in radical solutions by means of + panaceas, and who have little taste for detailed local investigation and + gradual improvement. I do not refer to the so-called "Saviours of the + Fatherland" (Spasiteli Otetchestva), well-meaning cranks and visionaries + who discover ingenious devices for making their native country at once + prosperous and happy. I speak of the great majority of reasonable, + educated men who devote some attention to the problem. Their favourite + method of dealing with it is this: The intensive system of agriculture + requires scientific knowledge and a higher level of intellectual culture. + What has to be done, therefore, is to create agricultural colleges + supplied with all the newest appliances of agronomic research and to + educate the peasantry to such an extent that they may be able to use the + means which science recommends. + </p> + <p> + For many years this doctrine prevailed in the Press, among the reading + public, and even in the official world. The Government was accordingly + urged to improve and multiply the agronomic colleges and the schools of + all grades and descriptions. Learned dissertations were published on the + chemical constitution of the various soils, the action of the atmosphere + on the different ingredients, the necessity of making careful + meteorological observations, and numerous other topics of a similar kind; + and would-be reformers who had no taste for such highly technical + researches could console themselves with the idea that they were advancing + the vital interests of the country by discussing the relative merits of + Communal and personal land-tenure—deciding generally in favour of + the former as more in accordance with the peculiarities of Russian, as + contrasted with West European, principles of economic and social + development. + </p> + <p> + While much valuable time and energy were thus being expended to little + purpose, on the assumption that the old system might be left untouched + until the preparations for a radical solution had been completed, + disagreeable facts which could not be entirely overlooked gradually + produced in influential quarters the conviction that the question was much + more urgent than was commonly supposed. A sensitive chord in the heart of + the Government was struck by the steadily increasing arrears of taxation, + and spasmodic attempts have since been made to cure the evil. + </p> + <p> + In the local administration, too, the urgency of the question has come to + be recognised, and measures are now being taken by the Zemstvo to help the + peasantry in making gradually the transition to that higher system of + agriculture which is the only means of permanently saving them from + starvation. For this purpose, in many districts well-trained specialists + have been appointed to study the local conditions and to recommend to the + villagers such simple improvements as are within their means. These + improvements may be classified under the following heads: + </p> + <p> + (1) Increase of the cereal crops by better seed and improved implements. + </p> + <p> + (2) Change in the rotation of crops by the introduction of certain grasses + and roots which improve the soil and supply food for live stock. + </p> + <p> + (3) Improvement and increase of live stock, so as to get more + labour-power, more manure, more dairy-produce, and more meat. + </p> + <p> + (4) Increased cultivation of vegetables and fruit. + </p> + <p> + With these objects in view the Zemstvo is establishing depots in which + improved implements and better seed are sold at moderate prices, and the + payments are made in installments, so that even the poorer members of the + community can take advantage of the facilities offered. Bulls and + stallions are kept at central points for the purpose of improving the + breed of cattle and horses, and the good results are already visible. + Elementary instruction in farming and gardening is being introduced into + the primary schools. In some districts the exertions of the Zemstvo are + supplemented by small agricultural societies, mutual credit associations, + and village banks, and these are to some extent assisted by the Central + Government. But the beneficent action in this direction is not all + official. Many proprietors deserve great praise for the good influence + which they exercise on the peasants of their neighbourhood and the + assistance they give them; and it must be admitted that their patience is + often sorely tried, for the peasants have the obstinacy of ignorance, and + possess other qualities which are not sympathetic. I know one excellent + proprietor who began his civilising efforts by giving to the Mir of the + nearest village an iron plough as a model and a fine pedigree ram as a + producer, and who found, on returning from a tour abroad, that during his + absence the plough had been sold for vodka, and the pedigree ram had been + eaten before it had time to produce any descendants! In spite of this he + continues his efforts, and not altogether without success. + </p> + <p> + It need hardly be said that the progress of the peasantry is not so rapid + as could be wished. The muzhik is naturally conservative, and is ever + inclined to regard novelties with suspicion. Even when he is half + convinced of the utility of some change, he has still to think about it + for a long time and talk it over again and again with his friends and + neighbours, and this preparatory stage of progress may last for years. + Unless he happens to be a man of unusual intelligence and energy, it is + only when he sees with his own eyes that some humble individual of his own + condition in life has actually gained by abandoning the old routine and + taking to new courses, that he makes up his mind to take the plunge + himself. Still, he is beginning to jog on. E pur si muove! A spirit of + progress is beginning to move on the face of the long-stagnant waters, and + progress once begun is pretty sure to continue with increasing rapidity. + With starvation hovering in the rear, even the most conservative are not + likely to stop or turn back. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0032" id="link2HCH0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXII + </h2> + <h3> + THE ZEMSTVO AND THE LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT + </h3> + <p> + Necessity of Reorganising the Provincial Administration—Zemstvo + Created in 1864—My First Acquaintance with the Institution—District + and Provincial Assemblies—The Leading Members—Great + Expectations Created by the Institution—These Expectations Not + Realised—Suspicions and Hostility of the Bureaucracy—Zemstvo + Brought More Under Control of the Centralised Administration—What It + Has Really Done—Why It Has Not Done More—-Rapid Increase of + the Rates—How Far the Expenditure Is Judicious—Why the + Impoverishment of the Peasantry Was Neglected—Unpractical, Pedantic + Spirit—Evil Consequences—Chinese and Russian Formalism—Local + Self-Government of Russia Contrasted with That of England—Zemstvo + Better than Its Predecessors—Its Future. + </p> + <p> + After the emancipation of the serfs the reform most urgently required was + the improvement of the provincial administration. In the time of serfage + the Emperor Nicholas, referring to the landed proprietors, used to say in + a jocular tone that he had in his Empire 50,000 most zealous and efficient + hereditary police-masters. By the Emancipation Law the authority of these + hereditary police-masters was for ever abolished, and it became urgently + necessary to put something else in its place. Peasant self-government was + accordingly organised on the basis of the rural Commune; but it fell far + short of meeting the requirements of the situation. Its largest unit was + the Volost, which comprises merely a few contiguous Communes, and its + action is confined exclusively to the peasantry. Evidently it was + necessary to create a larger administrative unit, in which the interests + of all classes of the population could be attended to, and for this + purpose Alexander II. in November, 1859, more than a year before the + Emancipation Edict, instructed a special Commission to prepare a project + for giving to the inefficient, dislocated provincial administration + greater unity and independence. The project was duly prepared, and after + being discussed in the Council of State it received the Imperial sanction + in January, 1864. It was supposed to give, in the words of an explanatory + memorandum attached to it, "as far as possible a complete and logical + development to the principle of local self-government." Thus was created + the Zemstvo,* which has recently attracted considerable attention in + Western Europe, and which is destined, perhaps, to play a great political + part in the future. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The term Zemstvo is derived from the word Zemlya, meaning + land, and might be translated, if a barbarism were + permissible, by Land-dom on the analogy of Kingdom, Dukedom, + etc. +</pre> + <p> + My personal acquaintance with this interesting institution dates from + 1870. Very soon after my arrival at Novgorod in that year, I made the + acquaintance of a gentleman who was described to me as "the president of + the provincial Zemstvo-bureau," and finding him amiable and communicative, + I suggested that he might give me some information regarding the + institution of which he was the chief local representative. With the + utmost readiness he proposed to be my Mentor, introduced me to his + colleagues, and invited me to come and see him at his office as often as I + felt inclined. Of this invitation I made abundant use. At first my visits + were discreetly few and short, but when I found that my new friend and his + colleagues really wished to instruct me in all the details of Zemstvo + administration, and had arranged a special table in the president's room + for my convenience, I became a regular attendant, and spent daily several + hours in the bureau, studying the current affairs, and noting down the + interesting bits of statistical and other information which came before + the members, as if I had been one of their number. When they went to + inspect the hospital, the lunatic asylum, the seminary for the preparation + of village schoolmasters, or any other Zemstvo institution, they + invariably invited me to accompany them, and made no attempt to conceal + from me the defects which they happened to discover. + </p> + <p> + I mention all this because it illustrates the readiness of most Russians + to afford every possible facility to a foreigner who wishes seriously to + study their country. They believe that they have long been misunderstood + and systematically calumniated by foreigners, and they are extremely + desirous that the prevalent misconceptions regarding their country should + be removed. It must be said to their honour that they have little or none + of that false patriotism which seeks to conceal national defects; and in + judging themselves and their institutions they are inclined to be + over-severe rather than unduly lenient. In the time of Nicholas I. those + who desired to stand well with the Government proclaimed loudly that they + lived in the happiest and best-governed country of the world, but this + shallow official optimism has long since gone out of fashion. During all + the years which I spent in Russia I found everywhere the utmost readiness + to assist me in my investigations, and very rarely noticed that habit of + "throwing dust in the eyes of foreigners," of which some writers have + spoken so much. + </p> + <p> + The Zemstvo is a kind of local administration which supplements the action + of the rural Communes, and takes cognizance of those higher public wants + which individual Communes cannot possibly satisfy. Its principal duties + are to keep the roads and bridges in proper repair, to provide means of + conveyance for the rural police and other officials, to look after primary + education and sanitary affairs, to watch the state of the crops and take + measures against approaching famine, and, in short, to undertake, within + certain clearly defined limits, whatever seems likely to increase the + material and moral well-being of the population. In form the institution + is Parliamentary—that is to say, it consists of an assembly of + deputies which meets regularly once a year, and of a permanent executive + bureau elected by the Assembly from among its members. If the Assembly be + regarded as a local Parliament, the bureau corresponds to the Cabinet. In + accordance with this analogy my friend the president was sometimes + jocularly termed the Prime Minister. Once every three years the deputies + are elected in certain fixed proportions by the landed proprietors, the + rural Communes, and the municipal corporations. Every province (guberniya) + and each of the districts (uyezdi) into which the province is subdivided + has such an assembly and such a bureau. + </p> + <p> + Not long after my arrival in Novgorod I had the opportunity of being + present at a District Assembly. In the ball-room of the "Club de la + Noblesse" I found thirty or forty men seated round a long table covered + with green cloth. Before each member lay sheets of paper for the purpose + of taking notes, and before the president—the Marshal of Noblesse + for the district—stood a small hand-bell, which he rang vigorously + at the commencement of the proceedings and on all the occasions when he + wished to obtain silence. To the right and left of the president sat the + members of the executive bureau (uprava), armed with piles of written and + printed documents, from which they read long and tedious extracts, till + the majority of the audience took to yawning and one or two of the members + positively went to sleep. At the close of each of these reports the + president rang his bell—presumably for the purpose of awakening the + sleepers—and inquired whether any one had remarks to make on what + had just been read. Generally some one had remarks to make, and not + unfrequently a discussion ensued. When any decided difference of opinion + appeared a vote was taken by handing round a sheet of paper, or by the + simpler method of requesting the Ayes to stand up and the Noes to sit + still. + </p> + <p> + What surprised me most in this assembly was that it was composed partly of + nobles and partly of peasants—the latter being decidedly in the + majority—and that no trace of antagonism seemed to exist between the + two classes. Landed proprietors and their ci-devant serfs, emancipated + only ten years before, evidently met for the moment on a footing of + equality. The discussions were carried on chiefly by the nobles, but on + more than one occasion peasant members rose to speak, and their remarks, + always clear, practical, and to the point, were invariably listened to + with respectful attention. Instead of that violent antagonism which might + have been expected, considering the constitution of the Assembly, there + was too much unanimity—a fact indicating plainly that the majority + of the members did not take a very deep interest in the matters presented + to them. + </p> + <p> + This assembly was held in the month of September. At the beginning of + December the Assembly for the Province met, and during nearly three weeks + I was daily present at its deliberations. In general character and mode of + procedure it resembled closely the District Assembly. Its chief + peculiarities were that its members were chosen, not by the primary + electors, but by the assemblies of the ten districts which compose the + province, and that it took cognisance merely of those matters which + concerned more than one district. Besides this, the peasant deputies were + very few in number—a fact which somewhat surprised me, because I was + aware that, according to the law, the peasant members of the District + Assemblies were eligible, like those of the other classes. The explanation + is that the District Assemblies choose their most active members to + represent them in the Provincial Assemblies, and consequently the choice + generally falls on landed proprietors. To this arrangement the peasants + make no objection, for attendance at the Provincial Assemblies demands a + considerable pecuniary outlay, and payment to the deputies is expressly + prohibited by law. + </p> + <p> + To give the reader an idea of the elements composing this assembly, let me + introduce him to a few of the members. A considerable section of them may + be described in a single sentence. They are commonplace men, who have + spent part of their youth in the public service as officers in the army, + or officials in the civil administration, and have since retired to their + estates, where they gain a modest competence by farming. Some of them add + to their agricultural revenue by acting as justices of the peace.* A few + may be described more particularly. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * That is no longer possible. The institution of justices + elected and paid by the Zemstvo was abolished in 1889. +</pre> + <p> + You see there, for instance, that fine-looking old general in uniform, + with the St. George's Cross at his button-hole—an order given only + for bravery in the field. That is Prince Suvorof, a grandson of the famous + general. He has filled high posts in the Administration without ever + tarnishing his name by a dishonest or dishonourable action, and has spent + a great part of his life at Court without ceasing to be frank, generous, + and truthful. Though he has no intimate knowledge of current affairs, and + sometimes gives way a little to drowsiness, his sympathies in disputed + points are always on the right side, and when he gets to his feet he + always speaks in a clear soldierlike fashion. + </p> + <p> + The tall gaunt man, somewhat over middle age, who sits a little to the + left is Prince Vassiltchikof. He too, has an historic name, but he + cherishes above all things personal independence, and has consequently + always kept aloof from the Imperial Administration and the Court. The + leisure thus acquired he has devoted to study, and he has produced several + valuable works on political and social science. An enthusiastic but at the + same time cool-headed abolitionist at the time of the Emancipation, he has + since constantly striven to ameliorate the condition of the peasantry by + advocating the spread of primary education, the rural credit associations + in the village, the preservation of the Communal institutions, and + numerous important reforms in the financial system. Both of these + gentlemen, it is said, generously gave to their peasants more land than + they were obliged to give by the Emancipation Law. In the Assembly Prince + Vassiltchikof speaks frequently, and always commands attention; and in all + important committees he is leading member. Though a warm defender of the + Zemstvo institutions, he thinks that their activity ought to be confined + to a comparatively narrow field, and he thereby differs from some of his + colleagues, who are ready to embark in hazardous, not to say fanciful, + schemes for developing the natural resources of the province. His + neighbour, Mr. P——, is one of the ablest and most energetic + members of the Assembly. He is president of the executive bureau in one of + the districts, where he has founded many primary schools and created + several rural credit associations on the model of those which bear the + name of Schultze Delitsch in Germany. Mr. S——, who sits beside + him, was for some years an arbiter between the proprietors and emancipated + serfs, then a member of the Provincial Executive Bureau, and is now + director of a bank in St. Petersburg. + </p> + <p> + To the right and left of the president—who is Marshal of Noblesse + for the province—sit the members of the bureau. The gentleman who + reads the long reports is my friend "the Prime Minister," who began life + as a cavalry officer, and after a few years of military service retired to + his estate; he is an intelligent, able administrator, and a man of + considerable literary culture. His colleague, who assists him in reading + the reports, is a merchant, and director of the municipal bank. The next + member is also a merchant, and in some respects the most remarkable man in + the room. Though born a serf, he is already, at middle age, an important + personage in the Russian commercial world. Rumour says that he laid the + foundation of his fortune by one day purchasing a copper cauldron in a + village through which he was passing on his way to St. Petersburg, where + he hoped to gain a little money by the sale of some calves. In the course + of a few years he amassed an enormous fortune; but cautious people think + that he is too fond of hazardous speculations, and prophesy that he will + end life as poor as he began it. + </p> + <p> + All these men belong to what may be called the party of progress, which + anxiously supports all proposals recognised as "liberal," and especially + all measures likely to improve the condition of the peasantry. Their chief + opponent is that little man with close-cropped, bullet-shaped head and + small piercing eyes, who may be called the Leader of the opposition. He + condemns many of the proposed schemes, on the ground that the province is + already overtaxed, and that the expenditure ought to be reduced to the + smallest possible figure. In the District Assembly he preaches this + doctrine with considerable success, for there the peasantry form the + majority, and he knows how to use that terse, homely language, + interspersed with proverbs, which has far more influence on the rustic + mind than scientific principles and logical reasoning; but here, in + Provincial Assembly, his following composes only a respectable minority, + and he confines himself to a policy of obstruction. + </p> + <p> + The Zemstvo of Novgorod had at that time the reputation of being one of + the most enlightened and energetic, and I must say that the proceedings + were conducted in a business-like, satisfactory way. The reports were + carefully considered, and each article of the annual budget was submitted + to minute scrutiny and criticism. In several of the provinces which I + afterwards visited I found that affairs were conducted in a very different + fashion: quorums were formed with extreme difficulty, and the proceedings, + when they at last commenced, were treated as mere formalities and + despatched as speedily as possible. The character of the Assembly depends + of course on the amount of interest taken in local public affairs. In some + districts this interest is considerable; in others it is very near zero. + </p> + <p> + The birth of this new institution was hailed with enthusiasm, and produced + great expectations. At that time a large section of the Russian educated + classes had a simple, convenient criterion for institutions of all kinds. + They assumed as a self-evident axiom that the excellence of an institution + must always be in proportion to its "liberal" and democratic character. + The question as to how far it might be appropriate to the existing + conditions and to the character of the people, and as to whether it might + not, though admirable in itself, be too expensive for the work to be + performed, was little thought of. Any organisation which rested on "the + elective principle," and provided an arena for free public discussion, was + sure to be well received, and these conditions were fulfilled by the + Zemstvo. + </p> + <p> + The expectations excited were of various kinds. People who thought more of + political than economic progress saw in the Zemstvo the basis of boundless + popular liberty. Prince Yassiltchikof, for example, though naturally of a + phlegmatic temperament, became for a moment enthusiastic, and penned the + following words: "With a daring unparalleled in the chronicles of the + world, we have entered on the career of public life." If local + self-government in England had, in spite of its aristocratic character, + created and preserved political liberty, as had been proved by several + learned Germans, what might be expected from institutions so much more + liberal and democratic? In England there had never been county + parliaments, and the local administration had always been in the hands of + the great land-owners; whilst in Russia every district would have its + elective assembly, in which the peasant would be on a level with the + richest landed proprietors. People who were accustomed to think of social + rather than political progress expected that they would soon see the + country provided with good roads, safe bridges, numerous village schools, + well-appointed hospitals, and all the other requisites of civilisation. + Agriculture would become more scientific, trade and industry would be + rapidly developed, and the material, intellectual, and moral condition of + the peasantry would be enormously improved. The listless apathy of + provincial life and the hereditary indifference to local public affairs + were now, it was thought, about to be dispelled; and in view of this + change, patriotic mothers took their children to the annual assemblies in + order to accustom them from their early years to take an interest in the + public welfare. + </p> + <p> + It is hardly necessary to say that these inordinate expectations were not + realised. From the very beginning there had been a misunderstanding + regarding the character and functions of the new institutions. During the + short period of universal enthusiasm for reform the great officials had + used incautiously some of the vague liberal phrases then in fashion, but + they never seriously intended to confer on the child which they were + bringing into the world a share in the general government of the country; + and the rapid evaporation of their sentimental liberalism, which began as + soon as they undertook practical reforms, made them less and less + conciliatory. When the vigorous young child, therefore, showed a natural + desire to go beyond the humble functions accorded to it, the stern parents + proceeded to snub it and put it into its proper place. The first reprimand + was administered publicly in the capital. The St. Petersburg Provincial + Assembly, having shown a desire to play a political part, was promptly + closed by the Minister of the Interior, and some of the members were + exiled for a time to their homes in the country. + </p> + <p> + This warning produced merely a momentary effect. As the functions of the + Imperial Administration and of the Zemstvo had never been clearly defined, + and as each was inclined to extend the sphere of its activity, friction + became frequent. The Zemstvo had the right, for example, to co-operate in + the development of education, but as soon as it organised primary schools + and seminaries it came into contact with the Ministry of Public + Instruction. In other departments similar conflicts occurred, and the + tchinovniks came to suspect that the Zemstvo had the ambition to play the + part of a parliamentary Opposition. This suspicion found formal expression + in at least one secret official document, in which the writer declares + that "the Opposition has built itself firmly a nest in the Zemstvo." Now, + if we mean to be just to both parties in this little family quarrel, we + must admit that the Zemstvo, as I shall explain in a future chapter, had + ambitions of that kind, and it would have been better perhaps for the + country at the present moment if it had been able to realise them. But + this is a West-European idea. In Russia there is, and can be, no such + thing as "His Majesty's Opposition." To the Russian official mind the + three words seem to contain a logical contradiction. Opposition to + officials, even within the limits of the law, is equivalent to opposition + to the Autocratic Power, of which they are the incarnate emanations; and + opposition to what they consider the interests of autocracy comes within + measurable distance of high treason. It was considered necessary, + therefore, to curb and suppress the ambitious tendencies of the wayward + child, and accordingly it was placed more and more under the tutelage of + the provincial Governors. To show how the change was effected, let me give + an illustration. In the older arrangements the Governor could suspend the + action of the Zemstvo only on the ground of its being illegal or ultra + vires, and when there was an irreconcilable difference of opinion between + the two parties the question was decided judicially by the Senate; under + the more recent arrangements his Excellency can interpose his veto + whenever he considers that a decision, though it may be perfectly legal, + is not conducive to the public good, and differences of opinion are + referred, not to the Senate, but to the Minister of the Interior, who is + always naturally disposed to support the views of his subordinate. + </p> + <p> + In order to put an end to all this insubordination, Count Tolstoy, the + reactionary Minister of the Interior, prepared a scheme of reorganisation + in accordance with his anti-liberal views, but he died before he could + carry it out, and a much milder reorganisation was adopted in the law of + 12th (24th) June, 1890. The principal changes introduced by that law were + that the number of delegates in the Assemblies was reduced by about a + fourth, and the relative strength of the different social classes was + altered. Under the old law the Noblesse had about 42 per cent., and the + peasantry about 38 per cent, of the seats; by the new electoral + arrangements the former have 57 per cent, and the latter about 30. It does + not necessarily follow, however, that the Assemblies are more conservative + or more subservient on that account. Liberalism and insubordination are + much more likely to be found among the nobles than among the peasants. + </p> + <p> + In addition to all this, as there was an apprehension in the higher + official spheres of St. Petersburg that the opposition spirit of the + Zemstvo might find public expression in a printed form, the provincial + Governors received extensive rights of preventive censure with regard to + the publication of the minutes of Zemstvo Assemblies and similar + documents. + </p> + <p> + What the bureaucracy, in its zeal to defend the integrity of the + Autocratic Power, feared most of all was combination for a common purpose + on the part of the Zemstvos of different provinces. It vetoed, therefore, + all such combinations, even for statistical purposes; and when it + discovered, a few years ago, that leading members of the Zemstvo from all + parts of the country were holding private meetings in Moscow for the + ostensible purpose of discussing economic questions, it ordered them to + return to their homes. + </p> + <p> + Even within its proper sphere, as defined by law, the Zemstvo has not + accomplished what was expected of it. The country has not been covered + with a network of macadamised roads, and the bridges are by no means as + safe as could be desired. Village schools and infirmaries are still far + below the requirements of the population. Little or nothing has been done + for the development of trade or manufactures; and the villages remain very + much what they were under the old Administration. Meanwhile the local + rates have been rising with alarming rapidity; and many people draw from + all this the conclusion that the Zemstvo is a worthless institution which + has increased the taxation without conferring any corresponding benefit on + the country. + </p> + <p> + If we take as our criterion in judging the institution the exaggerated + expectations at first entertained, we may feel inclined to agree with this + conclusion, but this is merely tantamount to saying that the Zemstvo has + performed no miracles. Russia is much poorer and much less densely + populated than the more advanced nations which she takes as her model. To + suppose that she could at once create for herself by means of an + administrative reform all the conveniences which those more advanced + nations enjoy, was as absurd as it would be to imagine that a poor man can + at once construct a magnificent palace because he has received from a + wealthy neighbour the necessary architectural plans. Not only years but + generations must pass before Russia can assume the appearance of Germany, + France, or England. The metamorphosis may be accelerated or retarded by + good government, but it could not be effected at once, even if the + combined wisdom of all the philosophers and statesmen in Europe were + employed in legislating for the purpose. + </p> + <p> + The Zemstvo has, however, done much more than the majority of its critics + admit. It fulfils tolerably well, without scandalous peculation and + jobbery, its commonplace, every-day duties, and it has created a new and + more equitable system of rating, by which landed proprietors and + house-owners are made to bear their share of the public burdens. It has + done a very great deal to provide medical aid and primary education for + the common people, and it has improved wonderfully the condition of the + hospitals, lunatic asylums, and other benevolent institutions committed to + its charge. In its efforts to aid the peasantry it has helped to improve + the native breeds of horses and cattle, and it has created a system of + obligatory fire-insurance, together with means for preventing and + extinguishing fires in the villages—a most important matter in a + country where the peasants live in wooden houses and big fires are + fearfully frequent. After neglecting for a good many years the essential + question as to how the peasants' means of subsistence can be increased, it + has latterly, as I have mentioned in a foregoing chapter, helped them to + obtain improved agricultural implements and better seed, encouraged the + formation of small credit associations and savings banks, and appointed + agricultural inspectors to teach them how they may introduce modest + improvements within their limited means.* At the same time, in many + districts it has endeavoured to assist the home industries which are + threatened with annihilation by the big factories, and whenever measures + have been proposed for the benefit of the rural population, such as the + lowering of the land-redemption payments and the creation of the Peasant + Land Bank, it has invariably given them its cordial support. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The amount expended for these objects in 1897, the latest year + for which I have statistical data, was about a million and a half + of roubles, or, roughly speaking, 150,000 pounds, distributed under + the following heads:—1. Agricultural tuition + 41,100 pounds. + 2. Experimental stations, museums, etc 19,800 + 3. Scientific agriculturists 17,400 + 4. Agricultural industries 26,700 + 5. Improving breeds of horses and cattle 45,300 + ———- + 150,300 pounds. +</pre> + <p> + If you ask a zealous member of the Zemstvo why it has not done more he + will probably tell you that it is because its activity has been constantly + restricted and counteracted by the Government. The Assemblies were obliged + to accept as presidents the Marshals of Noblesse, many of whom were men of + antiquated ideas and retrograde principles. At every turn the more + enlightened, more active members found themselves opposed, thwarted, and + finally checkmated by the Imperial officials. When a laudable attempt was + made to tax trade and industry more equitably the scheme was vetoed, and + consequently the mercantile class, sure of being always taxed at a + ridiculously low maximum, have lost all interest in the proceedings. Even + with regard to the rating of landed and house property a low limit is + imposed by the Government, because it is afraid that if the rates were + raised much it would not be able to collect the heavy Imperial taxation. + The uncontrolled publicity which was at first enjoyed by the Assemblies + was afterwards curtailed by the bureaucracy. Under such restrictions all + free, vigorous action became impossible, and the institutions failed to + effect what was reasonably anticipated. + </p> + <p> + All this is true in a certain sense, but it is not the whole truth. If we + examine some of the definite charges brought against the institution we + shall understand better its real character. + </p> + <p> + The most common complaint made against it is that it has enormously + increased the rates. On that point there is no possibility of dispute. At + first its expenditure in the thirty-four provinces in which it existed was + under six millions of roubles; in two years (1868) it had jumped up to + fifteen millions; in 1875 it was nearly twenty-eight millions, in 1885 + over forty-three millions, and at the end of the century it had attained + the respectable figure of 95,800,000 roubles. As each province had the + right of taxing itself, the increase varied greatly in different + provinces. In Smolensk, for example, it was only about thirty per cent., + whilst in Samara it was 436, and in Viatka, where the peasant element + predominates, no less than 1,262 per cent.! In order to meet this + increase, the rates on land rose from under ten millions in 1868 to over + forty-seven millions in 1900. No wonder that the landowners who find it + difficult to work their estates at a profit should complain! + </p> + <p> + Though this increase is disagreeable to the rate-payers, it does not + follow that it is excessive. In all countries rates and local taxation are + on the increase, and it is in the backward countries that they increase + most rapidly. In France, for example, the average yearly increase has been + 2.7 per cent., while in Austria it has been 5.59. In Russia it ought to + have been more than in Austria, whereas it has been, in the provinces with + Zemstvo institutions, only about 4 per cent. In comparison with the + Imperial taxation the local does not seem excessive when compared with + other countries. In England and Prussia, for instance, the State taxation + as compared with the local is as a hundred to fifty-four and fifty-one, + whilst in Russia it is as a hundred to sixteen.* A reduction in the + taxation as a whole would certainly contribute to the material welfare of + the rural population, but it is desirable that it should be made in the + Imperial taxes rather than in the rates, because the latter may be + regarded as something akin to productive investments, whilst the proceeds + of the former are expended largely on objects which have little or nothing + to do with the wants of the common people. In speaking thus I am assuming + that the local expenditure is made judiciously, and this is a matter on + which, I am bound to confess, there is by no means unanimity of opinion. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These figures are taken from the best available + authorities, chiefly Schwanebach and Scalon, but I am not + prepared to guarantee their accuracy. +</pre> + <p> + Hostile critics can point to facts which are, to say the least, strange + and anomalous. Out of the total of its revenue the Zemstvo spends about + twenty-eight per cent. under the heading of public health and benevolent + institutions; and about fifteen per cent. for popular education, whilst it + devotes only about six per cent. to roads and bridges, and until lately it + neglected, as I have said above, the means for improving agriculture and + directly increasing the income of the peasantry. + </p> + <p> + Before passing sentence with regard to these charges we must remember the + circumstances in which the Zemstvo was founded and has grown up. In the + early times its members were well-meaning men who had had very little + experience in administration or in practical life of any sort except the + old routine in which they had previously vegetated. Most of them had lived + enough in the country to know how much the peasants were in need of + medical assistance of the most elementary kind, and to this matter they at + once turned their attention. They tried to organise a system of doctors, + hospital assistants, and dispensaries by which the peasant would not have + to go more than fifteen or twenty miles to get a wound dressed or to have + a consultation or to obtain a simple remedy for ordinary ailments. They + felt the necessity, too, of thoroughly reorganising the hospitals and the + lunatic asylums, which were in a very unsatisfactory condition. Plainly + enough, there was here good work to be done. Then there were the higher + aims. In the absence of practical experience there were enthusiasms and + theories. Amongst these was the enthusiasm for education, and the theory + that the want of it was the chief reason why Russia had remained so far + behind the nations of Western Europe. Give us education, it was said, and + all other good things will be added thereto. Liberate the Russian people + from the bonds of ignorance as you have liberated it from the bonds of + serfage, and its wonderful natural capacities will then be able to create + everything that is required for its material, intellectual, and moral + welfare. + </p> + <p> + If there was any one among the leaders who took a more sober, prosaic view + of things he was denounced as an ignoramus and a reactionary. Willingly or + unwillingly, everybody had to swim with the current. Roads and bridges + were not entirely neglected, but the efforts in that direction were + confined to the absolutely indispensable. For such prosaic concerns there + was no enthusiasm, and it was universally recognised that in Russia the + construction of good roads, as the term is understood in Western Europe, + was far beyond the resources of any Administration. Of the necessity for + such roads few were conscious. All that was required was to make it + possible to get from one place to another in ordinary weather and ordinary + circumstances. If a stream was too deep to be forded, a bridge had to be + built or a ferry had to be established; and if the approach to a bridge + was so marshy or muddy that vehicles often sank quite up to the axles and + had to be dragged out by ropes, with the assistance of the neighbouring + villagers, repairs had to be made. Beyond this the efforts of the Zemstvo + rarely went. Its road-building ambition remained within very modest + bounds. + </p> + <p> + As for the impoverishment of the peasantry and the necessity of improving + their system of agriculture, that question had hardly appeared above the + horizon. It might have to be dealt with in the future, but there was no + need for hurry. Once the rural population were educated, the question + would solve itself. It was not till about the year 1885 that it was + recognised to be more urgent than had been supposed, and some Zemstvos + perceived that the people might starve before its preparatory education + was completed. Repeated famines pushed the lesson home, and the landed + proprietors found their revenues diminished by the fall in the price of + grain on the European markets. Thus was raised the cry: "Agriculture in + Russia is on the decline! The country has entered on an acute economic + crisis! If energetic measures be not taken promptly the people will soon + find themselves confronted by starvation!" + </p> + <p> + To this cry of alarm the Zemstvo was neither deaf nor indifferent. + Recognising that the danger could be averted only by inducing the + peasantry to adopt a more intensive system of agriculture, it directed + more and more of its attention to agricultural improvements, and tried to + get them adopted.* It did, in short, all it could, according to its lights + and within the limits of its moderate resources. Its available resources + were small, unfortunately, for it was forbidden by the Government to + increase the rates, and it could not well dismiss doctors and close + dispensaries and schools when the people were clamouring for more. So at + least the defenders of the Zemstvo maintain, and they go so far as to + contend that it did well not to grapple with the impoverishment of the + peasantry at an earlier period, when the real conditions of the problem + and the means of solving it were only very imperfectly known: if it had + begun at that time it would have made great blunders and spent much money + to little purpose. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Vide supra, p. 489. +</pre> + <p> + However this may be, it would certainly be unfair to condemn the Zemstvo + for not being greatly in advance of public opinion. If it endeavours + strenuously to supply all clearly recognised wants, that is all that can + reasonably be expected of it. What it may be more justly reproached with + is, in my opinion, that it is, to a certain extent, imbued with that + unpractical, pedantic spirit which is commonly supposed to reside + exclusively in the Imperial Administration. But here again it simply + reflects public opinion and certain intellectual peculiarities of the + educated classes. When a Russian begins to write on a simple everyday + subject, he likes to connect it with general principles, philosophy, or + history, and begins, perhaps, by expounding his views on the intellectual + and social developments of humanity in general and of Russia in + particular. If he has sufficient space at his disposal he may even tell + you something about the early period of Russian history previous to the + Mongol invasion before he gets to the simple matter in hand. In a previous + chapter I have described the process of "shedding on a subject the light + of science" in Imperial legislation.* In Zemstvo activity we often meet + with pedantry of a similar kind. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Vide supra, p. 343. +</pre> + <p> + If this pedantry were confined to the writing of Reports it might not do + much harm. Unfortunately, it often appears in the sphere of action. To + illustrate this I take a recent instance from the province of + Nizhni-Novgorod. The Zemstvo of that province received from the Central + Government in 1895 a certain amount of capital for road-improvement, with + instructions from the Ministry of Interior that it should classify the + roads according to their relative importance and improve them accordingly. + Any intelligent person well acquainted with the region might have made, in + the course of a week or two, the required classification accurately enough + for all practical purposes. Instead of adopting this simple procedure, + what does the Zemstvo do? It chooses one of the eleven districts of which + the province is composed and instructs its statistical department to + describe all the villages with a view of determining the amount of traffic + which each will probably contribute to the general movement, and then it + verifies its a priori conclusions by means of a detachment of specially + selected "registrars," posted at all the crossways during six days of each + month. These registrars doubtless inscribed every peasant cart as it + passed and made a rough estimate of the weight of its load. When this + complicated and expensive procedure was completed for one district it was + applied to another; but at the end of three years, before all the villages + of this second district had been described and the traffic estimated, the + energy of the statistical department seems to have flagged, and, like a + young author impatient to see himself in print, it published a volume at + the public expense which no one will ever read. + </p> + <p> + The cost entailed by this procedure is not known, but we may form some + idea of the amount of time required for the whole operation. It is a + simple rule-of-three sum. If it took three years for the preparatory + investigation of a district and a half, how many years will be required + for eleven districts? More than twenty years! During that period it would + seem that the roads are to remain as they are, and when the moment comes + for improving them it will be found that, unless the province is condemned + to economic stagnation, the "valuable statistical material" collected at + such an expenditure of time and money is in great part antiquated and + useless. The statistical department will be compelled, therefore, like + another unfortunate Sisyphus, to begin the work anew, and it is difficult + to see how the Zemstvo, unless it becomes a little more practical, is ever + to get out of the vicious circle. + </p> + <p> + In this case the evil result of pedantry was simply unnecessary delay, and + in the meantime the capital was accumulating, unless the interest was + entirely swallowed up by the statistical researches; but there are cases + in which the consequences are more serious. Let me take an illustration + from the enlightened province of Moscow. It was observed that certain + villages were particularly unhealthy, and it was pointed out by a local + doctor that the inhabitants were in the habit of using for domestic + purposes the water of ponds which were in a filthy condition. What was + evidently wanted was good wells, and a practical man would at once have + taken measures to have them dug. Not so the District Zemstvo. It at once + transformed the simple fact into a "question" requiring scientific + investigation. A commission was appointed to study the problem, and after + much deliberation it was decided to make a geological survey in order to + ascertain the depth of good water throughout the district as a preparatory + step towards preparing a project which will some day be discussed in the + District Assembly, and perhaps in the Assembly of the province. Whilst all + this is being done according to the strict principles of bureaucratic + procedure, the unfortunate peasants for whose benefit the investigation + was undertaken continue to drink the muddy water of the dirty ponds. + </p> + <p> + Incidents of that kind, which I might multiply almost to any extent, + remind one of the proverbial formalism of the Chinese; but between Chinese + and Russian pedantry there is an essential difference. In the Middle + Kingdom the sacrifice of practical considerations proceeds from an + exaggerated veneration of the wisdom of ancestors; in the Empire of the + Tsars it is due to an exaggerated adoration of the goddess Nauka (Science) + and a habit of appealing to abstract principles and scientific methods + when only a little plain common-sense is required. + </p> + <p> + On one occasion, I remember, in a District Assembly of the province of + Riazan, when the subject of primary schools was being discussed, an + influential member started up, and proposed that an obligatory system of + education should at once be introduced throughout the whole district. + Strange to say, the motion was very nearly carried, though all the members + present knew—or at least might have known if they had taken the + trouble to inquire—that the actual number of schools would have to + be multiplied twenty-fold, and all were agreed that the local rates must + not be increased. To preserve his reputation for liberalism, the + honourable member further proposed that, though the system should be + obligatory, no fines, punishments, or other means of compulsion should be + employed. How a system could be obligatory without using some means of + compulsion, he did not condescend to explain. To get out of the difficulty + one of his supporters suggested that the peasants who did not send their + children to school should be excluded from serving as office-bearers in + the Communes; but this proposition merely created a laugh, for many + deputies knew that the peasants would regard this supposed punishment as a + valuable privilege. And whilst this discussion about the necessity of + introducing an ideal system of obligatory education was being carried on, + the street before the windows of the room was covered with a stratum of + mud nearly two feet in depth! The other streets were in a similar + condition; and a large number of the members always arrived late, because + it was almost impossible to come on foot, and there was only one public + conveyance in the town. Many members had, fortunately, their private + conveyances, but even in these locomotion was by no means easy. One day, + in the principal thoroughfare, a member had his tarantass overturned, and + he himself was thrown into the mud! + </p> + <p> + It is hardly fair to compare the Zemstvo with the older institutions of a + similar kind in Western Europe, and especially with our own local + self-government. Our institutions have all grown out of real, practical + wants keenly felt by a large section of the population. Cautious and + conservative in all that concerns the public welfare, we regard change as + a necessary evil, and put off the evil day as long as possible, even when + convinced that it must inevitably come. Thus our administrative wants are + always in advance of our means of satisfying them, and we use vigorously + those means as soon as they are supplied. Our method of supplying the + means, too, is peculiar. Instead of making a tabula rasa, and beginning + from the foundations, we utilise to the utmost what we happen to possess, + and add merely what is absolutely indispensable. Metaphorically speaking, + we repair and extend our political edifice according to the changing + necessities of our mode of life, without paying much attention to abstract + principles or the contingencies of the distant future. The building may be + an aesthetic monstrosity, belonging to no recognised style of + architecture, and built in defiance of the principles laid down by + philosophical art critics, but it is well adapted to our requirements, and + every hole and corner of it is sure to be utilised. + </p> + <p> + Very different has been the political history of Russia during the last + two centuries. It may be briefly described as a series of revolutions + effected peaceably by the Autocratic Power. Each young energetic sovereign + has attempted to inaugurate a new epoch by thoroughly remodelling the + Administration according to the most approved foreign political philosophy + of the time. Institutions have not been allowed to grow spontaneously out + of popular wants, but have been invented by bureaucratic theorists to + satisfy wants of which the people were still unconscious. The + administrative machine has therefore derived little or no motive force + from the people, and has always been kept in motion by the unaided energy + of the Central Government. Under these circumstances it is not surprising + that the repeated attempts of the Government to lighten the burdens of + centralised administration by creating organs of local self-government + should not have been very successful. + </p> + <p> + The Zemstvo, it is true, offered better chances of success than any of its + predecessors. A large portion of the nobles had become alive to the + necessity of improving the administration, and the popular interest in + public affairs was much greater than at any former period. Hence there was + at first a period of enthusiasm, during which great preparations were made + for future activity, and not a little was actually effected. The + institution had all the charm of novelty, and the members felt that the + eyes of the public were upon them. For a time all went well, and the + Zemstvo was so well pleased with its own activity that the satirical + journals compared it to Narcissus admiring his image reflected in the + pool. But when the charm of novelty had passed and the public turned its + attention to other matters, the spasmodic energy evaporated, and many of + the most active members looked about for more lucrative employment. Such + employment was easily found, for at that time there was an unusual demand + for able, energetic, educated men. Several branches of the civil service + were being reorganised, and railways, banks, and joint-stock companies + were being rapidly multiplied. With these the Zemstvo had great difficulty + in competing. It could not, like the Imperial service, offer pensions, + decorations, and prospects of promotion, nor could it pay such large + salaries as the commercial and industrial enterprises. In consequence of + all this, the quality of the executive bureaux deteriorated at the same + time as the public interest in the institution diminished. + </p> + <p> + To be just to the Zemstvo, I must add that, with all its defects and + errors, it is infinitely better than the institutions which it replaced. + If we compare it with previous attempts to create local self-government, + we must admit that the Russians have made great progress in their + political education. What its future may be I do not venture to predict. + From its infancy it has had, as we have seen, the ambition to play a great + political part, and at the beginning of the recent stirring times in St. + Petersburg its leading representatives in conclave assembled took upon + themselves to express what they considered the national demand for liberal + representative institutions. The desire, which had previously from time to + time been expressed timidly and vaguely in loyal addresses to the Tsar, + that a central Zemstvo Assembly, bearing the ancient title of Zemski + Sobor, should be convoked in the capital and endowed with political + functions, was now put forward by the representatives in plain unvarnished + form. Whether this desire is destined to be realised time will show. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0033" id="link2HCH0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE NEW LAW COURTS + </h3> + <p> + Judicial Procedure in the Olden Times—Defects and Abuses—Radical + Reform—The New System—Justices of the Peace and Monthly + Sessions—The Regular Tribunals—Court of Revision—Modification + of the Original Plan—How Does the System Work?—Rapid + Acclimatisation—The Bench—The Jury—Acquittal of + Criminals Who Confess Their Crimes—Peasants, Merchants, and Nobles + as Jurymen—Independence and Political Significance of the New + Courts. + </p> + <p> + After serf-emancipation and local self-government, the subject which + demanded most urgently the attention of reformers was the judicial + organisation, which had sunk to a depth of inefficiency and corruption + difficult to describe. + </p> + <p> + In early times the dispensation of justice in Russia, as in other States + of a primitive type, had a thoroughly popular character. The State was + still in its infancy, and the duty of defending the person, the property, + and the rights of individuals lay, of necessity, chiefly on the + individuals themselves. Self-help formed the basis of the judicial + procedure, and the State merely assisted the individual to protect his + rights and to avenge himself on those who voluntarily infringed them. + </p> + <p> + By the rapid development of the Autocratic Power all this was changed. + Autocracy endeavoured to drive and regulate the social machine by its own + unaided force, and regarded with suspicion and jealousy all spontaneous + action in the people. The dispensation of justice was accordingly + appropriated by the central authority, absorbed into the Administration, + and withdrawn from public control. Themis retired from the market-place, + shut herself up in a dark room from which the contending parties and the + public gaze were rigorously excluded, surrounded herself with secretaries + and scribes who put the rights and claims of the litigants into whatever + form they thought proper, weighed according to her own judgment the + arguments presented to her by her own servants, and came forth from her + seclusion merely to present a ready-made decision or to punish the accused + whom she considered guilty. + </p> + <p> + This change, though perhaps to some extent necessary, was attended with + very bad consequences. Freed from the control of the contending parties + and of the public, the courts acted as uncontrolled human nature generally + does. Injustice, extortion, bribery, and corruption assumed gigantic + proportions, and against these evils the Government found no better remedy + than a system of complicated formalities and ingenious checks. The + judicial functionaries were hedged in by a multitude of regulations, so + numerous and complicated that it seemed impossible for even the most + unjust judge to swerve from the path of uprightness. Explicit, minute + rules were laid down for investigating facts and weighing evidence; every + scrap of evidence and every legal ground on which the decision was based + were committed to writing; every act in the complicated process of coming + to a decision was made the subject of a formal document, and duly entered + in various registers; every document and register had to be signed and + countersigned by various officials who were supposed to control each + other; every decision might be carried to a higher court and made to pass + a second time through the bureaucratic machine. In a word, the legislature + introduced a system of formal written procedure of the most complicated + kind, in the belief that by this means mistakes and dishonesty would be + rendered impossible. + </p> + <p> + It may be reasonably doubted whether this system of judicial + administration can anywhere give satisfactory results. It is everywhere + found by experience that in tribunals from which the healthy atmosphere of + publicity is excluded justice languishes, and a great many ugly plants + shoot up with wonderful vitality. Languid indifference, an + indiscriminating spirit of routine, and unblushing dishonesty invariably + creep in through the little chinks and crevices of the barrier raised + against them, and no method of hermetically sealing these chinks and + crevices has yet been invented. The attempt to close them up by increasing + the formalities and multiplying the courts of appeal and revision merely + adds to the tediousness of the procedure, and withdraws the whole process + still more completely from public control. At the same time the absence of + free discussion between the contending parties renders the task of the + judge enormously difficult. If the system is to succeed at all, it must + provide a body of able, intelligent, thoroughly-trained jurists, and must + place them beyond the reach of bribery and other forms of corruption. + </p> + <p> + In Russia neither of these conditions was fulfilled. Instead of + endeavouring to create a body of well-trained jurists, the Government went + further and further in the direction of letting the judges be chosen for a + short period by popular election from among men who had never received a + juridical education, or a fair education of any kind; whilst the place of + judge was so poorly paid, and stood so low in public estimation, that the + temptations to dishonesty were difficult to resist. + </p> + <p> + The practice of choosing the judges by popular election was an attempt to + restore to the courts something of their old popular character; but it did + not succeed, for very obvious reasons. Popular election in a judicial + organisation is useful only when the courts are public and the procedure + simple; on the contrary, it is positively prejudicial when the procedure + is in writing and extremely complicated. And so it proved in Russia. The + elected judges, unprepared for their work, and liable to be changed at + short intervals, rarely acquired a knowledge of law or procedure. They + were for the most part poor, indolent landed proprietors, who did little + more than sign the decisions prepared for them by the permanent officials. + Even when a judge happened to have some legal knowledge he found small + scope for its application, for he rarely, if ever, examined personally the + materials out of which a decision was to be elaborated. The whole of the + preliminary work, which was in reality the most important, was performed + by minor officials under the direction of the secretary of the court. In + criminal cases, for instance, the secretary examined the written evidence—all + evidence was taken down in writing—extracted what he considered the + essential points, arranged them as he thought proper, quoted the laws + which ought in his opinion to be applied, put all this into a report, and + read the report to the judges. Of course the judges, if they had no + personal interest in the decision, accepted the secretary's view of the + case. If they did not, all the preliminary work had to be done anew by + themselves—a task that few judges were able, and still fewer + willing, to perform. Thus the decision lay virtually in the hands of the + secretary and the minor officials, and in general neither the secretary + nor the minor officials were fit persons to have such power. There is no + need to detail here the ingenious expedients by which they increased their + meagre salaries, and how they generally contrived to extract money from + both parties.* Suffice it to say that in general the chancelleries of the + courts were dens of pettifogging rascality, and the habitual, unblushing + bribery had a negative as well as a positive effect. If a person accused + of some crime had no money wherewith to grease the palm of the secretary + he might remain in prison for years without being brought to trial. A + well-known Russian writer still living relates that when visiting a prison + in the province of Nizhni-Novgorod he found among the inmates undergoing + preliminary arrest two peasant women, who were accused of setting fire to + a hayrick to revenge themselves on a landed proprietor, a crime for which + the legal punishment was from four to eight months' imprisonment. One of + them had a son of seven years of age, and the other a son of twelve, both + of whom had been born in the prison, and had lived there ever since among + the criminals. Such a long preliminary arrest caused no surprise or + indignation among those who heard of it, because it was quite a common + occurrence. Every one knew that bribes were taken not only by the + secretary and his scribes, but also by the judges, who were elected by the + local Noblesse from its own ranks. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Old book-catalogues sometimes mention a play bearing the + significant title, "The Unheard-of Wonder; or, The Honest + Secretary" (Neslykhannoe Dyelo ili Tchestny Sekretar). I + have never seen this curious production, but I have no doubt + that it referred to the peculiarities of the old judicial + procedure. +</pre> + <p> + With regard to the scale of punishments, notwithstanding some humanitarian + principles in the legislation, they were very severe, and corporal + punishment played amongst them a disagreeably prominent part. Capital + sentences were abolished as early as 1753-54, but castigation with the + knout, which often ended fatally, continued until 1845, when it was + replaced by flogging in the civil administration, though retained for the + military and for insubordinate convicts. For the non-privileged classes + the knout or the lash supplemented nearly all punishments of a criminal + kind. When a man was condemned, for example, to penal servitude, he + received publicly from thirty to one hundred lashes, and was then branded + on the forehead and cheeks with the letters K. A. T.—the first three + letters of katorzhnik (convict). If he appealed he received his lashes all + the same, and if his appeal was rejected by the Senate he received some + more castigation for having troubled unnecessarily the higher judicial + authorities. For the military and insubordinate convicts there was a + barbarous punishment called Spitsruten, to the extent of 5,000 or 6,000 + blows, which often ended in the death of the unfortunate. + </p> + <p> + The use of torture in criminal investigations was formally abolished in + 1801, but if we may believe the testimony of a public prosecutor, it was + occasionally used in Moscow as late as 1850. + </p> + <p> + The defects and abuses of the old system were so flagrant that they became + known even to the Emperor Nicholas I., and caused him momentary + indignation, but he never attempted seriously to root them out. In 1844, + for example, he heard of some gross abuses in a tribunal not far from the + Winter Palace, and ordered an investigation. Baron Korff, to whom the + investigation was entrusted, brought to light what he called "a yawning + abyss of all possible horrors, which have been accumulating for years," + and his Majesty, after reading the report, wrote upon it with his own + hand: "Unheard-of disgrace! The carelessness of the authority immediately + concerned is incredible and unpardonable. I feel ashamed and sad that such + disorder could exist almost under my eyes and remain unknown to me." + Unfortunately the outburst of Imperial indignation did not last long + enough to produce any desirable consequences. The only result was that one + member of the tribunal was dismissed from the service, and the + Governor-General of St. Petersburg had to resign, but the latter + subsequently received an honorary reward, and the Emperor remarked that he + was himself to blame for having kept the Governor-General so long at his + post. + </p> + <p> + When his Majesty's habitual optimism happened to be troubled by incidents + of this sort he probably consoled himself with remembering that he had + ordered some preparatory work, by which the administration of justice + might be improved, and this work was being diligently carried out in the + legislative section of his own chancery by Count Bludof, one of the ablest + Russian lawyers of his time. Unfortunately the existing state of things + was not thereby improved, because the preparatory work was not of the kind + that was wanted. On the assumption that any evil which might exist could + be removed by improving the laws, Count Bludof devoted his efforts almost + entirely to codification. In reality what was required was to change + radically the organisation of the courts and the procedure, and above all + to let in on their proceedings the cleansing atmosphere of publicity. This + the Emperor Nicholas could not understand, and if he had understood it he + could not have brought himself to adopt the appropriate remedies, because + radical reform and control of officials by public opinion were his two pet + bugbears. + </p> + <p> + Very different was his son and successor, Alexander II., in the first + years of his reign. In his accession manifesto a prominent place was given + to his desire that justice and mercy should reign in the courts of law. + Referring to these words in a later manifesto, he explained his wishes + more fully as "the desire to establish in Russia expeditious, just, + merciful, impartial courts of justice for all our subjects; to raise the + judicial authority; to give it the proper independence, and in general to + implant in the people that respect for the law which ought to be the + constant guide of all and every one from the highest to the lowest." These + were not mere vain words. Peremptory orders had been given that the great + work should be undertaken without delay, and when the Emancipation + question was being discussed in the Provincial Committees, the Council of + State examined the question of judicial reform "from the historical, the + theoretical, and the practical point of view," and came to the conclusion + that the existing organisation must be completely transformed. + </p> + <p> + The commission appointed to consider this important matter filed a lengthy + indictment against the existing system, and pointed out no less than + twenty-five radical defects. To remove these it proposed that the judicial + organisation should be completely separated from all other branches of the + Administration; that the most ample publicity, with trial by jury in + criminal cases, should be introduced into the tribunals; that Justice of + Peace Courts should be created for petty affairs; and that the procedure + in the ordinary courts should be greatly simplified. + </p> + <p> + These fundamental principles were published by Imperial command on + September 29th, 1862—a year and a half after the publication of the + Emancipation Manifesto—and on November 20th, 1864, the new + legislation founded on these principles received the Imperial sanction. + </p> + <p> + Like most institutions erected on a tabula rasa, the new system is at once + simple and symmetrical. As a whole, the architecture of the edifice is + decidedly French, but here and there we may detect unmistakable symptoms + of English influence. It is not, however, a servile copy of any older + edifice; and it may be fairly said that, though every individual part has + been fashioned according to a foreign model, the whole has a certain + originality. + </p> + <p> + The lower part of the building in its original form was composed of two + great sections, distinct from, and independent of, each other—on the + one hand the Justice of Peace Courts, and on the other the Regular + Tribunals. Both sections contained an Ordinary Court and a Court of + Appeal. The upper part of the building, covering equally both sections, + was the Senate as Supreme Court of Revision (Cour de Cassation). + </p> + <p> + The distinctive character of the two independent sections may be detected + at a glance. The function of the Justice of Peace Courts is to decide + petty cases that involve no abstruse legal principles, and to settle, if + possible by conciliation, those petty conflicts and disputes which arise + naturally in the relations of everyday life; the function of the Regular + Tribunals is to take cognisance of those graver affairs in which the + fortune or honour of individuals or families is more or less implicated, + or in which the public tranquillity is seriously endangered. The two kinds + of courts were organised in accordance with these intended functions. In + the former the procedure is simple and conciliatory, the jurisdiction is + confined to cases of little importance, and the judges were at first + chosen by popular election, generally from among the local inhabitants. In + the latter there is more of "the pomp and majesty of the law." The + procedure is more strict and formal, the jurisdiction is unlimited with + regard to the importance of the cases, and the judges are trained jurists + nominated by the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + The Justice of Peace Courts received jurisdiction over all obligations and + civil injuries in which the sum at stake was not more than 500 roubles—about + 50 pounds—and all criminal affairs in which the legal punishment did + not exceed 300 roubles—about 30 pounds—or one year of + punishment. When any one had a complaint to make, he might go to the + Justice of the Peace (Mirovoi Sudya) and explain the affair orally, or in + writing, without observing any formalities; and if the complaint seemed + well founded, the Justice at once fixed a day for hearing the case, and + gave the other party notice to appear at the appointed time. When the time + appointed arrived, the affair was discussed publicly and orally, either by + the parties themselves, or by any representatives whom they might appoint. + If it was a civil suit, the Justice began by proposing to the parties to + terminate it at once by a compromise, and indicated what he considered a + fair arrangement. Many affairs were terminated in this simple way. If, + however, either of the parties refused to consent to a compromise, the + matter was fully discussed, and the Justice gave a formal written + decision, containing the grounds on which it was based. In criminal cases + the amount of punishment was always determined by reference to a special + Criminal Code. + </p> + <p> + If the sum at issue exceeded thirty roubles—about 3 pounds—or + if the punishment exceeded a fine of fifteen roubles—about 30s.—or + three days of arrest, an appeal might be made to the Assembly of Justices + (Mirovoi Syezd). This is a point in which English rather than French + institutions were taken as a model. According to the French system, all + appeals from a Juge de Paix are made to the "Tribunal d'Arrondissement," + and the Justice of Peace Courts are thereby subordinated to the Regular + Tribunals. According to the English system, certain cases may be carried + on appeal from the Justice of the Peace to the Quarter Sessions. This + latter principle was adopted and greatly developed by the Russian + legislation. The Monthly Sessions, composed of all the Justices of the + District (uyezd), considered appeals against the decisions of the + individual Justices. The procedure was simple and informal, as in the + lower court, but an assistant of the Procureur was always present. This + functionary gave his opinion in some civil and in all criminal cases + immediately after the debate, and the Court took his opinion into + consideration in framing its judgment. + </p> + <p> + In the other great section of the judicial organisation—the Regular + Tribunals—there are likewise Ordinary Courts and Courts of Appeal, + called respectively "Tribunaux d'Arrondissement" (Okruzhniye Sudy) and + "Palais de Justice" (Sudebniya Palaty). Each Ordinary Court has + jurisdiction over several Districts (uyezdy), and the jurisdiction of each + Court of Appeals comprehends several Provinces. All civil cases are + subject to appeal, however small the sum at stake may be, but criminal + cases are decided FINALLY by the lower court with the aid of a jury. Thus + in criminal affairs the "Palais de Justice" is not at all a court of + appeal, but as no regular criminal prosecution can be raised without its + formal consent, it controls in some measure the action of the lower + courts. + </p> + <p> + As the general reader cannot be supposed to take an interest in the + details of civil procedure, I shall merely say on this subject that in + both sections of the Regular Tribunals the cases are always tried by at + least three judges, the sittings are public, and oral debates by + officially recognised advocates form an important part of the proceedings. + I venture, however, to speak a little more at length regarding the change + which has been made in the criminal procedure—a subject that is less + technical and more interesting for the uninitiated. + </p> + <p> + Down to the time of the recent judicial reforms the procedure in criminal + cases was secret and inquisitorial. The accused had little opportunity of + defending himself, but, on the other hand, the State took endless formal + precautions against condemning the innocent. The practical consequence of + this system was that an innocent man might remain for years in prison + until the authorities convinced themselves of his innocence, whilst a + clever criminal might indefinitely postpone his condemnation. + </p> + <p> + In studying the history of criminal procedure in foreign countries, those + who were entrusted with the task of preparing projects of reform found + that nearly every country of Europe had experienced the evils from which + Russia was suffering, and that one country after another had come to the + conviction that the most efficient means of removing these evils was to + replace the inquisitorial by litigious procedure, to give a fair field and + no favour to the prosecutor and the accused, and allow them to fight out + their battle with whatever legal weapons they might think fit. Further, it + was discovered that, according to the most competent foreign authorities, + it was well in this modern form of judicial combat to leave the decision + to a jury of respectable citizens. The steps which Russia had to take were + thus clearly marked out by the experience of other nations, and it was + decided that they should be taken at once. The organs for the prosecution + of supposed criminals were carefully separated from the judges on the one + hand, and from the police on the other; oral discussions between the + Public Prosecutor and the prisoner's counsel, together with oral + examination and cross-questioning of witnesses, were introduced into the + procedure; and the jury was made an essential factor in criminal trials. + </p> + <p> + When a case, whether civil or criminal, has been decided in the Regular + Tribunals, there is no possibility of appeal in the strict sense of the + term, but an application may be made for a revision of the case on the + ground of technical informality. To use the French terms, there cannot be + appel, but there may be cassation. If there has been any omission or + transgression of essential legal formalities, or if the Court has + overstepped the bounds of its legal authority, the injured party may make + an application to have the case revised and tried again.* This is not, + according to French juridical conceptions, an appeal. The Court of + Revision** (Cour de Cassation) does not enter into the material facts of + the case, but merely decides the question as to whether the essential + formalities have been duly observed, and as to whether the law has been + properly interpreted and applied; and if it be found on examination that + there is some ground for invalidating the decision, it does not decide the + case. According to the new Russian system, the sole Court of Revision is + the Senate. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the procedure referred to by Karl Karl'itch, vide + supra, p 37. + + ** I am quite aware that the term "Court of Revision" is + equivocal, but I have no better term to propose, and I hope + the above explanations will prevent confusion. +</pre> + <p> + The Senate thus forms the regulator of the whole judicial system, but its + action is merely regulative. It takes cognisance only of what is presented + to it, and supplies to the machine no motive power. If any of the lower + courts should work slowly or cease to work altogether, the Senate might + remain ignorant of the fact, and certainly could take no official notice + of it. It was considered necessary, therefore, to supplement the + spontaneous vitality of the lower courts, and for this purpose was created + a special centralised judicial administration, at the head of which was + placed the Minister of Justice. The Minister is "Procureur-General," and + has subordinates in all the courts. The primary function of this + administration is to preserve the force of the law, to detect and repair + all infractions of judicial order, to defend the interests of the State + and of those persons who are officially recognised as incapable of taking + charge of their own affairs, and to act in criminal matters as Public + Prosecutor. + </p> + <p> + Viewed as a whole, and from a little distance, this grand judicial edifice + seems perfectly symmetrical, but a closer and more minute inspection + brings to light unmistakable indications of a change of plan during the + process of construction. Though the work lasted only about half-a-dozen + years, the style of the upper differs from the style of the lower parts, + precisely as in those Gothic cathedrals which grew up slowly during the + course of centuries. And there is nothing here that need surprise us, for + a considerable change took place in the opinions of the official world + during that short period. The reform was conceived at a time of uncritical + enthusiasm for advanced liberal ideas, of boundless faith in the dictates + of science, of unquestioning reliance on public spirit, public control, + and public honesty—a time in which it was believed that the public + would spontaneously do everything necessary for the common weal, if it + were only freed from the administrative swaddling-clothes in which it had + been hitherto bound. Still smarting from the severe regime of Nicholas, + men thought more about protecting the rights of the individual than about + preserving public order, and under the influence of the socialistic ideas + in vogue malefactors were regarded as the unfortunate, involuntary victims + of social inequality and injustice. + </p> + <p> + Towards the end of the period in question all this had begun to change. + Many were beginning to perceive that liberty might easily turn to license, + that the spontaneous public energy was largely expended in empty words, + and that a certain amount of hierarchical discipline was necessary in + order to keep the public administration in motion. It was found, + therefore, in 1864, that it was impossible to carry out to their ultimate + consequences the general principles laid down and published in 1862. Even + in those parts of the legislation which were actually put in force, it was + found necessary to make modifications in an indirect, covert way. Of + these, one may be cited by way of illustration. In 1860 criminal inquiries + were taken out of the hands of the police and transferred to Juges + d'instruction (Sudebniye Sledovateli), who were almost entirely + independent of the Public Prosecutor, and could not be removed unless + condemned for some legal transgression by a Regular Tribunal. This reform + created at first much rejoicing and great expectations, because it raised + a barrier against the tyranny of the police and against the arbitrary + power of the higher officials. But very soon the defects of the system + became apparent. Many Juges d'instruction, feeling themselves independent, + and knowing that they would not be prosecuted except for some flagrantly + illegal act, gave way to indolence, and spent their time in inactivity.* + In such cases it was always difficult, and sometimes impossible, to + procure a condemnation—for indolence must assume gigantic + proportions in order to become a crime—and the minister had to adopt + the practice of appointing, without Imperial confirmation, temporary Juges + d'instruction whom he could remove at pleasure. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A flagrant case of this kind came under my own + observation. +</pre> + <p> + It is unnecessary, however, to enter into these theoretical defects. The + important question for the general public is: How do the institutions work + in the local conditions in which they are placed? + </p> + <p> + This is a question which has an interest not only for Russians, but for + all students of social science, for it tends to throw light on the + difficult subject as to how far institutions may be successfully + transplanted to a foreign soil. Many thinkers hold, and not without + reason, that no institution can work well unless it is the natural product + of previous historical development. Now we have here an opportunity of + testing this theory by experience; we have even what Bacon terms an + experimentum crucis. This new judicial system is an artificial creation + constructed in accordance with principles laid down by foreign jurists. + All that the elaborators of the project said about developing old + institutions was mere talk. In reality they made a tabula rasa of the + existing organisation. If the introduction of public oral procedure and + trial by jury was a return to ancient customs, it was a return to what had + been long since forgotten by all except antiquarian specialists, and no + serious attempt was made to develop what actually existed. One form, + indeed, of oral procedure had been preserved in the Code, but it had + fallen completely into disuse, and seems to have been overlooked by the + elaborators of the new system.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I refer to the so-called Sud po forme established by an + ukaz of Peter the Great, in 1723. I was much astonished + when I accidentally stumbled upon it in the Code. +</pre> + <p> + Having in general little confidence in institutions which spring + ready-made from the brains of autocratic legislators, I expected to find + that this new judicial organisation, which looks so well on paper, was + well-nigh worthless in reality. Observation, however, has not confirmed my + pessimistic expectations. On the contrary, I have found that these new + institutions, though they have not yet had time to strike deep root, and + are very far from being perfect even in the human sense of the term, work + on the whole remarkably well, and have already conferred immense benefit + on the country. + </p> + <p> + In the course of a few years the Justice of Peace Courts, which may + perhaps be called the newest part of the new institutions, became + thoroughly acclimatised, as if they had existed for generations. As soon + as they were opened they became extremely popular. In Moscow the + authorities had calculated that under the new system the number of cases + would be more than doubled, and that on an average each justice would have + nearly a thousand cases brought before him in the course of the year. The + reality far exceeded their expectations: each justice had on an average + 2,800 cases. In St. Petersburg and the other large towns the amount of + work which the justices had to get through was equally great. + </p> + <p> + To understand the popularity of the Justice of Peace Courts, we must know + something of the old police courts which they supplanted. The nobles, the + military, and the small officials had always looked on the police with + contempt, because their position secured them against interference, and + the merchants acquired a similar immunity by submitting to blackmail, + which often took the form of a fixed subsidy; but the lower classes in + town and country stood, in fear of the humblest policeman, and did not + dare to complain of him to his superiors. If two workmen brought their + differences before a police court, instead of getting their case decided + on grounds of equity, they were pretty sure to get scolded in language + unfit for ears polite, or to receive still worse treatment. Even among the + higher officers of the force many became famous for their brutality. A + Gorodnitchi of the town of Tcherkassy, for example, made for himself in + this respect a considerable reputation. If any humble individual ventured + to offer an objection to him, he had at once recourse to his fists, and + any reference to the law put him into a state of frenzy. "The town," he + was wont to say on such occasions, "has been entrusted to me by his + Majesty, and you dare to talk to me of the law? There is the law for you!"—the + remark being accompanied with a blow. Another officer of the same type, + long resident in Kief, had a somewhat different method of maintaining + order. He habitually drove about the town with a Cossack escort, and when + any one of the lower classes had the misfortune to displease him, he + ordered one of his Cossacks to apply a little corporal punishment on the + spot without any legal formalities. + </p> + <p> + In the Justice of Peace Courts things were conducted in a very different + style. The justice, always scrupulously polite without distinction of + persons, listened patiently to the complaint, tried to arrange the affairs + amicably, and when his efforts failed, gave his decision at once according + to law and common-sense. No attention was paid to rank or social position. + A general who would not attend to the police regulations was fined like an + ordinary workingman, and in a dispute between a great dignitary and a man + of the people the two were treated in precisely the same way. No wonder + such courts became popular among the masses; and their popularity was + increased when it became known that the affairs were disposed of + expeditiously, without unnecessary formalities and without any bribes or + blackmail. Many peasants regarded the justice as they had been wont to + regard kindly proprietors of the old patriarchal type, and brought their + griefs and sorrows to him in the hope that he would somehow alleviate + them. Often they submitted most intimate domestic and matrimonial concerns + of which no court could possibly take cognisance, and sometimes they + demanded the fulfilment of contracts which were in flagrant contradiction + not only with the written law, but also with ordinary morality.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Many curious instances of this have come to my knowledge, + but they are of such a kind that they cannot be quoted in a + work intended for the general public. +</pre> + <p> + Of course, the courts were not entirely without blemishes. In the matter, + for example, of making no distinction of persons some of the early + justices, in seeking to avoid Scylla, came dangerously near to Charybdis. + Imagining that their mission was to eradicate the conceptions and habits + which had been created and fostered by serfage, they sometimes used their + authority for giving lessons in philanthropic liberalism, and took a + malicious delight in wounding the susceptibilities, and occasionally even + the material interests, of those whom they regarded as enemies to the good + cause. In disputes between master and servant, or between employer and + workmen, the justice of this type considered it his duty to resist the + tyranny of capital, and was apt to forget his official character of judge + in his assumed character of social reformer. Happily these aberrations on + the part of the justices are already things of the past, but they helped + to bring about a reaction, as we shall see presently. + </p> + <p> + The extreme popularity of the Justice of Peace Courts did not last very + long. Their history resembled that of the Zemstvo and many other new + institutions in Russia—at first, enthusiasm and inordinate + expectations; then consciousness of defects and practical inconveniences; + and, lastly, in an influential section of the public, the pessimism of + shattered illusions, accompanied by the adoption of a reactionary policy + on the part of the Government. The discontent appeared first among the + so-called privileged classes. To people who had all their lives enjoyed + great social consideration it seemed monstrous that they should be treated + exactly in the same way as the muzhik; and when a general who was + accustomed to be addressed as "Your Excellency," was accused of using + abusive language to his cook, and found himself seated on the same bench + with the menial, he naturally supposed that the end of all things was at + hand; or perhaps a great civil official, who was accustomed to regard the + police as created merely for the lower classes, suddenly found himself, to + his inexpressible astonishment, fined for a contravention of police + regulations! Naturally the justices were accused of dangerous + revolutionary tendencies, and when they happened to bring to light some + injustice on the part of the tchinovnik they were severely condemned for + undermining the prestige of the Imperial authority. + </p> + <p> + For a time the accusations provoked merely a smile or a caustic remark + among the Liberals, but about the middle of the eighties criticisms began + to appear even in the Liberal Press. No very grave allegations were made, + but defects in the system and miscarriages of justice were put forward and + severely commented upon. Occasionally it happened that a justice was + indolent, or that at the Sessions in a small country town it was + impossible to form a quorum on the appointed day. Overlooking the good + features of the institution and the good services rendered by it, the + critics began to propose partial reorganisation in the sense of greater + control by central authorities. It was suggested, for example, that the + President of Sessions should be appointed by the Government, that the + justices should be subordinated to the Regular Tribunals, and that the + principle of election by the Zemstvo should be abolished. + </p> + <p> + These complaints were not at all unwelcome to the Government, because it + had embarked on a reactionary policy, and in 1889 it suddenly granted to + the critics a great deal more than they desired. In the rural districts of + Central Russia the justices were replaced by the rural supervisors, of + whom I have spoken in a previous chapter, and the part of their functions + which could not well be entrusted to those new officials was transferred + to judges of the Regular Courts. In some of the larger towns and in the + rural districts of outlying provinces the justices were preserved, but + instead of being elected by the Zemstvo they were nominated by the + Government. + </p> + <p> + The regular Tribunals likewise became acclimatised in an incredibly short + space of time. The first judges were not by any means profound jurists, + and were too often deficient in that dispassionate calmness which we are + accustomed to associate with the Bench; but they were at least honest, + educated men, and generally possessed a fair knowledge of the law. Their + defects were due to the fact that the demand for trained jurists far + exceeded the supply, and the Government was forced to nominate men who + under ordinary circumstances would never have thought of presenting + themselves as candidates. At the beginning of 1870, in the 32 "Tribunaux + d'Arrondissement" which then existed, there were 227 judges, of whom 44 + had never received a juridical education. Even the presidents had not all + passed through a school of law. Of course the courts could not become + thoroughly effective until all the judges were men who had received a good + special education and had a practical acquaintance with judicial matters. + This has now been effected, and the present generation of judges are + better prepared and more capable than their predecessors. On the score of + probity I have never heard any complaints. + </p> + <p> + Of all the judicial innovations, perhaps the most interesting is the jury. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the reforms the introduction of the jury into the judicial + organisation awakened among the educated classes a great amount of + sentimental enthusiasm. The institution had the reputation of being + "liberal," and was known to be approved of by the latest authorities in + criminal jurisprudence. This was sufficient to insure it a favourable + reception, and to excite most exaggerated expectations as to its + beneficent influence. Ten years of experience somewhat cooled this + enthusiasm, and voices might be heard declaring that the introduction of + the jury was a mistake. The Russian people, it was held, was not yet ripe + for such an institution, and numerous anecdotes were related in support of + this opinion. One jury, for instance, was said to have returned a verdict + of "NOT guilty with extenuating circumstances"; and another, being unable + to come to a decision, was reported to have cast lots before an Icon, and + to have given a verdict in accordance with the result! Besides this, + juries often gave a verdict of "not guilty" when the accused made a full + and formal confession to the court. + </p> + <p> + How far the comic anecdotes are true I do not undertake to decide, but I + venture to assert that such incidents, if they really occur, are too few + to form the basis of a serious indictment. The fact, however, that juries + often acquit prisoners who openly confess their crime is beyond all + possibility of doubt. + </p> + <p> + To most Englishmen this fact will probably seem sufficient to prove that + the introduction of the institution was at least premature, but before + adopting this sweeping conclusion it will be well to examine the + phenomenon a little more closely in connection with Russian criminal + procedure as a whole. + </p> + <p> + In England the Bench is allowed very great latitude in fixing the amount + of punishment. The jury can therefore confine themselves to the question + of fact and leave to the judge the appreciation of extenuating + circumstances. In Russia the position of the jury is different. The + Russian criminal law fixes minutely the punishment for each category of + crimes, and leaves almost no latitude to the judge. The jury know that if + they give a verdict of guilty, the prisoner will inevitably be punished + according to the Code. Now the Code, borrowed in great part from foreign + legislation, is founded on conceptions very different from those of the + Russian people, and in many cases it attaches heavy penalties to acts + which the ordinary Russian is wont to regard as mere peccadilloes, or + positively justifiable. Even in those matters in which the Code is in + harmony with the popular morality, there are many exceptional cases in + which summum jus is really summa injuria. Suppose, for instance—as + actually happened in a case which came under my notice—that a fire + breaks out in a village, and that the Village Elder, driven out of + patience by the apathy and laziness of some of his young fellow-villagers, + oversteps the limits of his authority as defined by law, and accompanies + his reproaches and exhortations with a few lusty blows. Surely such a man + is not guilty of a very heinous crime—certainly he is not in the + opinion of the peasantry—and yet if he be prosecuted and convicted + he inevitably falls into the jaws of an article of the Code which condemns + to transportation for a long term of years. + </p> + <p> + In such cases what is the jury to do? In England they might safely give a + verdict of guilty, and leave the judge to take into consideration all the + extenuating circumstances; but in Russia they cannot act in this way, for + they know that the judge must condemn the prisoner according to the + Criminal Code. There remains, therefore, but one issue out of the + difficulty—a verdict of acquittal; and Russian juries—to their + honour be it said—generally adopt this alternative. Thus the jury, + in those cases in which it is most severely condemned, provides a + corrective for the injustice of the criminal legislation. Occasionally, it + is true, they go a little too far in this direction and arrogate to + themselves a right of pardon, but cases of that kind are, I believe, very + rare. I know of only one well-authenticated instance. The prisoner had + been proved guilty of a serious crime, but it happened to be the eve of a + great religious festival, and the jury thought that in pardoning the + prisoner and giving a verdict of acquittal they would be acting as good + Christians! + </p> + <p> + The legislation regards, of course, this practice as an abuse, and has + tried to prevent it by concealing as far as possible from the jury the + punishment that awaits the accused if he be condemned. For this purpose it + forbids the counsel for the prisoner to inform the jury what punishment is + prescribed by the Code for the crime in question. This ingenious device + not only fails in its object, but has sometimes a directly opposite + effect. Not knowing what the punishment will be, and fearing that it may + be out of all proportion to the crime, the jury sometimes acquit a + criminal whom they would condemn if they knew what punishment would be + inflicted. And when a jury is, as it were, entrapped, and finds that the + punishment is more severe than it supposed, it can take its revenge in the + succeeding cases. I know at least of one instance of this kind. A jury + convicted a prisoner of an offence which it regarded as very trivial, but + which in reality entailed, according to the Code, seven years of penal + servitude! So surprised and frightened were the jurymen by this unexpected + consequence of their verdict, that they obstinately acquitted, in the face + of the most convincing evidence, all the other prisoners brought before + them. + </p> + <p> + The most famous case of acquital when there was no conceivable doubt as to + the guilt of the accused was that of Vera Zasulitch, who shot General + Trepof, Prefect of St. Petersburg; but the circumstances were so peculiar + that they will hardly support any general conclusion. I happened to be + present, and watched the proceedings closely. Vera Zasulitch, a young + woman who had for some time taken part in the revolutionary movement, + heard that a young revolutionist called Bogoliubof, imprisoned in St. + Petersburg, had been flogged by orders of General Trepof,* and though she + did not know the victim personally she determined to avenge the indignity + to which he had been subjected. With this intention she appeared at the + Prefecture, ostensibly for the purpose of presenting a petition, and when + she found herself in the presence of the Prefect she fired a revolver at + him, wounding him seriously, but not mortally. At the trial the main facts + were not disputed, and yet the jury brought in a verdict of not guilty. + This unexpected result was due, I believe, partly to a desire to make a + little political demonstration, and partly to a strong suspicion that the + prison authorities, in carrying out the Prefect's orders, had acted in + summary fashion without observing the tedious formalities prescribed by + the law. Certainly one of the prison officials, when under + cross-examination, made on me, and on the public generally, the impression + that he was prevaricating in order to shield his superiors. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The reason alleged by General Trepof for giving these + orders was that, during a visit of inspection, Bogoliubof + had behaved disrespectfully towards him, and had thereby + committed an infraction of prison discipline, for which the + law prescribes the use of corporal punishment. +</pre> + <p> + At the close of the proceedings, which were dexterously conducted by + Counsel in such a way that, as the Emperor is reported to have said, it + was not Vera Zasulitch but General Trepof who was being tried, an eminent + Russian journalist rushed up to me in a state of intense excitement and + said: "Is not this a great day for the cause of political freedom in + Russia?" I could not agree with him and I ventured to predict that neither + of us would ever again see a political case tried publicly by jury in an + ordinary court. The prediction has proved true. Since that time political + offenders have been tried by special tribunals without a jury or dealt + with "by administrative procedure," that is to say, inquisitorially, + without any regular trial. + </p> + <p> + The defects, real and supposed, of the present system are commonly + attributed to the predominance of the peasant element in the juries; and + this opinion, founded on a priori reasoning, seems to many too evident to + require verification. The peasantry are in many respects the most ignorant + class, and therefore, it is assumed, they are least capable of weighing + conflicting evidence. Plain and conclusive as this reasoning seems, it is + in my opinion erroneous. The peasants have, indeed, little education, but + they have a large fund of plain common-sense; and experience proves—so + at least I have been informed by many judges and Public Prosecutors—that, + as a general rule, a peasant jury is more to be relied on than a jury + drawn from the educated classes. It must be admitted, however, that a + peasant jury has certain peculiarities, and it is not a little interesting + to observe what those peculiarities are. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, a jury composed of peasants generally acts in a + somewhat patriarchal fashion, and does not always confine its attention to + the evidence and the arguments adduced at the trial. The members form + their judgment as men do in the affairs of ordinary life, and are sure to + be greatly influenced by any jurors who happen to be personally acquainted + with the prisoner. If several of the jurors know him to be a bad + character, he has little chance of being acquitted, even though the chain + of evidence against him should not be quite perfect. Peasants cannot + understand why a notorious scoundrel should be allowed to escape because a + little link in the evidence is wanting, or because some little judicial + formality has not been duly observed. Indeed, their ideas of criminal + procedure in general are extremely primitive. The Communal method of + dealing with malefactors is best in accordance with their conceptions of + well-regulated society. The Mir may, by a Communal decree and without a + formal trial, have any of its unruly members transported to Siberia! This + summary, informal mode of procedure seems to the peasants very + satisfactory. They are at a loss to understand how a notorious culprit is + allowed to "buy" an advocate to defend him, and are very insensible to the + bought advocate's eloquence. To many of them, if I may trust to + conversations which I have casually overheard in and around the courts, + "buying an advocate" seems to be very much the same kind of operation as + bribing a judge. + </p> + <p> + In the second place, the peasants, when acting as jurors, are very severe + with regard to crimes against property. In this they are instigated by the + simple instinct of self-defence. They are, in fact, continually at the + mercy of thieves and malefactors. They live in wooden houses easily set on + fire; their stables might be broken into by a child; at night the village + is guarded merely by an old man, who cannot be in more than one place at a + time, and in the one place he is apt to go to sleep; a police officer is + rarely seen, except when a crime has actually been committed. A few clever + horse-stealers may ruin many families, and a fire-raiser, in his desire to + avenge himself on an enemy, may reduce a whole village to destitution. + These and similar considerations tend to make the peasants very severe + against theft, robbery, and arson; and a Public Prosecutor who desires to + obtain a conviction against a man charged with one of these crimes + endeavours to have a jury in which the peasant class is largely + represented. + </p> + <p> + With regard to fraud in its various forms, the peasants are much more + lenient, probably because the line of demarcation between honest and + dishonest dealing in commercial affairs is not very clearly drawn in their + minds. Many, for instance, are convinced that trade cannot be successfully + carried on without a little clever cheating; and hence cheating is + regarded as a venial offence. If the money fraudulently acquired be + restored to the owner, the crime is supposed to be completely condoned. + Thus when a Volost Elder appropriates the public money, and succeeds in + repaying it before the case comes on for trial, he is invariably acquitted—and + sometimes even re-elected! + </p> + <p> + An equal leniency is generally shown by peasants towards crimes against + the person, such as assaults, cruelty, and the like. This fact is easily + explained. Refined sensitiveness and a keen sympathy with physical + suffering are the result of a certain amount of material well-being, + together with a certain degree of intellectual and moral culture, and + neither of these is yet possessed by the Russian peasantry. Any one who + has had opportunities of frequently observing the peasants must have been + often astonished by their indifference to suffering, both in their own + persons and in the person of others. In a drunken brawl heads may be + broken and wounds inflicted without any interference on the part of the + spectators. If no fatal consequences ensue, the peasant does not think it + necessary that official notice should be taken of the incident, and + certainly does not consider that any of the combatants should be + transported to Siberia. Slight wounds heal of their own accord without any + serious loss to the sufferer, and therefore the man who inflicts them is + not to be put on the same level as the criminal who reduces a family to + beggary. This reasoning may, perhaps, shock people of sensitive nerves, + but it undeniably contains a certain amount of plain, homely wisdom. + </p> + <p> + Of all kinds of cruelty, that which is perhaps most revolting to civilised + mankind is the cruelty of the husband towards his wife; but to this crime + the Russian peasant shows especial leniency. He is still influenced by the + old conceptions of the husband's rights, and by that low estimate of the + weaker sex which finds expression in many popular proverbs. + </p> + <p> + The peculiar moral conceptions reflected in these facts are evidently the + result of external conditions, and not of any recondite ethnographical + peculiarities, for they are not found among the merchants, who are nearly + all of peasant origin. On the contrary, the merchants are more severe with + regard to crimes against the person than with regard to crimes against + property. The explanation of this is simple. The merchant has means of + protecting his property, and if he should happen to suffer by theft, his + fortune is not likely to be seriously affected by it. On the other hand, + he has a certain sensitiveness with regard to such crimes as assault; for + though he has commonly not much more intellectual and moral culture than + the peasant, he is accustomed to comfort and material well-being, which + naturally develop sensitiveness regarding physical pain. + </p> + <p> + Towards fraud the merchants are quite as lenient as the peasantry. This + may, perhaps, seem strange, for fraudulent practices are sure in the long + run to undermine trade. The Russian merchants, however, have not yet + arrived at this conception, and can point to many of the richest members + of their class as a proof that fraudulent practices often create enormous + fortunes. Long ago Samuel Butler justly remarked that we damn the sins we + have no mind to. + </p> + <p> + As the external conditions have little or no influence on the religious + conceptions of the merchants and the peasantry, the two classes are + equally severe with regard to those acts which are regarded as crimes + against the Deity. Hence acquittals in cases of sacrilege, blasphemy, and + the like never occur unless the jury is in part composed of educated men. + </p> + <p> + In their decisions, as in their ordinary modes of thought, the jurors + drawn from the educated classes are little, if at all, affected by + theological conceptions, but they are sometimes influenced in a not less + unfortunate way by conceptions of a different order. It may happen, for + instance, that a juror who had passed through one of the higher + educational establishments has his own peculiar theory about the value of + evidence, or he is profoundly impressed with the idea that it is better + that a thousand guilty men should escape than that one innocent man should + be punished, or he is imbued with sentimental pseudo-philanthropy, or he + is convinced that punishments are useless because they neither cure the + delinquent nor deter others from crime; in a word, he may have in some way + or other lost his mental balance in that moral chaos through which Russia + is at present passing. In England, France, or Germany such an individual + would have little influence on his fellow-jurymen, for in these countries + there are very few people who allow new paradoxical ideas to overturn + their traditional notions and obscure their common-sense; but in Russia, + where even the elementary moral conceptions are singularly unstable and + pliable, a man of this type may succeed in leading a jury. More than once + I have heard men boast of having induced their fellow-jurymen to acquit + every prisoner brought before them, not because they believed the + prisoners to be innocent or the evidence to be insufficient, but because + all punishments are useless and barbarous. + </p> + <p> + One word in conclusion regarding the independence and political + significance of the new courts. When the question of judicial reform was + first publicly raised many people hoped that the new courts would receive + complete autonomy and real independence, and would thus form a foundation + for political liberty. These hopes, like so many illusions of that strange + time, have not been realised. A large measure of autonomy and independence + was indeed granted in theory. The law laid down the principle that no + judge could be removed unless convicted of a definite crime, and that the + courts should present candidates for all the vacant places on the Bench; + but these and similar rights have little practical significance. If the + Minister cannot depose a judge, he can deprive him of all possibility of + receiving promotion, and he can easily force him in an indirect way to + send in his resignation; and if the courts have still the right to present + candidates for vacant places, the Minister has also this right, and can, + of course, always secure the nomination of his own candidate. By the + influence of that centripetal force which exists in all centralised + bureaucracies, the Procureurs have become more important personages than + the Presidents of the courts. + </p> + <p> + From the political point of view the question of the independence of the + Courts has not yet acquired much practical importance, because the + Government can always have political offenders tried by a special tribunal + or can send them to Siberia for an indefinite term of years without + regular trial by the "administrative procedure" to which I have above + referred. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0034" id="link2HCH0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIV + </h2> + <h3> + REVOLUTIONARY NIHILISM AND THE REACTION + </h3> + <p> + The Reform-enthusiasm Becomes Unpractical and Culminates in Nihilism—Nihilism, + the Distorted Reflection of Academic Western Socialism—Russia Well + Prepared for Reception of Ultra-Socialist Virus—Social + Reorganisation According to Latest Results of Science—Positivist + Theory—Leniency of Press-censure—Chief Representatives of New + Movement—Government Becomes Alarmed—Repressive Measures—Reaction + in the Public—The Term Nihilist Invented—The Nihilist and His + Theory—Further Repressive Measures—Attitude of Landed + Proprietors—Foundation of a Liberal Party—Liberalism Checked + by Polish Insurrection—Practical Reform Continued—An Attempt + at Regicide Forms a Turning-point of Government's Policy—Change in + Educational System—Decline of Nihilism. + </p> + <p> + The rapidly increasing enthusiasm for reform did not confine itself to + practical measures such as the emancipation of the serfs, the creation of + local self-government, and the thorough reorganisation of the law-courts + and legal procedure. In the younger section of the educated classes, and + especially among the students of the universities and technical colleges, + it produced a feverish intellectual excitement and wild aspirations which + culminated in what is commonly known as Nihilism. + </p> + <p> + In a preceding chapter I pointed out that during the last two centuries + all the important intellectual movements in Western Europe have been + reflected in Russia, and that these reflections have generally been what + may fairly be termed exaggerated and distorted reproductions of the + originals.* Roughly speaking, the Nihilist movement in Russia may be + described as the exaggerated, distorted reflection of the earlier + Socialist movements of the West; but it has local peculiarities and local + colouring which deserve attention. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Chapter XXVI. +</pre> + <p> + The Russian educated classes had been well prepared by their past history + for the reception and rapid development of the Socialist virus. For a + century and a half the country had been subjected to a series of drastic + changes, administrative and social, by the energetic action of the + Autocratic Power, with little spontaneous co-operation on the part of the + people. In a nation with such a history, Socialistic ideas naturally found + favour, because all Socialist systems until quite recent times were + founded on the assumption that political and social progress must be the + result not of slow natural development, but rather of philosophic + speculation, legislative wisdom, and administrative energy. + </p> + <p> + This assumption lay at the bottom of the reform enthusiasm in St. + Petersburg at the commencement of Alexander II.'s reign. Russia might be + radically transformed, it was thought, politically and socially, according + to abstract scientific principles, in the space of a few years, and be + thereby raised to the level of West-European civilisation, or even higher. + The older nations had for centuries groped in darkness, or stumbled along + in the faint light of practical experience, and consequently their + progress had been slow and uncertain. For Russia there was no necessity to + follow such devious, unexplored paths. She ought to profit by the + experience of her elder sisters, and avoid the errors into which they had + fallen. Nor was it difficult to ascertain what these errors were, because + they had been discovered, examined and explained by the most eminent + thinkers of France and England, and efficient remedies had been + prescribed. Russian reformers had merely to study and apply the + conclusions at which these eminent authorities had arrived, and their task + would be greatly facilitated by the fact that they could operate on virgin + soil, untrammelled by the feudal traditions, religious superstitions, + metaphysical conceptions, romantic illusions, aristocratic prejudices, and + similar obstacles to social and political progress which existed in + Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + Such was the extraordinary intellectual atmosphere in which the Russian + educated classes lived during the early years of the sixties. On the "men + with aspirations," who had longed in vain for more light and more public + activity under the obscurantist, repressive regime of the preceding reign, + it had an intoxicating effect. The more excitable and sanguine amongst + them now believed seriously that they had discovered a convenient + short-cut to national prosperity, and that for Russia a grandiose social + and political millennium was at hand.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I was not myself in St. Petersburg at that period, but on + arriving a few years afterwards I became intimately + acquainted with men and women who had lived through it, and + who still retained much of their early enthusiasm. +</pre> + <p> + In these circumstances it is not surprising that one of the most prominent + characteristics of the time was a boundless, child-like faith in the + so-called "latest results of science." Infallible science was supposed to + have found the solution of all political and social problems. What a + reformer had to do—and who was not a would-be reformer in those + days?—was merely to study the best authorities. Their works had been + long rigidly excluded by the Press censure, but now that it was possible + to obtain them, they were read with avidity. Chief among the new, + infallible prophets whose works were profoundly venerated was Auguste + Comte, the inventor of Positivism. In his classification of the sciences + the crowning of the edifice was sociology, which taught how to organise + human society on scientific principles. Russia had merely to adopt the + principles laid down and expounded at great length in the Cours de + Philosophie Positive. There Comte explained that humanity had to pass + through three stages of intellectual development—the religious, the + metaphysical, and the positive—and that the most advanced nations, + after spending centuries in the two first, were entering on the third. + Russia must endeavour, therefore, to get into the positive stage as + quickly as possible, and there was reason to believe that, in consequence + of certain ethnographical and historical peculiarities, she could make the + transition more quickly than other nations. After Comte's works, the book + which found, for a time, most favour was Buckle's "History of + Civilisation," which seemed to reduce history and progress to a matter of + statistics, and which laid down the principle that progress is always in + the inverse ratio of the influence of theological conceptions. This + principle was regarded as of great practical importance, and the + conclusion drawn from it was that rapid national progress was certain if + only the influence of religion and theology could be destroyed. Very + popular, too, was John Stuart Mill, because he was "imbued with enthusiasm + for humanity and female emancipation"; and in his tract on Utilitarianism + he showed that morality was simply the crystallised experience of many + generations as to what was most conducive to the greatest good of the + greatest number. The minor prophets of the time, among whom Buchner + occupied a prominent place, are too numerous to mention. + </p> + <p> + Strange to say, the newest and most advanced doctrines appeared regularly, + under a very thin and transparent veil, in the St. Petersburg daily Press, + and especially in the thick monthly magazines, which were as big as, or + bigger than, our venerable quarterlies. The art of writing and reading + "between the lines," not altogether unknown under the Draconian regime of + Nicholas I., was now developed to such a marvellous extent that almost any + thing could be written clearly enough to be understood by the initiated + without calling for the thunderbolts of the Press censors, which was now + only intermittently severe. Indeed, the Press censors themselves were + sometimes carried away by the reform enthusiasm. One of them long + afterwards related to me that during "the mad time," as he called it, in + the course of a single year he had received from his superiors no less + than seventeen reprimands for passing objectionable articles without + remark. + </p> + <p> + The movement found its warmest partisans among the students and young + literary men, but not a few grey-beards were to be found among the + youthful apostles. All who read the periodical literature became more or + less imbued with the new spirit; but it must be presumed that many of + those who discoursed most eloquently had no clear idea of what they were + talking about; for even at a later date, when the novices had had time to + acquaint themselves with the doctrines they professed, I often encountered + the most astounding ignorance. Let me give one instance by way of + illustration: + </p> + <p> + A young gentleman who was in the habit of talking glibly about the + necessity of scientifically reorganising human society, declared to me one + day that not only sociology, but also biology should be taken into + consideration. Confessing my complete ignorance of the latter science, I + requested him to enlighten me by giving me an instance of a biological + principle which could be applied to social regeneration. He looked + confused, and tried to ride out of the difficulty on vague general + phrases; but I persistently kept him to the point, and maliciously + suggested that as an alternative he might cite to me a biological + principle which could NOT be used for such a purpose. Again he failed, and + it became evident to all present that of biology, about which he talked so + often, he knew absolutely nothing but the name! After this I frequently + employed the same pseudo-Socratic method of discussion, and very often + with a similar result. Not one in fifty, perhaps, ever attempted to reduce + the current hazy conceptions to a concrete form. The enthusiasm was not + the less intense, however, on that account. + </p> + <p> + At first the partisans of the movement seemed desirous of assisting, + rather than of opposing or undermining the Government, and so long as they + merely talked academically about scientific principles and similar vague + entities, the Government felt no necessity for energetic interference; but + as early as 1861 symptoms of a change in the character of the movement + became apparent. A secret society of officers organised a small + printing-press in the building of the Headquarters Staff and issued + clandestinely three numbers of a periodical called the Velikoruss (Great + Russian), which advocated administrative reform, the convocation of a + constituent assembly, and the emancipation of Poland from Russian rule. A + few months later (April, 1862) a seditious proclamation appeared, + professing to emanate from a central revolutionary committee, and + declaring that the Romanoffs must expiate with their blood the misery of + the people. + </p> + <p> + These symptoms of an underground revolutionary agitation caused alarm in + the official world, and repressive measures were at once adopted. Sunday + schools for the working classes, reading-rooms, students' clubs, and + similar institutions which might be used for purposes of revolutionary + propaganda were closed; several trials for political offences took place; + the most popular of the monthly periodicals (Sovremennik) was suspended, + and its editor, Tchernishevski, arrested. There was nothing to show that + Tchernishevski was implicated in any treasonable designs, but he was + undoubtedly the leader of a group of youthful writers whose aspirations + went far beyond the intentions of the Government, and it was thought + desirable to counteract his influence by shutting him up in prison. Here + he wrote and published, with the permission of the authorities and the + imprimatur of the Press censure, a novel called "Shto delat'?" ("What is + to be Done?"), which was regarded at first as a most harmless production, + but which is now considered one of the most influential and baneful works + in the whole range of Nihilist literature. As a novel it had no + pretensions to artistic merit, and in ordinary times it would have + attracted little or no attention, but it put into concrete shape many of + the vague Socialist and Communist notions that were at the moment floating + about in the intellectual atmosphere, and it came to be looked upon by the + young enthusiasts as a sort of informal manifesto of their new-born faith. + It was divided into two parts; in the first was described a group of + students living according to the new ideas in open defiance of traditional + conventionalities, and in the second was depicted a village organised on + the communistic principles recommended by Fourier. The first was supposed + to represent the dawn of the new era; the second, the goal to be + ultimately attained. When the authorities discovered the mistake they had + committed in allowing the book to be published, it was at once confiscated + and withdrawn from circulation, whilst the author, after being tried by + the Senate, was exiled to Northeastern Siberia and kept there for nearly + twenty years.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Tchernishevski was a man of encyclopaedic knowledge and + specially conversant with political economy. According to + the testimony of those who knew him intimately, he was one + of the ablest and most sympathetic men of his generation. + During his exile a bold attempt was made to rescue him, and + very nearly succeeded. A daring youth, disguised as an + officer of gendarmes and provided with forged official + papers, reached the place where he was confined and procured + his release, but the officer in charge had vague suspicions, + and insisted on the two travellers being escorted to the + next post-station by a couple of Cossacks. The rescuer + tried to get rid of the escort by means of his revolver, but + he failed in the attempt, and the fugitives were arrested. + In 1883 Tchernishevski was transferred to the milder climate + of Astrakhan, and in 1889 he was allowed to return to his + native town, Saratof, where he died a few months afterwards. +</pre> + <p> + With the arrest and exile of Tchernishevski the young would-be reformers + were constrained to recognise that they had no chance of carrying the + Government with them in their endeavours to realise their patriotic + aspirations. Police supervision over the young generation was increased, + and all kinds of association, whether for mutual instruction, mutual aid, + or any other purpose, were discouraged or positively forbidden. And it was + not merely in the mind of the police that suspicion was aroused. In the + opinion of the great majority of moderate, respectable people the young + enthusiasts were becoming discredited. The violently seditious + proclamations with which they were supposed to sympathise, and a series of + destructive fires in St. Petersburg, erroneously attributed to them, + frightened timid Liberals and gave the Reactionaries, who had hitherto + remained silent, an opportunity of preaching their doctrines with telling + effect. The celebrated novelist, Turgeneif, long the idol of the young + generation, had inadvertently in "Fathers and Children" invented the term + Nihilist, and it at once came to be applied as an opprobrious epithet, + notwithstanding the efforts of Pissaref, a popular writer of remarkable + talent, to prove to the public that it ought to be regarded as a term of + honour. + </p> + <p> + Pissaref's attempt at rehabilitation made no impression outside of his own + small circle. According to popular opinion the Nihilists were a band of + fanatical young men and women, mostly medical students, who had determined + to turn the world upside down and to introduce a new kind of social order, + founded on the most advanced principles of social equality and Communism. + As a first step towards the great transformation they had reversed the + traditional order of things in the matter of coiffure: the males allowed + their hair to grow long, and the female adepts cut their hair short, + adding occasionally the additional badge of blue spectacles. Their unkempt + appearance naturally shocked the aesthetic feelings of ordinary people, + but to this they were indifferent. They had raised themselves above the + level of popular notions, took no account of so-called public opinion, + gloried in Bohemianism, despised Philistine respectability, and rather + liked to scandalise old-fashioned people imbued with antiquated + prejudices. + </p> + <p> + This was the ridiculous side of the movement, but underneath the + absurdities there was something serious. These young men and women, who + were themselves terribly in earnest, were systematically hostile not only + to accepted conventionalities in the matter of dress, but to all manner of + shams, hypocrisy, and cant in the broad Carlylean sense of those terms. To + the "beautiful souls" of the older generation, who had habitually, in + conversation and literature, shed pathetic tears over the defects of + Russian social and political organisation without ever moving a finger to + correct them—especially the landed proprietors who talked and wrote + about civilisation, culture, and justice while living comfortably on the + revenues provided for them by their unfortunate serfs—these had the + strongest aversion; and this naturally led them to condemn in strong + language the worship of aesthetic culture. But here again they fell into + exaggeration. Professing extreme utilitarianism, they explained that the + humble shoemaker who practises his craft diligently is, in the true sense, + a greater man than a Shakespeare, or a Goethe, because humanity has more + need of shoes than of dramas and poetry. + </p> + <p> + Such silly paradoxes provoked, of course, merely a smile of compassion; + what alarmed the sensible, respectable "Philistine" was the method of + cleansing the Augean stable recommended by these enthusiasts. Having + discovered in the course of their desultory reading that most of the ills + that flesh is heir to proceed directly or indirectly from uncontrolled + sexual passion and the lust of gain, they proposed to seal hermetically + these two great sources of crime and misery by abolishing the + old-fashioned institutions of marriage and private property. When society, + they argued, should be so organised that all the healthy instincts of + human nature could find complete and untrammelled satisfaction, there + would be no motive or inducement for committing crimes or misdemeanours. + For thousands of years humanity had been sailing on a wrong tack. The + great law-givers of the world, religious and civil, in their ignorance of + physical science and positivist methods, had created institutions, + commonly known as law and morality, which were utterly unfitted to human + nature, and then the magistrate and the moralist had endeavoured to compel + or persuade men and women to conform to them, but their efforts had failed + most signally. In vain the police had threatened and punished and the + priests had preached and admonished. Human nature had systematically and + obstinately rebelled, and still rebels, against the unnatural constraint. + It is time, therefore, to try a new system. Instead of continuing, as has + been done for thousands of years, to force men and women, as it were, into + badly fitting, unelastic clothes which cause intense discomfort and + prevent all healthy muscular action, why not adapt the costume to the + anatomy and physiology of the human frame? Then the clothes will no longer + be rent, and those who wear them will be contented and happy. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately for the progress of humanity there are serious obstacles in + the way of this radical change of system. The absurd, antiquated and + pernicious institutions and customs are supported by abstruse metaphysical + reasons and enshrined in mystical romantic sentiment, and in this way they + may still be preserved for generations unless the axe be laid to the root + of the tree. Now is the critical moment. Russia must be made to rise at + once from the metaphysical to the positivist stage of intellectual + development; metaphysical reasoning and romantic sentiment must be + rigorously discarded; and everything must be brought to the touchstone of + naked practical utility. + </p> + <p> + One might naturally suppose that men holding such opinions must be + materialists of the grossest type—and, indeed, many of them gloried + in the name of materialist and atheist—but such an inference would + be erroneous. While denouncing metaphysics, they were themselves + metaphysicians in so far as they were constantly juggling with abstract + conceptions, and letting themselves be guided in their walk and + conversation by a priori deductions; while ridiculing romanticism, they + had romantic sentiment enough to make them sacrifice their time, their + property, and sometimes even their life, to the attainment of an + unrealisable ideal; and while congratulating themselves on having passed + from the religious to the positivist stage of intellectual development, + they frequently showed themselves animated with the spirit of the early + martyrs! Rarely have the strange inconsistencies of human nature been so + strikingly exemplified as in these unpractical, anti-religious fanatics. + In dealing with them I might easily, without very great exaggeration, + produce a most amusing caricature, but I prefer describing them as they + really were. A few years after the period here referred to I knew some of + them intimately, and I must say that, without at all sharing or + sympathising with their opinions, I could not help respecting them as + honourable, upright, quixotic men and women who had made great sacrifices + for their convictions. One of them whom I have specially in view at this + moment suffered patiently for years from the utter shipwreck of his + generous illusions, and when he could no longer hope to see the dawn of a + brighter day, he ended by committing suicide. Yet that man believed + himself to be a Realist, a Materialist, and a Utilitarian of the purest + water, and habitually professed a scathing contempt for every form of + romantic sentiment! In reality he was one of the best and most sympathetic + men I have ever known. + </p> + <p> + To return from this digression. So long as the subversive opinions were + veiled in abstract language they raised misgivings in only a comparative + small circle; but when school-teachers put them into a form suited to the + juvenile mind, they were apt to produce startling effects. In a satirical + novel of the time a little girl is represented as coming to her mother and + saying, "Little mamma! Maria Ivan'na (our new school-mistress) says there + is no God and no Tsar, and that it is wrong to marry!" Whether such + incidents actually occurred in real life, as several friends assured me, I + am not prepared to say, but certainly people believed that they might + occur in their own families, and that was quite sufficient to produce + alarm even in the ranks of the Liberals, to say nothing of the rapidly + increasing army of the Reactionaries. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate the general uneasiness produced in St. Petersburg, I may + quote here a letter written in October, 1861, by a man who occupied one of + the highest positions in the Administration. As he had the reputation of + being an ultra-Liberal who sympathised overmuch with Young Russia, we may + assume that he did not take an exceptionally alarmist view of the + situation. + </p> + <p> + "You have not been long absent—merely a few months; but if you + returned now, you would be astonished by the progress which the + Opposition, one might say the Revolutionary Party, has already made. The + disorders in the university do not concern merely the students. I see in + the affair the beginning of serious dangers for public tranquillity and + the existing order of things. Young people, without distinction of + costume, uniform and origin, take part in the street demonstrations. + Besides the students of the university, there are the students of other + institutions, and a mass of people who are students only in name. Among + these last are certain gentlemen in long beards and a number of + revolutionnaires in crinoline, who are of all the most fanatical. Blue + collars—the distinguishing mark of the students' uniform—have + become the signe de ralliement. Almost all the professors and many + officers take the part of the students. The newspaper critics openly + defend their colleagues. Mikhailof has been convicted of writing, printing + and circulating one of the most violent proclamations that ever existed, + under the heading, 'To the young generation!' Among the students and the + men of letters there is unquestionably an organised conspiracy, which has + perhaps leaders outside the literary circle. . . . The police are + powerless. They arrest any one they can lay hands on. About eighty people + have already been sent to the fortress and examined, but all this leads to + no practical result, because the revolutionary ideas have taken possession + of all classes, all ages, all professions, and are publicly expressed in + the streets, in the barracks, and in the Ministries. I believe the police + itself is carried away by them! What this will lead to, it is difficult to + predict. I am very much afraid of some bloody catastrophe. Even if it + should not go to such a length immediately, the position of the Government + will be extremely difficult. Its authority is shaken, and all are + convinced that it is powerless, stupid and incapable. On that point there + is the most perfect unanimity among all parties of all colours, even the + most opposite. The most desperate 'planter'* agrees in that respect with + the most desperate socialist. Meanwhile those who have the direction of + affairs do almost nothing and have no plan or definite aim in view. At + present the Emperor is not in the Capital, and now, more than at any other + time, there is complete anarchy in the absence of the master of the house. + There is a great deal of bustle and talk, and all blame they know not + whom."** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An epithet commonly applied, at the time of the + Emancipation, to the partisans of serfage and the defenders + of the proprietors' rights. + + ** I found this interesting letter (which might have been + written today) thirty years ago among the private papers of + Nicholas Milutin, who played a leading part as an official + in the reforms of the time. It was first published in an + article on "Secret Societies in Russia," which I contributed + to the Fortnightly Review of 1st August, 1877. +</pre> + <p> + The expected revolution did not take place, but timid people had no + difficulty in perceiving signs of its approach. The Press continued to + disseminate, under a more or less disguised form, ideas which were + considered dangerous. The Kolokol, a Russian revolutionary paper published + in London by Herzen and strictly prohibited by the Press-censure, found + its way in large quantities into the country, and, as is recorded in an + earlier chapter, was read by thousands, including the higher officials and + the Emperor himself, who found it regularly on his writing-table, laid + there by some unknown hand. In St. Petersburg the arrest of Tchernishevski + and the suspension of his magazine, The Contemporary, made the writers a + little more cautious in their mode of expression, but the spirit of the + articles remained unchanged. These energetic intolerant leaders of public + opinion were novi homines not personally connected with the social strata + in which moderate views and retrograde tenderness had begun to prevail. + Mostly sons of priests or of petty officials, they belonged to a recently + created literary proletariat composed of young men with boundless + aspirations and meagre national resources, who earned a precarious + subsistence by journalism or by giving lessons in private families. Living + habitually in a world of theories and unrestrained by practical + acquaintance with public life, they were ready, from the purest and most + disinterested motives to destroy ruthlessly the existing order of things + in order to realise their crude notions of social regeneration. Their + heated imagination showed them in the near future a New Russia, composed + of independent federated Communes, without any bureaucracy or any central + power—a happy land in which everybody virtuously and automatically + fulfilled his public and private duties, and in which the policeman and + all other embodiments of material constraint were wholly superfluous. + </p> + <p> + Governments are not easily converted to Utopian schemes of that idyllic + type, and it is not surprising that even a Government with liberal + humanitarian aspirations like that of Alexander II. should have become + alarmed and should have attempted to stem the current. What is to be + regretted is that the repressive measures adopted were a little too + Oriental in their character. Scores of young students of both sexes—for + the Nihilist army included a strong female contingent—were secretly + arrested and confined for months in unwholesome prisons, and many of them + were finally exiled, without any regular trial, to distant provinces in + European Russia or to Siberia. Their exile, it is true, was not at all so + terrible as is commonly supposed, because political exiles are not usually + confined in prisons or compelled to labour in the mines, but are obliged + merely to reside at a given place under police supervision. Still, such + punishment was severe enough for educated young men and women, especially + when their lot was cast among a population composed exclusively of + peasants and small shop-keepers or of Siberian aborigines, and when there + were no means of satisfying the most elementary intellectual wants. For + those who had no private resources the punishment was particularly severe, + because the Government granted merely a miserable monthly pittance, hardly + sufficient to purchase food of the coarsest kind, and there was rarely an + opportunity of adding to the meagre official allowance by intellectual or + manual labour. In all cases the treatment accorded to the exiles wounded + their sense of justice and increased the existing discontent among their + friends and acquaintances. Instead of acting as a deterrent, the system + produced a feeling of profound indignation, and ultimately transformed not + a few sentimental dreamers into active conspirators. + </p> + <p> + At first there was no conspiracy or regularly organised secret society and + nothing of which the criminal law in Western Europe could have taken + cognisance. Students met in each other's rooms to discuss prohibited books + on political and social science, and occasionally short essays on the + subjects discussed were written in a revolutionary spirit by members of + the coterie. This was called mutual instruction. Between the various + coteries or groups there were private personal relations, not only in the + capital, but also in the provinces, so that manuscripts and printed papers + could be transmitted from one group to another. From time to time the + police captured these academic disquisitions, and made raids on the + meetings of students who had come together merely for conversation and + discussion; and the fresh arrests caused by these incidents increased the + hostility to the Government. + </p> + <p> + In the letter above quoted it is said that the revolutionary ideas had + taken possession of all classes, all ages, and all professions. This may + have been true with regard to St. Petersburg, but it could not have been + said of the provinces. There the landed proprietors were in a very + different frame of mind. They had to struggle with a multitude of urgent + practical affairs which left them little time for idyllic dreaming about + an imaginary millennium. Their serfs had been emancipated, and what + remained to them of their estates had to be reorganised on the basis of + free labour. Into the semi-chaotic state of things created by such + far-reaching changes, legal and economic, they did not wish to see any + more confusion introduced, and they did not at all feel that they could + dispense with the Central Government and the policeman. On the contrary, + the Central Government was urgently needed in order to obtain a little + ready money wherewith to reorganise the estates in the new conditions, and + the police organisation required to be strengthened in order to compel the + emancipated serfs to fulfil their legal obligations. These men and their + families were, therefore, much more conservative than the class commonly + designated "the young generation," and they naturally sympathised with the + "Philistines" in St. Petersburg, who had been alarmed by the exaggerations + of the Nihilists. + </p> + <p> + Even the landed proprietors, however, were not so entirely free from + discontent and troublesome political aspirations as the Government would + have desired. They had not forgotten the autocratic and bureaucratic way + in which the Emancipation had been prepared, and their indignation had + been only partially appeased by their being allowed to carry out the + provisions of the law without much bureaucratic interference. So much for + the discontent. As for the reform aspirations, they thought that, as a + compensation for having consented to the liberation of their serfs and for + having been expropriated from about a half of their land, they ought to + receive extensive political rights, and be admitted, like the upper + classes in Western Europe, to a fair share in the government of the + country. Unlike the fiery young Nihilists of St. Petersburg, they did not + want to abolish or paralyse the central power; what they wanted was to + co-operate with it loyally and to give their advice on important questions + by means of representative institutions. They formed a constitutional + group which exists still at the present day, as we shall see in the + sequel, but which has never been allowed to develop into an organised + political party. Its aims were so moderate that its programme might have + been used as a convenient safety-valve for the explosive forces which were + steadily accumulating under the surface of Society, but it never found + favour in the official world. When some of its leading members ventured to + hint in the Press and in loyal addresses to the Emperor that the + Government would do well to consult the country on important questions, + their respectful suggestions were coldly received or bluntly rejected by + the bureaucracy and the Autocratic Power. + </p> + <p> + The more the revolutionary and constitutional groups sought to strengthen + their position, the more pronounced became the reactionary tendencies in + the official world, and these received in 1863 an immense impetus from the + Polish insurrection, with which the Nihilists and even some of the + Liberals sympathised.* That ill-advised attempt on the part of the Poles + to recover their independence had a curious effect on Russian public + opinion. Alexander II., with the warm approval of the more Liberal section + of the educated classes, was in the course of creating for Poland almost + complete administrative autonomy under the viceroyalty of a Russian Grand + Duke; and the Emperor's brother Constantine was preparing to carry out the + scheme in a generous spirit. Soon it became evident that what the Poles + wanted was not administrative autonomy, but political independence, with + the frontiers which existed before the first partition! Trusting to the + expected assistance of the Western Powers and the secret connivance of + Austria, they raised the standard of insurrection, and some trifling + successes were magnified by the pro-Polish Press into important victories. + As the news of the rising spread over Russia, there was a moment of + hesitation. Those who had been for some years habitually extolling liberty + and self-government as the normal conditions of progress, who had been + sympathising warmly with every Liberal movement, whether at home or + abroad, and who had put forward a voluntary federation of independent + Communes as the ideal State organism, could not well frown on the + political aspirations of the Polish patriots. The Liberal sentiment of + that time was so extremely philosophical and cosmopolitan that it hardly + distinguished between Poles and Russians, and liberty was supposed to be + the birthright of every man and woman to whatever nationality they might + happen to belong. But underneath these beautiful artificial clouds of + cosmopolitan Liberal sentiment lay the volcano of national patriotism, + dormant for the moment, but by no means extinct. Though the Russians are + in some respects the most cosmopolitan of European nations, they are at + the same time capable of indulging in violent outbursts of patriotic + fanaticism; and events in Warsaw brought into hostile contact these two + contradictory elements in the national character. The struggle was only + momentary. Ere long the patriotic feelings gained the upper hand and + crushed all cosmopolitan sympathy with political freedom. The Moscow + Gazette, the first of the papers to recover its mental equilibrium, + thundered against the pseudo-Liberal sentimentalism, which would, if + unchecked, necessarily lead to the dismemberment of the Empire, and its + editor, Katkoff, became for a time the most influential private individual + in the country. A few, indeed, remained true to their convictions. Herzen, + for instance, wrote in the Kolokol a glowing panegyric on two Russian + officers who had refused to fire on the insurgents; and here and there a + good Orthodox Russian might be found who confessed that he was ashamed of + Muravieff's extreme severity in Lithuania. But such men were few, and were + commonly regarded as traitors, especially after the ill-advised diplomatic + intervention of the Western Powers. Even Herzen, by his publicly expressed + sympathy with the insurgents, lost entirely his popularity and influence + among his fellow-countrymen. The great majority of the public thoroughly + approved of the severe energetic measures adopted by the Government, and + when the insurrection was suppressed, men who had a few months previously + spoken and written in magniloquent terms about humanitarian Liberalism + joined in the ovations offered to Muravieff! At a great dinner given in + his honour, that ruthless administrator of the old Muscovite type, who had + systematically opposed the emancipation of the serfs and had never + concealed his contempt for the Liberal ideas in fashion, could ironically + express his satisfaction at seeing around him so many "new friends"!** + This revulsion of public feeling gave the Moscow Slavophils an opportunity + of again preaching their doctrine that the safety and prosperity of Russia + were to be found, not in the Liberalism and Constitutionalism of Western + Europe, but in patriarchal autocracy, Eastern Orthodoxy, and other + peculiarities of Russian nationality. Thus the reactionary tendencies + gained ground; but Alexander II., while causing all political agitation to + be repressed, did not at once abandon his policy of introducing radical + reforms by means of the Autocratic Power. On the contrary, he gave orders + that the preparatory work for creating local self-government and + reorganising the Law Courts should be pushed on energetically. The + important laws for the establishment of the Zemstvo and for the great + judicial reforms, which I have described in previous chapters, both date + from the year 1864. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The students of the St. Petersburg University scandalised + their more patriotic fellow-countrymen by making a + pro-Polish demonstration. + + ** In fairness to Count Muravieff I must say that he was not + quite so black as he was painted in the Polish and + West-European Press. He left an interesting autobiographical + fragment relating to the history of this time, but it is not + likely to be printed for some years. As an historical + document it is valuable, but must be used with caution by + the future historian. A copy of it was for some time in my + possession, but I was bound by a promise not to make + extracts. +</pre> + <p> + These and other reforms of a less important kind made no impression on the + young irreconcilables. A small group of them, under the leadership of a + certain Ishutin, formed in Moscow a small secret society, and conceived + the design of assassinating the Emperor, in the hope that his son and + successor, who was erroneously supposed to be imbued with ultra-Liberal + ideas, might continue the work which his father had begun and had not the + courage to complete. In April, 1866, the attempt on the life of the + Emperor was made by a youth called Karakozof as his Majesty was leaving a + public garden in St. Petersburg, but the bullet happily missed its mark, + and the culprit was executed. + </p> + <p> + This incident formed a turning-point in the policy of the Government. + Alexander II. began to fear that he had gone too far, or, at least, too + quickly, in his policy of radical reform. An Imperial rescript announced + that law, property, and religion were in danger, and that the Government + would lean on the Noblesse and other conservative elements of Society. The + two periodicals which advocated the most advanced views (Sovremennik and + Russkoye Slovo) were suppressed permanently, and precautions were taken to + prevent the annual assemblies of the Zemstvo from giving public expression + to the aspirations of the moderate Liberals. + </p> + <p> + A secret official inquiry showed that the revolutionary agitation + proceeded in all cases from young men who were studying, or had recently + studied, in the universities, the seminaries, or the technical schools, + such as the Medical Academy and the Agricultural Institute. Plainly, + therefore, the system of education was at fault. The semi-military system + of the time of Nicholas had been supplanted by one in which discipline was + reduced to a minimum and the study of natural science formed a prominent + element. Here it was thought, lay the chief root of the evil. Englishmen + may have some difficulty in imagining a possible connection between + natural science and revolutionary agitation. To them the two things must + seem wide as the poles asunder. Surely mathematics, chemistry, physiology, + and similar subjects have nothing to do with politics. When a young + Englishman takes to studying any branch of natural science he gets up his + subject by means of lectures, text-books, and museums or laboratories, and + when he has mastered it he probably puts his knowledge to some practical + use. In Russia it is otherwise. Few students confine themselves to their + speciality. The majority of them dislike the laborious work of mastering + dry details, and, with the presumption which is often found in conjunction + with youth and a smattering of knowledge, they aspire to become social + reformers and imagine themselves specially qualified for such activity. + </p> + <p> + But what, it may be asked, has social reform to do with natural science? I + have already indicated the connection in the Russian mind. Though very few + of the students of that time had ever read the voluminous works of Auguste + Comte, they were all more or less imbued with the spirit of the Positive + Philosophy, in which all the sciences are subsidiary to sociology, and + social reorganisation is the ultimate object of scientific research. The + imaginative Positivist can see with prophetic eye humanity reorganised on + strictly scientific principles. Cool-headed people who have had a little + experience of the world, if they ever indulge in such delightful dreams, + recognise clearly that this ultimate goal of human intellectual activity, + if it is ever to be reached, is still a long way off in the misty distance + of the future; but the would-be social reformers among the Russian + students of the sixties were too young, too inexperienced, and too + presumptuously self-confident to recognise this plain, simple truth. They + felt that too much valuable time had been already lost, and they were + madly impatient to begin the great work without further delay. As soon as + they had acquired a smattering of chemistry, physiology, and biology they + imagined themselves capable of reorganising human society from top to + bottom, and when they had acquired this conviction they were of course + unfitted for the patient, plodding study of details. + </p> + <p> + To remedy these evils, Count Dimitri Tolstoy, who was regarded as a pillar + of Conservatism, was appointed Minister of Public Instruction, with the + mission of protecting the young generation against pernicious ideas, and + eradicating from the schools, colleges, and universities all revolutionary + tendencies. He determined to introduce more discipline into all the + educational establishments and to supplant to a certain extent the + superficial study of natural science by the thorough study of the classics—that + is to say, Latin and Greek. This scheme, which became known before it was + actually put into execution, produced a storm of discontent in the young + generation. Discipline at that time was regarded as an antiquated and + useless remnant of patriarchal tyranny, and young men who were impatient + to take part in social reorganisation resented being treated as naughty + schoolboys. To them it seemed that the Latin grammar was an ingenious + instrument for stultifying youthful intelligence, destroying intellectual + development, and checking political progress. Ingenious speculations about + the possible organisation of the working classes and grandiose views of + the future of humanity are so much more interesting and agreeable than the + rules of Latin syntax and the Greek irregular verbs! + </p> + <p> + Count Tolstoy could congratulate himself on the efficacy of his + administration, for from the time of his appointment there was a lull in + the political excitement. During three or four years there was only one + political trial, and that an insignificant one; whereas there had been + twenty between 1861 and 1864, and all more or less important. I am not at + all sure, however, that the educational reform which created much + momentary irritation and discontent had anything to do with the + improvement in the situation. In any case, there were other and more + potent causes at work. The excitement was too intense to be long-lived, + and the fashionable theories too fanciful to stand the wear and tear of + everyday life. They evaporated, therefore, with amazing rapidity when the + leaders of the movement had disappeared—Tchernishevski and others by + exile, and Dobrolubof and Pissaref by death—and when among the less + prominent representatives of the younger generation many succumbed to the + sobering influences of time and experience or drifted into lucrative + professions. Besides this, the reactionary currents were making themselves + felt, especially since the attempt on the life of the Emperor. So long as + these had been confined to the official world they had not much affected + the literature, except externally through the Press-censure, but when they + permeated the reading public their influence was much stronger. Whatever + the cause, there is no doubt that, in the last years of the sixties, there + was a subsidence of excitement and enthusiasm and the peculiar + intellectual phenomenon which had been nicknamed Nihilism was supposed to + be a thing of the past. In reality the movement of which Nihilism was a + prominent manifestation had merely lost something of its academic + character and was entering on a new stage of development. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0035" id="link2HCH0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXV + </h2> + <h3> + SOCIALIST PROPAGANDA, REVOLUTIONARY AGITATION, AND TERRORISM + </h3> + <p> + Closer Relations with Western Socialism—Attempts to Influence the + Masses—Bakunin and Lavroff—"Going in among the People"—The + Missionaries of Revolutionary Socialism—Distinction between + Propaganda and Agitation—Revolutionary Pamphlets for the Common + People—Aims and Motives of the Propagandists—Failure of + Propaganda—Energetic Repression—Fruitless Attempts at + Agitation—Proposal to Combine with Liberals—Genesis of + Terrorism—My Personal Relations with the Revolutionists—Shadowers + and Shadowed—A Series of Terrorist Crimes—A Revolutionist + Congress—Unsuccessful Attempts to Assassinate the Tsar—Ineffectual + Attempt at Conciliation by Loris Melikof—Assassination of Alexander + II.—The Executive Committee Shows Itself Unpractical—Widespread + Indignation and Severe Repression—Temporary Collapse of the + Revolutionary Movement—A New Revolutionary Movement in Sight. + </p> + <p> + Count Tolstoy's educational reform had one effect which was not + anticipated: it brought the revolutionists into closer contact with + Western Socialism. Many students, finding their position in Russia + uncomfortable, determined to go abroad and continue their studies in + foreign universities, where they would be free from the inconveniences of + police supervision and Press-censure. Those of the female sex had an + additional motive to emigrate, because they could not complete their + studies in Russia, but they had more difficulty in carrying out their + intention, because parents naturally disliked the idea of their daughters + going abroad to lead a Bohemian life, and they very often obstinately + refused to give their consent. In such cases the persistent daughter found + herself in a dilemma. Though she might run away from her family and + possibly earn her own living, she could not cross the frontier without a + passport, and without the parental sanction a passport could not be + obtained. Of course she might marry and get the consent of her husband, + but most of the young ladies objected to the trammels of matrimony. + Occasionally the problem was solved by means of a fictitious marriage, and + when a young man could not be found to co-operate voluntarily in the + arrangement, the Terrorist methods, which the revolutionists adopted a few + years later for other purposes, might be employed. I have heard of at + least one case in which an ardent female devotee of medical science + threatened to shoot a student who was going abroad if he did not submit to + the matrimonial ceremony and allow her to accompany him to the frontier as + his official wife! + </p> + <p> + Strange as this story may seem, it contains nothing inherently improbable. + At that time the energetic young ladies of the Nihilist school were not to + be diverted from their purpose by trifling obstacles. We shall meet some + of them hereafter, displaying great courage and tenacity in revolutionary + activity. One of them, for example, attempted to murder the Prefect of St. + Petersburg; and another, a young person of considerable refinement and + great personal charm, gave the signal for the assassination of Alexander + II. and expiated her crime on the scaffold without the least sign of + repentance. + </p> + <p> + Most of the studious emigres of both sexes went to Zurich, where female + students were admitted to the medical classes. Here they made the + acquaintance of noted Socialists from various countries who had settled in + Switzerland, and being in search of panaceas for social regeneration, they + naturally fell under their influence, at the same time they read with + avidity the works of Proudhon, Lassalle, Buchner, Marx, Flerovski, + Pfeiffer, and other writers of "advanced opinions." + </p> + <p> + Among the apostles of socialism living at that time in Switzerland they + found a sympathetic fellow-countryman in the famous Anarchist, Bakunin, + who had succeeded in escaping from Siberia. His ideal was the immediate + overthrow of all existing Governments, the destruction of all + administrative organisation, the abolition of all bourgeois institutions, + and the establishment of an entirely new order of things on the basis of a + free federation of productive Communes, in which all the land should be + distributed among those capable of tilling it and the instruments of + production confided to co-operative associations. Efforts to obtain mere + political reforms, even of the most radical type, were regarded by him + with contempt as miserable palliatives, which could be of no real, + permanent benefit to the masses, and might be positively injurious by + prolonging the present era of bourgeois domination. + </p> + <p> + For the dissemination of these principles a special organ called The Cause + of the People (Narodnoye Dyelo) was founded in Geneva in 1868 and was + smuggled across the Russian frontier in considerable quantities. It aimed + at drawing away the young generation from Academic Nihilism to more + practical revolutionary activity, but it evidently remained to some extent + under the old influences, for it indulged occasionally in very abstract + philosophical disquisitions. In its first number, for example, it + published a programme in which the editors thought it necessary to declare + that they were materialists and atheists, because the belief in God and a + future life, as well as every other kind of idealism, demoralises the + people, inspiring it with mutually contradictory aspirations, and thereby + depriving it of the energy necessary for the conquest of its natural + rights in this world, and the complete organisation of a free and happy + life. At the end of two years this organ for moralising the people + collapsed from want of funds, but other periodicals and pamphlets were + printed, and the clandestine relations between the exiles in Switzerland + and their friends in St. Petersburg were maintained without difficulty, + notwithstanding the efforts of the police to cut the connection. In this + way Young Russia became more and more saturated with the extreme Socialist + theories current in Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + Thanks partly to this foreign influence and partly to their own practical + experience, the would-be reformers who remained at home came to understand + that academic talking and discussing could bring about no serious results. + Students alone, however numerous and however devoted to the cause, could + not hope to overthrow or coerce the Government. It was childish to suppose + that the walls of the autocratic Jericho would fall by the blasts of + academic trumpets. Attempts at revolution could not be successful without + the active support of the people, and consequently the revolutionary + agitation must be extended to the masses. So far there was complete + agreement among the revolutionists, but with regard to the modus operandi + emphatic differences of opinion appeared. Those who were carried away by + the stirring accents of Bakunin imagined that if the masses could only be + made to feel themselves the victims of administrative and economic + oppression, they would rise and free themselves by a united effort. + According to this view all that was required was that popular discontent + should be excited and that precautions should be taken to ensure that the + explosions of discontent should take place simultaneously all over the + country. The rest might safely be left, it was thought, to the operation + of natural forces and the inspiration of the moment. Against this + dangerous illusion warning voices were raised. Lavroff, for example, while + agreeing with Bakunin that mere political reforms were of little or no + value, and that any genuine improvement in the condition of the working + classes could proceed only from economic and social reorganisation, + maintained stoutly that the revolution, to be permanent and beneficial, + must be accomplished, not by demagogues directing the ignorant masses, but + by the people as a whole, after it had been enlightened and instructed as + to its true interests. The preparatory work would necessarily require a + whole generation of educated propagandists, living among the labouring + population rural and urban. + </p> + <p> + For some time there was a conflict between these two currents of opinion, + but the views of Lavroff, which were simply a practical development of + academic Nihilism, gained far more adherents than the violent anarchical + proposals of Bakunin, and finally the grandiose scheme of realising + gradually the Socialist ideal by indoctrinating the masses was adopted + with enthusiasm. In St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large towns the + student association for mutual instruction, to which I have referred in + the foregoing chapter, became centres of popular propaganda, and the + academic Nihilists were transformed into active missionaries. Scores of + male and female students, impatient to convert the masses to the gospel of + freedom and terrestrial felicity, sought to get into touch with the common + people by settling in the villages as school-teachers, medical + practitioners, midwives, etc., or by working as common factory hands in + the industrial centres. In order to obtain employment in the factories and + conceal their real purpose, they procured false passports, in which they + were described as belonging to the lower classes; and even those who + settled in the villages lived generally under assumed names. Thus was + formed a class of professional revolutionists, sometimes called the + Illegals, who were liable to be arrested at any moment by the police. As + compensation for the privations and hardships which they had to endure, + they had the consolation of believing that they were advancing the good + cause. The means they usually employed were formal conversations and + pamphlets expressly written for the purpose. The more enthusiastic and + persevering of these missionaries would continue their efforts for months + and years, remaining in communication with the headquarters in the capital + or some provincial town in order to report progress, obtain a fresh supply + of pamphlets, and get their forged passports renewed. This extraordinary + movement was called "going in among the people," and it spread among the + young generation like an epidemic. In 1873 it was suddenly reinforced by a + detachment of fresh recruits. Over a hundred Russian students were + recalled by the Government from Switzerland, in order to save them from + the baneful influence of Bakunin, Lavroff, and other noted Socialists, and + a large proportion of them joined the ranks of the propagandists.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Instances of going in among the people had happened as + early as 1864, but they did not become frequent till after + 1870. +</pre> + <p> + With regard to the aims and methods of the propagandists, a good deal of + information was obtained in the course of a judicial inquiry instituted in + 1875. A peasant, who was at the same time a factory worker, informed the + police that certain persons were distributing revolutionary pamphlets + among the factory-hands, and as a proof of what he said he produced some + pamphlets which he had himself received. This led to an investigation, + which showed that a number of young men and women, evidently belonging to + the educated classes, were disseminating revolutionary ideas by means of + pamphlets and conversation. Arrests followed, and it was soon discovered + that these agitators belonged to a large secret association, which had its + centre in Moscow and local branches in Ivanovo, Tula, and Kief. In + Ivanovo, for instance—a manufacturing town about a hundred miles to + the northeast of Moscow—the police found a small apartment inhabited + by three young men and four young women, all of whom, though belonging by + birth to the educated classes, had the appearance of ordinary factory + workers, prepared their own food, did with their own hands all the + domestic work, and sought to avoid everything which could distinguish them + from the labouring population. In the apartment were found 240 copies of + revolutionary pamphlets, a considerable sum of money, a large amount of + correspondence in cypher, and several forged passports. + </p> + <p> + How many persons the society contained, it is impossible to say, because a + large portion of them eluded the vigilance of the police; but many were + arrested, and ultimately forty-seven were condemned. Of these, eleven were + noble, seven were sons of parish priests, and the remainder belong to the + lower classes—that is to say, the small officials, burghers, and + peasants. The average age of the prisoners was twenty-four, the oldest + being thirty-six and the youngest under seventeen! Only five or six were + over twenty-five, and none of these were ringleaders. The female element + was represented by no less than fifteen young persons, whose ages were on + an average under twenty-two. Two of these, to judge by their photographs, + were of refined, prepossessing appearance, and seemingly little fitted for + taking part in wholesale massacres such as the society talked of + organising. + </p> + <p> + The character and aims of the society were clearly depicted in the + documentary and oral evidence produced at the trial. According to the + fundamental principles, there should exist among the members absolute + equality, complete mutual responsibility and full frankness and confidence + with regard to the affairs of the association. Among the conditions of + admission we find that the candidate should devote himself entirely to + revolutionary activity; that he should be ready to sever all ties, whether + of friendship or of love, for the good cause; that he should possess great + powers of self-sacrifice and the capacity for keeping secrets; and that he + should consent to become, when necessary, a common labourer in a factory. + The desire to maintain absolute equality is well illustrated by the + article of the statutes regarding the administration: the office-bearers + are not to be chosen by election, but all members are to be office-bearers + in turn, and the term of office must not exceed one month! + </p> + <p> + The avowed aim of the society was to destroy the existing social order, + and to replace it by one in which there should be no private property and + no distinctions of class or wealth; or, as it is expressed in one + document, "to found on the ruins of the present social organisation the + Empire of the working classes." The means to be employed were indicated in + a general way, but each member was to adapt himself to circumstances and + was to devote all his energy to forwarding the cause of the revolution. + For the guidance of the inexperienced, the following means were + recommended: simple conversations, dissemination of pamphlets, the + exciting of discontent, the formation of organised groups, the creation of + funds and libraries. These, taken together, constitute, in the terminology + of revolutionary science, "propaganda," and in addition to it there should + be "agitation." The technical distinction between these two processes is + that propaganda has a purely preparatory character, and aims merely at + enlightening the masses regarding the true nature of the revolutionary + cause, whereas agitation aims at exciting an individual or a group to acts + which are considered, in the existing regime, as illegal. In time of peace + "pure agitation" was to be carried on by means of organised bands which + should frighten the Government and the privileged classes, draw away the + attention of the authorities from less overt kinds of revolutionary + action, raise the spirit of the people and thereby render it more + accessible to revolutionary ideas, obtain pecuniary means for further + activity, and liberate political prisoners. In time of insurrection the + members should give to all movements every assistance in their power, and + impress on them a Socialistic character. The central administration and + the local branches should establish relations with publishers, and take + steps to secure a regular supply of prohibited books from abroad. Such are + a few characteristic extracts from a document which might fairly be called + a treatise on revolutionology. + </p> + <p> + As a specimen of the revolutionary pamphlets circulated by the + propagandists and agitators I may give here a brief account of one which + is well known to the political police. It is entitled Khitraya Mekhanika + (Cunning Machinery), and gives a graphic picture of the ideas and methods + employed. The mise en scene is extremely simple. Two peasants, Stepan and + Andrei, are represented as meeting in a gin-shop and drinking together. + Stepan is described as good and kindly when he has to do with men of his + own class, but very sharp-tongued when speaking with a foreman or manager. + Always ready with an answer, he can on occasions silence even an official! + He has travelled all over the Empire, has associated with all sorts and + conditions of men, sees everything most clearly, and is, in short, a very + remarkable man. One of his excellent qualities is that, being + "enlightened" himself, he is always ready to enlighten others, and he now + finds an opportunity of displaying his powers. When Andrei, who is still + unenlightened, proposes that they should drink another glass of vodka, he + replies that the Tsar, together with the nobles and traders, bars the way + to the throat. As his companion does not understand this metaphorical + language, he explains that if there were no Tsars, nobles, or traders, he + could get five glasses of vodka for the sum that he now pays for one + glass. This naturally suggests wider topics, and Stepan gives something + like a lecture. The common people, he explains, pay by far the greater + part of the taxation, and at the same time do all the work; they plough + the fields, build the houses and churches, work in the mills and + factories, and in return they are systematically robbed and beaten. And + what is done with all the money that is taken from them? First of all, the + Tsar gets nine millions of roubles—enough to feed half a province—and + with that sum he amuses himself, has hunting-parties, and feasts, eats, + drinks, makes merry, and lives in stone houses. He gave liberty, it is + true, to the peasants; but we know what the Emancipation really was. The + best land was taken away and the taxes were increased, lest the muzhik + should get fat and lazy. The Tsar is himself the richest landed proprietor + and manufacturer in the country. He not only robs us as much as he + pleases, but he has sold into slavery (by forming a national debt) our + children and grandchildren. He takes our sons as soldiers, shuts them up + in barracks so that they should not see their brother-peasants, and + hardens their hearts so that they become wild beasts, ready to rend their + parents. The nobles and traders likewise rob the poor peasants. In short, + all the upper classes have invented a bit of cunning machinery by which + the muzhik is made to pay for their pleasures and luxuries. The people + will one day rise and break this machinery to pieces. When that day comes + they must break every part of it, for if one bit escapes destruction all + the other parts of it will immediately grow up again. All the force is on + the side of the peasants, if they only knew how to use it. Knowledge will + come in time. They will then destroy this machine, and perceive that the + only real remedy for all social evils is brotherhood. People should live + like brothers, having no mine and thine, but all things in common. When we + have created brotherhood, there will be no riches and no thieves, but + right and righteousness without end. In conclusion, Stepan addresses a + word to "the torturers": "When the people rise, the Tsar will send troops + against us, and the nobles and capitalists will stake their last rouble on + the result. If they do not succeed, they must not expect any quarter from + us. They may conquer us once or twice, but we shall at last get our own, + for there is no power that can withstand the whole people. Then we shall + cleanse the country of our persecutors, and establish a brotherhood in + which there will be no mine and thine, but all will work for the common + weal. We shall construct no cunning machinery, but shall pluck up evil by + the roots, and establish eternal justice!" + </p> + <p> + The above-mentioned distinction between Propaganda and Agitation, which + plays a considerable part in revolutionary literature, had at that time + more theoretical than practical importance. The great majority of those + who took an active part in the movement confined their efforts to + indoctrinating the masses with Socialistic and subversive ideas, and + sometimes their methods were rather childish. As an illustration I may + cite an amusing incident related by one of the boldest and most tenacious + of the revolutionists, who subsequently acquired a certain sense of + humour. He and a friend were walking one day on a country road, when they + were overtaken by a peasant in his cart. Ever anxious to sow the good + seed, they at once entered into conversation with the rustic, telling him + that he ought not to pay his taxes, because the tchinovniks robbed the + people, and trying to convince him by quotations from Scripture that he + ought to resist the authorities. The prudent muzhik whipped up his horse + and tried to get out of hearing, but the two zealots ran after him and + continued the sermon till they were completely out of breath. Other + propagandists were more practical, and preached a species of agrarian + socialism which the rural population could understand. At the time of the + Emancipation the peasants were convinced as I have mentioned in a previous + chapter, that the Tsar meant to give them all the land, and to compensate + the landed proprietors by salaries. Even when the law was read and + explained to them, they clung obstinately to their old convictions, and + confidently expected that the REAL Emancipation would be proclaimed + shortly. Taking advantage of this state of things, the propagandists to + whom I refer confirmed the peasants in their error, and sought in this way + to sow discontent against the proprietors and the Government. Their + watchword was "Land and Liberty," and they formed for a good many years a + distinct group, under that title (Zemlya i Volya, or more briefly + Zemlevoltsi). + </p> + <p> + In the St. Petersburg group, which aspired to direct and control this + movement, there were one or two men who held different views as to the + real object of propaganda and agitation. One of these, Prince Krapotkin, + has told the world what his object was at that time. He hoped that the + Government would be frightened and that the Autocratic Power, as in France + on the eve of the Revolution, would seek support in the landed + proprietors, and call together a National Assembly. Thus a constitution + would be granted, and though the first Assembly might be conservative in + spirit, autocracy would be compelled in the long run to yield to + parliamentary pressure. + </p> + <p> + No such elaborate projects were entertained, I believe, by the majority of + the propagandists. Their reasoning was much simpler: "The Government, + having become reactionary, tries to prevent us from enlightening the + people; we will do it in spite of the Government!" The dangers to which + they exposed themselves only confirmed them in their resolution. Though + they honestly believed themselves to be Realists and Materialists, they + were at heart romantic Idealists, panting to do something heroic. They had + been taught by the apostles whom they venerated, from Belinski downwards, + that the man who simply talks about the good of the people, and does + nothing to promote it, is among the most contemptible of human beings. No + such reproach must be addressed to them. If the Government opposed and + threatened, that was no excuse for inactivity. They must be up and doing. + "Forward! forward! Let us plunge into the people, identify ourselves with + them, and work for their benefit! Suffering is in store for us, but we + must endure it with fortitude!" The type which Tchernishevski had depicted + in his famous novel, under the name of Rakhmetof—the youth who led + an ascetic life and subjected himself to privation and suffering as a + preparation for future revolutionary activity—now appeared in the + flesh. If we may credit Bakunin, these Rakhmetofs had not even the + consolation of believing in the possibility of a revolution, but as they + could not and would not remain passive spectators of the misfortunes of + the people, they resolved to go in among the masses in order to share with + them fraternally their sufferings, and at the same time to teach and + prepare, not theoretically, but practically by their living example.* This + is, I believe, an exaggeration. The propagandists were, for the most part + of incredibly sanguine temperament. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Bakunin: "Gosudarstvennost' i Anarkhiya" ("State + Organisation and Anarchy"), Zurich, 1873. +</pre> + <p> + The success of the propaganda and agitation was not at all in proportion + to the numbers and enthusiasm of those who took part in it. Most of these + displayed more zeal than mother-wit and discretion. Their Socialism was + too abstract and scientific to be understood by rustics, and when they + succeeded in making themselves intelligible they awakened in their hearers + more suspicion than sympathy. The muzhik is a very matter-of-fact + practical person, totally incapable of understanding what Americans call + "hifalutin" tendencies in speech and conduct, and as he listened to the + preaching of the new Gospel doubts and questionings spontaneously rose in + his mind: "What do those young people, who betray their gentlefolk origin + by their delicate white hands, their foreign phrases, their ignorance of + the common things of everyday peasant life, really want? Why are they + bearing hardships and taking so much trouble? They tell us it is for our + good, but we are not such fools and simpletons as they take us for. They + are not doing it all for nothing. What do they expect from us in return? + Whatever it is, they are evidently evil-doers, and perhaps moshenniki + (swindlers). Devil take them!" and thereupon the cautious muzhik turns his + back upon his disinterested self-sacrificing teachers, or goes quietly and + denounces them to the police! It is not only in Spain that we encounter + Don Quixotes and Sancho Panzas! + </p> + <p> + Occasionally a worse fate befell the missionaries. If they allowed + themselves, as they sometimes did, to "blaspheme" against religion or the + Tsar, they ran the risk of being maltreated on the spot. I have heard of + one case in which the punishment for blasphemy was applied by sturdy + peasant matrons. Even when they escaped such mishaps they had not much + reason to congratulate themselves on their success. After three years of + arduous labour the hundreds of apostles could not boast of more than a + score or two of converts among the genuine working classes, and even these + few did not all remain faithful unto death. Some of them, however, it must + be admitted, laboured and suffered to the end with the courage and + endurance of true martyrs. + </p> + <p> + It was not merely the indifference or hostility of the masses that the + propagandists had to complain of. The police soon got on their track, and + did not confine themselves to persuasion and logical arguments. Towards + the end of 1873 they arrested some members of the central directory group + in St. Petersburg, and in the following May they discovered in the + province of Saratof an affiliated organisation with which nearly 800 + persons were connected, about one-fifth of them belonging to the female + sex. A few came of well-to-do families—sons and daughters of minor + officials or small landed proprietors—but the great majority were + poor students of humbler origin, a large contingent being supplied by the + sons of the poor parish clergy. In other provinces the authorities made + similar discoveries. Before the end of the year a large proportion of the + propagandists were in prison, and the centralised organisation, so far as + such a thing existed, was destroyed. Gradually it dawned on the minds even + of the Don Quixotes that pacific propaganda was no longer possible, and + that attempts to continue it could lead only to useless sacrifices. + </p> + <p> + For a time there was universal discouragement in the revolutionary ranks; + and among those who had escaped arrest there were mutual recriminations + and endless discussions about the causes of failure and the changes to be + made in modes of action. The practical results of these recriminations and + discussions was that the partisans of a slow, pacific propaganda retired + to the background, and the more impatient revolutionary agitators took + possession of the movement. These maintained stoutly that as pacific + propaganda had become impossible, stronger methods must be adopted. The + masses must be organised so as to offer successful resistance to the + Government. Conspiracies must therefore be formed, local disorders + provoked, and blood made to flow. The part of the country which seemed + best adapted for experiments of this kind was the southern and + southeastern region, inhabited by the descendants of the turbulent Cossack + population which had raised formidable insurrections under Stenka Razin + and Pugatcheff in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Here, then, + the more impatient agitators began their work. A Kief group called the + Buntari (rioters), composed of about twenty-five individuals, settled in + various localities as small shopkeepers or horse dealers, or went about as + workmen or peddlers. One member of the group has given us in his + reminiscences an amusing account of the experiment. Everywhere the + agitators found the peasants suspicious and inhospitable, and consequently + they had to suffer a great deal of discomfort. Some of them at once gave + up the task as hopeless. The others settled in a village and began + operations. Having made a topographic survey of the locality, they worked + out an ingenious plan of campaign; but they had no recruits for the future + army of insurrection, and if they had been able to get recruits, they had + no arms for them, and no money wherewith to purchase arms or anything + else. In these circumstances they gravely appointed a committee to collect + funds, knowing very well that no money would be forthcoming. It was as if + a shipwrecked crew in an open boat, having reached the brink of + starvation, appointed a committee to obtain a supply of fresh water and + provisions! In the hope of obtaining assistance from headquarters, a + delegate was sent to St. Petersburg and Moscow to explain that for the + arming of the population about a quarter of a million of roubles was + required. The delegate brought back thirty second-hand revolvers! The + revolutionist who confesses all this* recognises that the whole scheme was + childishly unpractical: "We chose the path of popular insurrection because + we had faith in the revolutionary spirit of the masses, in its power and + its invincibility. That was the weak side of our position; and the most + curious part of it was that we drew proofs in support of our theory from + history—from the abortive insurrections of Pazin and Pugatcheff, + which took place in an age when the Government had only a small regular + army and no railways or telegraphs! We did not even think of attempting a + propaganda among the military!" In the district of Tchigirin the agitators + had a little momentary success, but the result was the same. There a + student called Stefanovitch pretended that the Tsar was struggling with + the officials to benefit the peasantry, and he showed the simple rustics a + forged imperial manifesto in which they were ordered to form a society for + the purpose of raising an insurrection against the officials, the nobles, + and the priests. At one moment (April, 1877), the society had about 600 + members, but a few months later it was discovered by the police, and the + leaders and peasants were arrested. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Debogorio-Mokrievitch. "Vospominaniya" ("Reminiscences"). + Paris, 1894-99. +</pre> + <p> + When it had thus become evident that propaganda and agitation were alike + useless, and when numerous arrests were being made daily, it became + necessary for the revolutionists to reconsider their position, and some of + the more moderate proposed to rally to the Liberals, as a temporary + measure. Hitherto there had been very little sympathy and a good deal of + openly avowed hostility between Liberals and revolutionists. The latter, + convinced that they could overthrow the Autocratic Power by their own + unaided efforts, had looked askance at Liberalism because they believed + that parliamentary discussions and party struggles would impede rather + than facilitate the advent of the Socialist Millennium, and strengthen the + domination of the bourgeoisie without really improving the condition of + the masses. Now, however, when the need of allies was felt, it seemed that + constitutional government might be used as a stepping-stone for reaching + the Socialist ideal, because it must grant a certain liberty of the Press + and of association, and it would necessarily abolish the existing + autocratic system of arresting, imprisoning and exiling, on mere + suspicion, without any regular form of legal procedure. As usual, an + appeal was made to history, and arguments were easily found in favour of + this course of action. The past of other nations had shown that in the + march of progress there are no sudden leaps and bounds, and it was + therefore absurd to imagine, as the revolutionists had hitherto done, that + Russian Autocracy could be swallowed by Socialism at a gulp. There must + always be periods of transition, and it seemed that such a transition + period might now be initiated. Liberalism might be allowed to destroy, or + at least weaken, Autocracy, and then it might be destroyed in its turn by + Socialism of the most advanced type. + </p> + <p> + Having adopted this theory of gradual historic development, some of the + more practical revolutionists approached the more advanced Liberals and + urged them to more energetic action; but before anything could be arranged + the more impatient revolutionists—notably the group called the + Narodovoltsi (National-will-ists)—intervened, denounced what they + considered an unholy alliance, and proposed a policy of terrorism by which + the Government would be frightened into a more conciliatory attitude. + Their idea was that the officials who displayed most zeal against the + revolutionary movement should be assassinated, and that every act of + severity on the part of the Administration should be answered by an act of + "revolutionary justice." + </p> + <p> + As it was evident that the choice between these two courses of action must + determine in great measure the future character and ultimate fate of the + movement, there was much discussion between the two groups; but the + question did not long remain in suspense. Soon the extreme party gained + the upper hand, and the Terrorist policy was adopted. I shall let the + revolutionists themselves explain this momentous decision. In a long + proclamation published some years later it is explained thus: + </p> + <p> + "The revolutionary movement in Russia began with the so-called 'going in + among the people.' The first Russian revolutionists thought that the + freedom of the people could be obtained only by the people itself, and + they imagined that the only thing necessary was that the people should + absorb Socialistic ideas. To this it was supposed that the peasantry were + naturally inclined, because they already possess, in the rural Commune, + institutions which contain the seeds of Socialism, and which might serve + as a basis for the reconstruction of society according to Socialist + principles. The propagandists hoped, therefore, that in the teachings of + West European Socialism the people would recognise its own instinctive + creations in riper and more clearly defined forms and that it would + joyfully accept the new teaching. + </p> + <p> + "But the people did not understand its friends, and showed itself hostile + to them. It turned out that institutions born in slavery could not serve + as a foundation for the new construction, and that the man who was + yesterday a serf, though capable of taking part in disturbances, is not + fitted for conscious revolutionary work. With pain in their heart the + revolutionists had to confess that they were deceived in their hopes of + the people. Around them were no social revolutionary forces on which they + could lean for support, and yet they could not reconcile themselves with + the existing state of violence and slavery. Thereupon awakened a last hope—the + hope of a drowning man who clutches at a straw: a little group of heroic + and self-sacrificing individuals might accomplish with their own strength + the difficult task of freeing Russia from the yoke of autocracy. They had + to do it themselves, because there was no other means. But would they be + able to accomplish it? For them that question did not exist. The struggle + of that little group against autocracy was like the heroic means on which + a doctor decides when there is no longer any hope of the patient's + recovery. Terrorism was the only means that remained, and it had the + advantage of giving a natural vent to pent-up feelings, and of seeming a + reaction against the cruel persecutions of the Government. The party + called the Narodnaya Volya (National Will) was accordingly formed, and + during several years the world witnessed a spectacle that had never been + seen before in history. The Narodnaya Volya, insignificant in numbers but + strong in spirit, engaged in single combat with the powerful Russian + Government. Neither executions, nor imprisonment with hard labour, nor + ordinary imprisonment and exile, destroyed the energy of the + revolutionists. Under their shots fell, one after the other, the most + zealous and typical representatives of arbitrary action and violence. . . + ." + </p> + <p> + It was at this time, in 1877, when propaganda and agitation among the + masses were being abandoned for the system of terrorism, but before any + assassinations had taken place, that I accidentally came into personal + relations with some prominent adherents of the revolutionary movement. One + day a young man of sympathetic appearance, whom I did not know and who + brought no credentials, called on me in St. Petersburg and suggested to me + that I might make public through the English Press what he described as a + revolting act of tyranny and cruelty committed by General Trepof, the + Prefect of the city. That official, he said, in visiting recently one of + the prisons, had noticed that a young political prisoner called Bogolubof + did not salute him as he passed, and he had ordered him to be flogged in + consequence. To this I replied that I had no reason to disbelieve the + story, but that I had equally no reason to accept it as accurate, as it + rested solely on the evidence of a person with whom I was totally + unacquainted. My informant took the objection in good part, and offered me + the names and addresses of a number of persons who could supply me with + any proofs that I might desire. + </p> + <p> + At his next visit I told him I had seen several of the persons he had + named, and that I could not help perceiving that they were closely + connected with the revolutionary movement. I then went on to suggest that + as the sympathisers with that movement constantly complained that they + were systematically misrepresented, calumniated and caricatured, the + leaders ought to give the world an accurate account of their real + doctrines, and in this respect I should be glad to assist them. Already I + knew something of the subject, because I had many friends and + acquaintances among the sympathisers, and had often had with them + interminable discussions. With their ideas, so far as I knew them, I felt + bound to confess that I had no manner of sympathy, but I flattered myself, + and he himself had admitted, that I was capable of describing accurately + and criticising impartially doctrines with which I did not agree. My new + acquaintance, whom I may call Dimitry Ivan'itch, was pleased with the + proposal, and after he had consulted with some of his friends, we came to + an agreement by which I should receive all the materials necessary for + writing an accurate account of the doctrinal side of the movement. With + regard to any conspiracies that might be in progress, I warned him that he + must be strictly reticent, because if I came accidentally to know of any + terrorist designs, I should consider it my duty to warn the authorities. + For this reason I declined to attend any secret conclaves, and it was + agreed that I should be instructed without being initiated. + </p> + <p> + The first step in my instruction was not very satisfactory or encouraging. + One day Dimitri Ivan'itch brought me a large manuscript, which contained, + he said, the real doctrines of the revolutionists and the explanation of + their methods. I was surprised to find that it was written in English, and + I perceived at a glance that it was not at all what I wanted. As soon as I + had read the first sentence I turned to my friend and said: + </p> + <p> + "I am very sorry to find, Dimitri Ivan'itch, that you have not kept your + part of the bargain. We agreed, you may remember, that we were to act + towards each other in absolutely good faith, and here I find a flagrant + bit of bad faith in the very first sentence of the manuscript which you + have brought me. The document opens with the statement that a large number + of students have been arrested and imprisoned for distributing books among + the people. That statement may be true according to the letter, but it is + evidently intended to mislead. These youths have been arrested, as you + must know, not for distributing ordinary books, as the memorandum + suggests, but for distributing books of a certain kind. I have read some + of them, and I cannot feel at all surprised that the Government should + object to their being put into the hands of the ignorant masses. Take, for + example, the one entitled Khitraya Mekhanika, and others of the same type. + The practical teaching they contain is that the peasants should be ready + to rise and cut the throats of the landed proprietors and officials. Now, + a wholesale massacre of the kind may or may not be desirable in the + interests of Society, and justifiable according to some new code of higher + morality. That is a question into which I do not enter. All I maintain is + that the writer of this memorandum, in speaking of 'books,' meant to + mislead me." + </p> + <p> + Dimitri Ivan'itch looked puzzled and ashamed. "Forgive me," he said; "I am + to blame—not for having attempted to deceive you, but for not having + taken precautions. I have not read the manuscript, and I could not if I + wished, for it is written in English, and I know no language but my mother + tongue. My friends ought not to have done this. Give me back the paper, + and I shall take care that nothing of the sort occurs in future." + </p> + <p> + This promise was faithfully kept, and I had no further reason to complain. + Dimitri Ivan'itch gave me a considerable amount of information, and lent + me a valuable collection of revolutionary pamphlets. Unfortunately the + course of tuition was suddenly interrupted by unforeseen circumstances, + which I may mention as characteristic of life in St. Petersburg at the + time. My servant, an excellent young Russian, more honest than + intelligent, came to me one morning with a mysterious air, and warned me + to be on my guard, because there were "bad people" going about. On being + pressed a little, he explained to me what he meant. Two strangers had come + to him and, after offering him a few roubles, had asked him a number of + questions about my habits—at what hour I went out and came home, + what persons called on me, and much more of the same sort. "They even + tried, sir, to get into your sitting-room; but of course I did not allow + them. I believe they want to rob you!" + </p> + <p> + It was not difficult to guess who these "bad people" were who took such a + keen interest in my doings, and who wanted to examine my apartment in my + absence. Any doubts I had on the subject were soon removed. On the morrow + and following days I noticed that whenever I went out, and wherever I + might walk or drive, I was closely followed by two unsympathetic-looking + individuals—so closely that when I turned round sharp they ran into + me. The first and second times this little accident occurred they received + a strong volley of unceremonious vernacular; but when we became better + acquainted we simply smiled at each other knowingly, as the old Roman + Augurs are supposed to have done when they met in public unobserved. There + was no longer any attempt at concealment or mystification. I knew I was + being shadowed, and the shadowers could not help perceiving that I knew + it. Yet, strange to say, they were never changed! + </p> + <p> + The reader probably assumes that the secret police had somehow got wind of + my relations with the revolutionists. Such an assumption presupposes on + the part of the police an amount of intelligence and perspicacity which + they do not usually possess. On this occasion they were on an entirely + wrong scent, and the very day when I first noticed my shadowers, a high + official, who seemed to regard the whole thing as a good joke, told me + confidentially what the wrong scent was. At the instigation of an + ex-ambassador, from whom I had the misfortune to differ in matters of + foreign policy, the Moscow Gazette had denounced me publicly by name as a + person who was in the habit of visiting daily the Ministry of Foreign + Affairs—doubtless with the nefarious purpose of obtaining by illegal + means secret political information—and the police had concluded that + I was a fit and proper person to be closely watched. In reality, my + relations with the Russian Foreign Office, though inconvenient to the + ex-ambassador, were perfectly regular and above-board—sanctioned, in + fact, by Prince Gortchakoff—but the indelicate attentions of the + secret police were none the less extremely unwelcome, because some + intelligent police-agent might get onto the real scent, and cause me + serious inconvenience. I determined, therefore, to break off all relations + with Dimitri Ivan'itch and his friends, and postpone my studies to a more + convenient season; but that decision did not entirely extricate me from my + difficulties. The collection of revolutionary pamphlets was still in my + possession, and I had promised to return it. For some little time I did + not see how I could keep my promise without compromising myself or others, + but at last—after having had my shadowers carefully shadowed in + order to learn accurately their habits, and having taken certain elaborate + precautions, with which I need not trouble the reader, as he is not likely + ever to require them—I paid a visit secretly to Dimitri Ivan'itch in + his small room, almost destitute of furniture, handed him the big parcel + of pamphlets, warned him not to visit me again, and bade him farewell. + Thereupon we went our separate ways and I saw him no more. Whether he + subsequently played a leading part in the movement I never could + ascertain, because I did not know his real name; but if the conception + which I formed of his character was at all accurate, he probably ended his + career in Siberia, for he was not a man to look back after having put his + hand to the plough. That is a peculiar trait of the Russian revolutionists + of the period in question. Their passion for realising an impossible ideal + was incurable. Many of them were again and again arrested; and as soon as + they escaped or were liberated they almost invariably went back to their + revolutionary activity and worked energetically until they again fell into + the clutches of the police. + </p> + <p> + From this digression into the sphere of personal reminiscences I return + now and take up again the thread of the narrative. + </p> + <p> + We have seen how the propaganda and the agitation had failed, partly + because the masses showed themselves indifferent or hostile, and partly + because the Government adopted vigorous repressive measures. We have seen, + too, how the leaders found themselves in face of a formidable dilemma; + either they must abandon their schemes or they must attack their + persecutors. The more energetic among them, as I have already stated, + chose the latter alternative, and they proceeded at once to carry out + their policy. In the course of a single year (February, 1878, to February, + 1879) a whole series of terrorist crimes was committed; in Kief an attempt + was made on the life of the Public Prosecutor, and an officer of + gendarmerie was stabbed; in St. Petersburg the Chief of the Political + Police of the Empire (General Mezentsef) was assassinated in broad + daylight in one of the central streets, and a similar attempt was made on + his successor (General Drenteln); at Kharkof the Governor (Prince + Krapotkin) was shot dead when entering his residence. During the same + period two members of the revolutionary organisation, accused of + treachery, were "executed" by order of local Committees. In most cases the + perpetrators of the crimes contrived to escape. One of them became well + known in Western Europe as an author under the pseudonym of Stepniak. + </p> + <p> + Terrorism had not the desired effect. On the contrary, it stimulated the + zeal and activity of the authorities, and in the course of the winter of + 1878-79 hundreds of arrests—some say as many as 2,000—were + made in St. Petersburg alone. Driven to desperation, the revolutionists + still at large decided that it was useless to assassinate mere officials; + the fons et origo mali must be reached; a blow must be struck at the Tsar + himself! The first attempt was made by a young man called Solovyoff, who + fired several shots at Alexander II. as he was walking near the Winter + Palace, but none of them took effect. + </p> + <p> + This policy of aggressive terrorism did not meet with universal approval + among the revolutionists, and it was determined to discuss the matter at a + Congress of delegates from various local circles. The meetings were held + in June, 1879, two months after Solovyoff's unsuccessful attempt, at two + provincial towns, Lipetsk and Voronezh. It was there agreed in principle + to confirm the decision of the Terrorist Narodovoltsi. As the Liberals + were not in a position to create liberal institutions or to give + guarantees for political rights, which are the essential conditions of any + Socialist agitation, there remained for the revolutionary party no other + course than to destroy the despotic autocracy. Thereupon a programme of + action was prepared, and an Executive Committee elected. From that moment, + though there were still many who preferred milder methods, the Terrorists + had the upper hand, and they at once proceeded to centralise the + organisation and to introduce stricter discipline, with greater + precautions to ensure secrecy. + </p> + <p> + The Executive Committee imagined that by assassinating the Tsar autocracy + might be destroyed, and several carefully planned attempts were made. The + first plan was to wreck the train when the Imperial family were returning + to St. Petersburg from the Crimea. Mines were accordingly laid at three + separate points, but they all failed. At the last of the three points + (near Moscow) a train was blown up, but it was not the one in which the + Imperial family was travelling. + </p> + <p> + Not at all discouraged by this failure, nor by the discovery of its secret + printing-press by the police, the Executive Committee next tried to attain + its object by an explosion of dynamite in the Winter Palace when the + Imperial family were assembled at dinner. The execution was entrusted to a + certain Halturin, one of the few revolutionists of peasant origin. As an + exceptionally clever carpenter and polisher, he easily found regular + employment in the palace, and he contrived to make a rough plan of the + building. This plan, on which the dining-hall was marked with an ominous + red cross, fell into the hands of the police, and they made what they + considered a careful investigation; but they failed to unravel the plot + and did not discover the dynamite concealed in the carpenters' sleeping + quarters. Halturin showed wonderful coolness while the search was going + on, and continued to sleep every night on the explosive, though it caused + him excruciating headaches. When he was assured by the chemist of the + Executive Committee that the quantity collected was sufficient, he + exploded the mine at the usual dinner hour, and contrived to escape + uninjured.* In the guardroom immediately above the spot where the dynamite + was exploded ten soldiers were killed and 53 wounded, and in the + dining-hall the floor was wrecked, but the Imperial family escaped in + consequence of not sitting down to dinner at the usual hour. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * After living some time in Roumania he returned to Russia + under the name of Stepanof, and in 1882 he was tried and + executed for complicity in the assassination of General + Strebnekof. +</pre> + <p> + For this barbarous act the Executive Committee publicly accepted full + responsibility. In a proclamation placarded in the streets of St. + Petersburg it declared that, while regretting the death of the soldiers, + it was resolved to carry on the struggle with the Autocratic Power until + the social reforms should be entrusted to a Constituent Assembly, composed + of members freely elected and furnished with instructions from their + constituents. + </p> + <p> + Finding police-repression so ineffectual, Alexander II. determined to try + the effect of conciliation, and for this purpose he placed Loris Melikof + at the head of the Government, with semi-dictatorial powers (February, + 1880). The experiment did not succeed. By the Terrorists it was regarded + as "a hypocritical Liberalism outwardly and a veiled brutality within," + while in the official world it was condemned as an act of culpable + weakness on the part of the autocracy. One consequence of it was that the + Executive Committee was encouraged to continue its efforts, and, as the + police became much less active, it was enabled to improve the + revolutionary organisation. In a circular sent to the affiliated + provincial associations it explained that the only source of legislation + must be the national will,* and as the Government would never accept such + a principle, its hand must be forced by a great popular insurrection, for + which all available forces should be organised. The peasantry, as + experience had shown, could not yet be relied on, but efforts should be + made to enrol the workmen of the towns. Great importance was attached to + propaganda in the army; but as few conversions had been made among the + rank and file, attention was to be directed chiefly to the officers, who + would be able to carry their subordinates with them at the critical + moment. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Hence the designation Narodovoltsi (which, as we have + seen, means literally National-will-ists) adopted by this + section. +</pre> + <p> + While thus recommending the scheme of destroying autocracy by means of a + popular insurrection in the distant future, the Committee had not + abandoned more expeditious methods, and it was at that moment hatching a + plot for the assassination of the Tsar. During the winter months his + Majesty was in the habit of holding on Sundays a small parade in the + riding-school near the Michael Square in St. Petersburg. On Sunday, March + 3d, 1881, the streets by which he usually returned to the Palace had been + undermined at two places, and on an alternative route several conspirators + were posted with hand-grenades concealed under their great coats. The + Emperor chose the alternative route. Here, at a signal given by Sophia + Perovski, the first grenade was thrown by a student called Ryssakoff, but + it merely wounded some members of the escort. The Emperor stopped and got + out of his sledge, and as he was making inquiries about the wounded + soldiers a second grenade was thrown by a youth called Grinevitski, with + fatal effect. Alexander II. was conveyed hurriedly to the Winter Palace, + and died almost immediately. + </p> + <p> + By this act the members of the Executive Committee proved their energy and + their talent as conspirators, but they at the same time showed their + shortsightedness and their political incapacity; for they had made no + preparations for immediately seizing the power which they so ardently + coveted—with the intention of using it, of course, entirely for the + public good. If the facts were not so well authenticated, we might dismiss + the whole story as incredible. A group of young people, certainly not more + than thirty or forty in number, without any organised material force + behind them, without any influential accomplices in the army or the + official world, without any prospect of support from the masses, and with + no plan for immediate action after the assassination, deliberately + provoked the crisis for which they were so hopelessly unprepared. It has + been suggested that they expected the Liberals to seize the Supreme Power, + but this explanation is evidently an afterthought, because they knew that + the Liberals were as unprepared as themselves and they regarded them at + that time as dangerous rivals. Besides this, the explanation is quite + irreconcilable with the proclamation issued by the Executive Committee + immediately afterwards. The most charitable way of explaining the conduct + of the conspirators is to suppose that they were actuated more by blind + hatred of the autocracy and its agents than by political calculations of a + practical kind—that they acted simply like a wounded bull in the + arena, which shuts its eyes and recklessly charges its tormentors. + </p> + <p> + The murder of the Emperor had not at all the effect which the Narodovoltsi + anticipated. On the contrary, it destroyed their hopes of success. Many + people of liberal convictions who sympathised vaguely with the + revolutionary movement without taking part in it, and who did not condemn + very severely the attacks on police officials, were horrified when they + found that the would-be reformers did not spare even the sacred person of + the Tsar. At the same time, the police officials, who had become lax and + inefficient under the conciliatory regime of Loris Melikof, recovered + their old zeal, and displayed such inordinate activity that the + revolutionary organisation was paralysed and in great measure destroyed. + Six of the regicides were condemned to death, and five of them publicly + executed, amongst the latter Sophia Perovski, one of the most active and + personally sympathetic personages among the revolutionists. Scores of + those who had taken an active part in the movement were in prison or in + exile. For a short time the propaganda was continued among military and + naval officers, and various attempts at reorganisation, especially in the + southern provinces, were made, but they all failed. A certain Degaief, who + had taken part in the formation of military circles, turned informer, and + aided the police. By his treachery not only a considerable number of + officers, but also Vera Filipof, a young lady of remarkable ability and + courage, who was the leading spirit in the attempts at reorganisation, + were arrested. There were still a number of leaders living abroad, and + from time to time they sent emissaries to revive the propaganda, but these + efforts were all fruitless. One of the active members of the revolutionary + party, Leo Deutsch, who has since published his Memoirs, relates how the + tide of revolution ebbed rapidly at this time. "Both in Russia and + abroad," he says, "I had seen how the earlier enthusiasm had given way to + scepticism; men had lost faith, though many of them would not allow that + it was so. It was clear to me that a reaction had set in for many years." + Of the attempts to resuscitate the movement he says: "The untried and + unskilfully managed societies were run to death before they could + undertake anything definite, and the unity and interdependence which + characterised the original band of members had disappeared." With regard + to the want of unity, another prominent revolutionist (Maslof) wrote to a + friend (Dragomanof) at Geneva in 1882 in terms of bitter complaint. He + accused the Executive Committee of trying to play the part of chief of the + whole revolutionary party, and declared that its centralising tendencies + were more despotic than those of the Government. Distributing orders among + its adherents without initiating them into its plans, it insisted on + unquestioning obedience. The Socialist youth, ardent adherents of + Federalism, were indignant at this treatment, and began to understand that + the Committee used them simply as chair a canon. The writer described in + vivid colours the mutual hostility which reigned among various fractions + of the party, and which manifested itself in accusations and even in + denunciations; and he predicted that the Narodnaya Volya, which had + organised the various acts of terrorism culminating in the assassination + of the Emperor, would never develop into a powerful revolutionary party. + It had sunk into the slough of untruth, and it could only continue to + deceive the Government and the public. + </p> + <p> + In the mutual recriminations several interesting admissions were made. It + was recognised that neither the educated classes nor the common people + were capable of bringing about a revolution: the former were not numerous + enough, and the latter were devoted to the Tsar and did not sympathise + with the revolutionary movement, though they might perhaps be induced to + rise at a moment of crisis. It was considered doubtful whether such a + rising was desirable, because the masses, being insufficiently prepared, + might turn against the educated minority. In no case could a popular + insurrection attain the object which the Socialists had in view, because + the power would either remain in the hands of the Tsar—thanks to the + devotion of the common people—or it would fall into the hands of the + Liberals, who would oppress the masses worse than the autocratic + Government had done. Further, it was recognised that acts of terrorism + were worse than useless, because they were misunderstood by the ignorant, + and tended to inflame the masses against the leaders. It seemed necessary, + therefore, to return to a pacific propaganda. Tikhomirof, who was + nominally directing the movement from abroad, became utterly discouraged, + and wrote in 1884 to one of his emissaries in Russia (Lopatin): "You now + see Russia, and can convince yourself that it does not possess the + material for a vast work of reorganisation. . . . I advise you seriously + not to make superhuman efforts and not to make a scandal in attempting the + impossible. . . . If you do not want to satisfy yourself with trifles, + come away and await better times." + </p> + <p> + In examining the material relating to this period one sees clearly that + the revolutionary movement had got into a vicious circle. As pacific + propaganda had become impossible, in consequence of the opposition of the + authorities and the vigilance of the police, the Government could be + overturned only by a general insurrection; but the general insurrection + could not be prepared without pacific propaganda. As for terrorism, it had + become discredited. Tikhomirof himself came to the conclusion that the + terrorist idea was altogether a mistake, not only morally, but also from + the point of view of political expediency. A party, he explained, has + either the force to overthrow the Government, or it has not; in the former + case it has no need of political assassination, and in the latter the + assassinations have no effect, because Governments are not so stupid as to + let themselves be frightened by those who cannot overthrow them. Plainly + there was nothing to be done but to wait for better times, as he had + suggested, and the better times did not seem to be within measurable + distance. He himself, after publishing a brochure entitled "Why I Ceased + to Be a Revolutionist," made his peace with the Government, and others + followed his example.* In one prison nine made formal recantations, among + them Emilianof, who held a reserve bomb ready when Alexander II. was + assassinated. Occasional acts of terrorism showed that there was still + fire under the smouldering embers, but they were few and far between. The + last serious incident of the kind during this period was the regicide + conspiracy of Sheviryoff in March, 1887. The conspirators, carrying the + bombs, were arrested in the principal street of St. Petersburg, and five + of them were hanged. The railway accident of Borki, which happened in the + following year, and in which the Imperial family had a very narrow escape, + ought perhaps to be added to the list, because there is reason to believe + that it was the work of revolutionists. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Tikhomirof subsequently worked against the Social + Democrats in Moscow in the interests of the Government. +</pre> + <p> + By this time all the cooler heads among the revolutionists, especially + those who were living abroad in personal safety, had come to understand + that the Socialist ideal could not be attained by popular insurrection, + terrorism, or conspiracies, and consequently that further activity on the + old lines was absurd. Those of them who did not abandon the enterprise in + despair reverted to the idea that Autocratic Power, impregnable against + frontal attacks, might be destroyed by prolonged siege operations. This + change of tactics is reflected in the revolutionary literature. In 1889, + for example, the editor of the Svobodnaya Rossia declared that the aim of + the movement now was political freedom—not only as a stepping-stone + to social reorganisation, but as a good in itself. This is, he explains, + the only possible revolution at present in Russia. "For the moment there + can be no other immediate practical aim. Ulterior aims are not abandoned, + but they are not at present within reach. . . The revolutionists of the + seventies and the eighties did not succeed in creating among the peasantry + or the town workmen anything which had even the appearance of a force + capable of struggling with the Government; and the revolutionists of the + future will have no greater success until they have obtained such + political rights as personal inviolability. Our immediate aim, therefore, + is a National Assembly controlled by local self-government, and this can + be brought about only by a union of all the revolutionary forces." + </p> + <p> + There were still indications, it is true, that the old spirit of terrorism + was not yet quite extinct: Captain Zolotykhin, for example, an officer of + the Moscow secret police, was assassinated by a female revolutionist in + 1890. But such incidents were merely the last fitful sputterings of a lamp + that was going out for want of oil. In 1892 Stepniak declared it evident + to all that the professional revolutionists could not alone overthrow + autocracy, however great their energy and heroism; and he arrived at the + same conclusion as the writer just quoted. Of course, immediate success + was not to be expected. "It is only from the evolutionist's point of view + that the struggle with autocracy has a meaning. From any other standpoint + it must seem a sanguinary farce—a mere exercise in the art of + self-sacrifice!" Such are the conclusions arrived at in 1892 by a man who + had been in 1878 one of the leading terrorists, and who had with his own + hand assassinated General Mezentsef, Chief of the Political Police. + </p> + <p> + Thus the revolutionary movement, after passing through four stages, which + I may call the academic, the propagandist, the insurrectionary, and the + terrorist, had failed to accomplish its object. One of those who had taken + an active part in it, and who, after spending two years in Siberia as a + political exile, escaped and settled in Western Europe, could write thus: + "Our revolutionary movement is dead, and we who are still alive stand by + the grave of our beautiful departed and discuss what is wanting to her. + One of us thinks that her nose should be improved; another suggests a + change in her chin or her hair. We do not notice the essential that what + our beautiful departed wants is life; that it is not a matter of hair or + eyebrows, but of a living soul, which formerly concealed all defects, and + made her beautiful, and which now has flown away. However we may invent + changes and improvements, all these things are utterly insignificant in + comparison with what is really wanting, and what we cannot give; for who + can breathe a living soul into a corpse?" + </p> + <p> + In truth, the movement which I have endeavoured to describe was at an end; + but another movement, having the same ultimate object, was coming into + existence, and it constitutes one of the essential factors of the present + situation. Some of the exiles in Switzerland and Paris had become + acquainted with the social-democratic and labour movements in Western + Europe, and they believed that the strategy and tactics employed in these + movements might be adopted in Russia. How far they have succeeded in + carrying out this policy I shall relate presently; but before entering on + this subject, I must explain how the application of such a policy had been + rendered possible by changes in the economic conditions. Russia had begun + to create rapidly a great manufacturing industry and an industrial + proletariat. This will form the subject of the next chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0036" id="link2HCH0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVI + </h2> + <h3> + INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS AND THE PROLETARIAT + </h3> + <p> + Russia till Lately a Peasant Empire—Early Efforts to Introduce Arts + and Crafts—Peter the Great and His Successors—Manufacturing + Industry Long Remains an Exotic—The Cotton Industry—The + Reforms of Alexander II.—Protectionists and Free Trade—Progress + under High Tariffs—M. Witte's Policy—How Capital Was Obtained—Increase + of Exports—Foreign Firms Cross the Customs Frontier—Rapid + Development of Iron Industry—A Commercial Crisis—M. Witte's + Position Undermined by Agrarians and Doctrinaires—M. Plehve a + Formidable Opponent—His Apprehensions of Revolution—Fall of M. + Witte—The Industrial Proletariat. + </p> + <p> + Fifty years ago Russia was still essentially a peasant empire, living by + agriculture of a primitive type, and supplying her other wants chiefly by + home industries, as was the custom in Western Europe during the Middle + Ages. + </p> + <p> + For many generations her rulers had been trying to transplant into their + wide dominions the art and crafts of the West, but they had formidable + difficulties to contend with, and their success was not nearly as great as + they desired. We know that as far back as the fourteenth century there + were cloth-workers in Moscow, for we read in the chronicles that the + workshops of these artisans were sacked when the town was stormed by the + Tartars. Workers in metal had also appeared in some of the larger towns by + that time, but they do not seem to have risen much above the level of + ordinary blacksmiths. They were destined, however, to make more rapid + progress than other classes of artisans, because the old Tsars of Muscovy, + like other semi-barbarous potentates, admired and envied the industries of + more civilised countries mainly from the military point of view. What they + wanted most was a plentiful supply of good arms wherewith to defend + themselves and attack their neighbours, and it was to this object that + their most strenuous efforts were directed. + </p> + <p> + As early as 1475 Ivan III., the grandfather of Ivan the Terrible, sent a + delegate to Venice to seek out for him an architect who, in addition to + his own craft, knew how to make guns; and in due course appeared in the + Kremlin a certain Muroli, called Aristotle by his contemporaries on + account of his profound learning. He undertook "to build churches and + palaces, to cast big bells and cannons, to fire off the said cannons, and + to make every sort of castings very cunningly"; and for the exercise of + these various arts it was solemnly stipulated in a formal document that he + should receive the modest salary of ten roubles monthly. With regard to + the military products, at least, the Venetian faithfully fulfilled his + contract, and in a short time the Tsar had the satisfaction of possessing + a "cannon-house," subsequently dignified with the name of "arsenal." Some + of the natives learned the foreign art, and exactly a century later (1856) + a Russian, or at least a Slav, called Tchekhof, produced a famous + "Tsar-cannon," weighing as much as 96,000 lbs. The connection thus + established with the mechanical arts of the West was always afterwards + maintained, and we find frequent notices of the fact in contemporary + writers. In the reign of the grandfather of Peter the Great, for example, + two paper-works were established by an Italian; and velvet for the Tsar + and his Boyars, gold brocades for ecclesiastical vestments, and rude kinds + of glass for ordinary purposes were manufactured under the august + patronage of the enlightened ruler. His son Alexis went a good many steps + further, and scandalised his God-fearing orthodox subjects by his love of + foreign heretical inventions. It was in his German suburb of Moscow that + young Peter, who was to be crowned "the Great," made his first + acquaintance with the useful arts of the West. + </p> + <p> + When the great reformer came to the throne he found in his Tsardom, + besides many workshops, some ten foundries, all of which were under orders + "to cast cannons, bombs, and bullets, and to make arms for the service of + the State." This seemed to him only a beginning, especially for the mining + and iron industry, in which he was particularly interested. By importing + foreign artificers and placing at their disposal big estates, with + numerous serfs, in the districts where minerals were plentiful, and by + carefully stipulating that these foreigners should teach his subjects + well, and conceal from them none of the secrets of the craft, he created + in the Ural a great iron industry, which still exists at the present day. + Finding by experience that State mines and State ironworks were a heavy + drain on his insufficiently replenished treasury, he transferred some of + them to private persons, and this policy was followed occasionally by his + successors. Hence the gigantic fortunes of the Demidofs and other + families. The Shuvalovs, for example, in 1760 possessed, for the purpose + of working their mines and ironworks, no less than 33,000 serfs and a + corresponding amount of land. Unfortunately the concessions were generally + given not to enterprising business-men, but to influential + court-dignitaries, who confined their attention to squandering the + revenues, and not a few of the mines and works reverted to the Government. + </p> + <p> + The army required not only arms and ammunition, but also uniforms and + blankets. Great attention, therefore, was paid to the woollen industry + from the reign of Peter downwards. In the time of Catherine there were + already 120 cloth factories, but they were on a very small scale, + according to modern conceptions. Ten factories in Moscow, for example, had + amongst them only 104 looms, 130 workers, and a yearly output for 200,000 + roubles. + </p> + <p> + While thus largely influenced in its economic policy by military + considerations, the Government did not entirely neglect other branches of + manufacturing industry. Ever since Russia had pretensions to being a + civilised power its rulers have always been inclined to pay more attention + to the ornamental than the useful—to the varnish rather than the + framework of civilisation—and we need not therefore be surprised to + find that long before the native industry could supply the materials + required for the ordinary wants of humble life, attempts were made to + produce such things as Gobelin tapestries. I mention this merely as an + illustration of a characteristic trait of the national character, the + influence of which may be found in many other spheres of official + activity. + </p> + <p> + If Russia did not attain the industrial level of Western Europe, it was + not from want of ambition and effort on the part of the rulers. They + worked hard, if not always wisely, for this end. Manufacturers were + exempted from rates and taxes, and even from military service, and some of + them, as I have said, received large estates from the Crown on the + understanding that the serfs should be employed as workmen. At the same + time they were protected from foreign competition by prohibitive tariffs. + In a word, the manufacturing industry was nursed and fostered in a way to + satisfy the most thorough-going protectionist, especially those branches + which worked up native raw material such as ores, flax, hemp, wool, and + tallow. Occasionally the official interference and anxiety to protect + public interests went further than the manufacturers desired. On more than + one occasion the authorities fixed the price of certain kinds of + manufactured goods, and in 1754 the Senate, being anxious to protect the + population from fires, ordered all glass and iron works within a radius of + 200 versts around Moscow to be destroyed! In spite of such obstacles, the + manufacturing industry as a whole made considerable progress. Between 1729 + and 1762 the number of establishments officially recognised as factories + rose from 26 to 335. + </p> + <p> + These results did not satisfy Catherine II., who ascended the throne in + 1762. Under the influence of her friends, the French Encyclopedistes, she + imagined for a time that the official control might be relaxed, and that + the system of employing serfs in the factories and foundries might be + replaced by free labour, as in Western Europe; monopolies might be + abolished, and all liege subjects, including the peasants, might be + allowed to embark in industrial undertakings as they pleased, "for the + benefit of the State and the nation." All this looked very well on paper, + but Catherine never allowed her sentimental liberalism to injure seriously + the interests of her Empire, and she accordingly refrained from putting + the laissez-faire principle largely into practice. Though a good deal has + been written about her economic policy, it is hardly distinguishable from + that of her predecessors. Like them, she maintained high tariffs, accorded + large subsidies, and even prevented the export of raw material, in the + hope that it might be worked up at home; and when the prices in the + woollen market rose very high, she compelled the manufacturers to supply + the army with cloth at a price fixed by the authorities. In short, the old + system remained practically unimpaired, and notwithstanding the steady + progress made during the reign of Nicholas I. (1825-55), when the number + of factory hands rose from 210,000 to 380,000, the manufacturing industry + as a whole continued to be, until the serfs were emancipated in 1861, a + hothouse plant which could flourish only in an officially heated + atmosphere. + </p> + <p> + There was one branch of it, however, to which this remark does not apply. + The art of cotton-spinning and cotton-weaving struck deep root in Russian + soil. After remaining for generations in the condition of a cottage + industry—the yarn being distributed among the peasants and worked up + by them in their own homes—it began, about 1825, to be modernised. + Though it still required to be protected against foreign competition, it + rapidly outgrew the necessity for direct official support. Big factories + driven by steam-power were constructed, the number of hands employed rose + to 110,000, and the foundations of great fortunes were laid. Strange to + say, many of the future millionaires were uneducated serfs. Sava Morozof, + for example, who was to become one of the industrial magnates of Moscow, + was a serf belonging to a proprietor called Ryumin; most of the others + were serfs of Count Sheremetyef—the owner of a large estate on which + the industrial town of Ivanovo had sprung up—who was proud of having + millionaires among his serfs, and who never abused his authority over + them. The great movement, however, was not effected without the assistance + of foreigners. Foreign foremen were largely employed, and in the work of + organisation a leading part was played by a German called Ludwig Knoop. + Beginning life as a commercial traveller for an English firm, he soon + became a large cotton importer, and when in 1840 a feverish activity was + produced in the Russian manufacturing world by the Government's permission + to import English machines, his firm supplied these machines to the + factories on condition of obtaining a share in the business. It has been + calculated that it obtained in this way a share in no less than 122 + factories, and hence arose among the peasantry a popular saying: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Where there is a church, there you find a pope, + And where there is a factory, there you find a Knoop."* +</pre> + <p> + The biggest creation of the firm was a factory built at Narva in 1856, + with nearly half a million spindles driven by water-power. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Gdye tserkov—tam pop; + A gdye fabrika—tam Knop. +</pre> + <p> + In the second half of last century a revolution was brought about in the + manufacturing industry generally by the emancipation of the serfs, the + rapid extension of railways, the facilities for creating limited liability + companies, and by certain innovations in the financial policy of the + Government. The emancipation put on the market an unlimited supply of + cheap labour; the construction of railways in all directions increased a + hundredfold the means of communication; and the new banks and other credit + institutions, aided by an overwhelming influx of foreign capital, + encouraged the foundation and extension of industrial and commercial + enterprise of every description. For a time there was great excitement. It + was commonly supposed that in all matters relating to trade and industry + Russia had suddenly jumped up to the level of Western Europe, and many + people in St. Petersburg, carried away by the prevailing enthusiasm for + liberalism in general and the doctrines of Free Trade in particular, were + in favour of abolishing protectionism as an antiquated restriction on + liberty and an obstacle to economic progress. + </p> + <p> + At one moment the Government was disposed to yield to the current, but it + was restrained by an influential group of conservative Political + Economists, who appealed to patriotic sentiment, and by the Moscow + manufacturers, who declared that Free Trade would ruin the country. After + a little hesitation it proceeded to raise, instead of lowering, the + protectionist tariff. In 1869-76 the ad valorem duties were, on an + average, under thirteen per cent., but from that time onwards they rose + steadily, until the last five years of the century, when they averaged + thirty-three per cent., and were for some articles very much higher. In + this way the Moscow industrial magnates were protected against the influx + of cheap foreign goods, but they were not saved from foreign competition, + for many foreign manufacturers, in order to enjoy the benefit of the high + duties, founded factories in Russia. Even the firmly established cotton + industry suffered from these intruders. Industrial suburbs containing not + a few cotton factories sprang up around St. Petersburg; and a small Polish + village called Lodz, near the German frontier, grew rapidly into a + prosperous town of 300,000 inhabitants, and became a serious rival to the + ancient Muscovite capital. So severely was the competition of this young + upstart felt, that the Moscow merchants petitioned the Emperor to protect + them by drawing a customs frontier round the Polish provinces, but their + petition was not granted. + </p> + <p> + Under the shelter of the high tariffs the manufacturing industry as a + whole has made rapid progress, and the cotton trade has kept well to the + front. In that branch, between 1861 and 1897, the number of hands employed + rose from 120,000 to 325,000, and the estimated value of the products from + 72 to 478 millions of roubles. In 1899 the number of spindles was + considerably over six millions, and the number of automatic weaving + machines 145,000. + </p> + <p> + The iron industry has likewise progressed rapidly, though it has not yet + outgrown the necessity for Government support, and it is not yet able to + provide for all home wants. About forty years ago it received a powerful + impulse from the discovery that in the provinces to the north of the + Crimea and the Sea of Azof there were enormous quantities of iron ore and + beds of good coal in close proximity to each other. Thanks to this + discovery and to other facts of which I shall have occasion to speak + presently, this district, which had previously been agricultural and + pastoral, has outstripped the famous Ural region, and has become the Black + Country of Russia. The vast lonely steppe, where formerly one saw merely + the peasant-farmer, the shepherd, and the Tchumak,* driving along + somnolently with his big, long-horned, white bullocks, is now dotted over + with busy industrial settlements of mushroom growth, and great ironworks—some + of them unfinished; while at night the landscape is lit up with the lurid + flames of gigantic blast-furnaces. In this wonderful transformation, as in + the history of Russian industrial progress generally, a great part was + played by foreigners. The pioneer who did most in this district was an + Englishman, John Hughes, who began life as the son and pupil of a Welsh + blacksmith, and whose sons are now directors of the biggest of the South + Russian ironworks. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Tchumak, a familiar figure in the songs and legends of + Little Russia, was the carrier who before the construction + of railways transported the grain to the great markets, and + brought back merchandise to the interior. He is gradually + disappearing. +</pre> + <p> + Much as the South has progressed industrially in recent years, it still + remains far behind those industrial portions of the country which were + thickly settled at an earlier date. From this point of view the most + important region is the group of provinces clustering round Moscow; next + comes the St. Petersburg region, including Livonia; and thirdly Poland. As + for the various kinds of industry, the most important category is that of + textile fabrics, the second that of articles of nutrition, and the third + that of ores and metals. The total production, if we may believe certain + statistical authorities, places Russia now among the industrial nations of + the world in the fifth place, immediately after the United States, + England, Germany, and France, and a little before Austria. + </p> + <p> + The man who has in recent times carried out most energetically the policy + of protecting and fostering native industries is M. Witte, a name now + familiar to Western Europe. An avowed disciple of the great German + economist, Friedrich List, about whose works he published a brochure in + 1888, he held firmly, from his youth upwards, the doctrine that "each + nation should above all things develop harmoniously its natural resources + to the highest possible degree of independence, protecting its own + industries and preferring the national aim to the pecuniary advantage of + individuals." As a corollary to this principle he declared that purely + agricultural countries are economically backward and intellectually + stagnant, being condemned to pay tribute to the nations who have learned + to work up their raw products into more valuable commodities. The good old + English doctrine that certain countries were intended by Providence to be + eternally agricultural, and that their function in the economy of the + universe is to supply raw material for the industrial nations, was always + in his eyes an abomination—an ingenious, nefarious invention of the + Manchester school, astutely invented for the purpose of keeping the + younger nations permanently in a state of economic bondage for the benefit + of English manufacturers. To emancipate Russia from this thraldom by + enabling her to create a great native industry, sufficient to supply all + her own wants, was the aim of his policy and the constant object of his + untiring efforts. Those who have had the good fortune to know him + personally must have often heard him discourse eloquently on this theme, + supporting his views by quotations from the economists of his own school, + and by illustrations drawn from the history of his own and other + countries. + </p> + <p> + A necessary condition of realising this aim was that there should be high + tariffs. These already existed, and they might be raised still higher, but + in themselves they were not enough. For the rapid development of the + native industry an enormous capital was required, and the first problem to + be solved was how this capital could be obtained. At one moment the + energetic minister conceived the project of creating a fictitious capital + by inflating the paper currency; but this idea proved unpopular. When + broached in the Council of State it encountered determined opposition. + Some of the members of that body, especially M. Bunge, who had been + himself Minister of Finance, and who remembered the evil effects of the + inordinate inflation of the currency on foreign exchanges during the + Turkish War, advocated strongly the directly opposite course—a + return to gold monometallism, for which M. Vishnegradski, M. Witte's + immediate predecessor, had made considerable preparations. Being a + practical man without inveterate prejudices, M. Witte gave up the scheme + which he could not carry through, and adopted the views of his opponents. + He would introduce the gold currency as recommended; but how was the + requisite capital to be obtained? It must be procured from abroad, + somehow, and the simplest way seemed to be to stimulate the export of + native products. For this purpose the railways were extended,* the traffic + rates manipulated, and the means of transport improved generally. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In 1892, when M. Witte undertook the financial + administration, there were 30,620 versts of railway, and at + the end of 1900 there were 51,288 versts. +</pre> + <p> + A certain influx of gold was thus secured, but not nearly enough for the + object in view.* Some more potent means, therefore, had to be employed, + and the inventive minister evolved a new scheme. If he could only induce + foreign capitalists to undertake manufacturing industries in Russia, they + would, at one and the same time, bring into the country the capital + required, and they would cooperate powerfully in that development of the + national industry which he so ardently wished. No sooner had he roughly + sketched out his plan—for he was not a man to let the grass grow + under his feet—than he set himself to put it into execution by + letting it be known in the financial world that the Government was ready + to open a great field for lucrative investments, in the form of profitable + enterprises under the control of those who subscribed the capital. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In 1891 the total value of the exports was roughly + 70,000,000 pounds. It then fell, in consequence of bad + harvests, to 45 millions, and did not recover the previous + maximum until 1897, when it stood at 73 millions. + Thereafter there was a steady rise till 1901, when the total + was estimated at 76 millions. +</pre> + <p> + Foreign capitalists responded warmly to the call. Crowds of + concession-hunters, projectors, company promoters, et hoc genus omne, + collected in St. Petersburg, offering their services on the most tempting + terms; and all of them who could make out a plausible case were well + received at the Ministry of Finance. It was there explained to them that + in many branches of industry, such as the manufacture of textile fabrics, + there was little or no room for newcomers, but that in others the + prospects were most brilliant. Take, for example, the iron industries of + Southern Russia. The boundless mineral wealth of that region was still + almost intact, and the few works which had been there established were + paying very large dividends. The works founded by John Hughes, for + example, had repeatedly divided considerably over twenty per cent., and + there was little fear for the future, because the Government had embarked + on a great scheme of railway extension, requiring an unlimited amount of + rails and rolling-stock. What better opening could be desired? Certainly + the opening seemed most attractive, and into it rushed the crowd of + company promoters, followed by stock-jobbers and brokers, playing lively + pieces of what the Germans call Zukunftsmusik. An unwary and confiding + public, especially in Belgium and France, listened to the enchanting + strains of the financial syrens, and invested largely. Quickly the number + of completed ironworks in that region rose from nine to seventeen, and in + the short space of three years the output of pig-iron was nearly doubled. + In 1900 there were 44 blast furnaces in working order, and ten more were + in course of construction. And all this time the Imperial revenue + increased by leaps and bounds, so that the introduction of the gold + currency was effected without difficulty. M. Witte was declared to be the + greatest minister of his time—a Russian Colbert or Turgot, or + perhaps the two rolled into one. + </p> + <p> + Then came a change. Competition and over-production led naturally to a + fall in prices, and at the same time the demand decreased, because the + railway-building activity of the Government slackened. Alarmed at this + state of things, the banks which had helped to start and foster the huge + and costly enterprises contracted their credits. By the end of 1899 the + disenchantment was general and widespread. Some of the companies were so + weighted by the preliminary financial obligations, and had conducted their + affairs in such careless, reckless fashion, that they had soon to shut + down their mines and close their works. Even solid undertakings suffered. + The shares of the Briansk works, for example, which had given dividends as + high as 30 per cent., fell from 500 to 230. The Mamontof companies—supposed + to be one of the strongest financial groups in the country—had to + suspend payment, and numerous other failures occurred. Nearly all the + commercial banks, having directly participated in the industrial concerns, + were rudely shaken. M. Witte, who had been for a time the idol of a + certain section of the financial world, became very unpopular, and was + accused of misleading the investing public. Among the accusations brought + against him some at least could easily be refuted. He may have made + mistakes in his policy, and may have been himself over-sanguine, but + surely, as he subsequently replied to his accusers, it was no part of his + duty to warn company promoters and directors that they should refrain from + over-production, and that their enterprises might not be as remunerative + as they expected. As to whether there is any truth in the assertion that + he held out prospects of larger Government orders than he actually gave, I + cannot say. That he cut down prices, and showed himself a hard man to deal + with, there seems no doubt. + </p> + <p> + The reader may naturally be inclined to jump to the conclusion that the + commercial crisis just referred to was the cause of M. Witte's fall. Such + a conclusion would be entirely erroneous. The crisis happened in the + winter of 1899-1900, and M. Witte remained Finance Minister until the + autumn of 1903. His fall was the result of causes of a totally different + kind, and these I propose now to explain, because the explanation will + throw light on certain very curious and characteristic conceptions at + present current in the Russian educated classes. + </p> + <p> + Of course there were certain causes of a purely personal kind, but I shall + dismiss them in a very few words. I remember once asking a well-informed + friend of M. Witte's what he thought of him as an administrator and a + statesman. The friend replied: "Imagine a negro of the Gold Coast let + loose in modern European civilisation!" This reply, like most epigrammatic + remarks, is a piece of gross exaggeration, but it has a modicum of truth + in it. In the eyes of well-trained Russian officials M. Witte was a + titanic, reckless character, capable at any moment of playing the part of + the bull in the china-shop. As a masterful person, brusque in manner and + incapable of brooking contradiction, he had made for himself many enemies; + and his restless, irrepressible energy had led him to encroach on the + provinces of all his colleagues. Possessing as he did the control of the + purse, his interference could not easily be resisted. The Ministers of + Interior, War, Agriculture, Public Works, Public Instruction, and Foreign + Affairs had all occasion to complain of his incursions into their + departments. In contrast to his colleagues, he was not only extremely + energetic, but he was ever ready to assume an astounding amount of + responsibility; and as he was something of an opportunist, he was perhaps + not always quixotically scrupulous in the choice of expedients for + attaining his ends. + </p> + <p> + Altogether M. Witte was an inconvenient personage in an administration in + which strong personality is regarded as entirely out of place, and in + which personal initiative is supposed to reside exclusively in the Tsar. + In addition to all this he was a man who felt keenly, and when he was + irritated he did not always keep the unruly member under strict control. + If I am correctly informed, it was some imprudent and not very respectful + remarks, repeated by a subordinate and transmitted by a Grand Duke to the + Tsar, which were the immediate cause of his transfer from the influential + post of Minister of Finance to the ornamental position of President of the + Council of Ministers; but that was merely the proverbial last straw that + broke the camel's back. His position was already undermined, and it is the + undermining process which I wish to describe. + </p> + <p> + The first to work for his overthrow were the Agrarian Conservatives. They + could not deny that, from the purely fiscal point of view, his + administration was a marvellous success; for he was rapidly doubling the + revenue, and he had succeeded in replacing the fluctuating depreciated + paper currency by a gold coinage; but they maintained that he was killing + the goose that laid the golden eggs. Evidently the tax-paying power of the + rural classes was being overstrained, for they were falling more and more + into arrears in the payment of their taxes, and their impoverishment was + yearly increasing. All their reserves had been exhausted, as was shown by + the famines of 1891-92, when the Government had to spend hundreds of + millions to feed them. Whilst the land was losing its fertility, those who + had to live by it were increasing in numbers at an alarming rate. Already + in some districts one-fifth of the peasant households had no longer any + land of their own, and of those who still possessed land a large + proportion had no longer the cattle and horses necessary to till and + manure their allotments. No doubt M. Witte was beginning to perceive his + mistake, and had done something to palliate the evils by improving the + system of collecting the taxes and abolishing the duty on passports, but + such merely palliative remedies could have little effect. While a few + capitalists were amassing gigantic fortunes, the masses were slowly and + surely advancing to the brink of starvation. The welfare of the + agriculturists, who constitute nine-tenths of the whole population, was + being ruthlessly sacrificed, and for what? For the creation of a + manufacturing industry which rested on an artificial, precarious basis, + and which had already begun to decline. + </p> + <p> + So far the Agrarians, who champion the interests of the agricultural + classes. Their views were confirmed and their arguments strengthened by an + influential group of men whom I may call, for want of a better name, the + philosophers or doctrinaire interpreters of history, who have, strange to + say, more influence in Russia than in any other country. + </p> + <p> + The Russian educated classes desire that the nation should be wealthy and + self-supporting, and they recognise that for this purpose a large + manufacturing industry is required; but they are reluctant to make the + sacrifices necessary to attain the object in view, and they imagine that, + somehow or other, these sacrifices may be avoided. Sympathising with this + frame of mind, the doctrinaires explain that the rich and prosperous + countries of Europe and America obtained their wealth and prosperity by + so-called "Capitalism"—that is to say, by a peculiar social + organisation in which the two main factors are a small body of rich + capitalists and manufacturers and an enormous pauper proletariat living + from hand to mouth, at the mercy of the heartless employers of labour. + Russia has lately followed in the footsteps of those wealthy countries, + and if she continues to do so she will inevitably be saddled with the same + disastrous results—plutocracy, pauperism, unrestrained competition + in all spheres of activity, and a greatly intensified struggle for life, + in which the weaker will necessarily go to the wall.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Free competition in all spheres of activity, leading to + social inequality, plutocracy, and pauperism, is the + favourite bugbear of Russian theorists; and who is not a + theorist in Russia? The fact indicates the prevalence of + Socialist ideas in the educated classes. +</pre> + <p> + Happily there is, according to these theorists, a more excellent way, and + Russia can adopt it if she only remains true to certain mysterious + principles of her past historic development. Without attempting to expound + those mysterious principles, to which I have repeatedly referred in + previous chapters, I may mention briefly that the traditional patriarchal + institutions on which the theorists found their hopes of a happy social + future for their country are the rural Commune, the native + home-industries, and the peculiar co-operative institutions called Artels. + How these remnants of a semi-patriarchal state of society are to be + practically developed in such a way as to withstand the competition of + manufacturing industry organised on modern "capitalist" lines, no one has + hitherto been able to explain satisfactorily, but many people indulge in + ingenious speculations on the subject, like children planning the means of + diverting with their little toy spades a formidable inundation. In my + humble opinion, the whole theory is a delusion; but it is held firmly—I + might almost say fanatically—by those who, in opposition to the + indiscriminate admirers of West-European and American civilisation, + consider themselves genuine Russians and exceptionally good patriots. M. + Witte has never belonged to that class. He believes that there is only one + road to national prosperity—the road by which Western Europe has + travelled—and along this road he tried to drive his country as + rapidly as possible. He threw himself, therefore, heart and soul into what + his opponents call "Capitalism," by raising State loans, organising banks + and other credit institutions, encouraging the creation and extension of + big factories, which must inevitably destroy the home industry, and even—horribile + dictu!—undermining the rural Commune, and thereby adding to the + ranks of the landless proletariat, in order to increase the amount of + cheap labour for the benefit of the capitalists. + </p> + <p> + With the arguments thus supplied by Agrarians and doctrinaires, quite + honest and well-meaning, according to their lights, it was easy to sap M. + Witte's position. Among his opponents, the most formidable was the late M. + Plehve, Minister of Interior—a man of a totally different stamp. A + few months before his tragic end I had a long and interesting conversation + with him, and I came away deeply impressed. Having repeatedly had + conversations of a similar kind with M. Witte, I could compare, or rather + contrast, the two men. Both of them evidently possessed an exceptional + amount of mental power and energy, but in the one it was volcanic, and in + the other it was concentrated and thoroughly under control. In discussion, + the one reminded me of the self-taught, slashing swordsman; the other of + the dexterous fencer, carefully trained in the use of the foils, who never + launches out beyond the point at which he can quickly recover himself. As + to whether M. Plehve was anything more than a bold, energetic, clever + official there may be differences of opinion, but he certainly could + assume the airs of a profound and polished statesman, capable of looking + at things from a much higher point of view than the ordinary tchinovnik, + and he had the talent of tacitly suggesting that a great deal of genuine, + enlightened statesmanship lay hidden under the smooth surface of his + cautious reserve. Once or twice I could perceive that when criticising the + present state of things he had his volcanic colleague in his mind's eye; + but the covert allusions were so vague and so carefully worded that the + said colleague, if he had been present, would hardly have been justified + in entering a personal protest. A statesman of the higher type, I was made + to feel, should deal not with personalities, but with things, and it would + be altogether unbecoming to complain of a colleague in presence of an + outsider. Thus his attitude towards his opponent was most correct, but it + was not difficult to infer that he had little sympathy with the policy of + the Ministry of Finance. + </p> + <p> + From other sources I learned the cause of this want of sympathy. Being + Minister of Interior, and having served long in the Police Department, M. + Plehve considered that his first duty was the maintenance of public order + and the protection of the person and autocracy of his august master. He + was therefore the determined enemy of revolutionary tendencies, in + whatever garb or disguise they might appear; and as a statesman he had to + direct his attention to everything likely to increase those tendencies in + the future. Now it seemed that in the financial policy which had been + followed for some years there were germs of future revolutionary + fermentation. The peasantry were becoming impoverished, and were therefore + more likely to listen to the insidious suggestions of Socialist agitators; + and already agrarian disturbances had occurred in the provinces of Kharkof + and Poltava. The industrial proletariat which was being rapidly created + was being secretly organised by the revolutionary Social Democrats, and + already there had been serious labour troubles in some of the large towns. + For any future revolutionary movement the proletariat would naturally + supply recruits. Then, at the other end of the social scale, a class of + rich capitalists was being created, and everybody who has read a little + history knows that a rich and powerful tiers etat cannot be permanently + conciliated with autocracy. Though himself neither an agrarian nor a + Slavophil doctrinaire, M. Plehve could not but have a certain sympathy + with those who were forging thunderbolts for the official annihilation of + M. Witte. He was too practical a man to imagine that the hands on the dial + of economic progress could be set back and a return made to moribund + patriarchal institutions; but he thought that at least the pace might be + moderated. The Minister of Finance need not be in such a desperate, + reckless hurry, and it was desirable to create conservative forces which + might counteract the revolutionary forces which his impulsive colleague + was inadvertently calling into existence. + </p> + <p> + Some of the forgers of thunderbolts went a great deal further, and + asserted or insinuated that M. Witte was himself consciously a + revolutionist, with secret, malevolent intentions. In support of their + insinuations they cited certain cases in which well-known Socialists had + been appointed professors in academies under the control of the Ministry + of Finance, and they pointed to the Peasant Bank, which enjoyed M. Witte's + special protection. At first it had been supposed that the bank would have + an anti-revolutionary influence by preventing the formation of a landless + proletariat and increasing the number of small land-owners, who are always + and everywhere conservative so far as the rights of private property are + concerned. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately its success roused the fears of the more conservative + section of the landed proprietors. These gentlemen, as I have already + mentioned, pointed out that the estates of the nobles were rapidly passing + into the hands of the peasantry, and that if this process were allowed to + continue the hereditary Noblesse, which had always been the civilising + element in the rural population, and the surest support of the throne, + would drift into the towns and there sink into poverty or amalgamate with + the commercial plutocracy, and help to form a tiers etat which would be + hostile to the Autocratic Power. + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances it was evident that the headstrong Minister of + Finance could maintain his position only so long as he enjoyed the + energetic support of the Emperor, and this support, for reasons which I + have indicated above, failed him at the critical moment. When his work was + still unfinished he was suddenly compelled, by the Emperor's command, to + relinquish his post and accept a position in which, it was supposed, he + would cease to have any influence in the administration. + </p> + <p> + Thus fell the Russian Colbert-Turgot, or whatever else he may be called. + Whether financial difficulties in the future will lead to his + reinstatement as Minister of Finance remains to be seen; but in any case + his work cannot be undone. He has increased manufacturing industry to an + unprecedented extent, and, as M. Plehve perceived, the industrial + proletariat which manufacturing industry on capitalist lines always + creates has provided a new field of activity for the revolutionists. I + return, therefore, to the evolution of the revolutionary movement in order + to describe its present phase, the first-fruits of which have been + revealed in the labour disturbances in St. Petersburg and other industrial + centres. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0037" id="link2HCH0037"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVII + </h2> + <h3> + THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT IN ITS LATEST PHASE + </h3> + <p> + Influence of Capitalism and Proletariat on the Revolutionary Movement—What + is to be Done?—Reply of Plekhanof—A New Departure—Karl + Marx's Theories Applied to Russia—Beginnings of a Social Democratic + Movement—The Labour Troubles of 1894-96 in St. Petersburg—The + Social Democrats' Plan of Campaign—Schism in the Party—Trade-unionism + and Political Agitation—The Labour Troubles of 1902—How the + Revolutionary Groups are Differentiated from Each Other—Social + Democracy and Constitutionalism—Terrorism—The Socialist + Revolutionaries—The Militant Organisation—Attitude of the + Government—Factory Legislation—Government's Scheme for + Undermining Social Democracy—Father Gapon and His Labour Association—The + Great Strike in St. Petersburg—Father Gapon goes over to the + Revolutionaries. + </p> + <p> + The development of manufacturing industry on capitalist lines, and the + consequent formation of a large industrial proletariat, produced great + disappointment in all the theorising sections of the educated classes. The + thousands of men and women who had, since the accession of the + Tsar-Emancipator in 1855, taken a keen, enthusiastic interest in the + progress of their native country, all had believed firmly that in some way + or other Russia would escape "the festering sores of Western + civilisation." Now experience had proved that the belief was an illusion, + and those who had tried to check the natural course of industrial progress + were constrained to confess that their efforts had been futile. Big + factories were increasing in size and numbers, while cottage industries + were disappearing or falling under the power of middlemen, and the Artels + had not advanced a step in their expected development. The factory + workers, though all of peasant origin, were losing their connection with + their native villages and abandoning their allotments of the Communal + land. They were becoming, in short, a hereditary caste in the town + population, and the pleasant Slavophil dream of every factory worker + having a house in the country was being rudely dispelled. Nor was there + any prospect of a change for the better in the future. With the increase + of competition among the manufacturers, the uprooting of the muzhik from + the soil must go on more and more rapidly, because employers must insist + more and more on having thoroughly trained operatives ready to work + steadily all the year round. + </p> + <p> + This state of things had a curious effect on the course of the + revolutionary movement. + </p> + <p> + Let me recall very briefly the successive stages through which the + movement had already passed. It had been inaugurated, as we have seen, by + the Nihilists, the ardent young representatives of a "storm-and-stress" + period, in which the venerable traditions and respected principles of the + past were rejected and ridiculed, and the newest ideas of Western Europe + were eagerly adopted and distorted. Like the majority of their educated + countrymen, they believed that in the race of progress Russia was about to + overtake and surpass the nations of the West, and that this desirable + result was to be attained by making a tabula rasa of existing + institutions, and reconstructing society according to the plans of + Proudhon, Fourier, and the other writers of the early Socialist school. + </p> + <p> + When the Nihilists had expended their energies and exhausted the patience + of the public in theorising, talking, and writing, a party of action came + upon the scene. Like the Nihilists, they desired political, social, and + economic reforms of the most thorough-going kind, but they believed that + such things could not be effected by the educated classes alone, and they + determined to call in the co-operation of the people. For this purpose + they tried to convert the masses to the gospel of Socialism. Hundreds of + them became missionaries and "went in among the people." But the gospel of + Socialism proved unintelligible to the uneducated, and the more ardent, + incautious missionaries fell into the hands of the police. Those of them + who escaped, perceiving the error of their ways, but still clinging to the + hope of bringing about a political, social, and economic revolution, + determined to change their tactics. The emancipated serf had shown himself + incapable of "prolonged revolutionary activity," but there was reason to + believe that he was, like his forefathers in the time of Stenka Razin and + Pugatcheff, capable of rising and murdering his oppressors. He must be + used, therefore, for the destruction of the Autocratic Power and the + bureaucracy, and then it would be easy to reorganise society on a basis of + universal equality, and to take permanent precautions against capitalism + and the creation of a proletariat. + </p> + <p> + The hopes of the agitators proved as delusive as those of the + propagandists. The muzhik turned a deaf ear to their instigations, and the + police soon prevented their further activity. Thus the would-be + root-and-branch reforms found themselves in a dilemma. Either they must + abandon their schemes for the moment or they must strike immediately at + their persecutors. They chose, as we have seen, the latter alternative, + and after vain attempts to frighten the Government by acts of terrorism + against zealous officials, they assassinated the Tsar himself; but before + they had time to think of the constructive part of their task, their + organisation was destroyed by the Autocratic Power and the bureaucracy, + and those of them who escaped arrest had to seek safety in emigration to + Switzerland and Paris. + </p> + <p> + Then arose, all along the line of the defeated, decimated revolutionists, + the cry, "What is to be done?" Some replied that the shattered + organisation should be reconstructed, and a number of secret agents were + sent successively from Switzerland for this purpose. But their efforts, as + they themselves confessed, were fruitless, and despondency seemed to be + settling down permanently on all, except a few fanatics, when a voice was + heard calling on the fugitives to rally round a new banner and carry on + the struggle by entirely new methods. The voice came from a + revolutionologist (if I may use such a term) of remarkable talent, called + M. Plekhanof, who had settled in Geneva with a little circle of friends, + calling themselves the "Labour Emancipation Group." His views were + expounded in a series of interesting publications, the first of which was + a brochure entitled "Socialism and the Political Struggle," published in + 1883. + </p> + <p> + According to M. Plekhanof and his group the revolutionary movement had + been conducted up to that moment on altogether wrong lines. All previous + revolutionary groups had acted on the assumption that the political + revolution and the economic reorganisation of society must be effected + simultaneously, and consequently they had rejected contemptuously all + proposals for reforms, however radical, of a merely political kind. These + had been considered, as I have mentioned in a previous chapter, not only + as worthless, but as positively prejudicial to the interests of the + working classes, because so-called political liberties and parliamentary + government would be sure to consolidate the domination of the bourgeoisie. + That such has generally been the immediate effect of parliamentary + institutions is undeniable, but it did not follow that the creation of + such institutions should be opposed. On the contrary, they ought to be + welcomed, not merely because, as some revolutionists had already pointed + out, propaganda and agitation could be more easily carried on under a + constitutional regime, but because constitutionalism is certainly the most + convenient, and perhaps the only, road by which the socialistic ideal can + ultimately be attained. This is a dark saying, but it will become clearer + when I have explained, according to the new apostles, a second error into + which their predecessors had fallen. + </p> + <p> + That second error was the assumption that all true friends of the people, + whether Conservatives, Liberals, or revolutionaries, ought to oppose to + the utmost the development of capitalism. In the light of Karl Marx's + discoveries in economic science every one must recognise this to be an + egregious mistake. That great authority, it was said, had proved that the + development of capitalism was irresistible, and his conclusions had been + confirmed by the recent history of Russia, for all the economic progress + made during the last half century had been on capitalist lines. + </p> + <p> + Even if it were possible to arrest the capitalist movement, it is not + desirable from the revolutionary point of view. In support of this thesis + Karl Marx is again cited. He has shown that capitalism, though an evil in + itself, is a necessary stage of economic and social progress. At first it + is prejudicial to the interests of the working classes, but in the long + run it benefits them, because the ever-growing proletariat must, whether + it desires it or not, become a political party, and as a political party + it must one day break the domination of the bourgeoisie. As soon as it has + obtained the predominant political power, it will confiscate, for the + public good, the instruments of production—factories, foundries, + machines, etc.—by expropriating the capitalist. In this way all the + profits which accrue from production on a large scale, and which at + present go into the pockets of the capitalists, will be distributed + equally among the workmen. + </p> + <p> + Thus began a new phase of the revolutionary movement, and, like all + previous phases, it remained for some years in the academic stage, during + which there were endless discussions on theoretical and practical + questions. Lavroff, the prophet of the old propaganda, treated the new + ideas "with grandfatherly severity," and Tikhomirof, the leading + representative of the moribund Narodnaya Volya, which had prepared the + acts of terrorism, maintained stoutly that the West European methods + recommended by Plekhanof were inapplicable to Russia. The Plekhanof group + replied in a long series of publications, partly original and partly + translations from Marx and Engels, explaining the doctrines and aims of + the Social Democrats. + </p> + <p> + Seven years were spent in this academic literary activity—a period + of comparative repose for the Russian secret police—and about 1890 + the propagandists of the new school began to work cautiously in St. + Petersburg. At first they confined themselves to forming little secret + circles for making converts, and they found that the ground had been to + some extent prepared for the seed which they had to sow. The workmen were + discontented, and some of the more intelligent amongst them who had + formerly been in touch with the propagandists of the older generation had + learned that there was an ingenious and effective means of getting their + grievances redressed. How was that possible? By combination and strikes. + For the uneducated workers this was an important discovery, and they soon + began to put the suggested remedy to a practical test. In the autumn of + 1894 labour troubles broke out in the Nevski engineering works and the + arsenal, and in the following year in the Thornton factory and the + cigarette works. In all these strikes the Social Democratic agents took + part behind the scenes. Avoiding the main errors of the old propagandists, + who had offered the workmen merely abstract Socialist theories which no + uneducated person could reasonably be expected to understand, they adopted + a more rational method. Though impervious to abstract theories, the + Russian workman is not at all insensible to the prospect of bettering his + material condition and getting his everyday grievances redressed. Of these + grievances the ones he felt most keenly were the long hours, the low + wages, the fines arbitrarily imposed by the managers, and the brutal + severity of the foreman. By helping him to have these grievances removed + the Social Democratic agents might gain his confidence, and when they had + come to be regarded by him as his real friends they might widen his + sympathies and teach him to feel that his personal interests were + identical with the interests of the working classes as a whole. In this + way it would be possible to awaken in the industrial proletariat generally + a sort of esprit de corps, which is the first condition of political + organisation. + </p> + <p> + On these lines the agents set to work. Having formed themselves into a + secret association called the "Union for the Emancipation of the Working + Classes," they gradually abandoned the narrow limits of + coterie-propaganda, and prepared the way for agitation on a larger scale. + Among the discontented workmen they distributed a large number of + carefully written tracts, in which the material grievances were + formulated, and the whole political system, with its police, gendarmes, + Cossacks, and tax-gathers, was criticised in no friendly spirit, but + without violent language. In introducing into the programme this political + element, great caution had to be exercised, because the workmen did not + yet perceive clearly any close connection between their grievances and the + existing political institutions, and those of them who belonged to the + older generation regarded the Tsar as the incarnation of disinterested + benevolence. Bearing this in mind, the Union circulated a pamphlet for the + enlightenment of the labouring population, in which the writer refrained + from all reference to the Autocratic Power, and described simply the + condition of the labouring classes, the heavy burdens they had to bear, + the abuses of which they were the victims, and the inconsiderate way in + which they were treated by their employers. This pamphlet was eagerly + read, and from that moment whenever labour troubles arose the men applied + to the Social Democratic agents to assist them in formulating their + grievances. + </p> + <p> + Of course, the assistance had to be given secretly, because there were + always police spies in the factories, and all persons suspected of aiding + the labour movement were liable to be arrested and exiled. In spite of + this danger the work was carried on with great energy, and in the summer + of 1896 the field of operations was extended. During the coronation + ceremonies of that year the factories and workshops in St. Petersburg were + closed, and the men considered that for these days they ought to receive + wages as usual. When their demand was refused, 40,000 of them went out on + strike. The Social Democratic Union seized the opportunity and distributed + tracts in large quantities. For the first time such tracts were read aloud + at workmen's meetings and applauded by the audience. The Union encouraged + the workmen in their resistance, but advised them to refrain from + violence, so as not to provoke the intervention of the police and the + military, as they had imprudently done on some previous occasions. When + the police did intervene and expelled some of the strike-leaders from St. + Petersburg, the agitators had an excellent opportunity of explaining that + the authorities were the protectors of the employers and the enemies of + the working classes. These explanations counteracted the effect of an + official proclamation to the workmen, in which M. Witte tried to convince + them that the Tsar was constantly striving to improve their condition. The + struggle was decided, not by arguments and exhortations, but by a more + potent force; having no funds for continuing the strike, the men were + compelled by starvation to resume work. + </p> + <p> + This is the point at which the labour movement began to be conducted on a + large scale and by more systematic methods. In the earlier labour troubles + the strikers had not understood that the best means of bringing pressure + on employers was simply to refuse to work, and they had often proceeded to + show their dissatisfaction by ruthlessly destroying their employers' + property. This had brought the police, and sometimes the military, on the + scene, and numerous arrests had followed. Another mistake made by the + inexperienced strikers was that they had neglected to create a reserve + fund from which they could draw the means of subsistence when they no + longer received wages and could no longer obtain credit at the factory + provision store. Efforts were now made to correct these two mistakes, and + with regard to the former they were fairly successful, for wanton + destruction of property ceased to be a prominent feature of labour + troubles; but strong reserve funds have not yet been created, so that the + strikes have never been of long duration. + </p> + <p> + Though the strikes had led, so far, to no great practical, tangible + results, the new ideas and aspirations were spreading rapidly in the + factories and workshops, and they had already struck such deep root that + some of the genuine workmen wished to have a voice in the managing + committee of the Union, which was composed exclusively of educated men. + When a request to that effect was rejected by the committee a lengthy + discussion took place, and it soon became evident that underneath the + question of organisation lay a most important question of principle. The + workmen wished to concentrate their efforts on the improvement of their + material condition, and to proceed on what we should call trade-unionist + lines, whereas the committee wished them to aim also at the acquisition of + political rights. Great determination was shown on both sides. An attempt + of the workmen to maintain a secret organ of their own with the view of + emancipating themselves from the "Politicals" ended in failure; but they + received sympathy and support from some of the educated members of the + party, and in this way a schism took place in the Social Democrat camp. + After repeated ineffectual attempts to find a satisfactory compromise, the + question was submitted to a Congress which was held in Switzerland in + 1900; but the discussions merely accentuated the differences of opinion, + and the two parties constituted themselves into separate independent + groups. The one under the leadership of Plekhanof, and calling itself the + Revolutionary Social Democrats, held to the Marx doctrines in all their + extent and purity, and maintained the necessity of constant agitation in + the political sense. The other, calling itself the Union of Foreign Social + Democrats, inclined to the trade-unionism programme, and proclaimed the + necessity of being guided by political expediency rather than inflexible + dogmas. Between the two a wordy warfare was carried on for some time in + pedantic, technical language; but though habitually brandishing their + weapons and denouncing their antagonists in true Homeric style, they were + really allies, struggling towards a common end—two sections of the + Social Democratic party differing from each other on questions of tactics. + </p> + <p> + The two divergent tendencies have often reappeared in the subsequent + history of the movement. During ordinary peaceful times the economic or + trade-unionist tendency can generally hold its own, but as soon as + disturbances occur and the authorities have to intervene, the political + current quickly gains the upper hand. This was exemplified in the labour + troubles which took place at Rostoff-on-the-Don in 1902. During the first + two days of the strike the economic demands alone were put forward, and in + the speeches which were delivered at the meetings of workmen no reference + was made to political grievances. On the third day one orator ventured to + speak disrespectfully of the Autocratic Power, but he thereby provoked + signs of dissatisfaction in the audiences. On the fifth and following + days, however, several political speeches were made, ending with the cry + of "Down with Tsarism!" and a crowd of 30,000 workmen agreed with the + speakers. Thereafter occurred similar strikes in Odessa, the Caucasus, + Kief, and Central Russia, and they had all a political rather than a + purely economic character. + </p> + <p> + I must now endeavour to explain clearly the point of view and plan of + campaign of this new movement, which I may call the revolutionary + Renaissance. + </p> + <p> + The ultimate aim of the new reformers was the same as that of all their + predecessors—the thorough reorganisation of Society on Socialistic + principles. According to their doctrines, Society as at present + constituted consists of two great classes, called variously the exploiters + and the exploited, the shearers and the shorn, the capitalists and the + workers, the employers and the employed, the tyrants and the oppressed; + and this unsatisfactory state of things must go on so long as the + so-called bourgeois or capitalist regime continues to exist. In the new + heaven and the new earth of which the Socialist dreams this unjust + distinction is to disappear; all human beings are to be equally free and + independent, all are to cooperate spontaneously with brains and hands to + the common good, and all are to enjoy in equal shares the natural and + artificial good things of this life. + </p> + <p> + So far there has never been any difference of opinion among the various + groups of Russian thorough-going revolutionists. All of them, from the + antiquated Nihilist down to the Social Democrat of the latest type, have + held these views. What has differentiated them from each other is the + greater or less degree of impatience to realise the ideal. + </p> + <p> + The most impatient were the Anarchists, who grouped themselves around + Bakunin. They wished to overthrow immediately by a frontal attack all + existing forms of government and social organisation, in the hope that + chance, or evolution, or natural instinct, or sudden inspiration or some + other mysterious force, would create something better. They themselves + declined to aid this mysterious force even by suggestions, on the ground + that, as one of them has said, "to construct is not the business of the + generation whose duty is to destroy." Notwithstanding the strong impulsive + element in the national character, the reckless, ultra-impatient + doctrinaires never became numerous, and never succeeded in forming an + organised group, probably because the young generation in Russia were too + much occupied with the actual and future condition of their own country to + embark on schemes of cosmopolitan anarchism such as Bakunin recommended. + </p> + <p> + Next in the scale of impatience came the group of believers in Socialist + agitation among the masses, with a view to overturning the existing + Government and putting themselves in its place as soon as the masses were + sufficiently organised to play the part destined for them. Between them + and the Anarchists the essential points of difference were that they + admitted the necessity of some years of preparation, and they intended, + when the Government was overturned, not to preserve indefinitely the state + of anarchy, but to put in the place of autocracy, limited monarchy, or the + republic, a strong, despotic Government thoroughly imbued with Socialistic + principles. As soon as it had laid firmly the foundations of the new order + of things it was to call a National Assembly, from which it was to + receive, I presume, a bill of indemnity for the benevolent tyranny which + it had temporarily exercised. + </p> + <p> + Impatience a few degrees less intense produced the next group, the + partisans of pacific Socialist propaganda. They maintained that there was + no necessity for overthrowing the old order of things till the masses had + been intellectually prepared for the new, and they objected to the + foundation of the new regime being laid by despots, however + well-intentioned in the Socialist sense. The people must be made happy and + preserved in a state of happiness by the people themselves. + </p> + <p> + In the last place came the least impatient of all, the Social Democrats, + who differ widely from all the preceding categories. + </p> + <p> + All previous revolutionary groups had systematically rejected the idea of + a gradual transition from the bourgeois to the Socialist regime. They + would not listen to any suggestion about a constitutional monarchy or a + democratic republic even as a mere intermediate stage of social + development. All such things, as part and parcel of the bourgeois system, + were anathematised. There must be no half-way houses between present + misery and future happiness; for many weary travellers might be tempted to + settle there in the desert, and fail to reach the promised land. "Ever + onward" should be the watchword, and no time should be wasted on the + foolish struggles of political parties and the empty vanities of political + life. + </p> + <p> + Not thus thought the Social Democrat. He was much wiser in his generation. + Having seen how the attempts of the impatient groups had ended in + disaster, and knowing that, if they had succeeded, the old effete + despotism would probably have been replaced by a young, vigorous one more + objectionable than its predecessor, he determined to try a more circuitous + but surer road to the goal which the impatient people had in view. In his + opinion the distance from the present Russian regime protected by + autocracy to the future Socialist paradise was far too great to be + traversed in a single stage, and he knew of one or two comfortable + rest-houses on the way. First there was the rest-house of + Constitutionalism, with parliamentary institutions. For some years the + bourgeoisie would doubtless have a parliamentary majority, but gradually, + by persistent effort, the Fourth Estate would gain the upper hand, and + then the Socialist millennium might be proclaimed. Meanwhile, what had to + be done was to gain the confidence of the masses, especially of the + factory workers, who were more intelligent and less conservative than the + peasantry, and to create powerful labour organisations as material for a + future political party. + </p> + <p> + This programme implied, of course, a certain unity of action with the + constitutionalists, from whom, as I have said, the revolutionists of the + old school had stood sternly aloof. There was now no question of a formal + union, and certainly no idea of a "union of hearts," because the + Socialists knew that their ultimate aim would be strenuously opposed by + the Liberals, and the Liberals knew that an attempt was being made to use + them as a cat's-paw; but there seemed to be no reason why they of the two + groups should not observe towards each other a benevolent neutrality, and + march side by side as far as the half-way house, where they could consider + the conditions of the further advance. + </p> + <p> + When I first became acquainted with the Russian Social Democrats I + imagined that their plan of campaign was of a purely pacific character; + and that they were, unlike their predecessors, an evolutionary, as + distinguished from a revolutionary, party. Subsequently I discovered that + this conception was not quite accurate. In ordinary quiet times they use + merely pacific methods, and they feel that the Proletariat is not yet + sufficiently prepared, intellectually and politically, to assume the great + responsibilities which are reserved for it in the future. Moreover, when + the moment comes for getting rid of the Autocratic Power, they would + prefer a gradual process of liquidation to a sudden cataclysm. So far they + may be said to be evolutionaries rather than revolutionaries, but their + plan of campaign does not entirely exclude violence. They would not + consider it their duty to oppose the use of violence on the part of the + more impatient sections of the revolutionists, and they would have no + scruples about utilising disturbances for the attainment of their own end. + Public agitation, which is always likely in Russia to provoke violent + repression by the authorities, they regard as necessary for keeping alive + and strengthening the spirit of opposition; and when force is used by the + police they approve of the agitators using force in return. To acts of + terrorism, however, they are opposed on principle. + </p> + <p> + Who, then, are the Terrorists, who have assassinated so many great + personages, including the Grand Duke Serge? In reply to this question I + must introduce the reader to another group of the revolutionists who have + usually been in hostile, rather than friendly, relations with the Social + Democrats, and who call themselves the Socialist-Revolutionaries + (Sotsialisty-Revolutsionery). + </p> + <p> + It will be remembered that the terrorist group, commonly called Narodnaya + Volya, or Narodovoltsi, which succeeded in assassinating Alexander II., + were very soon broken up by the police and most of the leading members + were arrested. A few escaped, of whom some remained in the country and + others emigrated to Switzerland or Paris, and efforts at reorganisation + were made, especially in the southern and western provinces, but they + proved ineffectual. At last, sobered by experience and despairing of + further success, some of the prisoners and a few of the exiles—notably + Tikhomirof, who was regarded as the leader—made their peace with the + Government, and for some years terrorism seemed to be a thing of the past. + Passing through Russia on my way home from India and Central Asia at that + time, I came to the conclusion that the young generation had recovered + from its prolonged attack of brain-fever, and had entered on a more + normal, tranquil, and healthy period of existence. + </p> + <p> + My expectations proved too optimistic. About 1894 the Narodnaya Volya came + to life again, with all its terrorist traditions intact; and shortly + afterwards appeared the new group which I have just mentioned, the + Socialist-Revolutionaries, with somewhat similar principles and a better + organisation. For some seven or eight years the two groups existed side by + side, and then the Narodnaya Volya disappeared, absorbed probably by its + more powerful rival. + </p> + <p> + During the first years of their existence neither group was strong enough + to cause the Government serious inconvenience, and it was not till 1897-98 + that they found means of issuing manifestos and programmes. In these the + Narodovoltsi declared that their immediate aims were the annihilation of + Autocracy, the convocation of a National Assembly and the reorganisation + of the Empire on the principles of federation and local self-government, + and that for the attainment of these objects the means to be employed + should include popular insurrections, military conspiracies, bombs and + dynamite. + </p> + <p> + Very similar, though ostensibly a little more eclectic, was the programme + of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. Their ultimate aim was declared to be + the transfer of political authority from the Autocratic Power to the + people, the abolition of private property in the means of production, and + in general the reorganisation of national life on Socialist principles. On + certain points they were at one with the Social Democrats. They + recognised, for example, that the social reorganisation must be preceded + by a political revolution, that much preparatory work was necessary, and + that attention should be directed first to the industrial proletariat as + the most intelligent section of the masses. On the other hand they + maintained that it was a mistake to confine the revolutionary activity to + the working classes of the towns, who were not strong enough to overturn + the Autocratic Power. The agitation ought, therefore, to be extended to + the peasantry, who were quite "developed" enough to understand at least + the idea of land-nationalisation; and for the carrying out of this part of + the programme a special organisation was created. + </p> + <p> + With so many opinions in common, it seemed at one moment as if the Social + Democrats and the Socialist-Revolutionaries might unite their forces for a + combined attack on the Government; but apart from the mutual jealousy and + hatred which so often characterise revolutionary as well as religious + sects, they were prevented from coalescing, or even cordially + co-operating, by profound differences both in doctrine and in method. + </p> + <p> + The Social Democrats are essentially doctrinaires. Thorough-going + disciples of Karl Marx, they believed in what they consider the immutable + laws of social progress, according to which the Socialistic ideal can be + reached only through capitalism; and the intermediate political + revolution, which is to substitute the will of the people for the + Autocratic Power, must be effected by the conversion and organisation of + the industrial proletariat. With the spiritual pride of men who feel + themselves to be the incarnations or avatars of immutable law, they are + inclined to look down with something very like contempt on mere empirics + who are ignorant of scientific principles and are guided by considerations + of practical expediency. The Social-Revolutionaries seem to them to be + empirics of this kind because they reject the tenets, or at least deny the + infallibility, of the Marx school, cling to the idea of partially + resisting the overwhelming influence of capitalism in Russia, hope that + the peasantry will play at least a secondary part in bringing about the + political revolution, and are profoundly convinced that the advent of + political liberty may be greatly accelerated by the use of terrorism. On + this last point they stated their views very frankly in a pamphlet which + they published in 1902 under the title of "Our Task" (Nasha Zadatcha). It + is there said: + </p> + <p> + "One of the powerful means of struggle, dictated by our revolutionary past + and present, is political terrorism, consisting of the annihilation of the + most injurious and influential personages of Russian autocracy in given + conditions. Systematic terrorism, in conjunction with other forms of open + mass-struggle (industrial riots and agrarian risings, demonstrations, + etc.), which receive from terrorism an enormous, decisive significance, + will lead to the disorganisation of the enemy. Terrorist activity will + cease only with the victory over autocracy and the complete attainment of + political liberty. Besides its chief significance as a means of + disorganising, terrorist activity will serve at the same time as a means + of propaganda and agitation, a form of open struggle taking place before + the eyes of the whole people, undermining the prestige of Government + authority, and calling into life new revolutionary forces, while the oral + and literary propaganda is being continued without interruption. Lastly, + the terrorist activity serves for the whole secret revolutionary party as + a means of self-defence and of protecting the organisation against the + injurious elements of spies and treachery." + </p> + <p> + In accordance with this theory a "militant organisation" (Boevaga + Organisatsia) was formed and soon set to work with revolvers and bombs. + First an attempt was made on the life of Pobedonostsef; then the Minister + of the Interior, Sipiagin, was assassinated; next attempts were made on + the lives of the Governors of Vilna and Kharkof, and the Kharkof chief of + police; and since that time the Governor of Ufa, the Vice-Governor of + Elizabetpol, the Minister of the Interior, M. Plehve, and the Grand Duke + Serge have fallen victims to the terrorist policy.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In this list I have not mentioned the assassination of M. + Bogolyepof, Minister of Public Instruction, in 1901, because + I do not know whether it should be attributed to the + Socialist-Revolutionaries or to the Narodovoltsi, who had + not yet amalgamated with them. +</pre> + <p> + Though the Social Democrats have no sentimental squeamishness about + bloodshed, they objected to this policy on the ground that acts of + terrorism were unnecessary and were apt to prove injurious rather than + beneficial to the revolutionist cause. One of the main objects of every + intelligent revolutionary party should be to awaken all classes from their + habitual apathy and induce them to take an active part in the political + movement; but terrorism must have a contrary effect by suggesting that + political freedom is to be attained, not by the steady pressure and + persevering cooperation of the people, but by startling, sensational acts + of individual heroism. + </p> + <p> + The efforts of these two revolutionary parties, as well as of minor + groups, to get hold of the industrial proletariat did not escape the + notice of the authorities; and during the labour troubles of 1896, on the + suggestion of M. Witte, the Government had considered the question as to + what should be done to counteract the influence of the agitators. On that + question it had no difficulty in coming to a decision; the condition of + the working classes must be improved. An expert official was accordingly + instructed to write a report on what had already been done in that + direction. In his report it was shown that the Government had long been + thinking about the subject. Not to speak of a still-born law about a + ten-hour day for artisans, dating from the time of Catherine II., an + Imperial commission had been appointed as early as 1859, but nothing + practical came of its deliberations until 1882, when legislative measures + were taken for the protection of women and children in factories. A little + later (1886) other grievances were dealt with and partly removed by + regulating contracts of hire, providing that the money derived from + deductions and fines should not be appropriated by the employers, and + creating a staff of factory inspectors who should take care that the + benevolent intentions of the Government were duly carried out. Having + reviewed all these official efforts in 1896, the Government passed in the + following year a law prohibiting night work and limiting the working day + to eleven and a half hours. + </p> + <p> + This did not satisfy the workmen. Their wages were still low, and it was + difficult to get them increased because strikes and all forms of + association were still, as they had always been, criminal offences. On + this point the Government remained firm so far as the law was concerned, + but it gradually made practical concessions by allowing the workmen to + combine for certain purposes. In 1898, for example, in Kharkof, the + Engineers' Mutual Aid Society was sanctioned, and gradually it became + customary to allow the workmen to elect delegates for the discussion of + their grievances with the employers and inspectors. + </p> + <p> + Finding that these concessions did not check the growing influence of the + Social Democratic agitators among the operatives, the Government resolved + to go a step further; it would organise the workers on purely + trade-unionist lines, and would thereby combat the Social Democrats, who + always advised the strikers to mix up political demands with their + material grievances. The project seemed to have a good prospect of + success, because there were many workmen, especially of the older + generation, who did not at all like the mixing up of politics, which so + often led to arrest, imprisonment and exile, with the practical concerns + of every day life. + </p> + <p> + The first attempt of the kind was made in Moscow under the direction of a + certain Zubatof, chief of the secret police, who had been himself a + revolutionary in his youth, and afterwards an agent provocateur. Aided by + Tikhomirof, the repentant terrorist whom I have already mentioned, Zubatof + organised a large workmen's association, with reading-rooms, lectures, + discussions and other attractions, and sought to convince the members that + they should turn a deaf ear to the Social Democratic agents, and look only + to the Government for the improvement of their condition. In order to gain + their sympathy and confidence, he instructed his subordinates to take the + side of the workmen in all labour disputes, while he himself brought + official pressure to bear on the employers. By this means he made a + considerable number of converts, and for a time the association seemed to + prosper, but he did not possess the extraordinary ability and tact + required to play the complicated game successfully, and he committed the + fatal mistake of using the office-bearers of the association as detectives + for the discovery of the "evil-intentioned." This tactical error had its + natural consequences. As soon as the workmen perceived that their + professed benefactors were police spies, who did not obtain for them any + real improvement of their condition, the popularity of the association + rapidly declined. At the same time, the factory owners complained to the + Minister of Finance that the police, who ought to be guardians of public + order, and who had accused the factory inspectors of stirring up + discontent in the labouring population, were themselves creating troubles + by inciting the workmen to make inordinate demands. The Minister of + Finance at the moment was M. Witte, and the Minister of Interior, + responsible for the acts of the police, was M. Plehve, and between these + two official dignitaries, who were already in very strained relations, + Zubatof's activity formed a new base of contention. In these circumstances + it is not surprising that the very risky experiment came to an untimely + end. + </p> + <p> + In St. Petersburg a similar experiment was made, and it ended much more + tragically. There the chief rôle was played by a mysterious personage + called Father Gapon, who acquired great momentary notoriety. Though a + genuine priest, he did not belong by birth, as most Russian priests do, to + the ecclesiastical caste. The son of a peasant in Little Russia, where the + ranks of the clergy are not hermetically sealed against the other social + classes, he aspired to take orders, and after being rusticated from a + seminary for supposed sympathy with revolutionary ideas, he contrived to + finish his studies and obtain ordination. During a residence in Moscow he + took part in the Zubatof experiment, and when that badly conducted scheme + collapsed he was transferred to St. Petersburg and appointed chaplain to a + large convict prison. His new professional duties did not prevent him from + continuing to take a keen interest in the welfare of the working classes, + and in the summer of 1904 he became, with the approval of the police + authorities, president of a large labour union called the Society of + Russian Workmen, which had eleven sections in the various industrial + suburbs of the capital. Under his guidance the experiment proceeded for + some months very successfully. He gained the sympathy and confidence of + the workmen, and so long as no serious questions arose he kept his hold on + them; but a storm was brewing and he proved unequal to the occasion. + </p> + <p> + In the first days of 1905, when the economic consequences of the war had + come to be keenly felt, a spirit of discontent appeared among the + labouring population of St. Petersburg, and on Sunday, January 15th—exactly + a week before the famous Sunday when the troops were called into play—a + strike began in the Putilof ironworks and spread like wildfire to the + other big works in the neighbourhood. The immediate cause of the + disturbance was the dismissal of some workmen and a demand on the part of + the labour union that they should be reinstated. A deputation, composed + partly of genuine workmen and partly of Social Democratic agitators, and + led by Gapon, negotiated with the managers of the Putilof works, and + failed to effect an arrangement. At this moment Gapon tried hard to + confine the negotiations to the points in dispute, whereas the agitators + put forward demands of a wider kind, such as the eight-hour working day, + and they gradually obtained his concurrence on condition that no political + demands should be introduced into the programme. In defending this + condition he was supported by the workmen, so that when agitators tried to + make political speeches at the meetings they were unceremoniously + expelled. + </p> + <p> + A similar struggle between the "Economists" and the "Politicals" was going + on in the other industrial suburbs, notably in the Nevski quarter, where + 45,000 operatives had struck work, and the Social Democrats were + particularly active. In this section of the Labour Union the most + influential member was a young workman called Petroff, who was a staunch + Gaponist in the sense that he wished the workers to confine themselves to + their own grievances and to resist the introduction of political demands. + At first he succeeded in preventing the agitators from speaking at the + meetings, but they soon proved too much for him. At one of the meetings on + Tuesday, when he happened to be absent, a Social Democrat contrived to get + himself elected chairman, and from that moment the political agitators had + a free hand. They had a regular organisation composed of an organiser, + three "oratorical agitators," and several assistant-organisers who + attended the small meetings in the operatives' sleeping-quarters. Besides + these there were a certain number of workmen already converted to Social + Democratic principles who had learned the art of making political + speeches. + </p> + <p> + The reports of the agitators to the central organisation, written + hurriedly during this eventful week, are extremely graphic and + interesting. They declared that there is a frightful amount of work to be + done and very few to do it. Their stock of Social Democratic pamphlets is + exhausted and they are hoarse from speech-making. In spite of their + superhuman efforts the masses remain frightfully "undeveloped." The men + willingly collect to hear the orators, listen to them attentively, express + approval or dissent, and even put questions; but with all this they remain + obstinately on the ground of their own immediate wants, such as the + increase of wages and protection against brutal foremen, and they only + hint vaguely at more serious demands. The agitators, however, are equally + obstinate, and they make a few converts. To illustrate how conversions are + made, the following incident is related. At one meeting the cry of "Stop + the war!" is raised by an orator without sufficient preparation, and at + once a voice is heard in the audience saying. "No, no! The little Japs + (Yaposhki) must be beaten!" Thereupon a more experienced orator comes + forward and a characteristic conversation takes place: + </p> + <p> + "Have we much land of our own, my friends?" asks the orator. + </p> + <p> + "Much!" replies the crowd. + </p> + <p> + "Do we require Manchuria?" + </p> + <p> + "No!" + </p> + <p> + "Who pays for the war?" + </p> + <p> + "We do!" + </p> + <p> + "Are our brothers dying, and do your wives and children remain without a + bit of bread?" + </p> + <p> + "So it is!" say many, with a significant shake of the head. + </p> + <p> + Having succeeded so far, the orator tries to turn the popular indignation + against the Tsar by explaining that he is to blame for all this misery and + suffering, but Petroff suddenly appears on the scene and maintains that + for the misery and suffering the Tsar is not at all to blame, for he knows + nothing about it. It is all the fault of his servants, the tchinovniks. + </p> + <p> + By this device Petroff suppresses the seditious cry of "Down with + autocracy!" which the Social Democrats were anxious to make the watchword + of the movement, but he has thereby been drawn from his strong position of + "No politics," and he is standing, as we shall see presently, on a + slippery incline. + </p> + <p> + On Thursday and Friday the activity of the leaders and the excitement of + the masses increase. While the Gaponists speak merely of local grievances + and material wants, the Social Democrats incite their hearers to a + political struggle, advising them to demand a Constituent Assembly, and + explaining the necessity for all workmen to draw together and form a + powerful political party. The haranguing goes on from morning to night, + and agitators drive about from one factory to another to keep the + excitement at fever-heat. The police, usually so active on such occasions, + do not put in an appearance. Prince Sviatopolk Mirski, the honest, + well-intentioned, liberal Minister of the Interior, cannot make up his + mind to act with energy, and lets things drift. The agitators themselves + are astonished at this extraordinary inactivity. One of them, writing a + few days afterwards, says: "The police was paralysed. It would have been + easy to arrest Gapon, and discover the orators. On Friday the clubs might + have been surrounded and the orators arrested. . . . In a word, decided + measures might have been taken, but they were not." + </p> + <p> + It is not only Petroff that has abandoned his strong position of "No + politics"; Gapon is doing likewise. The movement has spread far beyond + what he expected, and he is being carried away by the prevailing + excitement. With all his benevolent intentions, he is of a nervous, + excitable nature, and his besetting sin is vanity. He perceives that by + resisting the Social Democrats he is losing his hold on the masses. Early + in the week, as we have seen, he began to widen his programme in the + Social Democratic sense, and every day he makes new concessions. Before + the week is finished a Social Democratic orator can write triumphantly: + "In three days we have transformed the Gaponist assemblies into political + meetings!" Like Petroff, Gapon seeks to defend the Tsar, and he falls into + Petroff's strategical mistake of pretending that the Tsar knows nothing of + the sufferings of his people. From that admission to the resolution that + the Tsar must somehow be informed personally and directly, by some means + outside of the regular official channel, there is but one step, and that + step is quickly taken. On Friday morning Gapon has determined to present + with his own hands a petition to his Majesty, and the petition is already + drafted, containing demands which go far beyond workmen's grievances. + After resisting the Social Democratic agitators so stoutly, he is now + going over, bag and baggage, to the Social Democratic camp. + </p> + <p> + This wonderful change was consummated on Friday evening at a conference + which he held with some delegates of the Social Democrats. From an account + written by one of these delegates immediately after the meeting we get an + insight into the worthy priest's character and motives. In the morning he + had written to them: "I have 100,000 workmen, and I am going with them to + the Palace to present a petition. If it is not granted, we shall make a + revolution. Do you agree?" They did not like the idea, because the Social + Democratic policy is to extort concessions, not to ask favours, and to + refrain from anything that might increase the prestige of the Autocratic + Power. In their reply, therefore, they consented simply to discuss the + matter. I proceed now to quote from the delegate's account of what took + place at the conference: + </p> + <p> + "The company consisted of Gapon, with two adherents, and five Social + Democrats. All sat round a table, and the conversation began. Gapon is a + good-looking man, with dark complexion and thoughtful, sympathetic face. + He is evidently very tired, and, like the other orators, he is hoarse. To + the questions addressed to him, he replies: 'The masses are at present so + electrified that you may lead them wherever you like. We shall go on + Sunday to the Palace, and present a petition. If we are allowed to pass + without hindrance, we shall march to the Palace Square, and summon the + Tsar from Tsarskoe Selo. We shall wait for him till the evening. When he + arrives, I shall go to him with a deputation, and in presenting to him the + petition, I shall say: 'Your Majesty! Things cannot go on like this; it is + time to give the people liberty.' (Tak nelzya! Para dat' narodu svobodu.) + If he consents, we shall insist that he take an oath before the people. + Only then we shall come away, and when we begin to work, it will only be + for eight hours a day. If, on the other hand, we are prevented from + entering the city, we shall request and beg, and if they do not let us + pass, we shall force our way. In the Palace Square we shall find troops, + and we shall entreat them to come over to our side. If they beat us, we + shall strike back. There will be sacrifices, but part of the troops will + come over to us, and then, being ourselves strong in numbers, we shall + make a revolution. We shall construct barricades, pillage the armourers' + shops, break open the prisons, and seize the telephones and telegraphs. + The Socialist-Revolutionaries have promised us bombs, and the Democrats + money: and we shall be victorious!* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This confirms the information which comes to me from other + quarters that Gapon was already in friendly relations with + other revolutionary groups. +</pre> + <p> + "Such, in a few words, were the ideas which Gapon expounded. The + impression he made on us was that he did not clearly realise where he was + going. Acting with sincerity, he was ready to die, but he was convinced + that the troops would not fire, and that the deputation would be received + by the Emperor. He did not distinguish between different methods. Though + not at all a partisan of violent means, he had become infuriated against + autocracy and the Tsar, as was shown by his language when he said: 'If + that blockhead of a Tsar comes out' (Yesli etot durak Tsar vuidet) . . . + Burning with the desire to attain his object, he looked on revolution like + a child, as if it could be accomplished in a day with empty hands!" + </p> + <p> + Knowing that no previous preparations had been made for a revolution such + as Gapon talked of, the Social Democratic agents tried to dissuade him + from carrying out his idea on Sunday, but he stood firm. He had already + committed himself publicly to the project. At a workmen's meeting in + another quarter (Vassiliostrof) earlier in the day he had explained the + petition, and said: "Let us go to the Winter Palace and summon the + Emperor, and let us tell him our wants; if he does not listen to us we do + not require him any longer." To a Social Democrat who shook him warmly by + the hand and expressed his astonishment that there should be such a man + among the clergy, he replied: "I am no longer a priest; I am a fighter for + liberty! They want to exile me, and for some nights I have not slept at + home." When offered assistance to escape arrest, he answered laconically: + "Thanks; I have already a place of refuge." After his departure from the + meeting one of his friends, to whom he had confided a copy of the + petition, rose and said: "Now has arrived the great historical moment! Now + we can and must demand rights and liberty!" After hearing the petition + read the meeting decided that if the Tsar did not come out at the demand + of the people strong measures should be taken, and one orator indicated + pretty plainly what they should be: "We don't require a Tsar who is deaf + to the woes of the people; we shall perish ourselves, but we shall kill + him. Swear that you will all come to the Palace on Sunday at twelve + o'clock!" The audience raised their hands in token of assent. + </p> + <p> + Finding it impossible to dissuade Gapon from his purpose, the Social + Democrats told him that they would take advantage of the circumstances + independently, and that if he was allowed to enter the city with his + deputation they would organise monster meetings in the Palace Square. + </p> + <p> + The imperious tone used by Gapon at the public meetings and private + consultations was adopted by him also in his letters to the Minister of + the Interior and to the Emperor. To the former he wrote: + </p> + <p> + "The workmen and inhabitants of St. Petersburg of various classes desire + to see the Tsar at two o'clock on Sunday in the Winter Palace Square, in + order to lay before him personally their needs and those of the whole + Russian people. . . . Tell the Tsar that I and the workmen, many thousands + in number, have peacefully, with confidence in him, but irrevocably, + resolved to proceed to the Winter Palace. Let him show his confidence by + deeds, and not by manifestos." + </p> + <p> + To the Tsar himself his language was not more respectful: + </p> + <p> + "Sovereign,—I fear the Ministers have not told you the truth about + the situation. The whole people, trusting in you, has resolved to appear + at the Winter Palace at two o'clock in the afternoon, in order to inform + you of its needs. If you hesitate, and do not appear before the people, + then you tear the moral bonds between you and them. Trust in you will + disappear, because innocent blood will flow. Appear to-morrow before your + people and receive our address of devotion in a courageous spirit! I and + the labour representatives, my brave comrades, guarantee the inviolability + of your person." + </p> + <p> + Gapon was no longer merely the president of the Workmen's Union: + inebriated with the excitement he had done so much to create, he now + imagined himself the representative of the oppressed Russian people, and + the heroic leader of a great political revolution. In the petition which + he had prepared he said little about the grievances of the St. Petersburg + workmen whose interests he had a right to advocate, and preferred to soar + into much higher regions: + </p> + <p> + "The bureaucracy has brought the country to the verge of ruin, and, by a + shameful war, is bringing it to its downfall. We have no voice in the + heavy burdens imposed on us; we do not even know for whom or why this + money is wrung from the impoverished people, and we do not know how it is + expended. This state of things is contrary to the Divine laws, and renders + life unbearable. Assembled before your palace, we plead for our salvation. + Refuse not your aid; raise your people from the tomb, and give them the + means of working out their own destiny. Rescue them from the intolerable + yoke of officialdom; throw down the wall that separates you from them, in + order that they may rule with you the country that was created for their + happiness—a happiness which is being wrenched from us, leaving + nothing but sorrow and humiliation." + </p> + <p> + With an innate sentiment of autocratic dignity the Emperor declined to + obey the imperious summons, and he thereby avoided an unseemly altercation + with the excited priest, as well as the boisterous public meetings which + the Social Democrats were preparing to hold in the Palace Square. Orders + were given to the police and the troops to prevent the crowds of workmen + from penetrating into the centre of the city from the industrial suburbs. + The rest need not be described in detail. On Sunday the crowds tried to + force their way, the troops fired, and many of the demonstrators were + killed or wounded. How many it is impossible to say; between the various + estimates there is an enormous discrepancy. At one of the first volleys + Father Gapon fell, but he turned out to be quite unhurt, and was spirited + away to his place of refuge, whence he escaped across the frontier. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he had an opportunity of giving public expression to his + feelings, he indulged in very strong language. In his letters and + proclamations the Tsar is called a miscreant and an assassin, and is + described as traitorous, bloodthirsty, and bestial. To the ministers he is + equally uncomplimentary. They appear to him an accursed band of brigands, + Mamelukes, jackals, monsters. Against the Tsar, "with his reptilian + brood," and the ministers alike, he vows vengeance—"death to them + all!" As for the means for realising his sacred mission, he recommends + bombs, dynamite, individual and wholesale terrorism, popular insurrection, + and paralysing the life of the cities by destroying the water-mains, the + gas-pipes, the telegraph and telephone wires, the railways and tram-ways, + the Government buildings and the prisons. At some moments he seems to + imagine himself invested with papal powers, for he anathematises the + soldiers who did their duty on the eventful day, whilst he blesses and + absolves from their oath of allegiance those who help the nation to win + liberty. + </p> + <p> + So far I have spoken merely of the main currents in the revolutionary + movement. Of the minor currents—particularly those in the outlying + provinces, where the Socialist tendencies were mingled with nationalist + feeling—I shall have occasion to speak when I come to deal with the + present political situation as a whole. Meanwhile, I wish to sketch in + outline the foreign policy which has powerfully contributed to bring about + the present crisis. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0038" id="link2HCH0038"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVIII + </h2> + <h3> + TERRITORIAL EXPANSION AND FOREIGN POLICY + </h3> + <p> + Rapid Growth of Russia—Expansive Tendency of Agricultural Peoples—The + Russo-Slavonians—The Northern Forest and the Steppe—Colonisation—The + Part of the Government in the Process of Expansion—Expansion towards + the West—Growth of the Empire Represented in a Tabular Form—Commercial + Motive for Expansion—The Expansive Force in the Future—Possibilities + of Expansion in Europe—Persia, Afghanistan, and India—Trans-Siberian + Railway and Weltpolitik—A Grandiose Scheme—Determined + Opposition of Japan—Negotiations and War—Russia's Imprudence + Explained—Conclusion. + </p> + <p> + The rapid growth of Russia is one of the most remarkable facts of modern + history. An insignificant tribe, or collection of tribes, which, a + thousand years ago, occupied a small district near the sources of the + Dnieper and Western Dvina, has grown into a great nation with a territory + stretching from the Baltic to the Northern Pacific, and from the Polar + Ocean to the frontiers of Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and China. We have + here a fact well deserving of investigation, and as the process is still + going on and is commonly supposed to threaten our national interests, the + investigation ought to have for us more than a mere scientific interest. + What is the secret of this expansive power? Is it a mere barbarous lust of + territorial aggrandisement, or is it some more reasonable motive? And what + is the nature of the process? Is annexation followed by assimilation, or + do the new acquisitions retain their old character? Is the Empire in its + present extent a homogeneous whole, or merely a conglomeration of + heterogenous units held together by the outward bond of centralised + administration? If we could find satisfactory answers to these questions, + we might determine how far Russia is strengthened or weakened by her + annexations of territory, and might form some plausible conjectures as to + how, when, and where the process of expansion is to stop. + </p> + <p> + By glancing at her history from the economic point of view we may easily + detect one prominent cause of expansion. + </p> + <p> + An agricultural people, employing merely the primitive methods of + agriculture, has always a strong tendency to widen its borders. The + natural increase of population demands a constantly increasing production + of grain, whilst the primitive methods of cultivation exhaust the soil and + steadily diminish its productivity. With regard to this stage of economic + development, the modest assertion of Malthus, that the supply of food does + not increase so rapidly as the population, often falls far short of the + truth. As the population increases, the supply of food may decrease not + only relatively, but absolutely. When a people finds itself in this + critical position, it must adopt one of two alternatives: either it must + prevent the increase of population, or it must increase the production of + food. In the former case it may legalise the custom of "exposing" infants, + as was done in ancient Greece; or it may regularly sell a large portion of + the young women and children, as was done until recently in Circassia; or + the surplus population may emigrate to foreign lands, as the Scandinavians + did in the ninth century, and as we ourselves are doing in a more + peaceable fashion at the present day. The other alternative may be + effected either by extending the area of cultivation or by improving the + system of agriculture. + </p> + <p> + The Russo-Slavonians, being an agricultural people, experienced this + difficulty, but for them it was not serious. A convenient way of escape + was plainly indicated by their peculiar geographical position. They were + not hemmed in by lofty mountains or stormy seas. To the south and east—at + their very doors, as it were—lay a boundless expanse of thinly + populated virgin soil, awaiting the labour of the husbandman, and ready to + repay it most liberally. The peasantry therefore, instead of exposing + their infants, selling their daughters, or sweeping the seas as Vikings, + simply spread out towards the east and south. This was at once the most + natural and the wisest course, for of all the expedients for preserving + the equilibrium between population and food-production, increasing the + area of cultivation is, under the circumstances just described, the + easiest and most effective. Theoretically the same result might have been + obtained by improving the method of agriculture, but practically this was + impossible. Intensive culture is not likely to be adopted so long as + expansion is easy. High farming is a thing to be proud of when there is a + scarcity of land, but it would be absurd to attempt it where there is + abundance of virgin soil in the vicinity. + </p> + <p> + The process of expansion, thus produced by purely economic causes, was + accelerated by influences of another kind, especially during the + seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The increase in the number of + officials, the augmentation of the taxes, the merciless exactions of the + Voyevods and their subordinates, the transformation of the peasants and + "free wandering people" into serfs, the ecclesiastical reforms and + consequent persecution of the schismatics, the frequent conscriptions and + violent reforms of Peter the Great—these and other kinds of + oppression made thousands flee from their homes and seek a refuge in the + free territory, where there were no officials, no tax-gatherers, and no + proprietors. But the State, with its army of tax-gatherers and officials, + followed close on the heels of the fugitives, and those who wished to + preserve their liberty had to advance still further. Notwithstanding the + efforts of the authorities to retain the population in the localities + actually occupied, the wave of colonisation moved steadily onwards. + </p> + <p> + The vast territory which lay open to the colonists consisted of two + contiguous regions, separated from each other by no mountains or rivers, + but widely differing from each other in many respects. The one, comprising + all the northern part of Eastern Europe and of Asia, even unto Kamchatka, + may be roughly described as a land of forests, intersected by many rivers, + and containing numerous lakes and marshes; the other, stretching + southwards to the Black Sea, and eastwards far away into Central Asia, is + for the most part what Russians call "the Steppe," and Americans would + call the prairies. + </p> + <p> + Each of these two regions presented peculiar inducements and peculiar + obstacles to colonisation. So far as the facility of raising grain was + concerned, the southern region was decidedly preferable. In the north the + soil had little natural fertility, and was covered with dense forests, so + that much time and labour had to be expended in making a clearing before + the seed could be sown.* In the south, on the contrary, the squatter had + no trees to fell, and no clearing to make. Nature had cleared the land for + him, and supplied him with a rich black soil of marvellous fertility, + which has not yet been exhausted by centuries of cultivation. Why, then, + did the peasant often prefer the northern forests to the fertile Steppe + where the land was already prepared for him? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The modus operandi has been already described; vide supra, + pp. 104 et seq. +</pre> + <p> + For this apparent inconsistency there was a good and valid reason. The + muzhik had not, even in those good old times, any passionate love of + labour for its own sake, nor was he by any means insensible to the + facilities for agriculture afforded by the Steppe. But he could not regard + the subject exclusively from the agricultural point of view. He had to + take into consideration the fauna as well as the flora of the two regions. + At the head of the fauna in the northern forests stood the peace-loving, + laborious Finnish tribes, little disposed to molest settlers who did not + make themselves obnoxiously aggressive; on the Steppe lived the predatory, + nomadic hordes, ever ready to attack, plunder, and carry off as slaves the + peaceful agricultural population. These facts, as well as the agricultural + conditions, were known to intending colonists, and influenced them in + their choice of a new home. Though generally fearless and fatalistic in a + higher degree, they could not entirely overlook the dangers of the Steppe, + and many of them preferred to encounter the hard work of the forest + region. + </p> + <p> + These differences in the character and population of the two regions + determined the character of the colonisation. Though the colonisation of + the northern regions was not effected entirely without bloodshed, it was, + on the whole, of a peaceful kind, and consequently received little + attention from the contemporary chroniclers. The colonisation of the + Steppe, on the contrary, required the help of the Cossacks, and forms, as + I have already shown, one of the bloodiest pages of European history. + </p> + <p> + Thus, we see, the process of expansion towards the north, east, and south + may be described as a spontaneous movement of the agricultural population. + It must, however, be admitted that this is an imperfect and one-sided + representation of the phenomenon. Though the initiative unquestionably + came from the people, the Government played an important part in the + movement. + </p> + <p> + In early times when Russia was merely a conglomeration of independent + principalities, the Princes were under the moral and political obligation + of protecting their subjects, and this obligation coincided admirably with + their natural desire to extend their dominions. When the Grand Princes of + Muscovy, in the fifteenth century, united the numerous principalities and + proclaimed themselves Tsars, they accepted this obligation for the whole + country, and conceived much grander schemes of territorial aggrandisement. + Towards the north and northeast no strenuous efforts were required. The + Republic of Novgorod easily gained possession of Northern Russia as far as + the Ural Mountains, and Siberia was conquered by a small band of Cossacks + without the authorisation of Muscovy, so that the Tsars had merely to + annex the already conquered territory. In the southern region the part + played by the Government was very different. The agricultural population + had to be constantly protected along a frontier of enormous length, lying + open at all points to the incursions of nomadic tribes. To prevent raids + it was necessary to keep up a military cordon, and this means did not + always ensure protection to those living near the frontier. The nomads + often came in formidable hordes, which could be successfully resisted only + by large armies, and sometimes the armies were not large enough to cope + with them. Again and again during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries + Tartar hordes swept over the country—burning the villages and towns, + and spreading devastation wherever they appeared—and during more + than two centuries Russia had to pay a heavy tribute to the Khans. + </p> + <p> + Gradually the Tsars threw off this galling yoke. Ivan the Terrible annexed + the three Khanates of the Lower Volga—Kazan, Kipttchak, and + Astrakhan—and in that way removed the danger of a foreign + domination. But permanent protection was not thereby secured to the + outlying provinces. The nomadic tribes living near the frontier continued + their raids, and in the slave markets of the Crimea the living merchandise + was supplied by Russia and Poland. + </p> + <p> + To protect an open frontier against the incursions of nomadic tribes three + methods are possible: the construction of a great wall, the establishment + of a strong military cordon, and the permanent subjugation of the + marauders. The first of these expedients, adopted by the Romans in Britain + and by the Chinese on their northwestern frontier, is enormously + expensive, and was utterly impossible in a country like Southern Russia, + where there is no stone for building purposes; the second was constantly + tried, and constantly found wanting; the third alone proved practicable + and efficient. Though the Government has long since recognised that the + acquisition of barren, thinly populated steppes is a burden rather than an + advantage, it has been induced to go on making annexations for the purpose + of self-defence, as well as for other reasons. + </p> + <p> + In consequence of this active part which the Government took in the + extension of the territory, the process of political expansion sometimes + got greatly ahead of the colonisation. After the Turkish wars and + consequent annexations in the time of Catherine II., for example, a great + part of Southern Russia was almost uninhabited, and the deficiency had to + be corrected, as we have seen, by organised emigration. At the present + day, in the Asiatic provinces, there are still immense tracts of + unoccupied land, some of which are being gradually colonised. + </p> + <p> + If we turn now from the East to the West we shall find that the expansion + in this direction was of an entirely different kind. The country lying to + the westward of the early Russo-Slavonian settlements had a poor soil and + a comparatively dense population, and consequently held out little + inducement to emigration. Besides this, it was inhabited by warlike + agricultural races, who were not only capable of defending their own + territory, but even strongly disposed to make encroachments on their + eastern neighbours. Russian expansion to the westward was, therefore, not + a spontaneous movement of the agricultural population, but the work of the + Government, acting slowly and laboriously by means of diplomacy and + military force; it had, however, a certain historical justification. + </p> + <p> + No sooner had Russia freed herself, in the fifteenth century, from the + Tartar domination, than her political independence, and even her national + existence, were threatened from the West. Her western neighbours, were + like herself, animated with that tendency to national expansion which I + have above described; and for a time it seemed doubtful who should + ultimately possess the vast plains of Eastern Europe. The chief + competitors were the Tsars of Moscow and the Kings of Poland, and the + latter appeared to have the better chance. In close connection with + Western Europe, they had been able to adopt many of the improvements which + had recently been made in the art of war, and they already possessed the + rich valley of the Dnieper. Once, with the help of the free Cossacks, they + succeeded in overrunning the whole of Muscovy, and a son of the Polish + king was elected Tsar in Moscow. By attempting to accomplish their purpose + in a too hasty and reckless fashion, they raised a storm of religious and + patriotic fanaticism, which very soon drove them out of their newly + acquired possessions. The country remained, however, in a very precarious + position, and its more intelligent rulers perceived plainly that, in order + to carry on the struggle successfully, they must import something of that + Western civilisation which gave such an advantage to their opponents. + </p> + <p> + Some steps had already been taken in that direction. In the year 1553 an + English navigator, whilst seeking for a short route to China and India, + had accidentally discovered the port of Archangel on the White Sea, and + since that time the Tsars had kept up an intermittent diplomatic and + commercial intercourse with England. But this route was at all times + tedious and dangerous, and during a great part of the year it was closed + by the ice. In view of these difficulties the Tsars tried to import + "cunning foreign artificers," by way of the Baltic; but their efforts were + hampered by the Livonian Order, who at that time held the east coast, and + who considered, like the Europeans on the coast of Africa at the present + day, that the barbarous natives of the interior should not be supplied + with arms and ammunition. All the other routes to the West traversed + likewise the territory of rivals, who might at any time become avowed + enemies. Under these circumstances the Tsars naturally desired to break + through the barrier which hemmed them in, and the acquisition of the + eastern coast of the Baltic became one of the chief objects of Russia's + foreign policy. + </p> + <p> + After Poland, Russia's most formidable rival was Sweden. That power early + acquired a large amount of territory to the east of the Baltic—including + the mouths of the Neva, where St. Petersburg now stands—and long + harboured ambitious schemes of further conquest. In the troublous times + when the Poles overran the Tsardom of Muscovy, she took advantage of the + occasion to annex a considerable amount of territory, and her expansion in + this direction went on in intermittent fashion until it was finally + stopped by Peter the Great. + </p> + <p> + In comparison with these two rivals Russia was weak in all that regarded + the art of war; but she had two immense advantages: she had a very large + population, and a strong, stable Government that could concentrate the + national forces for any definite purpose. All that she required for + success in the competition was an army on the European model. Peter the + Great created such an army, and won the prize. After this the political + disintegration of Poland proceeded rapidly, and when that unhappy country + fell to pieces Russia naturally took for herself the lion's share of the + spoil. Sweden, too, sank to political insignificance, and gradually lost + all her trans-Baltic possessions. The last of them—the Grand Duchy + of Finland, which stretches from the Gulf of Finland to the Polar Ocean—was + ceded to Russia by the peace of Friederichshamm in 1809. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The territorial extent of all these acquisitions will be best shown in +a tabular form. The following table represents the process of expansion +from the time when Ivan III. united the independent principalities and +threw off the Tartar yoke, down to the accession of Peter the Great in +1682: + + + English + Sq. Miles. + In 1505 the Tsardom of Muscovy contained about 784,000 + " 1583 " " " " 996,000 + " 1584 " " " " 2,650,000 + " 1598 " " " " 3,328,000 + " 1676 " " " " 5,448,000 + " 1682 " " " " 5,618,000 +</pre> + <p> + Of these 5,618,000 English square miles about 1,696,000 were in Europe and + about 3,922,000 in Asia. Peter the Great, though famous as a conqueror, + did not annex nearly so much territory as many of his predecessors and + successors. At his death, in 1752, the Empire contained, in round numbers, + 1,738,000 square miles in Europe and 4,092,000 in Asia. The following + table shows the subsequent expansion: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In Europe and the Caucasus In Asia. + Eng. sq. m Eng. sq. m. + In 1725 the Russian Empire contained about 1,738,000 4,092,000 + " 1770 " " " " 1,780,000 4,452,000 + " 1800 " " " " 2,014,000 4,452,000 + " 1825 " " " " 2,226,000 4,452,000 + " 1855 " " " " 2,261,250 5,194,000 + " 1867 " " " " 2,267,360 5,267,560 + " 1897 " " " " 2,267,360 6,382,321 +</pre> + <p> + In this table is not included the territory in the North-west of America—containing + about 513,250 English square miles—which was annexed to Russia in + 1799 and ceded to the United States in 1867. + </p> + <p> + When once Russia has annexed she does not readily relax her grasp. She + has, however, since the death of Peter the Great, on four occasions ceded + territory which had come into her possession. To Persia she ceded, in + 1729, Mazanderan and Astrabad, and in 1735 a large portion of the + Caucasus; in 1856, by the Treaty of Paris, she gave up the mouths of the + Danube and part of Bessarabia; in 1867 she sold to the United States her + American possessions; in 1881 she retroceded to China the greater part of + Kuldja, which she had occupied for ten years; and now she is releasing her + hold on Manchuria under the pressure of Japan. + </p> + <p> + The increase in the population—due in part to territorial + acquisitions—since 1722, when the first census was taken, has been + as follows:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In 1722 the Empire contained about 14 million inhabitants. + " 1742 " " " 16 " + " 1762 " " " 19 " + " 1782 " " " 28 " + " 1796 " " " 36 " + " 1812 " " " 41 " + " 1815 " " " 45 " + " 1835 " " " 60 " + " 1851 " " " 68 " + " 1858 " " " 44 " + " 1897 " " " 129 " +</pre> + <p> + So much for the past. To sum up, we may say that, if we have read Russian + history aright, the chief motives of expansion have been spontaneous + colonisation, self-defence against nomadic tribes, and high political + aims, such as the desire to reach the sea-coast; and that the process has + been greatly facilitated by peculiar geographical conditions and the + autocratic form of government. Before passing to the future, I must + mention another cause of expansion which has recently come into play, and + which has already acquired very great importance. + </p> + <p> + Russia is rapidly becoming, as I have explained in a previous chapter, a + great industrial and commercial nation, and is anxious to acquire new + markets for her manufactured goods. Though her industries cannot yet + supply her own wants, she likes to peg out claims for the future, so as + not to be forestalled by more advanced nations. I am not sure that she + ever makes a conquest exclusively for this purpose, but whenever it + happens that she has other reasons for widening her borders, the idea of + acquiring commercial advantages acts as a subsidiary incentive, and as + soon as the territory is annexed she raises round it a line of commercial + fortifications in the shape of custom-houses, through which foreign goods + have great difficulty in forcing their way. + </p> + <p> + This policy is quite intelligible from the patriotic point of view, but + Russians like to justify it, and condemn English competition, on higher + ground. England, they say, is like a successful manufacturer who has + oustripped his rivals and who seeks to prevent any new competitors from + coming into the field. By her mercantile policy she has become the great + blood-sucker of other nations. Having no cause to fear competition, she + advocates the insidious principles of Free Trade, and deluges foreign + countries with her manufactures to such an extent that unprotected native + industries are inevitably ruined. Thus all nations have long paid tribute + to England, but the era of emancipation had dawned. The fallacies of Free + Trade have been detected and exposed, and Russia, like other nations, has + found in the beneficent power of protective tariffs a means of escape from + British economic thraldom. Henceforth, not only the muzhiks of European + Russia, but also the populations of Central Asia, will be saved from the + heartless exploitation of Manchester and Birmingham—and be handed + over, I presume, to the tender mercies of the manufacturers of Moscow and + St. Petersburg, who sell their goods much dearer than their English + rivals. + </p> + <p> + Having thus analysed the expansive tendency, let us endeavour to determine + how the various factors of which it is composed are acting in the present + and are likely to act in the future. In this investigation it will be well + to begin with the simpler, and proceed gradually to the more complex parts + of the problem. + </p> + <p> + Towards the north and the west the history of Russian expansion may almost + be regarded as closed. Northwards there is nothing to be annexed but the + Arctic Ocean and the Polar regions; and, westwards, annexations at the + expense of Germany are not to be thought of. There remain, therefore, only + Sweden and Norway. They may possibly, at some future time, come within the + range of Russia's territorial appetite, but at present the only part of + the Scandinavian Peninsula on which she is supposed to cast longing eyes + is a barren district in the extreme north, which is said to contain an + excellent warm-water port. + </p> + <p> + Towards the south-west there are possibilities of future expansion, and + already some people talk of Austrian Galicia being geographically and + ethnographically a part of Russia; but so long as the Austro-Hungarian + Empire holds together such possibilities do not come within the sphere of + practical politics. + </p> + <p> + Farther east, towards the Balkan Peninsula, the expansive tendency is much + more complicated and of very ancient date. The Russo-Slavs who held the + valley of the Dnieper from the ninth to the thirteenth century belonged to + those numerous frontier tribes which the tottering Byzantine Empires + attempted to ward off by diplomacy and rich gifts, and by giving to the + troublesome chiefs, on condition of their accepting Christianity, + princesses of the Imperial family as brides. Vladimir, Prince of Kief, now + recognised as a Saint by the Russian Church, accepted Christianity in this + way (A. D. 988), and his subjects followed his example. Russia thus became + ecclesiastically a part of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the + people learned to regard Tsargrad—that is, the City of the Tsar, as + the Byzantine Emperor was then called—with peculiar veneration. + </p> + <p> + All through the long Tartar domination, when the nomadic hordes held the + valley of the Dnieper and formed a barrier between Russia and the Balkan + Peninsula, the capital of the Greek Orthodox world was remembered and + venerated by the Russian people, and in the fifteenth century it acquired + in their eyes a new significance. At that time the relative positions of + Constantinople and Moscow were changed. Constantinople fell under the + power of the Mahometan Turks, whilst Moscow threw off the yoke of the + Mahometan Tartars, the northern representatives of the Turkish race. The + Grand Prince of Moscow thereby became the Protector of the Faith, and in + some sort the successor of the Byzantine Tsars. To strengthen this claim, + Ivan III. married a niece of the last Byzantine Emperor, and his + successors went further in the same direction by assuming the title of + Tsar, and inventing a fable about their ancestor Rurik having been a + descendant of Caesar Augustus. + </p> + <p> + All this would seem to a lawyer, or even to a diplomatist, a very shadowy + title, and none of the Russian monarchs—except perhaps Catherine + II., who conceived the project of resuscitating the Byzantine Empire, and + caused one of her grandsons to learn modern Greek, in view of possible + contingencies—ever thought seriously of claiming the imaginary + heritage; but the idea that the Tsars ought to reign in Tsargrad, and that + St. Sophia, polluted by Moslem abominations, should be restored to the + Orthodox Christians, struck deep root in the minds of the Russian people, + and is still by no means extinct. As soon as serious disturbances break + out in the East the peasantry begin to think that perhaps the time has + come for undertaking a crusade for the recovery of the Holy City on the + Bosphorus, and for the liberation of their brethren in the faith who groan + under Turkish bondage. + </p> + <p> + Essentially different from this religious sentiment, but often blended + with it, is a vague feeling of racial affinity, which has long existed + among the various Slav nationalities, and which was greatly developed + during last century by writers of the Panslavist school. When Germans and + Italians were striving after political independence and unity, it + naturally occurred to the Slavs that they might do likewise. The idea + became popular among the subject Slav nationalities of Austria and Turkey, + and it awoke a certain amount of enthusiasm in Moscow, where it was hoped + that "all the Slav streams would unite in the great Russian Sea." It + required no great political perspicacity to foresee that in any + confederation of Slav nationalities the hegemony must necessarily devolve + on Russia, the only Slav State which has succeeded in becoming a Great + Power. + </p> + <p> + Those two currents of national feeling ran parallel to, and intermingled + with, the policy of the Government. Desirous of becoming a great naval + Power, Russia has always striven to reach the sea-coast and obtain good + harbours. In the north and north-west she succeeded in a certain degree, + but neither the White Sea nor the Baltic satisfied her requirements, and + she naturally turned her eyes to the Mediterranean. With difficulty she + gained possession of the northern shores of the Black Sea, but her designs + were thereby only half realised, because the Turks held the only outlet to + the Mediterranean, and could effectually blockade, so far as the open sea + is concerned, all her Black Sea ports, without employing a single ship of + war. Thus the possession of the Straits, involving necessarily the + possession of Constantinople, became a cardinal point of Russia's foreign + policy. Any description of the various methods adopted by her at different + times for the attainment of this end does not enter into my present + programme, but I may say briefly that the action of the three factors + above mentioned—the religious feeling, the Panslavist sentiment, and + the political aims—has never been better exemplified than in the + last struggle with Turkey, culminating in the Treaty of San Stefano and + the Congress of Berlin. + </p> + <p> + For all classes in Russia the result of that struggle was a feeling of + profound disappointment. The peasantry bewailed the fact that the Crescent + on St. Sophia had not been replaced by the Cross; the Slavophil patriots + were indignant that the "little brothers" had shown themselves unworthy of + the generous efforts and sacrifices made on their behalf, and that a + portion of the future Slav confederation had passed under the domination + of Austria; and the Government recognised that the acquisition of the + Straits must be indefinitely postponed. Then history repeated itself. + After the Crimean War, in accordance with Prince Gortchakoff's famous + epigram, La Russie ne boude pas elle se recueille, the Government had for + some years abandoned an active policy in Europe, and devoted itself to the + work of internal reorganisation; whilst the military party had turned + their attention to making new acquisitions of territory and influence in + Asia. In like manner, after the Turkish campaign of 1877-78, Alexander + III., turning his back on the Slav brethren, inaugurated an era of peace + in Europe and of territorial expansion in the east. In this direction the + expansive force was not affected by religious feeling, or Panslavist + sentiment, and was controlled and guided by purely political + considerations. It is consequently much easier to determine in this field + of action what the political aims really are. + </p> + <p> + In Asia, as in Europe, the dominant factor in the policy of the Government + has been the desire to reach the sea-coast; and in both continents the + ports first acquired were in northern latitudes where the coasts are free + from ice during only a part of the year. In this respect, Nikolaefsk and + Vladivostok in the Far East correspond to Archangel and St. Petersburg in + Europe. Such ports could not fulfil all the requirements, and consequently + the expansive tendency turned southwards—in Europe towards the Black + Sea and the Mediterranean, and in Asia towards the Persian Gulf, the + Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Pechili. + </p> + <p> + In Persia the Russian Government pursues the policy of pacific + infiltration, and already the northern half of the Shah's dominions is + pretty well permeated with Russian influence, commercial and political. In + the southern half the infiltration is to some extent checked by physical + obstacles and British influence, but it is steadily advancing, and the + idea of obtaining a port on the Persian Gulf is coming within the range of + practical politics. + </p> + <p> + In Afghanistan also the pressure is felt, and here too the expansive + tendency meets with opposition from England. More than once the two great + Powers have come dangerously near to war—notably in 1885, at the + moment of the Penjdeh incident, when the British Parliament voted + 11,000,000 pounds for military preparations. Fortunately on that occasion + the problem was solved by diplomacy. The northern frontier of Afghanistan + was demarcated by a joint commission, and an agreement was come to by + which this line should form the boundary of the British and Russian + spheres of influence. For some years Russia scrupulously respected this + agreement, but during our South African difficulties she showed symptoms + of departing from it, and at one moment orders were issued from St. + Petersburg for a military demonstration on the Afghan frontier. Strange to + say, the military authorities, who are usually very bellicose, deprecated + such a movement, on the ground that a military demonstration in a country + like Afghanistan might easily develop into a serious campaign, and that a + serious campaign ought not to be undertaken in that region until after the + completion of the strategical railways from Orenburg to Tashkent. + </p> + <p> + As this important line has now been completed, and other strategic lines + are in contemplation, the question arises whether Russia meditates an + attack on India. It is a question which is not easily answered. No doubt + there are many Russians who think it would be a grand thing to annex our + Indian Empire, with its teeming millions and its imaginary fabulous + treasures, and not a few young officers imagine that it would be an easy + task. Further, it is certain that the problem of an invasion has been + studied by the Headquarters Staff in St. Petersburg, just as the problem + of an invasion of England has been studied by the Headquarters Staff in + Berlin. It may be pretty safely asserted, however, that the idea of a + conquest of India has never been seriously entertained in the Russian + official world. What has been seriously entertained, not only in the + official world, but by the Government itself, is the idea—strongly + recommended by the late General Skobelef—that Russia should, as + quickly as possible, get within striking distance of our Indian + possessions, so that she may always be able to bring strong diplomatic + pressure on the British Government, and in the event of a conflict + immobilise a large part of the British army. + </p> + <p> + The expansive tendency in the direction of the Persian Gulf and the Indian + Ocean was considerably weakened by the completion of the Trans-Siberian + Railway and the rapid development of an aggressive policy in the Far east. + Never, perhaps, has the construction of a single line produced such deep + and lasting changes in the sphere of Weltpolitik. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the Trans-Siberian was being rapidly constructed a magnificent + prospect opened up to the gaze of imaginative politicians in St. + Petersburg. The foreground was Manchuria a region of 364,000 square miles, + endowed by nature with enormous mineral resources, and presenting a + splendid field for agricultural colonisation and commercial enterprise. + Beyond was seen Korea, geographically an appendix of Manchuria, possessing + splendid harbours, and occupied by an effete, unwarlike population, wholly + incapable of resisting a European Power. That was quite enough to inflame + the imagination of patriotic Russians; but there was something more, dimly + perceived in the background. Once in possession of Manchuria, supplied + with a network of railways, Russia would dominate Peking and the whole of + Northern China, and she would thus be able to play a decisive part in the + approaching struggle of the European Powers for the Far-Eastern Sick Man's + inheritance. + </p> + <p> + Of course there were obstacles in the way of realising this grandiose + scheme, and there were some cool heads in St. Petersburg who were not slow + to point them out. In the first place the undertaking must be extremely + costly, and the economic condition of Russia proper was not such as to + justify the expenditure of an enormous capital which must be for many + years unproductive. Any superfluous capital which the country might + possess was much more urgently required for purposes of internal + development, and the impoverished agricultural population ought not to be + drained of their last meagre reserves for the sake of gigantic political + schemes which did not directly contribute to their material welfare. To + this the enthusiastic advocates of the forward policy replied that the + national finances had never been in such a prosperous condition, that the + revenue was increasing by leaps and bounds, that the money invested in the + proposed enterprise would soon be repaid with interest; and that if Russia + did not at once seize the opportunity she would find herself forestalled + by energetic rivals. There was still, however, one formidable objection. + Such an enormous increase of Russia's power in the Far East would + inevitably arouse the jealousy and opposition of other Powers, especially + of Japan, for whom the future of Korea and Manchuria was a question of + life and death. Here again these advocates of the forward policy had their + answer ready. They declared that the danger was more apparent than real. + In Far-Eastern diplomacy the European Powers could not compete with + Russia, and they might easily be bought off by giving them a very modest + share of the spoil; as for Japan, she was not formidable, for she was just + emerging from Oriental barbarism, and all her boasted progress was nothing + more than a thin veneer of European civilisation. As the Moscow patriots + on the eve of the Crimean War said contemptuously of the Allies, "We have + only to throw our hats at them," so now the believers in Russia's historic + mission in the Far East spoke of their future opponents as "monkeys" and + "parrots." + </p> + <p> + The war between China and Japan in 1894-5, terminating in the Treaty of + Shimonoseki, which ceded to Japan the Liaotung Peninsula, showed Russia + that if she was not to be forestalled she must be up and doing. She + accordingly formed a coalition with France and Germany, and compelled + Japan to withdraw from the mainland, on the pretext that the integrity of + China must be maintained. In this way China recovered, for a moment, a bit + of lost territory, and further benefits were conferred on her by a + guarantee for a foreign loan, and by the creation of the Russo-Chinese + Bank, which would assist her in her financial affairs. For these and other + favours she was expected to be grateful, and it was suggested to her that + her gratitude might take the form of facilitating the construction of the + Trans-Siberian Railway. If constructed wholly on Russian territory the + line would have to make an enormous bend to the northward, whereas if it + went straight from Lake Baikal to Vladivostok it would be very much + shorter, and would confer a very great benefit on the north-eastern + provinces of the Celestial Empire. This benefit, moreover, might be + greatly increased by making a branch line to Talienwan and Port Arthur, + which would some day be united with Peking. Gradually Li-Hung-Chang and + other influential Chinese officials were induced to sympathise with the + scheme, and a concession was granted for the direct line to Vladivostok + through Chinese territory. + </p> + <p> + The retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula had not been effected by Russia + alone. Germany and France had co-operated, and they also expected from + China a mark of gratitude in some tangible form. On this point the + statesmen of Berlin held very strong views, and they thought it advisable + to obtain a material guarantee for the fulfilment of their expectations by + seizing Kiaochau, on the ground that German missionaries had been murdered + by Chinese fanatics. + </p> + <p> + For Russia this was a most unwelcome incident. She had earmarked Kiaochau + for her own purposes, and had already made an agreement with the + authorities in Peking that the harbour might be used freely by her fleet. + And this was not the worst. The incident might inaugurate an era of + partition for which she was not yet prepared, and another port which she + had earmarked for her own use might be seized by a rival. Already English + ships of war were reported to be prowling about in the vicinity of the + Liaotung Peninsula. She hastened to demand, therefore, as a set-off for + the loss of Kiaochau, a lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan, and a railway + concession to unite these ports with the Trans-Siberian Railway. The + Chinese Government was too weak to think of refusing the demands, and the + process of gradually absorbing Manchuria began, in accordance with a plan + already roughly sketched out in St. Petersburg. + </p> + <p> + In the light of a few authentic documents and many subsequent events, the + outline of this plan can be traced with tolerable accuracy. In the region + through which the projected railways were to run there was a large + marauding population, and consequently the labourers and the works would + have to be protected; and as Chinese troops can never be thoroughly relied + on, the protecting force must be Russian. Under this rather transparent + disguise a small army of occupation could be gradually introduced, and in + establishing a modus vivendi between it and the Chinese civil and military + authorities a predominant influence in the local administration could be + established. At the same time, by energetic diplomatic action at Peking, + which would be brought within striking-distance by the railways, all rival + foreign influences might be excluded from the occupied provinces, and the + rest might be left to the action of "spontaneous infiltration." Thus, + while professing to uphold the principle of the territorial integrity of + the Celestial Empire, the Cabinet of St. Petersburg might practically + annex the whole of Manchuria and transform Port Arthur into a great naval + port and arsenal, a far more effectual "Dominator of the East" than + Vladivostok, which was intended, as its name implies, to fulfil that + function. From Manchuria the political influence and the spontaneous + infiltration would naturally extend to Korea, and on the deeply indented + coast of the Hermit Kingdom new ports and arsenals, far more spacious and + strategically more important than Port Arthur, might be constructed. + </p> + <p> + The grandiose scheme was carefully laid, and for a time it was favoured by + circumstances. In 1900 the Boxer troubles justified Russia in sending a + large force into Manchuria, and enabled her subsequently to play the part + of China's protector against the inordinate demands of the Western Powers + for compensation and guarantees. For a moment it seemed as if the slow + process of gradual infiltration might be replaced by a more expeditious + mode of annexation. As the dexterous diplomacy of Ignatief in 1858 had + induced the Son of Heaven to cede to Russia the rich Primorsk provinces + between the Amur and the sea, as compensation for Russian protection + against the English and French, who had burnt his Summer Palace, so his + successor might now perhaps be induced to cede Manchuria to the Tsar for + similar reasons. + </p> + <p> + No such cession actually took place, but the Russian diplomatists in + Peking could use the gratitude argument in support of their demands for an + extension of the rights and privileges of the "temporary" occupation; and + when China sought to resist the pressure by leaning on the rival Powers + she found them to be little better than broken reeds. France could not + openly oppose her ally, and Germany had reasons of her own for + conciliating the Tsar, whilst England and the United States, though + avowedly opposing the scheme as dangerous to their commercial interests, + were not prepared to go to war in defence of their policy. It seemed, + therefore, that by patience, tenacity and diplomatic dexterity Russia + might ultimately attain her ends; but a surprise was in store for her. + There was one Power which recognised that her own vital interests were at + stake, and which was ready to undertake a life-and-death struggle in + defence of them. + </p> + <p> + Though still smarting under the humiliation of her expulsion from the + Liaotung Peninsula in 1895, and watching with the keenest interest every + move in the political game, Japan had remained for some time in the + background, and had confined her efforts to resisting Russian influence in + Korea and supporting diplomatically the Powers who were upholding the + policy of the open door. Now, when it had become evident that the Western + Powers would not prevent the realisation of the Russian scheme, she + determined to intervene energetically, and to stake her national existence + on the result. Ever since 1895 she had been making military and naval + preparations for the day of the revanche, and now that day was at hand. + Against the danger of a coalition such as had checkmated her on the + previous occasion she was protected by the alliance which she had + concluded with England in 1902, and she felt confident that with Russia + alone she was quite capable of dealing single-handed. Her position is + briefly and graphically described in a despatch, telegraphed at that time + (28th July, 1903) by the Japanese Government to its representative at St. + Petersburg, instructing him to open negotiations: + </p> + <p> + "The recent conduct of Russia in making new demands at Peking and + tightening her hold upon Manchuria has led the Imperial Government to + believe that she must have abandoned her intention of retiring from that + province. At the same time, her increased activity upon the Korean + frontier is such as to raise doubts as to the limits of her ambition. The + unconditional and permanent occupation of Manchuria by Russia would create + a state of things prejudicial to the security and interests of Japan. The + principle of equal opportunity (the open door) would thereby be annulled, + and the territorial integrity of China impaired. There is, however, a + still more serious consideration for the Japanese Government. If Russia + were established on the flank of Korea she would constantly menace the + separate existence of that Empire, or at least exercise in it a + predominant influence; and as Japan considers Korea an important outpost + in her line of defence, she regards its independence as absolutely + essential to her own repose and safety. Moreover, the political as well as + commercial and industrial interests and influence which Japan possesses in + Korea are paramount over those of other Powers; she cannot, having regard + to her own security, consent to surrender them to, or share them with, + another Power." + </p> + <p> + In accordance with this view of the situation the Japanese Government + informed Count Lamsdorff that, as it desired to remove from the relations + of the two Empires every cause of future misunderstanding, it would be + glad to enter with the Imperial Russian Government upon an examination of + the condition of affairs in the Far East, with a view to defining the + respective special interests of the two countries in those regions. + </p> + <p> + Though Count Lamsdorff accepted the proposal with apparent cordiality and + professed to regard it as a means of preventing any outsider from sowing + the seeds of discord between the two countries, the idea of a general + discussion was not at all welcome. Careful definition of respective + interests was the last thing the Russian Government desired. Its policy + was to keep the whole situation in a haze until it had consolidated its + position in Manchuria and on the Korean frontier to such an extent that it + could dictate its own terms in any future arrangement. It could not, + however, consistently with its oft-repeated declarations of + disinterestedness and love of peace, decline to discuss the subject. It + consented, therefore, to an exchange of views, but in order to ensure that + the tightening of its hold on the territories in question should proceed + pari passu with the diplomatic action, it made an extraordinary departure + from ordinary procedure, entrusting the conduct of the affair, not to + Count Lamsdorff and the Foreign Office, but to Admiral Alexeyef, the newly + created Viceroy of the Far East, in whom was vested the control of all + civil, military, naval, and diplomatic affairs relating to that part of + the world. + </p> + <p> + From the commencement of the negotiations, which lasted from August 12th, + 1903, to February 6th, 1904, the irreconcilable differences of the two + rivals became apparent, and all through the correspondence, in which a few + apparent concessions were offered by Japan, neither Power retreated a step + from the positions originally taken up. What Japan suggested was, roughly + speaking, a mutual engagement to uphold the independence and integrity of + the Chinese and Korean empires, and at the same time a bilateral + arrangement by which the special interests of the two contracting parties + in Manchuria and in Korea should be formally recognised, and the means of + protecting them clearly defined. The scheme did not commend itself to the + Russians. They systematically ignored the interests of Japan in Manchuria, + and maintained that she had no right to interfere in any arrangements they + might think fit to make with the Chinese Government with regard to that + province. In their opinion, Japan ought to recognise formally that + Manchuria lay outside her sphere of interest, and the negotiations should + be confined to limiting her freedom of action in Korea. + </p> + <p> + With such a wide divergence in principle the two parties were not likely + to agree in matters of detail. Their conflicting aims came out most + clearly in the question of the open door. The Japanese insisted on + obtaining the privileges of the open door, including the right of + settlement in Manchuria, and Russia obstinately refused. Having marked out + Manchuria as a close reserve for her own colonisation, trade, and + industry, and knowing that she could not compete with the Japanese if they + were freely admitted, she could not adopt the principle of "equal + opportunity" which her rivals recommended. A fidus achates of Admiral + Alexeyef explained to me quite frankly, during the negotiations, why no + concessions could be made on that point. In the work of establishing law + and order in Manchuria, constructing roads, bridges, railways, and towns, + Russia had expended an enormous sum—estimated by Count Cassini at + 60,000,000 pounds—and until that capital was recovered, or until a + reasonable interest was derived from the investment, Russia could not + think of sharing with any one the fruits of the prosperity which she had + created. + </p> + <p> + We need not go further into the details of the negotiations. Japan soon + convinced herself that the onward march of the Colossus was not to be + stopped by paper barricades, and knowing well that her actual military and + naval superiority was being rapidly diminished by Russia's warlike + preparations,* she suddenly broke off diplomatic relations and commenced + hostilities. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to an estimate made by the Japanese authorities, + between April, 1903, and the outbreak of the war, Russia + increased her naval and military forces in the Far East by + nineteen war vessels, aggregating 82,415 tons, and 40,000 + soldiers. In addition to this, one battleship, three + cruisers, seven torpedo destroyers, and four torpedo boats, + aggregating about 37,040 tons, were on their way to the + East, and preparations had been made for increasing the land + forces by 200,000 men. For further details, see Asakawa, + "The Russo-Japanese Conflict" (London, 1904), pp. 352-54. +</pre> + <p> + Russia thus found herself engaged in a war of the first magnitude, of + which no one can predict the ultimate consequences, and the question + naturally arises as to why, with an Emperor who lately aspired to play in + politics the part of a great peacemaker, she provoked a conflict, for + which she was very imperfectly prepared—imposing on herself the + obligation of defending a naval fortress, hastily constructed on foreign + territory, and united with her base by a single line of railway 6,000 + miles long. The question is easily answered: she did not believe in the + possibility of war. The Emperor was firmly resolved that he would not + attack Japan, and no one would admit for a moment that Japan could have + the audacity to attack the great Russian Empire. In the late autumn of + 1903, it is true, a few well-informed officials in St. Petersburg, + influenced by the warnings of Baron Rosen, the Russian Minister in Tokio, + began to perceive that perhaps Japan would provoke a conflict, but they + were convinced that the military and naval preparations already made were + quite sufficient to repel the attack. One of these officials—probably + the best informed of all—said to me quite frankly: "If Japan had + attacked us in May or June, we should have been in a sorry plight, but now + [November, 1903] we are ready." + </p> + <p> + The whole past history of territoral expansion in Asia tended to confirm + the prevailing illusions. Russia had advanced steadily from the Ural and + the Caspian to the Hindu Kush and the Northern Pacific without once + encountering serious resistance. Not once had she been called on to make a + great national effort, and the armed resistance of the native races had + never inflicted on her anything worse than pin-pricks. From decrepit + China, which possessed no army in the European sense of the term, a more + energetic resistance was not to be expected. Had not Muravieff Amurski + with a few Cossacks quietly occupied her Amur territories without + provoking anything more dangerous than a diplomatic protest; and had not + Ignatief annexed her rich Primorsk provinces, including the site of + Vladivostok, by purely diplomatic means? Why should not Count Cassini, a + diplomatist of the same type as Ignatief, imitate his adroit predecessor, + and secure for Russia, if not the formal annexation, at least the + permanent occupation, of Manchuria? Remembering all this, we can perceive + that the great mistake of the Russian Government is not so very difficult + to explain. It certainly did not want war—far from it—but it + wanted to obtain Manchuria by a gradual, painless process of absorption, + and it did not perceive that this could not be attained without a + life-and-death struggle with a young, vigorous nationality, which has + contrived to combine the passions and virtues of a primitive race with the + organising powers and scientific appliances of the most advanced + civilisation. + </p> + <p> + Russian territorial expansion has thus been checked, for some years to + come, on the Pacific coast; but the expansive tendency will re-appear soon + in other regions, and it behooves us to be watchful, because, whatever + direction it may take, it is likely to affect our interests directly or + indirectly. Will it confine itself for some years to a process of + infiltration in Mongolia and Northern Thibet, the line of least + resistance? Or will it impinge on our Indian frontier, directed by those + who desire to avenge themselves on Japan's ally for the reverses sustained + in Manchuria? Or will it once more take the direction of the Bosphorous, + where a campaign might be expected to awaken religious and warlike + enthusiasm among the masses? To these questions I cannot give any answer, + because so much depends on the internal consequences of the present war, + and on accidental circumstances which no one can at present foresee. I + have always desired, and still desire, that we should cultivate friendly + relations with our great rival, and that we should learn to appreciate the + many good qualities of her people; but I have at the same time always + desired that we should keep a watchful eye on her irrepressible tendency + to expand, and that we should take timely precautions against any + unprovoked aggression, however justifiable it may seem to her from the + point of view of her own national interests. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0039" id="link2HCH0039"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIX + </h2> + <h3> + THE PRESENT SITUATION + </h3> + <p> + Reform or Revolution?—Reigns of Alexander II. and Nicholas II. + Compared and Contrasted—The Present Opposition—Various Groups—The + Constitutionalists—Zemski Sobors—The Young Tsar Dispels + Illusions—Liberal Frondeurs—Plehve's Repressive Policy—Discontent + Increased by the War—Relaxation and Wavering under Prince Mirski—Reform + Enthusiasm—The Constitutionalists Formulate their Demands—The + Social Democrats—Father Gapon's Demonstration—The + Socialist-Revolutionaries—The Agrarian Agitators—The + Subject-Nationalities—Numerical Strength of the Various Groups—All + United on One Point—Their Different Aims—Possible Solutions of + the Crisis—Difficulties of Introducing Constitutional Regime—A + Strong Man Wanted—Uncertainty of the Future. + </p> + <p> + Is history about to repeat itself, or are we on the eve of a cataclysm? Is + the reign of Nicholas II. to be, in its main lines, a repetition of the + reign of Alexander II., or is Russia about to enter on an entirely new + phase of her political development? + </p> + <p> + To this momentous question I do not profess to give a categorical answer. + If it be true, even in ordinary times, that "of all forms of human folly, + prediction is the most gratuitous," it is especially true at a moment like + the present, when we are constantly reminded of the French proverb that + there is nothing certain but the unforeseen. All I can hope to do is to + throw a little light on the elements of the problem, and allow the reader + to draw his own conclusions. + </p> + <p> + Between the present situation and the early part of Alexander II.'s reign + there is undoubtedly a certain analogy. In both cases we find in the + educated classes a passionate desire for political liberty, generated by + long years of a stern, autocratic regime, and stimulated by military + disasters for which autocracy is held responsible; and in both cases we + find the throne occupied by a Sovereign of less accentuated political + convictions and less energetic character than his immediate predecessor. + In the earlier case, the autocrat, showing more perspicacity and energy + than were expected of him, guides and controls the popular enthusiasm, and + postpones the threatened political crisis by effecting a series of far + reaching and beneficent reforms. In the present case . . . the description + of the result must be left to future historians. For the moment, all we + can say is that between the two situations there are as many points of + difference as of analogy. After the Crimean War the enthusiasm was of a + vague, eclectic kind, and consequently it could find satisfaction in + practical administrative reforms not affecting the essence of the + Autocratic Power, the main pivot round which the Empire has revolved for + centuries. Now, on the contrary, it is precisely on this pivot that the + reform enthusiasm is concentrated. Mere bureaucratic reforms can no longer + give satisfaction. All sections of the educated classes, with the + exception of a small group of Conservative doctrinaires, insist on + obtaining a controlling influence in the government of the country, and + demand that the Autocratic Power, if not abolished, shall be limited by + parliamentary institutions of a democratic type. + </p> + <p> + Another difference between the present and the past, is that those who now + clamour for radical changes are more numerous, more courageous, and better + organised than their predecessors, and they are consequently better able + to bring pressure to bear on the Government. Formerly the would-be + reformers were of two categories; on the one hand, the Constitutionalists, + who remained within the bounds of legality, and confined themselves to + inserting vague hints in loyal addresses to the Tsar and making mild + political demonstrations; and on the other hand, the so-called Nihilists, + who talked about organising society on Socialistic principles, and who + hoped to attain their object by means of secret associations. With both of + these groups, as soon as they became aggressive, the Government had no + difficulty in dealing effectually. The leading Constitutionalists were + simply reprimanded or ordered to remain for a time in their country + houses, while the more active revolutionaries were exiled, imprisoned, or + compelled to take refuge abroad. All this gave the police a good deal of + trouble, especially when the Nihilists took to Socialist propaganda among + the common people, and to acts of terrorism against the officials; but the + existence of the Autocratic Power was never seriously endangered. Nowadays + the Liberals have no fear of official reprimands, and openly disregard the + orders of the authorities about holding meetings and making speeches, + while a large section of the Socialists proclaim themselves a Social + Democratic party, enrol large numbers of working men, organise formidable + strikes, and make monster demonstrations leading to bloodshed. + </p> + <p> + Let us now examine this new Opposition a little more closely. We can + perceive at a glance that it is composed of two sections, differing widely + from each other in character and aims. On the one hand, there are the + Liberals, who desire merely political reforms of a more or less democratic + type; on the other, there are the Socialists, who aim at transforming + thoroughly the existing economic organisation of Society, and who, if they + desire parliamentary institutions at all, desire them simply as a stepping + stone to the realisation of the Socialist ideal. Behind the Socialists, + and to some extent mingling with them, stand a number of men belonging to + the various subject-nationalities, who have placed themselves under the + Socialist banner, but who hold, more or less concealed, their little + national flags, ready to be unfurled at the proper moment. + </p> + <p> + Of these three sections of the Opposition, the most numerous and the best + prepared to undertake the functions and responsibilities of government is + that of the Liberals. The movement which they represent began immediately + after the Crimean War, when the upper ranks of society, smarting under + defeat and looking about for the cause of the military disasters, came to + the conclusion that Autocracy had been put to a crucial test, and found + wanting. The outburst of patriotic indignation at that time and the eager + desire for a more liberal regime have been described in previous chapters. + For a moment the more sanguine critics of the Government imagined that the + Autocratic Power, persuaded of its own inefficiency, would gladly accept + the assistance of the educated classes, and would spontaneously transform + itself into a Constitutional Monarchy. In reality Alexander II. had no + such intentions. He was resolved to purify the administration and to + reform as far as possible all existing abuses, and he seemed ready at + first to listen to the advice and accept the co-operation of his faithful + subjects; but he had not the slightest intention of limiting his supreme + authority, which he regarded as essential to the existence of the Empire. + As soon as the landed proprietors began to complain that the great + question of serf emancipation was being taken out of their hands by the + bureaucracy, he reminded them that "in Russia laws are made by the + Autocratic Power," and when the more courageous Marshals of Noblesse + ventured to protest against the unceremonious manner in which the nobles + were being treated by the tchinovniks, some of them were officially + reprimanded and others were deposed. + </p> + <p> + The indignation produced by this procedure, in which the Tsar identified + himself with the bureaucracy, was momentarily appeased by the decision of + the Government to entrust to the landed proprietors the carrying out of + the Emancipation law, and by the confident hope that political rights + would be granted them as compensation for the material sacrifices they had + made for the good of the State; but when they found that this confident + hope was an illusion, the indignation and discontent reappeared. + </p> + <p> + There was still, however, a ray of hope. Though the Autocratic Power was + evidently determined not to transform itself at once into a limited + Constitutional Monarchy, it might make concessions in the sphere of local + self-government. At that moment it was creating the Zemstvo, and the + Constitutionalists hoped that these new institutions, though restricted + legally to the sphere of purely economic wants, might gradually acquire a + considerable political influence. Learned Germans had proved that in + England, "the mother of modern Constitutionalism," it was on local + self-government that the political liberties were founded, and the + Slavophils now suggested that by means of an ancient institution called + the Zemski Sobor, the Zemstvo might gradually and naturally acquire a + political character in accordance with Russian historic development. As + this idea has often been referred to in recent discussions, I may explain + briefly what the ancient institution in question was. + </p> + <p> + In the Tsardom of Muscovy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries + representative assemblies were occasionally called together to deal with + matters of exceptional importance, such as the election of a Tsar when the + throne became vacant, a declaration of war, the conclusion of a peace, or + the preparation of a new code of laws. Some fifteen assemblies of the kind + were convoked in the space of about a century (1550-1653). They were + composed largely of officials named by the Government, but they contained + also some representatives of the unofficial classes. Their procedure was + peculiar. When a speech from the throne had been read by the Tsar or his + representative, explaining the question to be decided, the assembly + transformed itself into a large number of commissions, and each commission + had to give in writing its opinion regarding the questions submitted to + it. The opinions thus elicited were codified by the officials and + submitted to the Tsar, and he was free to adopt or reject them, as he + thought fit. We may say, therefore, that the Zemski Sobor was merely + consultative and had no legislative power; but we must add that it was + allowed a certain initiative, because it was permitted to submit to the + Tsar humble petitions regarding anything which it considered worthy of + attention. + </p> + <p> + Alexander II. might have adopted this Slavophil idea and used the Zemski + Sobor as a means of transition from pure autocracy to a more modern system + of government, but he had no sooner created the Zemstvo than he thought it + necessary, as we have seen, to clip its wings, and dispel its political + ambition. By this repressive policy the frondeur spirit of the Noblesse + was revived, and it has continued to exist down to the present time. On + each occasion when I revisited Russia and had an opportunity of feeling + the pulse of public opinion, between 1876 and 1903, I noticed that the + dissatisfaction with the traditional methods of government, and the desire + of the educated classes to obtain a share of the political power, + notwithstanding short periods of apparent apathy, were steadily spreading + in area and increasing in intensity, and I often heard predictions that a + disastrous foreign war like the Crimean campaign would probably bring + about the desired changes. Of those who made such predictions not a few + showed clearly that, though patriotic enough in a certain sense, they + would not regret any military disaster which would have the effect they + anticipated. Progress in the direction of political emancipation, + accompanied by radical improvements in the administration, was evidently + regarded as much more important and desirable than military prestige or + extension of territory. + </p> + <p> + During the first part of the Turkish campaign of 1877-78, when the Russian + armies were repulsed in Bulgaria and Asia Minor, the hostility to + autocracy was very strong, and the famous acquittal of Vera Zasulitch, who + had attempted to assassinate General Trepof, caused widespread + satisfaction among people who were not themselves revolutionaries and who + did not approve of such violent methods of political struggle. Towards the + end of the war, when the tide of fortune had turned both in Europe and in + Asia, and the Russian army was encamped under the walls of Constantinople, + within sight of St. Sophia, the Chauvinist feelings gained the upper hand, + and they were greatly intensified by the Congress of Berlin, which + deprived Russia of some fruits of her victories. + </p> + <p> + This change in public feeling and the horror excited by the assassination + of Alexander II. prepared the way for Alexander III.'s reign (1881-94), + which was a period of political stagnation. He was a man of strong + character, and a vigorous ruler who believed in Autocracy as he did in the + dogmas of his Church; and very soon after his accession he gave it clearly + to be understood that he would permit no limitations of the Autocratic + Power. The men with Liberal aspirations knew that nothing would make him + change his mind on that subject, and that any Liberal demonstrations would + merely confirm him in his reactionary tendencies. They accordingly + remained quiet and prudently waited for better times. + </p> + <p> + The better times were supposed to have come when Nicholas II. ascended the + throne in November, 1894, because it was generally assumed that the young + Tsar, who was known to be humane and well-intentioned, would inaugurate a + more liberal policy. Before he had been three months on the throne he + summarily destroyed these illusions. On 17th (29th) January, 1895, when + receiving deputies from the Noblesse, the Zemstvo, and the municipalities, + who had come to St. Petersburg to congratulate him on his marriage, he + declared his confidence in the sincerity of the loyal feelings which the + delegates expressed; and then, to the astonishment of all present, he + added: "It is known to me that recently, in some Zemstvo assemblies, were + heard the voices of people who had let themselves be carried away by + absurd dreams of the Zemstvo representatives taking part in the affairs of + internal administration; let them know that I, devoting all my efforts to + the prosperity of the nation, will preserve the principles of autocracy as + firmly and unswervingly as my late father of imperishable memory." + </p> + <p> + These words, pronounced by the young ruler at the commencement of his + reign, produced profound disappointment and dissatisfaction in all + sections of the educated classes, and from that moment the frondeur spirit + began to show itself more openly than at any previous period. In the case + of some people of good social position it took the unusual form of + speaking disrespectfully of his Majesty. Others supposed that the Emperor + had simply repeated words prepared for him by the Minister of the + Interior, and this idea spread rapidly, till hostility to the bureaucracy + became universal. + </p> + <p> + This feeling reached its climax when the Ministry of the Interior was + confided to M. Plehve. His immediate predecessors, though sincere + believers in autocracy and very hostile to Liberalism of all kinds, + considered that the Liberal ideas might be rendered harmless by firm + passive resistance and mild reactionary measures. He, on the contrary, + took a more alarmist view of the situation. His appointment coincided with + the revival of terrorism, and he believed that autocracy was in danger. To + save it, the only means was, in his opinion, a vigorous, repressive police + administration, and as he was a man of strong convictions and exceptional + energy, he screwed up his system of police supervision to the + sticking-point and applied it to the Liberals as well as to the + terrorists. In the year 1903, if we may credit information which comes + from an apparently trustworthy source, no less than 1,988 political + affairs were initiated by the police, and 4,867 persons were condemned + inquisitorially to various punishments without any regular trial. + </p> + <p> + Whilst this unpopular rigorism was in full force the war unexpectedly + broke out, and added greatly to the existing discontent. + </p> + <p> + Very few people in Russia had been following closely the recent + developments of the Far Eastern Question, and still fewer understood their + importance. There seemed to be nothing abnormal in what was taking place. + Russia was expanding, and would continue to expand indefinitely, in that + direction, without any strenuous effort on her part. Of course the English + would try to arrest her progress as usual by diplomatic notes, but their + efforts would be as futile as they had been on all previous occasions. + They might incite the Japanese to active resistance, but Japan would not + commit the insane folly of challenging her giant rival to mortal combat. + The whole question could be settled in accordance with Russian interests, + as so many similar questions had been settled in the past, by a little + skilful diplomacy; and Manchuria could be absorbed, as the contiguous + Chinese provinces had been forty years ago, without the necessity of going + to war. + </p> + <p> + When these comforting illusions were suddenly destroyed by the rupture of + diplomatic relations and the naval attack on Port Arthur, there was an + outburst of indignant astonishment. At first the indignation was directed + against Japan and England, but it soon turned against the home Government, + which had made no adequate preparations for the struggle, and it was + intensified by current rumours that the crisis had been wantonly provoked + by certain influential personages for purely personal reasons. + </p> + <p> + How far the accounts of the disorders in the military organisation and the + rumours about pilfering in high quarters were true, we need not inquire. + True or false, they helped greatly to make the war unpopular, and to + stimulate the desire for political changes. Under a more liberal and + enlightened regime such things were supposed to be impossible, and, as at + the time of the Crimean War, public opinion decided that autocracy was + being tried, and found wanting. + </p> + <p> + So long as the stern, uncompromising Plehve was at the Ministry of the + Interior, enjoying the Emperor's confidence and directing the police + administration, public opinion was prudent and reserved in its utterances, + but when he was assassinated by a terrorist (July 28th, 1904), and was + succeeded by Prince Sviatopolk Mirski, a humane man of Liberal views, the + Constitutionalists thought that the time had come for making known their + grievances and demands, and for bringing pressure to bear on the Emperor. + First came forward the leading members of the Zemstvos. After some + preliminary consultation they assembled in St. Petersburg, with the + consent of the authorities, in the hope that they would be allowed to + discuss publicly the political wants of the country, and prepare the draft + of a Constitution. Their wishes were only partially acceded to. They were + informed semi-officially that their meetings must be private, but that + they might send their resolutions to the Minister of the Interior for + transmission to his Majesty. A memorandum was accordingly drawn up and + signed on November 21st by 102 out of the 104 representatives present. + </p> + <p> + This hesitating attitude on the part of the Government encouraged other + sections of the educated classes to give expression to their long pent-up + political aspirations. On the heels of the Zemstvo delegates appeared the + barristers, who discussed the existing evils from the juridical point of + view, and prescribed what they considered the necessary remedies. Then + came municipalities of the large towns, corporations of various kinds, + academic leagues, medical faculties, learned societies, and miscellaneous + gatherings, all demanding reforms. Great banquets were organised, and very + strong speeches, which would have led in Plehve's time to the immediate + arrest of the orators, were delivered and published without provoking + police intervention. + </p> + <p> + In the memorandum presented to the Minister of the Interior by the Zemstvo + Congress, and in the resolutions passed by the other corporate bodies, we + see reflected the grievances and aspirations of the great majority of the + educated classes. + </p> + <p> + The theory propounded in these documents is that a lawless, arbitrary + bureaucracy, which seeks to exclude the people from all participation in + the management of public affairs, has come between the nation and the + Supreme Power, and that it is necessary to eliminate at once this baneful + intermediary and inaugurate the so-called "reign of law." For this purpose + the petitioners and orators demanded: + </p> + <p> + (1) Inviolability of person and domicile, so that no one should be + troubled by the police without a warrant from an independent magistrate, + and no one punished without a regular trial; + </p> + <p> + (2) Freedom of conscience, of speech, and of the Press, together with the + right of holding public meetings and forming associations; + </p> + <p> + (3) Greater freedom and increased activity of the local self-government, + rural and municipal; + </p> + <p> + (4) An assembly of freely elected representatives, who should participate + in the legislative activity and control the administration in all its + branches; + </p> + <p> + (5) The immediate convocation of a constituent assembly, which should + frame a Constitution on these lines. + </p> + <p> + Of these requirements the last two are considered by far the most + important. The truth is that the educated classes have come to be + possessed of an ardent desire for genuine parliamentary institutions on a + broad, democratic basis, and neither improvements in the bureaucratic + organisation, nor even a Zemski Sobor in the sense of a Consultative + Assembly, would satisfy them. They imagine that with a full-fledged + constitution they would be guaranteed, not only against administrative + oppression, but even against military reverses such as they have recently + experienced in the Far East—an opinion in which those who know by + experience how military unreadiness and inefficiency can be combined with + parliamentary institutions will hardly feel inclined to concur. + </p> + <p> + It may surprise English readers to learn that the corruption and venality + of the civil and military administration, of which we have recently heard + so much, are nowhere mentioned in the complaints and remonstrances; but + the fact is easily accounted for. Though corrupt practices undoubtedly + exist in some branches of the public service, they are not so universal as + is commonly supposed in Western Europe; and the Russian reformers + evidently consider that the purifying of the administration is less urgent + than the acquisition of political liberties, or that under an enlightened + democratic regime the existing abuses would spontaneously disappear. + </p> + <p> + The demands put forward in St. Petersburg did not meet with universal + approval in Moscow. There they seemed excessive and un-Russian, and an + attempt was made to form a more moderate party. In the ancient Capital of + the Tsars even among the Liberals there are not a few who have a + sentimental tenderness for the Autocratic Power, and they argue that + parliamentary government would be very dangerous in a country which is + still far from being homogeneous or compact. To maintain the integrity of + the Empire, and to hold the balance equally between the various races and + social classes of which the population is composed, it is necessary, they + think, to have some permanent authority above the sphere of party spirit + and electioneering strife. While admitting that the Government in its + present bureaucratic form is unsatisfactory and stands in need of being + enlightened by the unofficial classes, they think that a Consultative + Assembly on the model of the old Zemski Sobors would be infinitely better + suited to Russian wants than a Parliament such as that which sits at + Westminster. + </p> + <p> + For a whole month the Government took little notice of the unprecedented + excitement and demonstrations. It was not till December 25th that a reply + was given to the public demands. On that day the Emperor signed an ukaz in + which he enumerated the reforms which he considered most urgent, and + instructed the Committee of Ministers to prepare the requisite + legislation. The list of reforms coincided to a certain extent with the + demands formulated by the Zemstvos, but the document as a whole produced + profound disappointment, because it contained no mention of a National + Assembly. To those who could read between the lines the attitude of the + Emperor seemed perfectly clear. He was evidently desirous of introducing + very considerable reforms, but he was resolved that they must be effected + by the unimpaired Autocratic Power in the old bureaucratic fashion, + without any participation of the unofficial world. + </p> + <p> + To obviate any misconception on this point, the Government published, + simultaneously with the ukaz, an official communication in which it + condemned the agitation and excitement, and warned the Zemstvos, + municipalities, and other corporate bodies that in discussing political + questions they were overstepping the limits of their legally-defined + functions and exposing themselves to the rigours of the law. + </p> + <p> + As might have been foreseen, the ukaz and the circular had not at all the + desired effect of "introducing the necessary tranquillity into public + life, which has lately been diverted from its normal course." On the + contrary, they increased the excitement, and evoked a new series of public + demonstrations. On December 27th, the very day on which the two official + documents were published—the Provincial Zemstvo of Moscow, openly + disregarding the ministerial warnings, expressed the conviction that the + day was near when the bureaucratic regime, which had so long estranged the + Supreme Power from the people, would be changed, and when freely-elected + representatives of the people would take part in legislation. The same + evening, at St. Petersburg, a great Liberal banquet was held, at which a + resolution was voted condemning the war, and declaring that Russia could + be extricated from her difficulties only by the representatives of the + nation, freely elected by secret ballot. As an encouragement to the organs + of local administration to persevere in their disregard of ministerial + instructions, the St. Petersburg Medical Society, after adopting the + programme of the Zemstvo Congress, sent telegrams of congratulation to the + Mayor of Moscow and the President of the Tchernigof Zemstvo bureau, both + of whom had incurred the displeasure of the Government. A similar telegram + was sent by a Congress of 496 engineers to the Moscow Town Council, in + which the burning political questions had been freely discussed. In other + large towns, when the mayor prevented such discussions, a considerable + number of the town councillors resigned. + </p> + <p> + From the Zemstvos and municipalities the spirit of opposition spread to + the provincial assemblies of the Noblesse. The nobles of the province of + St. Petersburg, for example, voted by a large majority an address to the + Tsar recommending the convocation of a freely-elected National Assembly; + and in Moscow, usually regarded as the fortress of Conservatism, eighty + members of the Assembly entered a formal protest against a patriotic + Conservative address which had been voted two days before. Even the fair + sex considered it necessary to support the opposition movement. The + matrons of Moscow, in a humble petition to the Empress, declared that they + could not continue to bring up their children properly in the existing + state of unconstitutional lawlessness, and their view was endorsed in + several provincial towns by the schoolboys, who marched through the + streets in procession, and refused to learn their lessons until popular + liberties had been granted! + </p> + <p> + Again, for more than a month the Government remained silent on the + fundamental questions which were exercising the public mind. At last, on + the morning of March 3d, appeared an Imperial manifesto of a very + unexpected kind. In it the Emperor deplored the outbreak of internal + disturbances at a moment when the glorious sons of Russia were fighting + with self-sacrificing bravery and offering their lives for the Faith, the + Tsar, and the Fatherland; but he drew consolation and hope from + remembering that, with the help of the prayers of the Holy Orthodox + Church, under the banner of the Tsar's autocratic might, Russia had + frequently passed through great wars and internal troubles, and had always + issued from them with fresh strength. He appealed, therefore, to all + right-minded subjects, to whatever class they might belong, to join him in + the great and sacred task of overcoming the stubborn foreign foe, and + eradicating revolt at home. As for the manner in which he hoped this might + be accomplished, he gave a pretty clear indication, at the end of the + document, by praying to God, not only for the welfare of his subjects, but + also for "the consolidation of autocracy." + </p> + <p> + This extraordinary pronouncement, couched in semi-ecclesiastical language, + produced in the Liberal world feelings of surprise, disappointment, and + dismay. No one was more astonished and dismayed than the Ministers, who + had known nothing of the manifesto until they saw it in the official + Gazette. In the course of the forenoon they paid their usual weekly visit + to Tsarskoe Selo, and respectfully submitted to the Emperor that such a + document must have a deplorable effect on public opinion. In consequence + of their representations his Majesty consented to supplement the manifesto + by a rescript to the Minister of the Interior, in which he explained that + in carrying out his intentions for the welfare of his people the + Government was to have the co-operation of "the experienced elements of + the community." Then followed the memorable words: "I am resolved + henceforth, with the help of God, to convene the most worthy men, + possessing the confidence of the people and elected by them, in order that + they may participate in the preparation and consideration of legislative + measures." For the carrying out of this resolution a commission, or + "special conference," was to be at once convened, under the presidency of + M. Bulyghin, the Minister of the Interior. + </p> + <p> + The rescript softened the impression produced by the manifesto, but it did + not give general satisfaction, because it contained significant + indications that the Emperor, while promising to create an assembly of + some kind, was still determined to maintain the Autocratic Power. So at + least the public interpreted a vague phase about the difficulty of + introducing reforms "while preserving absolutely the immutability of the + fundamental laws of the Empire." And this impression seemed to be + confirmed by the fact that the task of preparing the future representative + institutions was confided, not to a constituent assembly, but to a small + commission composed chiefly or entirely of officials. + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances the Liberals determined to continue the agitation. + The Bulyghin Commission was accordingly inundated with petitions and + addresses explaining the wants of the nation in general, and of various + sections of it in particular; and when the Minister declined to receive + deputations and discuss with them the aforesaid wants, the reform question + was taken up by a new series of congresses, composed of doctors, lawyers, + professors, journalists, etc. Even the higher ecclesiastical dignitaries + woke up for a moment from their accustomed lethargy, remembered how they + had lived for so many years under the rod of M. Pobedonostsef, recognised + as uncanonical such subordination to a layman, and petitioned for the + resurrection of the Patriarchate, which had been abolished by Peter the + Great. + </p> + <p> + On May 9th a new Zemstvo Congress was held in Moscow, and it at once + showed that since their November session in St. Petersburg the delegates + had made a decided movement to the Left. Those of them who had then led + the movement were now regarded as too Conservative. The idea of a Zemski + Sobor was discarded as insufficient for the necessities of the situation, + and strong speeches were made in support of a much more democratic + constitution. + </p> + <p> + It was thus becoming clearer every day that between the Liberals and the + Government there was an essential difference which could not be removed by + ordinary concessions. The Emperor proved that he was in favour of reform + by granting a very large measure of religious toleration, by removing some + of the disabilities imposed on the Poles, and allowing the Polish language + to be used in schools, and by confirming the proposals of the Committee of + Ministers to place the Press censure on a legal basis. But these + concessions to public opinion did not gain for him the sympathy and + support of his Liberal subjects. What they insisted on was a considerable + limitation of the Autocratic Power; and on that point the Emperor has + hitherto shown himself inexorable. His firmness proceeds not from any + wayward desire to be able to do as he pleases, but from a hereditary + respect for a principle. From his boyhood he has been taught that Russia + owes her greatness and her security to her autocratic form of government, + and that it is the sacred duty of the Tsar to hand down intact to his + successors the power which he holds in trust for them. + </p> + <p> + While the Liberals were thus striving to attain their object without + popular disorders, and without any very serious infraction of the law, + Revolutionaries were likewise busy, working on different but parallel + lines. + </p> + <p> + In the chapter on the present phase of the revolutionary movement I have + sketched briefly the origin and character of the two main Socialist + groups, and I have now merely to convey a general idea of their attitude + during recent events. And first, of the Social Democrats. + </p> + <p> + At the end of 1894 the Social Democrats were in what may be called their + normal condition—that is to say, they were occupied in organising + and developing the Labour Movement. The removal of Plehve, who had greatly + hampered them by his energetic police administration, enabled them to work + more freely, and they looked with a friendly eye on the efforts of the + Liberal Zemstvo-ists; but they took no part in the agitation, because the + Zemstvo world lay outside their sphere of action. In the labour world, to + which they confined their attention, they must have foreseen that a crisis + would sooner or later be produced by the war, and that they would then + have an excellent opportunity of preaching their doctrine that for all the + sufferings of the working classes the Government is responsible. What they + did not foresee was that serious labour troubles were so near at hand, and + that the conflict with the authorities would be accelerated by Father + Gapon. Accustomed to regard him as a persistent opponent, they did not + expect him to become suddenly an energetic, self-willed ally. Hence they + were taken unawares, and at first the direction of the movement was by no + means entirely in their hands. Very soon, however, they grasped the + situation, and utilised it for their own ends. It was in great measure due + to their secret organisation and activity that the strike in the Putilof + Ironworks, which might easily have been terminated amicably, spread + rapidly not only to the other works and factories in St. Petersburg, but + also to those of Moscow, Riga, Warsaw, Lodz, and other industrial centres. + Though they did not approve of Father Gapon's idea of presenting a + petition to the Tsar, the loss of life which his demonstration occasioned + was very useful to them in their efforts to propagate the belief that the + Autocratic Power is the ally of the capitalists and hostile to the claims + and aspirations of the working classes. + </p> + <p> + The other great Socialist group contributed much more largely towards + bringing about the present state of things. It was their Militant + Organisation that assassinated Plehve, and thereby roused the Liberals to + action. To them, likewise, is due the subsequent assassination of the + Grand Duke Serge, and it is an open secret that they are preparing other + acts of terrorism of a similar kind. At the same time they have been very + active in creating provincial revolutionary committees, in printing and + distributing revolutionary literature, and, above all, in organising + agrarian disturbances, which they intend to make a very important factor + in the development of events. Indeed, it is chiefly by agrarian + disturbances that they hope to overthrow the Autocratic Power and bring + about the great economic and social revolution to which the political + revolution would be merely the prologue. + </p> + <p> + Therein lies a serious danger. + </p> + <p> + After the failure of the propaganda and the insurrectionary agitation in + the seventies, it became customary in revolutionary circles to regard the + muzhik as impervious to Socialist ideas and insurrectionary excitement, + but the hope of eventually employing him in the cause never quite died + out, and in recent times, when his economic condition in many districts + has become critical, attempts have occasionally been made to embarrass the + Government by agrarian disturbances. The method usually employed is to + disseminate among the peasantry by oral propaganda, by printed or + hectographed leaflets, and by forged Imperial manifestoes, the belief that + the Tsar has ordered the land of the proprietors to be given to the rural + Communes, and that his benevolent wishes are being frustrated by the + land-owners and the officials. The forged manifesto is sometimes written + in letters of gold as a proof of its being genuine, and in one case which + I heard of in the province of Poltava, the revolutionary agent, wearing + the uniform of an aide-de-camp of the Emperor, induced the village priest + to read the document in the parish church. + </p> + <p> + The danger lies in the fact that, quite independent of revolutionary + activity, there has always been, since the time of the Emancipation, a + widespread belief among the peasantry that they would sooner or later + receive the whole of the land. Successive Tsars have tried personally to + destroy this illusion, but their efforts have not been successful. + Alexander II., when passing through a province where the idea was very + prevalent, caused a number of village elders to be brought before him, and + told them in a threatening tone that they must remain satisfied with their + allotments and pay their taxes regularly; but the wily peasants could not + be convinced that the "General" who had talked to them in this sense was + really the Tsar. Alexander III. made a similar attempt at the time of his + accession. To the Volost elders collected together from all parts of the + Empire, he said: "Do not believe the foolish rumours and absurd reports + about a redistribution of the land, and addition to your allotments, and + such like things. These reports are disseminated by your enemies. Every + kind of property, your own included, must be inviolable." Recalling these + words, Nicholas II. confirmed them at his accession, and warned the + peasants not to be led astray by evil-disposed persons. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these repeated warnings, the peasants still cling to the + idea that all the land belongs to them; and the Socialist-Revolutionaries + now announce publicly that they intend to use this belief for the purpose + of carrying out their revolutionary designs. In a pamphlet entitled + "Concerning Liberty and the Means of Obtaining it," they explain their + plan of campaign. Under the guidance of the revolutionary agents the + peasants of each district all over the Empire are to make it impossible + for the proprietors to work their estates, and then, after driving away + the local authorities and rural police, they are to take possession of the + estates for their own use. The Government, in its vain attempts to + dislodge them, will have to employ all the troops at its disposal, and + this will give the working classes of the towns, led by the + revolutionists, an opportunity of destroying the most essential parts of + the administrative mechanism. Thus a great social revolution can be + successfully accomplished, and any Zemski Sobor or Parliament which may be + convoked will merely have to give a legislative sanction to accomplished + facts. + </p> + <p> + These three groups—the Liberals, the Social Democrats, and the + Socialist Revolutionaries—constitute what may be called the purely + Russian Opposition. They found their claims and justify their action on + utilitarian and philosophic grounds, and demand liberty (in various + senses) for themselves and others, independently of race and creed. This + distinguishes them from the fourth group, who claim to represent the + subject-nationalities, and who mingle nationalist feelings and aspirations + with enthusiasm for liberty and justice in the abstract. + </p> + <p> + The policy of Russifying these subject-nationalities, which was + inaugurated by Alexander III. and maintained by his successor, has failed + in its object. It has increased the use of the Russian language in + official procedure, modified the system of instruction in the schools and + universities, and brought, nominally, a few schismatic and heretical sheep + into the Eastern Orthodox fold, but it has entirely failed to inspire the + subject-populations with Russian feeling and national patriotism; on the + contrary, it has aroused in them a bitter hostility to Russian + nationality, and to the Central Government. In such of them as have + retained their old aspirations of political independence—notably the + Poles—the semi-latent disaffection has been stimulated; and in those + of them which, like the Finlanders and the Armenians, desire merely to + preserve the limited autonomy they formerly enjoyed, a sentiment of + disaffection has been created. All of them know very well that in an armed + struggle with the dominant Russian nationality they would speedily be + crushed, as the Poles were in 1863. Their disaffection shows itself, + therefore, merely in resistance to the obligatory military service, and in + an undisguised or thinly veiled attitude of systematic hostility, which + causes the Government some anxiety and prevents it from sending to the Far + East a large number of troops which would otherwise be available. They + hail, however, with delight the Liberal and revolutionary movements in the + hope that the Russians themselves may undermine, and possibly overthrow, + the tyrannical Autocratic Power. Towards this end they would gladly + co-operate, and they are endeavouring, therefore, to get into touch with + each other; but they have so little in common, and so many mutually + antagonistic interests, that they are not likely to succeed in forming a + solid coalition. + </p> + <p> + While sympathising with every form of opposition to the Government, the + men of the subject-nationalities reserve their special affection for the + Socialists, because these not only proclaim, like the Liberals, the + principles of extensive local self-government and universal equality + before the law, but they also speak of replacing the existing system of + coercive centralisation by a voluntary confederation of heterogeneous + units. This explains why so many Poles, Armenians and Georgians are to be + found in the ranks of the Social Democrats and the + Socialist-Revolutionaries. + </p> + <p> + Of the recruits from oppressed nationalities the great majority come from + the Jews, who, though they have never dreamed of political independence, + or even of local autonomy, have most reason to complain of the existing + order of things. At all times they have furnished a goodly contingent to + the revolutionary movement, and many of them have belied their traditional + reputation of timidity and cowardice by taking part in very dangerous + terrorist enterprises—in some cases ending their career on the + scaffold. In 1897 they created a Social-Democratic organisation of their + own, commonly known as the Bund, which joined, in 1898, the Russian + Social-Democratic Labour Party, on the understanding that it should retain + its independence on all matters affecting exclusively the Jewish + population.* It now possesses a very ably-conducted weekly organ, and of + all sections of the Social-Democratic group it is unquestionably the best + organised. This is not surprising, because the Jews have more business + capacity than the Russians, and centuries of oppression have developed in + the race a wonderful talent for secret illegal activity, and for eluding + the vigilance of the police. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The official title of this Bund is the "Universal Jewish + Labour Union in Russia and Poland." Its organ is called + Sovremenniya Izvestiya (Contemporary News). +</pre> + <p> + It would be very interesting to know the numerical strength of these + groups, but we have no materials for forming even an approximate estimate. + The Liberals are certainly the most numerous. They include the great + majority of the educated classes, but they are less persistently energetic + than their rivals, and their methods of action make less impression on the + Government. The two Socialist groups, though communicative enough with + regard to their doctrines and aims, are very reticent with regard to the + number of their adherents, and this naturally awakens a suspicion that an + authoritative statement on the subject would tend to diminish rather than + enhance their importance in the eyes of the public. If statistics of the + Social Democrats could be obtained, it would be necessary to distinguish + between the three categories of which the group is composed: (1) The + educated active members, who form the directing, controlling element; (2) + the fully indoctrinated recruits from the working classes; and (3) workmen + who desire merely to better their material condition, but who take part in + political demonstrations in the hope of bringing pressure to bear on their + employers, and inducing the Government to intervene on their behalf. + </p> + <p> + The two Socialist groups are not only increasing the number of their + adherents; they are also extending and improving their organisation, as is + proved by the recent strikes, which are the work of the Social Democrats, + and by the increasing rural disturbances and acts of terrorism, which are + the work of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the unorganised Nationalist group, all I can do towards + conveying a vague, general idea of its numerical strength is to give the + numbers of the populations—men, women, and children—of which + the Nationalist agitators are the self-constituted representatives, + without attempting to estimate the percentage of the actively disaffected. + The populations in question are: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Poles 7,900,000 + Jews 5,190,000 + Finlanders 2,592,000 + Armenians 1,200,000 + Georgians 408,000 + ————— 16,495,000 +</pre> + <p> + If a National Assembly were created, in which all the nationalities were + represented according to the numbers of the population, the Poles, roughly + speaking, would have 38 members, the Jews 24, the Finlanders 12, the + Armenians 6, and the Georgians 2: whereas the Russians would have about + 400. The other subject-nationalities in which symptoms of revolutionary + fermentation have appeared are too insignificant to require special + mention. + </p> + <p> + As the representatives of the various subject-nationalities are + endeavouring to combine, so likewise are the Liberals and the two + Socialist groups trying to form a coalition, and for this purpose they + have already held several conferences. How far they will succeed it is + impossible to say. On one point—the necessity of limiting or + abolishing the Autocratic Power—they are unanimous, and there seems + to be a tacit understanding that for the present they shall work together + amicably on parallel lines, each group reserving its freedom of action for + the future, and using meanwhile its own customary means of putting + pressure on the Government. We may expect, therefore, that for a time the + Liberals will go on holding conferences and congresses in defiance of the + police authorities, delivering eloquent speeches, discussing thorny + political questions, drafting elaborate constitutions, and making gentle + efforts to clog the wheels of the Administration,* while the Social + Democrats will continue to organise strikes and semi-pacific + demonstrations,** and the Socialist-Revolutionaries will seek to + accelerate the march of events by agrarian disturbances and acts of + terrorism. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As an illustration of this I may cite the fact that + several Zemstvos have declared themselves unable, under + present conditions, to support the indigent families of + soldiers at the front. + + ** I call them semi-pacific, because on such occasions the + demonstrators are instructed to refrain from violence only + so long as the police do not attempt to stop the proceedings + by force. +</pre> + <p> + It is certain, however, that the parting of the ways will be reached + sooner or later, and already there are indications that it is not very far + off. Liberals and Social Democrats may perhaps work together for a + considerable time, because the latter, though publicly committed to + socialistic schemes which the Liberals must regard with the strongest + antipathy, are willing to accept a Constitutional regime during the period + of transition. It is difficult, however, to imagine that the Liberals, of + whom a large proportion are landed proprietors, can long go hand in hand + with the Socialist-Revolutionaries, who propose to bring about the + revolution by inciting the peasants to seize unceremoniously the estates, + live stock, and agricultural implements of the landlords. + </p> + <p> + Already the Socialist-Revolutionaries have begun to speak publicly of the + inevitable rupture in terms by no means flattering to their temporary + allies. In a brochure recently issued by their central committee the + following passage occurs: + </p> + <p> + "If we consider the matter seriously and attentively, it becomes evident + that all the strength of the bourgeoisie lies in its greater or less + capacity for frightening and intimidating the Government by the fear of a + popular rising; but as the bourgeoisie itself stands in mortal terror of + the thing with which it frightens the Government, its position at the + moment of insurrection will be rather ridiculous and pitiable." + </p> + <p> + To understand the significance of this passage, the reader must know that, + in the language of the Socialists, bourgeoisie and Liberals are + convertible terms. + </p> + <p> + The truth is that the Liberals find themselves in an awkward strategical + position. As quiet, respectable members of society they dislike violence + of every kind, and occasionally in moments of excitement they believe that + they may attain their ends by mere moral pressure, but when they find that + academic protests and pacific demonstrations make no perceptible + impression on the Government, they become impatient and feel tempted to + approve, at least tacitly, of stronger measures. Many of them do not + profess to regard with horror and indignation the acts of the terrorists, + and some of them, if I am correctly informed, go so far as to subscribe to + the funds of the Socialist-Revolutionaries without taking very stringent + precautions against the danger of the money being employed for the + preparation of dynamite and hand grenades. + </p> + <p> + This extraordinary conduct on the part of moderate Liberals may well + surprise Englishmen, but it is easily explained. The Russians have a + strong vein of recklessness in their character, and many of them are at + present imbued with an unquestioning faith in the miracle-working power of + Constitutionalism. These seem to imagine that as soon as the Autocratic + Power is limited by parliamentary institutions the discontented will cease + from troubling and the country will be at rest. + </p> + <p> + It is hardly necessary to say that such expectations are not likely to be + realised. All sections of the educated classes may be agreed in desiring + "liberty," but the word has many meanings, and nowhere more than in Russia + at the present day. For the Liberals it means simply democratic + parliamentary government; for the Social Democrat it means the undisputed + predominance of the Proletariat; for the Socialist-Revolutionary it means + the opportunity of realising immediately the Socialist ideal; for the + representative of a subject-nationality it means the abolition of racial + and religious disabilities and the attainment of local autonomy or + political independence. There is no doubt, therefore, that in Russia, as + in other countries, a parliament would develop political parties bitterly + hostile to each other, and its early history might contain some startling + surprises for those who had helped to create it. If the Constitution, for + example, were made as democratic as the Liberals and Socialists demand, + the elections might possibly result in an overwhelming Conservative + majority ready to re-establish the Autocratic Power! This is not at all so + absurd as it sounds, for the peasants, apart from the land question, are + thoroughly Conservative. The ordinary muzhik can hardly conceive that the + Emperor's power can be limited by a law or an Assembly, and if the idea + were suggested to him, he would certainly not approve. In his opinion the + Tsar should be omnipotent. If everything is not satisfactory in Russia, it + is because the Tsar does not know of the evil, or is prevented from curing + it by the tchinovniks and the landed proprietors. "More power, therefore, + to his elbow!" as an Irishman might say. Such is the simple political + creed of the "undeveloped" muzhik, and all the efforts of the + revolutionary groups to develop him have not yet been attended with much + success. + </p> + <p> + How, then, the reader may ask, is an issue to be found out of the present + imbroglio? I cannot pretend to speak with authority, but it seems to me + that there are only two methods of dealing with the situation: prompt, + energetic repression, or timely, judicious concessions to popular feeling. + Either of these methods might, perhaps, have been successful, but the + Government adopted neither, and has halted between the two. By this policy + of drift it has encouraged the hopes of all, has satisfied nobody, and has + diminished its own prestige. + </p> + <p> + In defence or extenuation of this attitude it may be said that there is + considerable danger in the adoption of either course. Vigorous repression + means staking all on a single card, and if it were successful it could not + do more than postpone the evil day, because the present antiquated form of + government—suitable enough, perhaps, for a simply organised + peasant-empire vegetating in an atmosphere of "eternal stillness"—cannot + permanently resist the rising tide of modern ideas and aspirations, and is + incapable of grappling successfully with the complicated problems of + economic and social progress which are already awaiting solution. Sooner + or later the bureaucratic machine, driven solely by the Autocratic Power + in the teeth of popular apathy or opposition, must inevitably break down, + and the longer the collapse is postponed the more violent is it likely to + be. On the other hand, it is impossible to foresee the effects of + concessions. Mere bureaucratic reforms will satisfy no one; they are + indeed not wanted except as a result of more radical changes. What all + sections of the Opposition demand is that the people should at least take + part in the government of the country by means of freely elected + representatives in Parliament assembled. It is useless to argue with them + that Constitutionalism will certainly not work the miracles that are + expected of it, and that in the struggles of political parties which it is + sure to produce the unity and integrity of the Empire may be endangered. + Lessons of that kind can only be learned by experience. Other countries, + it is said, have existed and thriven under free political institutions, + and why not Russia? Why should she be a pariah among the nations? She gave + parliamentary institutions to the young nationalities of the Balkan + Peninsula as soon as they were liberated from Turkish bondage, and she has + not yet been allowed such privileges herself! + </p> + <p> + Let us suppose now that the Autocratic Power has come to feel the + impossibility of remaining isolated as it is at present, and that it has + decided to seek solid support in some section of the population, what + section should it choose? Practically it has no choice. The only way of + relieving the pressure is to make concessions to the Constitutionalists. + That course would conciliate, not merely the section of the Opposition + which calls itself by that name and represents the majority of the + educated classes, but also, in a lesser degree, all the other sections. No + doubt these latter would accept the concession only as part payment of + their demands and a means of attaining ulterior aims. Again and again the + Social Democrats have proclaimed publicly that they desire parliamentary + government, not as an end in itself, but as a stepping stone towards the + realisation of the Socialist ideal. It is evident, however, that they + would have to remain on this stepping stone for a long series of years—until + the representatives of the Proletariat obtained an overwhelming majority + in the Chamber. In like manner the subject-nationalities would regard a + parliamentary regime as a mere temporary expedient—a means of + attaining greater local and national autonomy—and they would + probably show themselves more impatient than the Social Democrats. Any + inordinate claims, however, which they might put forward would encounter + resistance, as the Poles found in 1863, not merely from the Autocratic + Power, but from the great majority of the Russian people, who have no + sympathy with any efforts tending to bring about the disruption of the + Empire. In short, as soon as the Assembly set to work, the delegates would + be sobered by a consciousness of responsibility, differences of opinion + and aims would inevitably appear, and the various groups transformed into + political parties, instead of all endeavouring as at present to pull down + the Autocratic Power, would expend a great part of their energy in pulling + against each other. + </p> + <p> + In order to reach this haven of safety it is necessary to pass through a + period of transition, in which there are some formidable difficulties. One + of these I may mention by way of illustration. + </p> + <p> + In creating parliamentary institutions of any kind the Government could + hardly leave intact the present system of allowing the police to arrest + without a proper warrant, and send into exile without trial, any one + suspected of revolutionary designs. On this point all the Opposition + groups are agreed, and all consequently put forward prominently the demand + for the inviolability of person and domicile. To grant such a concession + seems a very simple and easy matter, but any responsible minister might + hesitate to accept such a restriction of his authority. We know, he would + argue, that the terrorist section of the Socialist-Revolutionary group, + the so-called Militant Organisation, are very busy preparing bombs, and + the police, even with the extensive, ill-defined powers which they at + present possess, have the greatest difficulty in preventing the use of + such objectionable instruments of political warfare. Would not the + dynamiters and throwers of hand-grenades utilise a relaxation of police + supervision, as they did in the time of Louis Melikof,* for carrying out + their nefarious designs? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Vide supra, p. 569. +</pre> + <p> + I have no desire to conceal or minimise such dangers, but I believe they + are temporary and by no means so great as the dangers of the only other + alternatives—energetic repression and listless inactivity. Terrorism + and similar objectionable methods of political warfare are symptoms of an + abnormal, unhealthy state of society, and would doubtless disappear in + Russia, as they have disappeared in other countries, with the conditions + which produced them. If the terrorists continued to exist under a more + liberal regime, they would be much less formidable, because they would + lose the half-concealed sympathy which they at present enjoy. + </p> + <p> + Political assassinations may occasionally take place under the most + democratic governments, as the history of the United States proves, but + terrorism as a system is to be found only in countries where the political + power is concentrated in the hands of a few individuals; and it sometimes + happens that irresponsible persons are exposed to terrorist attacks. We + have an instance of this at present in St. Petersburg. The reluctance of + the Emperor to adopt at once a Liberal programme is commonly attributed to + the influence of two members of the Imperial family, the Empress Dowager + and the Grand Duke Vladimir. This is a mistake. Neither of these + personages is so reactionary as is generally supposed, and their political + views, whatever they may be, have no appreciable influence on the course + of affairs. If the Empress Dowager had possessed the influence so often + ascribed to her, M. Plehve would not have remained so long in power. As + for the Grand Duke Vladimir, he is not in favour, and for nearly two years + he has never been consulted on political matters. The so-called Grand + Ducal party of which he is supposed to be the leader, is a recently + invented fiction. When in difficulties the Emperor may consult + individually some of his near relatives, but there is no coherent group to + which the term party could properly be applied. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the Autocratic Power has decided on a definite line of action, + it is to be hoped that a strong man will be found to take the direction of + affairs. In Russia, as in other autocratically governed countries, strong + men in the political sense of the term are extremely rare, and when they + do appear as a lusus naturae they generally take their colour from their + surroundings, and are of the authoritative, dictatorial type. During + recent years only two strong men have come to the front in the Russian + official world. The one was M. Plehve, who was nothing if not + authoritative and dictatorial, and who is no longer available for + experiments in repression or constitutionalism. The other is M. Witte. As + an administrator under an autocratic regime he has displayed immense + ability and energy, but it does not follow that he is a statesman capable + of piloting the ship into calm waters, and he is not likely to have an + opportunity of making the attempt, for he does not—to state the case + mildly—possess the full confidence of his august master. + </p> + <p> + Even if a strong man, enjoying fully the Imperial confidence, could be + found, the problem would not be thereby completely and satisfactorily + solved, because an autocrat, who is the Lord's Anointed, cannot delegate + his authority to a simple mortal without losing something of the + semi-religious halo and the prestige on which his authority rests. While a + roi faineant may fulfil effectively all the essential duties of + sovereignty, an autocrate faineant is an absurdity. + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances, it is idle to speculate as to the future. All we + can do is to await patiently the development of events, and in all + probability it is the unexpected that will happen. + </p> + <p> + The reader doubtless feels that I am offering a very lame and impotent + conclusion, and I must confess that I am conscious of this feeling myself, + but I think I may fairly plead extenuating circumstances. Happily for my + peace of mind I am a mere observer who is not called upon to invent a + means of extricating Russia from her difficult position. For that arduous + task there are already brave volunteers enough in the field. All I have to + do is to explain as clearly as I can the complicated problem to be solved. + Nor do I feel it any part of my duty to make predictions. I believe I am + pretty well acquainted with the situation at the present moment, but what + it may be a few weeks hence, when the words I am now writing issue from + the press, I do not profess to foresee. + </p> + +<div style='display:block;margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUSSIA ***</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This file should be named 1349-h.htm or 1349-h.zip</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/4/1349/</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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