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diff --git a/old/13443.txt b/old/13443.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a4bf6b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13443.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4472 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 795, +March 28, 1891, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 795, March 28, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 12, 2004 [EBook #13443] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 795 + + + + +NEW YORK, March 28, 1891. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 795. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. AVICULTURE.--The Effect on Fowls of Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous + Rations.--A very valuable report upon the effects of different + diet on chickens, with tables of data.--1 illustration + +II. BIOGRAPHY.--N.F. Burnham and his Life Work.--By W.H. BURNHAM. + --The life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers, + an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery. + --1 illustration + +III. BOTANY.--The Source of Chinese Ginger.--An identification of + a long unknown plant + +IV. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--A Railway through the Andes.--An + interesting enterprise now in progress in South America, with + maps.--2 illustrations + + Chicago as a Seaport.--Proposed connection of Chicago with the + waters of the Mississippi River, thereby placing it in water + communication with the sea.--2 illustrations + + Floating Elevator and Spoil Distributor.--A machine for removing + dredged material from barges, as employed on the Baltic Sea + Canal Works.--10 illustrations + +V. ELECTRICITY.--Alternate Current Condensers.--A valuable review + of the difficulties of constructing these condensers.--An important + contribution to the subject.--1 illustration + + Electricity in Transitu.--From Plenum to Vacuum.--By Prof. + WILLIAM CROOKES.--Continuation of this important lecture with + profuse illustrations of experiments.--14 illustrations + + The Telegraphic Communication between Great Britain, + Europe, America, and the East.--By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.-- + The engineering aspects of electricity.--The world's cables and + connections.--2 illustrations + +VI. HORTICULTURE.--Herbaceous Grafting.--A hitherto little practiced + and successful method of treating herbs, with curious results + +VII. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Improved Cold Iron Saw.--The + "Demon" cold saw for cutting Iron.--Its capacity and general + principles.--1 illustration + +VIII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--How to Prevent Hay Fever.--By + ALEXANDER RIXA.--A systematic treatment of this very troublesome + complaint, with a special prescription and other treatment. + +IX. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Business End of the American Newspaper.--By + A.H. SIEGFRIED.--A graphic presentation of the + technique of the newspaper office, circulation of the American + papers, methods of printing, etc. + + The New Labor Exchange at Paris.--A new establishment, long + demanded by the laboring population of Paris.--Its scope and + prospects.--2 illustrations + +X. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--The Empress of India.--The pioneer + of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the Canadian + Pacific Railway between Vancouver, China, and Japan.--1 illustration + +XI. PHYSICS.--Stereoscopic Projections.--A most curious method + of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the + screen, involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators. + --1 illustration + +XII. TECHNOLOGY.--Gaseous Illuminants.--By Prof. VIVIAN B. + LEWES.--The fifth and last of Prof. Lewes' Society of Arts lectures, + concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture + + * * * * * + + + +THE NEW LABOR EXCHANGE AT PARIS. + + +There will soon be inaugurated (probably about the 14th of July) a new +establishment that has long been demanded by the laboring population, +that is to say, a new labor exchange, the buildings of which, situated +on Chateau d'Eau Street, are to succeed the provisional exchange +installed in the vicinity of Le Louvre Street. The new structures have +been erected from plans by Mr. Bouvard, and occupy an area of +seventeen hundred meters. + +The main work is now entirely terminated, but the interior decorations +are not yet completely finished. The distribution comprises a vast +meeting room, committee rooms for the various syndicates, offices in +which the workmen of the various bodies of trades will find +information and advice, and will be enabled to be put in relation with +employers without passing through the more or less recommendable +agencies to which they have hitherto been obliged to have recourse. + +[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS.] + +Upon the whole, the institution, if wisely conducted, is capable of +bearing fruit and ought to do so, and the laboring population of Paris +should be grateful to the municipal council for the six million francs +that our ediles have so generously voted for making this interesting +work a success. On seeing the precautions, perhaps necessary, that the +laborer now takes against the capitalist, we cannot help instituting a +comparison with the antique and solid organization of labor that +formerly governed the trades unions. Each corporation possessed a +syndic charged with watching over the management of affairs, and over +the receipts and the use of the common resources. These syndics were +appointed for two years, and had to make annually, at least, four +visits to all the masters, in order to learn how the laborers were +treated and paid, and how loyally the regulations of the corporation +were observed. They rendered an account of this to the first assembly +of the community and cited all the masters in fault. + +Evidently, the new Labor Exchange will not cause a revival of these +old ways of doing things (which perhaps may have had something of +good in them), but we may hope that laborers will find in it +protection against those who would require of them an excess of work, +as well as against those who would preach idleness and revolt to +them.--_Le Monde Illustre_. + +[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE--HALL FOR MEETINGS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BUSINESS END OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A recent address before the Outlook Club, +of Montclair, N.J.] + +By A.H. SIEGFRIED. + + +The controlling motive and direct purpose of the average newspaper are +financial profit. One is now and then founded, and conducted even at a +loss, to serve party, social, religious or other ends, but where the +primary intent is unselfish there remains hope for monetary gain. + +The first newspapers never dreamed of teaching or influencing men, but +were made to collect news and entertainment and deal in them as in any +other commodity. But because this was the work of intelligence upon +intelligence, and because of conditions inherent in this kind of +business, it soon took higher form and service, and came into +responsibilities of which, in its origin, it had taken no thought. +Wingate's "Views and Interviews on Journalism" gives the opinions of +the leading editors and publishers of fifteen years ago upon this +point of newspaper motive and work. The first notable utterance was by +Mr. Whitelaw Reid, who said the idea and object of the modern daily +newspaper are to collect and give news, with the promptest and best +elucidation and discussion thereof, that is, the selling of these in +the open market; primarily a "merchant of news." Substantially and +distinctly the same ideas were given by William Cullen Bryant, Henry +Watterson, Samuel Bowles, Charles A. Dana, Henry J. Raymond, Horace +White, David G. Croly, Murat Halstead, Frederick Hudson, George +William Curtis, E.L. Godkin, Manton Marble, Parke Godwin, George W. +Smalley, James Gordon Bennett and Horace Greeley. The book is fat with +discussion by these and other eminent newspaper men, as to the +motives, methods and ethics of their profession, disclosing high +ideals and genuine seeking of good for all the world, but the whole of +it at last rests upon primary motives and controlling principles in +nowise different or better or worse than those of the Produce Exchange +and the dry goods district, of Wall Street and Broadway, so that, +taking publications in the lump, it is neither untrue nor ungenerous, +nor, when fully considered, is it surprising, to say that the world's +doing, fact and fancy are collected, reported, discussed, scandalized, +condemned, commended, supported and turned back upon the world as the +publisher's merchandise. + +The force and reach of this controlling motive elude the reckoning of +the closest observation and ripest experience, but as somewhat +measuring its strength and pervasiveness hear, and for a moment think, +of these facts and figures. + +The American Newspaper Directory for 1890, accepted as the standard +compiler and analyst of newspaper statistics, gives as the number of +regularly issued publications in the United States and territories, +17,760. Then when we know that these have an aggregate circulation for +each separate issue--not for each week, or month, or for a year, but +for each separate issue of each individual publication, a total of +41,524,000 copies--many of them repeating themselves each day, some +each alternate day, some each third day and the remainder each week, +month or quarter, and that in a single year they produce 3,481,610,000 +copies, knowing, though dimly realizing, this tremendous output, we +have some faint impression of the numerical strength of this mighty +force which holds close relation to and bears strong influence upon +life, thought and work, and which, measured by its units, is as the +June leaves on the trees--in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable; +a force expansive, aggressive, pervasive; going everywhere; stopping +nowhere; ceasing never. + +I am to speak to you of "The Business End" of the American newspaper; +that is of the work of the publisher's department--not the editor's. +At the outset I am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the +subject so many and so far reaching that right regard for time compels +the merest generalization; but, as best I can, and as briefly as I +can, I shall speak upon the topic under three general divisions: + +First.--The personal and material forces which make the newspaper. + +Second.--The sources of revenue from the joint working of these +forces. + +Third.--The direct office, bearing and influence of these forces. + +It is but natural that the general public has limited idea of the +personality and mechanism of the publication business, for much of its +movement is at night, and there is separation and isolation of +departments, as well as complicated relation of the several parts to +the whole. Not many years ago a very few men and boys could edit, +print and distribute the most important of newspapers, where now +hundreds are necessary parts in a tremendous complexity. But even +to-day, of the nearly 18,000 publications in the United States, more +than 11,000 are of that class which, in all their departments, are +operated by from two to four or five persons, and which furnish scant +remuneration even for these. Among the thin populations and in the +remote regions are thousands of weekly papers--and you may spell the +weekly either with a double _e_ or an _ea_--where there are two men +and a boy, one of whom does a little writing and much scissoring, +loafing among the corner groceries and worse, begging for +subscribers, button-holing for advertisements, and occasionally and +indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the "esteemed +contemporary" or the "outraged citizen;" the second of whom sets the +type, reads the proofs, corrects them more or less, makes the rollers, +works the old hand press, and curses the editor and the boy +impartially; and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly, bi-weekly +or monthly, inks the forms and sometimes pis them, carries the papers, +and does generally the humble and diversified works of the "printer's +devil," while between the three the whole thing periodically goes to +the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now and then by papers of +this class. Yet there are many of these country papers that Mr. +Watterson once styled the "Rural Roosters" which are useful and +honored, and which actively employ as editors and publishers men of +fair culture and good common sense, with typographical and mechanical +assistants who are worthy of their craft. + +But the personal workers upon the great magazines and the daily +newspapers are for each a battalion or a regiment, and in the +aggregate a vast army. The _Century Magazine_ regularly employs in its +editorial department three editors and eight editorial assistants, of +whom five are women; in the art department two artists in charge and +four assistants, of whom three are women; in the business department +fifty-eight persons, men and women--a total of seventy six persons +employed on the magazine regularly and wholly, while the printers and +binders engaged in preparing a monthly edition of 200,000 magazines +are at least a duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial, art +and business divisions. + +The actual working force upon the average large daily newspaper, as +well as an outline idea of the work done in each department, and of +its unified result in the printed sheet, as such newspapers are +operated in New York, Chicago and Boston, may be realized from an +exhibit of the exact current status in the establishment of a well +known Chicago paper. + +In its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief, managing +editors, city editors, telegraph editors, exchange editors, editorial +writers, special writers and about thirty reporters--56 in all. +Working in direct connection with this department, and as part of it, +are three telegraph operators and nine artists, etchers, photographers +and engravers; in the Washington office three staff correspondents, +and in the Milwaukee office one such correspondent--making for what +Mr. Bennett calls the intellectual end a force of 72 men, who are +usually regarded by the business end as a necessary evil, to be fed +and clothed, but on the whole as hardly worth the counting. + +In the business and mechanical departments the men and women and their +work are these: + +The business office, for general clerical work, receiving and caring +for advertisements, receiving and disbursing cash, and for the general +bookkeeping, employs 24 men and women. + +On the city circulation, stimulating and managing it within the city +and the immediate vicinity, 10 persons. + +On the country circulation, for handling all out-of-town subscriptions +and orders of wholesale news agents, 30 persons. + +On mailing and delivery, for sending out by mail and express of the +outside circulation, and for distribution to city agents and newsboys, +31 persons. + +In the New York office, caring for the paper's business throughout the +East, the Canadas, Great Britain and Europe, two persons. + +In the composing room, where the copy is put into type, and in the +linotype room, where a part of the type-setting is done by machinery, +95 persons. + +In the stereotype foundry, where the plates are cast (for the type +itself never is put on the press), 11 persons. + +In the press room, where the printing, folding, cutting, pasting and +counting of the papers is done, 30 persons. + +In the engine and dynamo room, 8 persons. + +In the care of the building, 3 persons. + +These numbers include only the minimum and always necessary force, and +make an aggregate of 316 persons daily and nightly engaged for their +entire working time, and borne on a pay roll of six thousand dollars a +week for salaries and wages alone. + +But this takes no account of special correspondents subject to instant +call in several hundred places throughout the country; of European +correspondents; of 1,900 news agents throughout the West; of 200 city +carriers; of 42 wholesale city dealers, with their horses and wagons; +of 200 branch advertisement offices throughout the city, all connected +with the main office by telephone; and of more than 3 000 news +boys--all making their living, in whole or in part, from work upon or +business relations with this one paper--a little army of 6,300 men, +women, and children, producing and distributing but one of the 1,626 +daily newspapers in the United States. + +The leading material forces in newspaper production are type, paper, +and presses. + +Printing types are cast from a composition which is made one-half of +lead, one-fourth of tin, and one-fourth of antimony, though these +proportions are slightly reduced, so as to admit what the chemist +calls of copper "a trace," the sum of these parts aiming at a metal +which "shall be hard, yet not brittle; ductile, yet tough; flowing +freely, yet hardening quickly." Body type, that is, those classes ever +seen in ordinary print, aside from display and fancy styles, is in +thirteen classes, the smallest technically called brilliant and the +largest great primer. + +In the reading columns of newspapers but four classes are ordinarily +used--agate for the small advertisements; agate, nonpareil, and minion +for news, miscellany, etc., and minion and brevier for editorials--the +minion being used for what are called minor editorials, and the +brevier for leading articles, as to which it may be said that young +editorial writers consider life very real and very earnest until they +are promoted from minion to brevier. + +A complete assortment of any one of these classes is called a font, +the average weight of which is about 800 pounds. Whereas our alphabet +has 26 letters, the compositor must really use of letters, spaces, +accent marks, and other characters in an English font 152 distinct +types, and in each font there are 195,000 individual pieces. The +largest number of letters in a font belongs to small _e_--12,000; and +the least number to the _z_--200. The letters, characters, spaces, +etc., are distributed by the printer in a pair of cases, the upper one +for capitals, small capitals, and various characters, having 98 boxes, +and the lower one, for the small letters, punctuation marks, etc., +having 54 boxes. + +A few newspapers are using typesetting machines for all or part of +their composition. The New York _Tribune_ is using the Linotype +machine for all its typesetting except the displayed advertisements, +and other papers are using it for a portion of their work, while still +others are using the Rogers and various machines, of which there are +already six or more. It seems probable that within the early future +newspaper composition will very generally be done by machinery. + +It has been suggested to me that many of my hearers this evening know +little or nothing of the processes of the printer's art, and that some +exposition of it may interest a considerable portion of this audience. + +The vast number of these little "messengers of thought" which are +required in a single modern daily newspaper is little known to +newspaper readers. Set in the manner of ordinary reading, a column of +the New York _Tribune_ contains 12,200 pieces, counting head lines, +leads, and so on; while, if set solidly in its medium-sized type, +there are 18,800 pieces in one column, or about 113,000 in a page, or +about 1,354,000 in one of its ordinary 12-page issues. A 32-page +Sunday issue of the New York _Herald_ contains nearly, if not quite, +2,500,000 distinct types and other pieces of metal, each of which must +be separately handled between thumb and finger twice--once put into +the case and once taken out of it--each issue of the paper. No one +inexperienced in this delicate work has the slightest conception of +the intensity of attention, fixity of eye, deftness of touch, +readiness of intelligence, exhaustion of vitality, and destruction of +brain and nerve which enters into the daily newspaper from +type-setters alone. + +Each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks, by sight and touch +of which the compositor is guided in rapidly placing them right side +up in the line. They are taken, one by one, between thumb and +forefinger, while the mind not only spells out each word, but is +always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead of the fingers, and +each letter, syllable and word is set in its order in lines in the +composing stick, each line being spaced out in the stick so as to +exactly fit the column width, this process being repeated until the +stick is full. Then the stickful is emptied upon a galley. Then, when +the page or the paper is "up," as the printers phrase it, the galleys +are collected, and the foreman makes up the pages, article by article, +as they come to us in the printed paper--the preliminary processes of +printing proofs from the galleys, reading them by the proof readers, +who mark the errors, and making the corrections by the compositors +(each one correcting his own work), having been quietly and swiftly +going on all the while. The page is made up on a portable slab of +iron, upon which it is sent to the stereotyping room. There wet +stereotyping paper, several sheets in thickness, is laid over the +page, and this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously beaten +evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the soft paper is +pressed down into all the interstices between the type; then this is +covered with blankets and the whole is placed upon a steam chest, +where it is subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes +perfectly dry. Then, this dried and hardened paper, called a matrix, +is placed in a circular mould, and melted stereotype metal is poured +in and cooled, resulting in the circular plate, which is rapidly +carried to the press room, clamped upon its cylinder, and when all the +cylinders are filled, page by page in proper sequence, the pressman +gives the signal, the burr and whirr begin, and men and scarcely less +sentient machines enter upon their swift race for the early trains. As +a matter of general interest it may be remarked that this whole +process of stereotyping a page, from the time the type leaves the +composing room until the plate is clamped upon the press, averages +fifteen minutes, and that cases are upon record when the complex task +has been accomplished in eleven minutes. + +The paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled upon wooden or iron +cores. Some presses take paper the narrow way of the paper, rolls for +which average between 600 and 700 pounds. Others work upon paper of +double the width of two pages, that is, four pages wide, and then the +rolls are sometimes as wide as six feet, and have an average weight of +1,350 pounds. Each roll from which the New York _Tribune_ is printed +contains an unbroken sheet 23,000 feet (4-1/3 miles) long. A few hours +before the paper is to be printed, an iron shaft having journal ends +is passed through the core, the roll is placed in a frame where it may +revolve, the end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll +is unwound at a speed of from 13 to 15 miles an hour, while a fan-like +spray of water plays evenly across its width, so that the entire sheet +is unrolled, dampened, for the better taking of the impression to be +made upon it, and firmly rewound, all in twenty minutes. Each of these +rolls will make about 7,600 copies of the _Tribune_. + +When all is ready, paper and stereotyped pages in place, and all +adjustments carefully attended to, the almost thinking machine starts +at the pressman's touch, and with well nigh incredible speed prints, +places sheet within sheet, pastes the parts together, cuts, folds and +counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and constancy beyond +the power of human eye and hand. + +The printing press has held its own in the rapid advance of that +wonderful evolution which, within the last half century, in every +phase of thought and in every movement of material forces placed under +the dominion of men, has almost made one of our years the equivalent +of one of the old centuries. Within average recollection the single +cylinder printing machine, run by hand or steam, and able under best +conditions to print one side of a thousand sheets in one hour, was the +marvel of mankind. In 1850, one such, that we started in an eastern +Ohio town, drew such crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were +obliged to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance which would +allow the astonishing thing to work at all. + +To-day, in the United States alone, five millions of dollars are +invested in the building of printing presses, many of which, by +slightest violence to figure of speech, do think and speak. +Inspiration was not wholly a thing of long-gone ages, for if ever men +received into brain and worked out through hand the divine touch, then +were Hoe, and Scott, and Campbell taught of God. + +Under existing conditions newspapers of any importance, in the smaller +cities, use one and sometimes two presses, capable of producing from +7,000 to 9,000 complete eight page papers each hour, each machine +costing from $10,000 to $15,000. Papers of the second class in the +large cities use treble or quadruple this press capacity, while the +great papers, in the four or five leading cities, have machinery +plants of from four to ten presses of greatest capacity, costing from +$32,000 to $50,000 each, and able to produce papers of the different +numbers of pages required, at a speed of from 24,000 to 90,000 four +page sheets, or of from 24,000 to 48,000 eight, ten, or twelve page +sheets per hour, each paper complete as you receive it at your +breakfast table--printed, pasted, cut and folded, and the entire +product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens, fifties, +hundreds or thousands, as may be required for instantaneous delivery, +while, as if to illustrate and emphasize the ever upward trend of +public demand for the day's news, quick and inclusive, Hoe & Co. are +now building machines capable of producing in all completeness 150,000 +four page papers each hour. + +All this tremendous combination of brain, nerve, muscle, material, +machinery and capital depends for its movement and remuneration upon +but two sources of income--circulation and advertisements--the unit +measurements of which are infinitesimal--for the most part represented +by wholesale prices; from one-half a cent to two cents per copy for +the daily newspaper, and in like proportion for the weeklies and +monthlies; and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line per +thousand of circulation for advertising space. Verily, in a certain +and large sense, the vast publishing interests rest upon drops of +water and grains of sand. Under right conditions no kind of business +or property is more valuable, and yet no basis of values is more +intangible. Nothing in all trade or commerce is so difficult to +establish or more environed by competitions, and yet, once +established, almost nothing save interior dry rot can pull it down. It +depends upon the judgment and favor of the million, yet instances are +few where any external force has seriously and permanently impaired +it. + +About two hundred years have gone since the publication of the first +number of the first American newspaper. It was a monthly, called +_Publick Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic_, first printed +September 25, 1690, by Richard Pierce, and founded by Benjamin Harris. +At that time public favor did seem to control newspaper interests, for +that first paper aroused antagonism, and it was almost immediately +suppressed by the authorities. Only one copy of it is now in +existence, and that is in London. The first newspaper to live, in this +country, was the Boston _News Letter_, first issued in 1704 and +continued until 1776. New York's first newspaper, the New York +_Gazette_, appeared October 16, 1725. At the outbreak of the +revolution there were 37 newspapers, and in 1800 there were 200, of +which several were dailies. In 1890 there were 17,760, of which there +were 13,164 weeklies, 2,191 monthlies, 1,626 dailies, 280 +semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126 quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38 +bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies. + +The circulations belong largely to the weeklies, monthlies and +dailies, the weeklies having 23,228,750, the monthlies 9,245,750, the +dailies 6,653,250, leaving only 2,400,000 for all the others. + +The largest definitely ascertainable daily average circulation for one +year, in this country, has been 222,745. Only one other daily paper in +the world has had more--_Le Petit Journal_, in Paris, which really, as +we understand it, is not a newspaper, but which regularly prints and +sells for one sou more than 750,000 copies. The largest American +weekly is the _Youth's Companion,_ Boston, 461,470. The largest +monthly is the _Ladies' Home Journal_, Philadelphia, 542,000. The +largest among the better known magazines is the _Century_, 200,000. Of +the daily papers which directly interest us--those of the city of New +York--the actual or approximate daily averages of the morning papers +are given by "Dauchy's Newspaper Catalogue" for 1891, as follows: +_Tribune_, daily, 80,000; Sunday, 85,000. _Times_, daily, 40,000; +Sunday, 55,000. _Herald_, daily, 100,000; Sunday, 120,000. _Morning +Journal_, 200,000. _Press_, daily, 85,000; Sunday, 45,000. _Sun_, +daily, 90,000; Sunday, 120,000. _World_, daily, 182,000; Sunday, +275,000. Of the afternoon papers, _Commercial Advertiser_, 15,000; +_Evening Post_, 18,000; _Telegram_, 25,000; _Graphic_ (not the old, +but a new one), 10,000; _Mail and Express_, 40,000; _News_, 173,000; +_Evening Sun_, 50,000; _Evening World_, 168,000. The entire +circulation of New York dailies, including with those named others of +minor importance, and the German, French, Italian, Bohemian, Hebrew +and Spanish daily newspapers, is 1,540,200 copies. + +Obviously, there is and must be ceaseless, incisive and merciless +competition in securing and holding circulations, as well as in the +outward statements made of individual circulations to those who +purchase advertising space. In this, as in all other forms of +enterprise, there are honest, clean-cut and business-like methods, and +there are the methods of the time-server, the trickster and the liar. + +The vastly greater number of publications secure and hold their +clientage by making the best possible goods, pushing them upon public +patronage by aggressive and business-like means, and selling at the +lowest price consistent with excellence of product and fairness alike +to producer and consumer. But of the baser sort there are always +enough to make rugged paths for those who walk uprightly, and to +contribute to instability of values on the one hand, and on the other +to flooding the country with publications which the home and the world +would be better without. Every great city has more of the rightly made +and rightly sold papers than of the other sort, and the business man, +the working man, the professional man, the family, no matter of what +taste, or political faith, or economic bias, or social status, or +financial plenty or paucity, can have the daily visits of newspapers +which are able, brilliant, comprehensive, clean and honest. But all +the time, these men and families will have pressed upon their +attention and patronage, by every device and artifice of the energetic +and more or less unscrupulous publisher, other papers equally able and +brilliant and comprehensive, but bringing also their burden of +needless sensationalism and mendacity, undue expansion of all manner +of scandal, amplification of every detail and kind of crime, and every +phase of covert innuendo or open attack upon official doing and +private character--the whole infernal mass procured, and stimulated +and broadcast among the people by the "business end of it," with the +one and only intent of securing and holding circulation. + +Take a representative and pertinent example. Eight years ago there +were in New York ten or eleven standard newspapers, as ably and +inclusively edited and as energetically and successfully conducted, +business-wise, as they are now. Even at their worst they were decently +mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and they throve by +legitimate sale of the most and best news and the best possible +elucidation and discussion thereof. The father could bring the paper +of his choice to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral +sense and self-respect might be outraged, or that the face of his wife +might be crimsoned and the minds of his children befouled. But there +came from out of the West new men and new forces, quick to see the +larger opportunity opened in the very center of five millions of +people, and almost in a night came the metamorphosis of the old World +into the new. It was deftly given out that existing conditions were +inadequate to the better deserts of the Knickerbocker, the Jersey-man, +and the Yankee, and that a new purveyor of more highly seasoned news +and a more doughty champion of their rights and interests was hither +from the land of life and movement--at two cents per copy. There was a +panic in New York newspaper counting rooms, and prices tumbled in two +days from the three and four cents of fair profit to the two and three +cents of bare cost or less. The new factors in demoralization cared +nothing for competition in prices or legitimate goods, for they had +other ideas of coddling the dear people. Ready to their purpose lay +disintegrated Liberty, waiting for a rock upon which to plant her feet +and raise her torch, and the new combination between the world, the +flesh and the devil, waiting and ready for access to the pockets of +the public, was only too ready to set up Liberty and itself at one +stroke, if only the joint operation could be done without expense to +itself. The people said, "What wonderful enterprise!" "What a generous +spirit!" The combination, with tongue in cheek and finger laid +alongside nose, said to itself as it saw its circulation spring in one +bound from five figures into six, "Verily we've got there! for these +on the Hudson are greater gudgeons than are they on the Mississippi." +From then until now, with an outward semblance and constant pretense +of serving the people; with blare of trumpet and rattle of drum; with +finding Stanley, who never had been lost; with scurrying peripatetic +petticoats around the globe; with all manner of unprofessional and +illegitimate devices; with so-called "contests" and with all manner of +"schemes" without limit in number, kind, or degree; with every +cunningly devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity--from then +until now that combination has been struggling to hold and has held an +audience of the undiscriminating and the unthinking. But, further, +and worse, a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation has led +other papers to follow somewhat at a distance in this demoralizing +race. None of them has gone to such lengths, but the tendency to +literary, mental and moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown +form of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods of +every New York daily save only the _Tribune_, _Times_, _Commercial +Advertiser_, and _Evening Post,_ while the converse side of securing +business clientage is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it +were not pathetic, by that abnormal and fantastic cross between news +and pietetics which mails and expresses itself to the truly good. +These are forms of competition which the business end of legitimately +conducted newspapers is compelled to meet. In a certain way these +methods do succeed, but how, and how long and how much shall they +succeed except by unsettling the mental and moral poise of the people, +and by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere whose +thoughts take less account of means than of ends? Which shall we hold +in higher esteem and in our business patronage--Manton Marble and +Hurlbut, gentlemen, scholarly, wise leaders, conscientious teachers, +with barely living financial income; or their successors, parvenus, +superficial, meretricious, false guides, time-serving leaders, a +thousand dollars a day of clear profit, housed in the tower of Babel? + +Considered in the large, the circulation side of the American +newspaper has many indefensible aspects. As "nothing succeeds like +success," or the appearance of success, the prestige of not a few +newspapers is ministered unto by rotund and deceptive representations +of circulation. Then, as few can live, much less profit, on their +circulations alone, it becomes greatly important to make the +advertiser see circulations through the large end of the telescope, +and so the fine art of telling truth without lying is a live and +perennial study in many counting rooms. Discussing the circulation +question not long ago with the head of a leading religious paper, he +told me that the number of copies he printed was a thing that he never +stated definitely, because the publishers of the other religious +newspapers lied so about their circulations that he would do himself +injustice if he were to tell the truth about his own. The secular +papers should set an example for their religious brethren, but they do +not, for from many of them there is lying--systematic, persistent, and +more or less colossal. Not long ago, within a few days of each other, +three men who were simultaneously employed on a certain paper told me +their _actual_ circulation, _confidentially_, too. One of them put it +at 85,000, the second at 110,000, and the third at 130,000, and each +of them lied, for their lying was so diversified and entertaining that +I felt a real interest in securing the truth, and so I took some +trouble to ask the pressman about it. He told me, _very_ +confidentially, that it was 120,000--and he lied. + +By this time my interest was so heightened that I told my personal +friend, the publisher, about the inartistic and incoherent mendacity +of his subordinates, whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation +book, which clearly, and I have no doubt truthfully, exhibited an +average of 88,000. The wicked partner is nearly always ready to show +the actual record of the counting machines on the presses, and +"figures never lie" but the truth-telling machines which record actual +work of the impression cylinders make no mention of damaged copies +thrown aside, of sample copies, files, exchanges, copies kept against +possible future need, copies unsold, copies nominally sold but sooner +or later returned and finally sold to the junk shop, and all that sort +of thing. One prints a large extra issue on a certain day for some +business corporation which has its own purpose to serve by publication +of an article in its own interest, whereby many thousands of copies +are added to that day's normal output, and he makes the exceptional +number for that day serve as the exponent of his circulation until +good fortune brings him a similar and possibly larger order, and his +circulation is reported as "still increasing." Another struck a +"high-water mark" of "190,500" the day after Mr. Cleveland was +elected, and that has been the implied measure of circulation for the +last six years. Another, during a heated political campaign, or a +great financial crisis, or some other dominant factor in public +interest, makes a large and genuine temporary increase, but the +highest mark gained does enforced duty in the eyes of the marines +until another flood tide sweeps him to a greater transient height. +These are types of the competitions of the circulation liar. At this +very hour there are four daily newspapers each of which has the +largest circulation in the United States. Of the nearly 18,000 +American publications only 103 furnish detailed, open, and entirely +trustworthy statements of circulation. + +As to the general public this is no great matter, but to the vast +number of business men who buy the real or fancied publicity afforded +by newspaper advertising it is of exceeding importance. That the large +buyers of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled is +because they understand the circulation extravaganza and buy space +according to their understanding. The time is coming, and it should +come soon, when newspaper circulations shall be open to the same +inspection and publicity as is now the case with banks and insurance +companies, and when the circulation liar and swindler shall be +amenable to the same law and liable to the same penalty as stands +against and is visited upon any other perjurer and thief. + +_(To be continued_.) + + * * * * * + + + + + +HOW TO PREVENT HAY FEVER. + +By ALEXANDER RIXA, M.D., New York. + + +In the May (1890) number of the _Therapeutic Gazette_ I furnished some +contribution to the "Treatment of Hay Fever." I reported therein a +favorable result in the treatment of this mysterious disease in the +experience of my last year's cases. + +My experience of this year is far more gratifying, and worthy of +receiving a wide publicity. + +I treated six cases in all, four of which have been habitual for years +to hay fever proper without complications, while the other two used to +have the disease aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh. +I succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease in every +individual case. The treatment I applied was very simple, and +consisted of the following: + +From the fact that I had known all my patients from previous years, I +ordered them to my office two weeks before the usual onset of the +disease. I advised them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of +chloride of sodium four times a day--morning, noon, evening, and on +retiring; and, a few minutes after the cleansing of the parts, had the +nares thoroughly sprayed with peroxide of hydrogen and c.p. glycerin, +half and half. Those subject to a conjunctivitis I prescribed a two +per cent. solution of boric acid as a wash. At this period no internal +medication was given, but three days previous to the usual onset of +the disease I prescribed phenacetin and salol, five grains of each +three times a day. + +On the respective expected days, to the great surprise of all the +members concerned successively, who have been in the habit of getting +the disease almost invariably at a certain date, no hay fever symptoms +appeared, though everyone had been the victim of the disease for a +great number of years, varying from five to nineteen years' standing. + +It is self-understood that this treatment was kept up all through the +season, and, as no symptoms developed, the applications were reduced, +toward the termination, to twice and once a day. The internal +medication, however, was stopped after the expiration of the first +week, and all the patients could attend to their various respective +vocations, something they never have been able to do in previous +years. + +In two cases, though no nasal symptoms developed, about two weeks +after the calculated onset, slight symptoms of asthma made their +appearance. However, I could easily suppress them at this time with +the aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer, a very ingenious little +apparatus, of which I gave a thorough description in my last year's +article. I used the ozone inhalations every four hours, in connection +with the internal administration of the following prescription: + + Rx Iodide of ammonia, 8; + Fl. ex. quebracho, 30; + Fl. ex. grindelia robusta, 15; + Tr. lobelia, 12; + Tr. belladonna, 8; + Syr. pruni, virg., q.s., ad 120. + + Sig.--Teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four hours. + +However, toward the end of the fourth week, especially in one case--a +stout, heavy-set gentleman--very grave asthmatic symptoms developed, +which compelled me to apply Chapman's spinal ice bag, as well as +resort to the internal administration of large doses of codeine during +the paroxysm, with the most beneficial result. + +I gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two cases. I find +them to act very soothingly in the simple asthma, facilitating +respiration after a few minutes; but during the paroxysmal stage they +cannot be utilized, for the reason that respiration is short and +rapid, and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the gas to +be inhaled. Consequently, it is either of little use as a remedy; or, +if too much is taken, a disagreeable headache will be the consequence. + +During the catarrhal stage, which, however, was very mild compared +with last year, I derived great benefit from the administration of +codeine, in combination with terpine hydrate, in the pill form. The +codeine has the advantage over all other opium preparations that it +does not affect the digestive organs, and still acts in a soothing +manner. While during last year's sickness my patients lost from ten to +twenty pounds of their bodily weight, this year but one lost eight +pounds and the other five pounds. + +As the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped in +obscurity, we may fairly conclude, by the success of my treatment, if +it should meet with the confirmation of the profession, that the much +pretended sensitive area, situated, according to Dr. Sajous, "at the +posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and the corresponding +portion of the septum," or, according to Dr. John Mackenzie, who +locates this area "at the anterior extremity of the inferior +turbinated bone," need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by +cautery, in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever proper. + +I examined my patients twice a week, and the closest rhinoscopical +exploration would not reveal the slightest pathological change in the +mucous membrane of the nares. + +Now, what is the etiological factor of the disease? Is it a specific +germ conveyed by the air to the parts and--_locus minoris +resistencia_--deposited at the pretended area, or is the germinal +matter present in the nasal mucous membrane with certain persons, and +requires only at a certain time and under certain conditions +physiological stimulation to manifest periodical pathological changes, +which give rise to the train of symptoms called hay fever? Dropping +all hypothetical reasoning, I think some outside vegetable germ is +causing the disease in those predisposed, and peroxide of hydrogen +acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles, _i.e._, drives them out +when and wherever it finds them. I hope the profession will give this +new measure a thorough trial and report their results.--_Therapeutic +Gazette._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SOURCE OF CHINESE GINGER. + + +In the Kew _Bulletin_ for January an interesting account is given of +the identification of the plant yielding the rhizome employed to make +the well-known Chinese preserved ginger. As long ago as 1878 Dr. E. +Percival Wright, of Trinity College, Dublin, called the attention of +Mr. Thiselton Dyer to the fact that the preserved ginger has very much +larger rhizomes than _Zingiber officinale_, and that it was quite +improbable that it was the product of that plant. The difficulty in +identifying the plant arose from the fact that, like many others +cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely flowers. The first +flowering plant was sent to Kew from Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the +superintendent of the Hope Garden there. During the past year the +plant has flowered both at Dominica in the West Indies and in the +Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong. Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic +Garden at Hong-Kong, has identified the plant as _Alpinia Galanga_, +the source of the greater or Java galangal root of commerce. Mr. +Watson, of Kew, appears to have been the first to suggest that the +Chinese ginger plant is probably a species of _Alpinia_, and possibly +identical with the Siam ginger plant, which was described by Sir J. +Hooker in the _Botanical Magazine_ (tab. 6,946) in 1887 as a new +species under the name of _Alpinia zingiberina_. Mr. J.G. Baker, in +working up the Scitamineae for the "Flora of British India," arrived at +the conclusion that it is not distinct from the _Alpinia Galanga_, +Willd. The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical, and both +are the produce of _Alpinia Galanga_, Willd. + + * * * * * + + + + +FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR. + + +We illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor constructed by +Mr. A.F. Smulders, Utrecht, Holland, for removing dredged material out +of barges at the Baltic Sea Canal Works. We give a perspective view +showing the apparatus at work, and on a page plate are given plans, +longitudinal and cross sections, with details which are from +_Engineering_. The dredged material is raised out of the launches or +barges by means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of 10.5 +meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water line, from whence it is pushed +to the place of deposition by a heavy stream of water supplied by +centrifugal pumps. + +[Illustration: FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC +SEA CANAL.] + +The necessary machinery and superstructure are supported on two +vessels connected, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, with cross girders, a +sufficient width being left between each vessel to form a well large +enough for a barge to float into, and for the working of the bucket +ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges. The girders +are braced together and carry the framing for the bucket chains, +gears, etc. + +The port vessel is provided with a compound engine of 150 indicated +horse power, with injection condenser actuating two powerful +centrifugal pumps, raising water which enters by a series of holes +into the bottom of the shoots underneath the dredged material, +carrying the material to the conduit (as indicated on Fig. 4 and in +detail on Figs. 6 and 7). + +A steel boiler of 80 square meters (860 square feet) heating surface, +and 6 atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam to the +engine. Forward on the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical +two-cylinder high pressure engine of 30 indicated horse power, which +helps to bring the barge to the desired position between the parallel +vessels. A horizontal two-cylinder engine of the same power, fitted +with reversing gear, placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder, +raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition of a strongly +framed capstan, as shown on Fig. 5. The gearing throughout is of +friction pulleys and worm and wormwheel. It is driven by belts. + +In the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of 100 indicated +horse power, with injection condenser, working the bucket chain by +means of belts and wheel gearing, as shown on Fig. 2. A marine boiler +of 46 square meters (495 square feet) heating surface and 6 +atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam. In this vessel, +it may be added, there is a cabin for the crew. + +The dimensions of the vessels are as follows; Extreme length, 25 +meters (82 ft.); breadth, 4.5 meters (14 ft. 9 in.); depth (moulded), +2.7 meters (6 ft. 63/4 in.); average draught of water, 1.4 meters (4 ft. +7 in.); space between the ships, 6.55 meters (21 ft. 6 in.) The iron +structure connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form +stanchions on both ships, connected at the top by two strong box +girders with tie pieces supporting the main framing. This main +framing, also of the "box girder" form, is strengthened with angle +irons and braced together at the tops by a platform supporting the +gearing of the bucket chains, as shown on Fig. 5. The buckets have a +capacity of 160 liters (5.65 cubic feet) and the speed in travel is at +the rate of 25 to 30 buckets per minute, so that with both ladders +working, 50 to 60 buckets are discharged per minute. The top tumbler +shaft is placed at a height of 13 meters (42 ft. 8 in.) above the +water line (Fig. 4), and the dredge conduit has a length of 50 meters +(164 ft.), Fig. 1. The shooting is done at a height of 8.5 meters (27 +ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the shoot catches the dredged +products at a height of 10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water +line, the sliding gradient being 4 to 100. The dredge conduit is +carried by timberwork resting on two of the upright box form +stanchions. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.] + +All cables are of galvanized steel and provided with open twin +buckles. The main parts of the apparatus are of steel, and all pieces +subject to wear and tear are fitted with bushes so formed that they +can be easily replaced. + +The quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus amounts to +350 cubic meters (12,360 square feet) per hour. Four plants of similar +construction have been built for the new Baltic Sea Canal, besides a +fixed elevator of the same power and disposition, with the exception +that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at a height of 16.1 meters +(51 ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the dredge conduit placed at +a distance of 13 meters (43 ft.) from it. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW. + + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.] + +The engraving given herewith shows a general view of the "Demon" cold +saw, designed for cutting iron, mild steel, or other metals of fairly +large sections, that is, up square or round, and any rectangular +section up to 8 in. by 4 in. The maker, Mr. R.G. Fiege, of London, +claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw, at once +powerful, simple and effective. It is always in readiness for work, +can be worked by inexperienced workmen. The bed plate has T slots, to +receive a parallel vise, which can be fixed at any angle for angular +cutting. The articulated lever carries a saw of 10 in. or 12 in. +diameter, on the spindle of which a bronze pinion is fixed, gearing +with the worm shown. The latter derives motion from a pair of bevel +wheels, which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in the +engraving. The lever and the saw connected with it can be raised and +held up by a pawl while the work is being fixed. In small work the +weight of the lever itself is found sufficient to feed the saw, but in +heavier work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the end of +the lever. The machine is fitted with fast and loose pulleys, strap +fork and bar. We are informed that one of these machines is capable of +making 400 cuts through bars of Bessemer steel 4 in. diameter, each +cutting occupying six minutes on an average, without changing the +saw.--_Industries_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES. + + +The railway system of the Argentine Republic is separated from the +Chilian system by the chain of the Andes. The English contractors, +Messrs. Clark & Co., have undertaken to connect them by a line which +starts from Mendoza, the terminus of the Argentine system, and ends at +Santa Rosa in Chili, with a total length of 144 miles. The distance +from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso will thus be reduced to 816 miles. The +Argentine lines are of 5.4 foot gauge, and those of Chili of 4.6 foot. + +The line in course of construction traverses an extremely hilly +region. The starting and terminal points are at the levels of 2,338 +feet (Mendoza) and 2,706 feet (Santa Rosa) above the sea; the lowest +neck of the chain is at the level of 11,287 feet. + +Study having shown that a direction line without tunnels, and even +with the steepest gradients for traction by adhesion, would lead to a +considerable lengthening of the line, and would expose it to +avalanches and to obstructions by snow, there was adopted upon a +certain length a rack track of the Abt system, with gradients of 8 per +cent., and the neck is traversed by a tunnel 3 miles in length and +1,968 feet beneath the surface. The number and length of the tunnels +upon the two declivities, moreover, are considerable. They are all +provided with rack tracks. The first 80 miles, starting from Mendoza, +are exploited by adhesion, with maximum gradients of 21/2 per cent. Upon +the remaining 64 miles, traction can be effected either by adhesion or +racks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--REGION TRAVERSED BY THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE +ANDES.] + +The track is of 3.28 foot gauge, and this will necessitate +trans-shipments upon the two systems. The rails weigh 19 pounds to the +running foot in the parts where the exploitation can be effected +either through adhesion or racks, and 17 pounds in those in which +adhesion alone will be employed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE +ANDES.] + +The special locomotives for use on the rack sections will weigh 45 +tons in service and will haul 70 ton trains over gradients of 8 +percent. Those that are to be employed upon the parts where traction +will be by adhesion will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels, +three of them coupled. The weight distributed over these latter will +be 28 tons. These engines will haul 140 ton trains over gradients of 2 +per cent. + +The earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the length, and the +track has been laid for a length of 58 miles from Mendoza. It is hoped +that it will be possible to open the line to traffic as far as to the +summit tunnels in 1891, and to finish the tunnels in 1893. These +tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock. To this effect, +it is intended to use drills actuated by electricity through dynamos +driven by waterfalls. The Ferroux system seems preferable to the +Brandt and other hydraulic systems, seeing the danger of the water +being frozen in the conduits placed outside of the tunnels.--_Le Genie +Civil_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EMPRESS OF INDIA. + + +[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA.] + +The Empress of India is intended to be the pioneer of three fast mail +steamers, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company for service in +connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway, between Vancouver and +the ports of China and Japan, thus forming the last link in the new +route to the East through British territory. Her sister ships, the +Empress of China and Empress of Japan, are to be ready in April next. +These three ships all fulfill the requirements of the Board of Trade +and of the Admiralty and Lloyd's, and are classed as 100 A1. They will +also be placed on the list of British armed cruisers for service as +commerce protectors in time of war. For this service each vessel is to +be thoroughly fitted. There are two platforms forward and two aft, for +mounting 7 in. Armstrong guns. These weapons, in the case of the +Empress of India, are already awaiting the vessel at Vancouver. The +Empress of India is painted white all over, has three pole masts to +carry fore and aft sails. She has two buff-colored funnels and a +clipper stern, and in external build much resembles the City of Rome. +Her length over all is 485 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth, 36 feet; and +gross tonnage, 5,920 tons. The hull, of steel, is divided into fifteen +compartments by bulkheads, and has a cellular double bottom 4 feet in +depth and 7 feet below the engine room. There are four complete decks. +The ship is designed to carry 200 saloon passengers, 60 second cabin, +and 500 steerage--these last chiefly Chinese coolies, for whose +special delectation an "opium room" has been provided on +board.--_Daily Graphic_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHICAGO AS A SEAPORT. + + +The prairie land in the southwest corner of Lake Michigan, which, +seventy years ago, was half morass from the overflowing of the +sluggish creek, whose waters, during flood, spread over the low-lying, +level plain, or were supplemented in the dry season by the inflow from +the lake, showed no sign of any future development and prosperity. The +few streets of wooden houses that had been built by their handful of +isolated inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect and +desertion than to increase, and ultimately to be swept away by fire, +to make room for the extravagant and gigantic buildings that to-day +characterize American civilization and commercial prosperity. Nearly +1,000 miles from the Atlantic, a greater distance from the Gulf of +Mexico, and 2,000 miles from the Pacific, no wilder dream could have +been imagined fifty years ago than that Chicago should become a +seaport, the volume of whose business should be second only to that of +New York; that forty miles of wharves and docks lining the branches of +the river should be insufficient for the wants of her commerce, and +that none of the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply +the demand. + +Yet this is the situation to-day, the difficulties of which must +increase many fold as years pass and business grows, unless some +changes are made by which increased accommodation can be obtained. The +nature of these changes has long engrossed the attention of the +municipality and their engineers, and necessity is forcing them from +discussion to action. As such action is likely to be taken soon, the +subject is of sufficient interest to the English reader to devote some +space to its consideration. + +The most important problem, however, which the works to be +undertaken--and which must of necessity be soon commenced--will have +to solve, is not one of wharf accommodation or of increased facilities +of commerce. It is the better disposal of the sewage of the city, the +system in use at present being inadequate, and growing more and more +imperfect as the city and its population increase. During the early +days of Chicago, and indeed long after, the sewage question was +treated with primitive simplicity, and with a complete disregard of +sanitary laws. + +The river and the lake in front of the city were close at hand and +convenient to receive all the discharge from the drains that flowed +into them. But this condition of things had to come to an end, for the +lake supplied the population with water, and it became too +contaminated for use. To obtain even this temporary relief involved +much of the ground level of the city being raised to a height of 14 +ft. above low water, a great undertaking carried out a number of years +ago. To obtain an adequate supply of pure water, Mr. E.S. Chesborough, +the city engineer, adopted the ingenious plan of driving a long tunnel +beneath the bed of the lake, connected at the outer end to an inlet +tower built in the water, and on shore to pumping engines. This plan +proved so successful that it is now being repeated on a larger scale, +and with a much longer tunnel, to meet the increased demands of the +large population. + +But to improve the sanitary condition of the city has been a much more +difficult undertaking, as may be gathered from the following extract +from an official report: "The present sanitary condition calls loudly +for relief. The pollution of the Desplaines and the Illinois Rivers +extends 81 miles, as far as the mouth of the Fox (see plan, Fig. 1) in +summer low water, and occasionally to Peoria (158 miles) in winter. +Outside of the direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable. +The spewing of the harbor contents into the lake, the sewers +constantly discharging therein, clouds the source of water supply (the +lake) with contamination. Relief to Chicago and equity to her +neighbors is a necessity of the early future." To make this quotation +clear it is necessary to explain the actual condition of the Chicago +sewage question. + +Long before the present metropolis had arrived at the title and +dignity of a city, the advantage to be derived from a waterway between +Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, and thence to the Mississippi, +was well understood. The scheme was, in fact, considered of sufficient +importance to call for legislation as early as 1822, in which year an +act was passed authorizing the construction of a canal having this +object. It was not commenced, however, till 1836, and was opened to +navigation in the spring of 1848. This canal extended from Chicago to +La Salle, a distance of 971/4 miles, and it had a fall of 146 ft. to low +water in the Illinois River (see Fig. 1). It was only a small affair, +6 ft. deep, and 60 ft. wide on the surface; the locks were 110 ft. +long and 18 ft. wide. The summit level, which was only 8 ft. above the +lake, was 21 miles in length. This limited waterway remained in use +for a number of years, until, in fact, the growth of Chicago rendered +it impossible to allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake. In +1865 the State of Illinois sanctioned widening and lowering the canal +so that it should flow by gravity from Lake Michigan. The enlargement +was completed in 1871, by the city of Chicago, and the sewage was then +discharged toward the Illinois River. But the flow was insufficient, +and in 1881 the State called on the city to supplement the flow by +pumping water into the canal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +In 1884, engines delivering 60,000 gallons a minute were set to work +and remedied the evil for a time, so far as the city of Chicago was +concerned, but the large discharge of sewage through the sluggish +current of the canal and into the Illinois River proved a serious and +ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the adjoining +districts. To enlarge the existing canal, increase the volume and +speed of its discharge, and to alter the levels, so that there shall +be a relatively rapid stream flowing at all times from Lake Michigan, +appears the only practical means of affording relief to the city, and +immunity to other towns and villages lying along the route of the +stream. + +The physical nature of the country is well suited for carrying out +such a project on a scale far larger than that required for sewage +purposes, and works thus carried out would, to a small extent, restore +the old water _regime_ in this part of the continent. Before the vast +surface changes produced during the last glacial period, three of the +great lakes--Michigan, Huron and Superior--discharged their waters +southward into the Gulf of Mexico by a broad river. The accumulation +of glacial debris changed all this; the southern outlet was cut off, +and a new one to the north was opened near where Detroit stands, +making a channel to Lake Erie, which then became the outlet for the +whole chain by way of Niagara. A very slight change in levels would +serve to restore the present _regime_. Around Lake Michigan the land +has been slightly raised, the summit above mean water level being only +about 8 ft. Thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is again +reached at a point near Lockport (see Fig. 2); the fall then becomes +more marked. At Lake Joliet, 10 miles further, the fall is 77 ft.; and +at La Salle, 100 miles from Chicago, the total fall reaches 146 feet. +At La Salle the Illinois River is met, and this stream, after a course +of 225 miles, enters the Missouri. In the whole distance the Illinois +River has a fall of 29 ft. "It has a sluggish current; an oozy bed and +bars, formed chiefly by tributaries, with natural depths of 2 ft. to 4 +ft.; banks half way to high waters, and low bottoms, one to six miles +wide, bounded by terraces, overflowed during high water from 4 ft. to +12 ft. deep, and intersected in dry seasons by lake, bayou, lagoon, +and marsh, the wreck of a mighty past." + +The rectification of the Illinois and the construction of a large +canal from La Salle to Lake Michigan are, therefore, all that is +necessary to open a waterway to the Gulf of Mexico, and to make +Chicago doubly a port; on the one hand, for the enormous lake traffic +now existing; on the other, for the trade that would be created in +both directions, northward to Lake Michigan, and southward to the +Gulf. + +As a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied the attention +of the United States government. A bill in 1882 authorized surveys for +"a canal from a point on the Illinois River, at or near the town of +Hennepin, by the most practical route to the Mississippi River ... and +a survey of the Illinois and Michigan Canal connecting the Illinois +River with Chicago, and estimates from its enlargements." This scheme +only contemplated navigation for boats up to 600 tons. In 1885 the +Citizens' Association, of Chicago caused a report to be made for an +extended plan. The name of Mr. L.E. Cooly, at that time municipal +sanitary engineer, was closely associated with this report, as it is +at the present time for the agitation for carrying out the works. This +report recommended that "an ample channel be created from Chicago to +the Illinois River, sufficient to carry away in a diluted state the +sewage of a large population. That this channel may be enlarged by the +State or national government to any requirement of navigation or water +supply for the whole river, creating incidentally a great water power +in the Desplaines valley." Following this report and that of a +Drainage and Water Supply Commission, a bill was introduced into +Congress supporting the recommendations that had been made, and +providing the financial machinery for carrying it into execution. +Since that date much discussion has taken place, and some little +action; meanwhile the sanitary requirements of the city are growing +more urgent, and the pressure created from this cause will enforce +some decision before long. Whether the new waterway is to be +practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains yet to be seen, but +it is tolerably certain that its dimensions and volume of water must +approximate to the latter, if the large populations of other towns are +to be satisfied. In fact the actual necessities are so great as +regards sectional area of canal and flow of water--at least 600,000 +ft. a minute--that comparatively small extra outlay would be needed +to complete the ship canal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +The attention of engineers in Chicago, as well as of the United States +government, is consequently closely directed at the present time to +such a solution of the problem as shall secure to Chicago such a +waterway as will dispose of the sewage question for very many years to +come; that shall relieve the inhabitants on the line of the canal from +all nuisances arising from the sewage disposal, and shall provide a +navigable channel for vessels of deep draught. The maps, Figs. 1 and +2, give an idea of the most favored scheme--that of Mr. Cooley. + +As will be seen, the canal commencing near the mouth of the Chicago +River passes through a cut in the low ridge forming the summit level; +then it runs to Lake Joliet, and through the valleys of the Desplaines +and Illinois Rivers, to the Mississippi at Grafton, a distance of 325 +miles. The elevations and distances of the principal points are as +follows: + +------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | + | | Low Water | | + | Miles from |Level below| High Water| + | Lake | Chicago | above Low | + | Michigan. | Datum. | Water. | + | | | | +------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | + | | ft. | ft. | +Lake Michigan | | | 4.7 | +Lake Joliet | 40 | 77 | 5 to 6 | +Kankakee River | 51.30 | 93.70 | 18 to 20 | +Morris | 61 | 100.3 | 21 | +Marseilles | 77 | 102.8 | 4 to 5 | +Ottawa | 84.5 | 132.1 | 26 | +La Salle | 100.3 | 146.6 | 28 | +Hennepin | 115.8 | 148.7 | 25 | +Peoria | 161.4 | 151.3 | 21 | +Mouth of the Illinois | 325 | 172.4 | 20 | + | | | | +------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+ + +The project in contemplation provides that the depth of the canal as +far as Lake Joliet (which is about six miles long) shall be not less +than 22 ft., and on to La Salle not less than 14 ft. at first, with +facilities to increase it to 22 ft. Beyond La Salle to the mouth of +the Illinois, dredging and flushing by the large volume of water +pouring in from Lake Michigan would make and maintain ultimately a +similar depth. + +As it appears recognized that the sewage channel of Chicago must be 15 +ft. deep, and as provision is now being made all over the great lake +system for vessels drawing 20 ft. of water, a comparatively small +additional outlay would provide for a channel available for the +largest lake vessels. It is claimed that by the co-operation of the +Chicago municipality and the general government--the latter to advance +a sum of not less than $50,000,000--a ship (and sanitary) canal 22 ft. +deep could be made from the lake to Joliet, extended thence to Utica, +20 ft. deep, and from there to the Mississippi, 14 ft. deep. + +That such a work would vastly enhance the commerce, not only of +Chicago, but of the whole section of the country through which the +canal would pass, admits of but little doubt, and probably the outlay +would be justified by results similar to those achieved with other +great canal works and rectified rivers in the United States. + +The following figures, showing the tonnage carried in 1888-89, give +some idea of the volumes of water-borne traffic in America: + + Tons. + Detroit River 19,099,060 + Erie Canal 5,370,369 + Sault Ste. Marie 7,516,022 + Welland Canal 828,271 + St. Lawrence Canal 1,500,096 + Mississippi to New Orleans 3,177,000 + " below St. Louis 845,000 + Ohio 2,236,917 + Chicago Canal and lake 11,029,575 + +Except on the Mississippi, it may be reckoned that navigation is +closed by ice during five months a year. It may be mentioned, by way +of comparison, that the traffic on the Suez Canal during the year +1888-89 was 6,640,834 tons. + +One very interesting point in connection with this work is the effect +that the diversion of so large a body of water from the lakes will +have upon their _regime_. At least 10,000 cubic feet a second would be +taken from Lake Michigan and find its way into the Mississippi; this +is approximately 41/2 per cent. of the total amount that now passes +through the St. Clair River and thence over Niagara. + +The following table gives some particulars of the great lakes and the +discharge from them: + +---------------+----------+-------+--------+----------------------- + | | | |Cubic Feet per Second. + |Elevation |Area of| Area of+-------+-------+------- + | above | Basin,| Lake, | | | + Lake. |Mean Tide.| Square| Square| Rain- |Evapo- | Dis- + | Feet. | Miles.| Miles.| fall. |ration.|charge. + | | | | | | +---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+------- + | | | | | | +Superior | 601.78 | 90,505| 38,875 |187,386| 34,495| 80,870 +Huron and Mich.| 581.28 |121,941| 50,400 |262,964| 66,754|216,435 +Erie | 572.86 | 40,298| 10,000 | 96,654| 13,870|235,578 +Ontario | 246.61 | 31,558| 7,220 | 75,692| 10,568|272,095 + | | | | | | +---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+------- + +The average variation in level of the lakes is from 18 in. to 24 in. +during the year, and the range in evaporation from year to year is +also very considerable; thus the evaporation per second on Huron and +Michigan, as given in the table above, is nearly 67,000 ft., but the +figures for another year show nearly 89,000 ft. per second, which +would represent a difference of 61/2 in. in water level. As a discharge +of 10,000 cubic feet a second into the new canal would lower the level +of these two lakes by 2.87 in. in a year, it follows that the +difference between a year of maximum and one of minimum evaporation is +more than twice as great as would be required for the canal, and even +under the most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from the whole +chain of lakes would not lower them an inch. + +When the variations in level due to different causes--rain, wind, and +evaporation being the chief--are taken into consideration, the effect +of 10,000 cubic feet a second abstracted would probably not be +noticeable. That this would be so is the opinion, after careful +investigation, of many eminent American engineers. On the other hand +there is a similar unanimity of opinion as to the advantages that +would be obtained in the condition of the Mississippi by adding to it +a tributary of such importance as the proposed canal.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +N.F. BURNHAM AND HIS LIFE WORK. + +By W.H. BURNHAM. + + +The inventor and patentee of all water wheels known as the Burham +turbine died from Bright's disease of the kidneys at his home, York, +Pa., Dec. 22, 1890, aged 68 years 9 months and 9 days. He was born in +the city of New York, March 13, 1822, and was of English-Irish and +French descent. His father was a millwright and with him worked at the +trade in Orange county, N.Y., until he was 16 years old. He then +commenced learning the watchmakers' business, which he was obliged to +relinquish, after three years, on account of his health. He then went +to Laurel, Md., in 1844, and engaged with Patuxent & Co. as mercantile +clerk and bookkeeper. In 1856 he commenced the manufacture of the +French turbine water wheel. In 1879 he sold out his Laurel interests, +went to New York and commenced manufacturing his own patents. On May +22, 1883, he founded the Drovers' and Mechanics' National Bank of +York, and was elected its first president, which position he held at +the time of his death. In 1881, with others, he built the York opera +house, at a cost of $40,000. He was a Knight Templar, and past master +of the I.O.O.F., and past sachem of Red Men. + +[Illustration: N.F. BURNHAM.] + +He was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living, having been +actually engaged in the manufacture of turbines since 1856. He first +made and sold the French Jonval turbine, which was then the best +turbine made, but being complicated in construction, it soon wore out +and leaked. From the experience he had from this wheel he invented and +patented Feb. 22, 1859, his improved Jonval turbine, which was very +simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage of power than the +French Jonval turbines. Hundreds of these improved wheels, which were +put in operation between the years 1859 and 1868, are still in use. +(We show no cut of this wheel, but it had four chutes instead of six, +as shown in March 24, 1863, patent.) + +The first wheel (72 inch) made after the patent was granted was sold +to Brightwell & Davis, Farmville, Va., and put into their flour mill +under six feet head. In 1870, Brightwell & Davis sold their mill to +Scott & Davis. Afterward G.W. Davis owned and operated the mill and +put in one 1858 patent "New Turbine." In 1889 the Farmville Mill +Company bought and remodeled the mill to roller process and required +more power than the old 1856 Jonval turbine and 1868 "New Turbine" +would yield, and on Aug. 30, 1889, sold the Farmville Mill Company two +54 inch new improved Standard turbines to displace the two old wheels. +In 1860 he commenced experimenting with different forms of buckets and +chutes, and used six chutes instead of four as first made, and was +granted patent March 24, 1863. + +This addition of chutes proved beneficial, as the wheel worked better +with the gates partly opened than it did with four chutes. His next +invention was granted him Dec. 24, 1867, which he called Burnham's +improved central and vertical discharge turbine. + +This improvement consisted in making the guide blade straight on the +outside (instead of rounding, as then made by all others), from inner +point back to bolt or gudgeon, and thick enough at the latter point to +let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt and the +arrangement for shifting the water guides. Two 42-inch wheels of this +pattern were built and put into operation, but they soon commenced +leaking water and became troublesome on account of the many small +pieces of castings and bolts, and were abandoned as worthless. There +are several manufacturers of this style of wheel that advertise them +as "simple and durable." Such a complicated case with twelve chutes +cannot be made to operate unless by a large number of castings, bolts +and studs. With these adjustable water guides, one of the objects was +obtained. Admitting the water to the wheel through chutes +corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets exposed, but not +placing the water against the face of the buckets at right angles with +the center of the wheel, except when the guide blades were full +opened, for as the guides are changed so is the current of the water +likewise changed. + +After making several differently constructed wheels and testing them a +number of times, he selected the best one and obtained a patent for it +March 3, 1868, and called it "new turbine," which he still further +improved and patented May 9, 1871. This "new turbine" consisted of the +former improved Jonval wheel, hub and buckets, with a new circular +case and new form of chutes, having a register gate entirely +surrounding the case and having apertures corresponding to those in +the case for admitting water to the wheel. This register gate was +moved by means of a segment and pinion. + +This "new turbine" soon gained for itself a reputation enjoyed by no +other water wheel. It was selected by the United States Patent Office, +and put at work in room 189, to run a pump which forces water to the +top of the building. It was likewise selected by the Japan commission +when they were in this country to select samples of our best machines. +He continued making the 1868 patent and improved in 1871 "new turbine" +but a few years, for as long as he could detect a defect in the wheel, +case or gate, he continued improving and simplifying them, and in 1873 +he erected a very complete testing flume, also made a very sensitive +dynamometer, it having a combination screw for tightening the friction +band, which required 100 turns to make one inch, and commenced making +and experimenting with different constructed turbines. He made five +different wheels and made over a hundred tests before he was +satisfied. Application was then made for a patent, which was granted +March 31, 1874, for his "Standard turbine." + +This "Standard turbine" was a combination of his former improvements, +with the cover extending over top of the gate to prevent it from +tilting, and an eccentric wheel working in cam yoke to open and close +the gate. + +Thousands of Standard turbines are to-day working and giving the best +satisfaction, and we venture to say that not one of the Standard +turbines has been displaced by any other make of turbine, which gave +better results for the water used. In 1881 he again commenced +experimenting to find out how much water could be put through a wheel +of given diameter. After making and testing several wheels it was +found that the amount of water with full gate drawn named in tables +found in Burnham Bros.' latest catalogue for each size wheel yielded +84 per cent. and that the water used with 7/8 gate drawn yielded the +same percentage (84), or with 3/4 gate 82 per cent., 5/8 gate 79, and 1/2 +gate 75 per cent. A patent for the mechanism was applied for and +granted March 27, 1883, and named Burnham's Improved Standard Turbine. + +It was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached, to prevent +the gate from rising and tilting and rubbing the curb, soon wore and +allowed the gate to rub against the curb, and he experimented with +several devices of gate arms. While so engaged he found that the great +weight of water on the top of the cover sprang it, causing the sleeve +bearing on the under side of the cover to be thrown out of place, and +the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was almost +impossible to move it, and after thoroughly testing with the different +devices of gate arms, application was made and patent granted for +adjustable gate arms, also for the new worm gate gearing May 1, 1888, +and named Burham's new improved standard turbine. + +This he improved and patented May 13, 1890, to run on horizontal +shaft. + +In the year 1872 he had two patents granted him for improvement in +water wheels, but never had any wheels built of that pattern. After +completing and patents granted for his new improved Standard turbine, +he was perfectly satisfied, and often remarked, "I cannot improve on +my register gate turbine any more, as it is as near perfection as can +be made," and he was fully convinced, for the past year he was +experimenting with a cylinder gate turbine, and patent was granted +Oct. 21, 1890. Previously he had made a 24-inch wheel, which was +tested Aug. 14, 1890, at Holyoke testing flume, and gave fair results, +and at the time of his demise he was having made a new runner for the +cylinder gate turbine, which we will complete and have tested. His +idea was to have us manufacture and sell register and cylinder gate +turbines. His inventive powers were not confined to water wheels, for +on Feb. 23, 1886, patents were granted him for automatic steam engine, +governor and lubricating device. We also remember in the year 1873 or +1874, when his mind was occupied with his "Standard turbine," he was +hindered by some device used now on locomotives of the present +construction (what it was we are unable to say), but when draughting +at his water wheel, would conflict the two, and by his invitation we +wrote to a prominent locomotive builder and had him examine the +drawings, which he had not fully completed, and sold same to him. Of +this we only have a faint recollection, but do recollect his saying: +"Well, that is off my mind now, and I can devote it to the finishing +of my new wheel."--_American Miller_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ALTERNATE CURRENT CONDENSERS. + + +At a recent meeting of the Physical Society, London, Mr. James +Swinburne read a paper on alternate current condensers. It is, he +said, generally assumed that there is no difficulty in making +commercial condensers for high pressure alternating currents. The +first difficulty is insulation, for the dielectric must be very thin, +else the volume of the condenser is too great. Some dielectrics 0.2 +mm. thick can be made to stand up to 8,000 volts when in small pieces, +but in complete condensers a much greater margin must be allowed. +Another difficulty arises from absorption, and whenever this occurs, +the apparent capacity is greater than the calculated. Supposing the +fibers of paper in a paper condenser to be conductors embedded in +insulating hydrocarbon, then every time the condenser is charged the +fibers have their ends at different potentials, so a current passes to +equalize them and energy is lost. This current increases the capacity. +One condenser made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally +large current and heated rapidly. At a high temperature it gave off +water, and the power wasted and current taken gradually decreased. + +When a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils, it heats +excessively; and the fall of potential over the air films separating +the mica and foil is great enough to cause disruptive discharge to the +surface of the mica. There appears to be a luminous layer of minute +sparks under the foils, and there is a strong smell of ozone. In a +dielectric which heats, there may be three kinds of conduction, viz., +metallic, when an ordinary conductor is embedded in an insulator; +disruptive, as probably occurs in the case of mica; and electrolytic, +which might occur in glass. In a transparent dielectric the conduction +must be either electrolytic or disruptive, otherwise light vibrations +would be damped. The dielectric loss in a cable may be serious. +Calculating from the waste in a condenser made of paper soaked in hot +ozokerite, the loss in one of the Deptford mains came out 7,000 watts. +Another effect observed at Deptford is a rise of pressure in the +mains. There is as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what +happens, and it is generally assumed that the effect depends on the +relation of capacity to self-induction, and is a sort of resonator +action. This would need a large self-induction, and a small change of +speed would stop the effect. The following explanation is suggested. +When a condenser is put on a dynamo, the condenser current leads +relatively to the electromotive force, and therefore strengthens the +field magnets and increases the pressure. + +[Illustration: T_{1} and T_{2} are large transformers; t_{1} and t_{2} +are small transformers or voltmeters V_{1} and V_{2}. The numbers 1, +4, 1, 25, represent their conversion ratios.] + +In order to test this, the following experiment was made for the +author by Mr. W.F. Bourne. A Gramme alternator was coupled to the low +pressure coil of a transformer, and a hot wire voltmeter put across +the primary circuit. On putting a condenser on the high pressure +circuit, the voltmeter wire fused. The possibility of making an +alternator excite itself like a series machine, by putting a condenser +on it, was pointed out. Prof. Perry said it would seem possible to +obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the magnets +independently, the field being altogether due to the armature +currents. Mr. Swinburne remarked that this could be done by making the +rotating magnets a star-shaped mass of iron. Sir W. Thomson thought +Mr. Swinburne's estimate of the loss in the Deptford mains was rather +high. He himself had calculated the power spent in charging them, and +found it to be about 16 horse power, and although a considerable +fraction might be lost, it would not amount to nine-sixteenths. He was +surprised to hear that glass condensers heated, and inquired whether +this heating was due to flashes passing between the foil and the +glass. Mr. A.P. Trotter said Mr. Ferranti informed him that the +capacity of his mains was about 1/3 microfarad per mile, thus making +2-1/3 microfarads for the seven miles. The heaping up of the potential +only took place when transformers were used, and not when the dynamos +were connected direct. In the former case the increase of volts was +proportional to the length of main used, and 8,500 at Deptford gave +10,000 at London. + +Mr. Blakesley described a simple method of determining the loss of +power in a condenser by the use of three electrodynamometers, one of +which has its coils separate. Of these coils, one is put in the +condenser circuit, and the other in series with a non-inductive +resistance r, shutting the condenser. If a_{2} be the reading of a +dynamometer in the shunt circuit, and a_{3} that of the divided +dynamometer, the power lost is given by r (Ca_{3} - Ba_{2}) where B and +C are the constants of the instruments on which a_{2} and a_{3} are +the respective readings. Prof. S.P. Thompson asked if Mr. Swinburne +had found any dielectric which had no absorption. So far as he was +aware, pure quartz crystal was the only substance. Prof. Forbes said +Dr. Hopkinson had found a glass which showed none. Sir William +Thomson, referring to the same subject, said that many years ago he +made some tests on glass bottles, which showed no appreciable +absorption. Sulphuric acid was used for the coatings, and he found +them to be completely discharged by an instantaneous contact of two +balls. The duration of contact would, according to some remarkable +mathematical work done by Hertz in 1882, be about 0.0004 second, and +even this short time sufficed to discharge them completely. + +On the other hand, Leyden jars with tinfoil coatings showed +considerable absorption, and this he thought due to want of close +contact between the foil and the glass. To test this he suggested that +mercury coatings be tried. Mr. Kapp considered the loss of power in +condensers due to two causes: first, that due to the charge soaking +in; and second, to imperfect elasticity of the dielectric. Speaking of +the extraordinary rise of pressure on the Deptford mains, he said he +had observed similar effects with other cables. In his experiments the +sparking distance of a 14,000 volt transformer was increased from 3/16 +of an inch to 1 inch by connecting the cables to its terminals. No +difference was detected between the sparking distances at the two ends +of the cable, nor was any rise of pressure observed when the cables +were joined direct on the dynamo. + +In his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance, and would +be a maximum for some particular frequency. Mr. Mordey mentioned a +peculiar phenomenon observed in the manufacture of his alternators. +Each coil, he said, was tested to double the pressure of the completed +dynamo, but when they were all fitted together, their insulation broke +down at the same volts. The difficulty had been overcome by making the +separate coils to stand much higher pressures. Prof. Rucker called +attention to the fact that dielectrics alter in volume under electric +stress, and said that if the material was imperfectly elastic, some +loss would result. The president said that, as some doubt existed as +to what Mr. Ferranti had actually observed, he would illustrate the +arrangements by a diagram. Speaking of condensers, he said he had +recently tried lead plates in water to get large capacities, but so +far had not been successful. + +Mr. Swinburne, in replying, said he had not made a perfect condenser +yet, for, although he had some which did not heat much, they made a +great noise. He did not see how the rise of pressure observed by Mr. +Ferranti and Mr. Kapp could be due to resonance. Mr. Kapp's experiment +was not conclusive, for the length of spark is not an accurate measure +of electromotive force. As regards Mr. Mordey's observation, he +thought the action explicable on the theory of the leading condenser +current acting on the field magnets. The same explanation is also +applicable to the Deptford case, for when the dynamo is direct on, the +condenser current is about 10 amperes, and this exerts only a small +influence on the strongly magnetized magnets. When transformers are +used, the field magnets are weak, while the condenser current rises +to 40 amperes. Mr. Blakesley's method of determining losses was, he +said, inapplicable except where the currents were sine functions of +the time; and consequently could not be used to determine loss due to +hysteresis in iron, or in a transparent dielectric.--_Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, EUROPE, AMERICA, +AND THE EAST. + +By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN. + + +There are at present twenty-six submarine cable companies, the +combined capital of which is about forty million pounds sterling. +Their revenue, including subsidies, amounts to 3,204,060L.; and their +reserves and sinking funds to 3,610,000L.; and their dividends are +from one to 143/4 per cent. The receipts from the Atlantic cables alone +amount to about 800,000L. annually. + +The number of cables laid down throughout the world is 1,045, of which +798 belong to governments and 247 to private companies. The total +length of those cables is 120,070 nautical miles, of which 107,546 are +owned by private telegraph companies, nearly all British; the +remainder, or 12,524 miles, are owned by governments. + +[Illustration: MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND +THE CONTINENT.] + +The largest telegraphic organization in the world is that of the +Eastern Telegraphic Company, with seventy cables, of a total length of +21,859 nautical miles. The second largest is the Eastern Extension, +Australasia and China Telegraph Company, with twenty-two cables, of a +total length of 12,958 nautical miles. The Eastern Company work all +the cables on the way to Bombay, and the Eastern Extension Company +from Madras eastward. The cables landing in Japan, however, are owned +by a Danish company, the Great Northern. The English station of the +Eastern Company is at Porthcurno, Cornwall, and through it pass most +of the messages for Spain, Portugal, Egypt, India, China, Japan, and +Australia. + +The third largest cable company is the Anglo-American Telegraph +Company, with thirteen cables, of a total length of 10,196 miles. + +The British government has one hundred and three cables around our +shores, of a total length of 1,489 miles. If we include India and the +colonies, the British empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen +cables of a total length of 3,811 miles. + +The longest government cable in British waters is that from Sinclair +Bay, Wick, to Sandwick Bay, Shetland, of the length of 122 miles, and +laid in 1885. The shortest being four cables across the Gloucester and +Sharpness Canal, at the latter place, and each less than 300 ft. in +length. + +Of government cables the greatest number is owned by Norway, with two +hundred and thirty-six, averaging, however, less than a mile each in +length. + +The greatest mileage is owned by the government of France with 3,269 +miles, of the total length of fifty-one cables. + +The next being British India with 1,714 miles, and eighty-nine cables; +and Germany third with 1,570 miles and forty-three cables. + +Britain being fourth with ninety miles less. The oldest cable still +in use is the one that was first laid, that namely from Dover to +Calais. It dates from 1851. + +The two next oldest cables in use being those respectively from +Ramsgate to Ostend, and St. Petersburg to Cronstadt, and both laid +down in 1853. + +Several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect England and Ireland +by means of a cable between Holyhead and Howth; but communication +between the two countries was finally effected in 1853, when a cable +was successfully laid between Portpatrick and Donaghadee (31). + +As showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in comparatively +shallow waters are exposed, we may relate the curious accident that +befell the Portpatrick cable in 1873. During a severe storm in that +year the Port Glasgow ship Marseilles capsized in the vicinity of +Portpatrick, the anchor fell out and caught on to the telegraph cable, +which, however, gave way. The ship was afterward captured and towed +into Rothesay Bay, in an inverted position, by a Greenock tug, when +part of the cable was found entangled about the anchor. + +The smallest private companies are the Indo-European Telegraph +Company, with two cables in the Crimea, of a total length of fourteen +and a half miles; and the River Plate Telegraph Company, with one +cable from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, thirty-two miles long. + +The smallest government telegraph organization is that of New +Caledonia, with its one solitary cable one mile long. + +We will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding the companies +having cables from Europe to America. + +The most important company is the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, +whose history is inseparably connected with that of the trials and +struggles of the pioneers of cable laying. + +Its history begins in 1851 when Tebets, an American, and Gisborne, an +English engineer, formed the Electric Telegraph Company of +Newfoundland, and laid down twelve miles of cable between Cape Breton +and Nova Scotia. This company was shortly afterward dissolved, and its +property transferred to the Telegraphic Company of New York, +Newfoundland and London, founded by Cyrus W. Field, and who in 1854 +obtained an extension of the monopoly from the government to lay +cables. + +A cable, eighty-five miles long, was laid between Cape Breton and +Newfoundland (22). + +Field then came to England and floated an English company, which +amalgamated with the American one under the title of the Atlantic +Telegraph Company. + +The story of the laying of the Atlantic cables of 1857 and 1865, their +success and failures, has often been told, so we need not go into any +details. It may be noted, however, that communication was first +established between Valentia and Newfoundland on August 5. 1858, but +the cable ceased to transmit signals on September 1, following. + +During that period, ninety-seven messages had been sent from Valentia, +and two hundred and sixty-nine from Newfoundland. At the present time, +the ten Atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages daily +between the two continents. The losses attending the laying of the +1865 cable resulted in the financial ruin of the Atlantic company and +its amalgamation with the Anglo-American. In 1866 the Great Eastern +successfully laid the first cable for the new company, and with the +assistance of other vessels succeeded in picking up the broken end of +the 1865 cable and completing its connection with Newfoundland. + +[Illustration: MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES FROM EUROPE AND THEIR +CONNECTIONS WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES. + +Reference to places--A, Heart's Content; B, Placentia; C, St. Peter +Miquelon; D, North Sydney, Cape Breton Island; E, Louisbourg; F Canso, +Nova Scotia; G, Halifax; H, Bird Rock; I, Madeline Isles; J, +Anticosti; K, Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island; LLL, Banks of +Newfoundland.] + +The three cables of this company presently in use and connecting +Valentia in Ireland with Heart's Content in Newfoundland, were laid in +1873, 1874, and 1880; and (1) are respectively 1886, 1846, and 1890 +nautical miles in length. This company also owns the longest cable in +the world, that namely from Brest in France to St. Pierre Miquelon, +one of a small group of islands off the south coast of Newfoundland +and which, strange to say, still belongs to France (6). + +The length of this cable is 2,685 nautical miles, or 3,092 statute +miles. It was laid in 1869. There are seven cables of a total length +of 1773 miles, connecting Heart's Content, Placentia Bay and St. +Pierre, with North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and Duxbury, near Boston, +belonging to the American company. Communication is maintained with +Germany and the rest of the Continent by means of a cable from +Valentia to Emden 846 miles long (7); and a cable from Brest to +Salcombe, Devon, connects the St. Pierre and Brest cable with the +London office of the company (10).[1] + +[Footnote 1: Cables not fully described in the text, Map B. Eight +cables at the Anglo-American Company: 7, Heart's Content to Placentia, +two cables; 8, Placentia to St. Pierre; 9, St. Pierre to North Sydney; +10, Placentia to North Sydney, two cables; 11, St. Pierre to Duxbury; +18, Charlotte's Town to Nova Scotia; 19, Government Cable, North +Sydney to Bird Rock, Madeline Isles, and Anticosti; 21, Halifax and +Bermuda Cable Company's proposed cable to Bermuda.] + +The station of the Direct United States Cable Company is situated at +Ballinskelligs Bay, Ireland (2). Its cable was laid in 1874-5, and is +2,565 miles in length. The terminal point on the other side of the +Atlantic is at Halifax, Nova Scotia, from whence the cable is +continued to Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a distance of 536 miles, and +thence by a land line of 500 miles to New York (17). + +The Commercial Cable Company's station in Ireland is at Waterville, a +short distance from Ballinskelligs (3). It owns two cables laid in +1885; the northern cable being 2,350, and the southern 2,388 miles +long. They terminate in America at Canso, Nova Scotia. From Canso a +cable is laid to Rockfort, about thirty miles south of Boston, Mass., +a distance of 518 miles (16), and another is laid to New York, 840 +miles in length (15). This company has direct communication with the +Continent by means of a cable from Waterville to Havre of 510 miles +(9), and with England by a cable to Weston-super-Mare, near Bristol, +of 328 miles (8). + +The Western Union Telegraph Company (the lessees of the lines of the +American Telegraph and Cable Company) has two cables from Sennen Cove, +Land's End, to Canso, Nova Scotia (4). The cable of 1881 is 2,531 and +that of 1882 is 2,576 miles in length. Two cables were laid November, +1889, between Canso and New York (14). + +The Compagnie Francaise du Telegraphe de Paris a New York has a cable +from Brest to St. Pierre Miquelon of 2,242 miles in length (5), from +thence a cable is laid to Louisbourg, Cape Breton (12), and another +to Cape Cod (13). It has also a cable from Brest to Porcella Cove, +Cornwall (11). + +Those ten cables owned by the six companies named, of the total milage +of 22,959, not counting connections, represent the entire direct +communication between the continents of Europe and North America. + +A new company, not included in the preceding statistics, proposes to +lay a cable from Westport, Ireland, to some point in the Straits of +Belle Isle on the Labrador coast (Map A32, Map B20). + +The station of the Eastern Telegraph Company is at Porthcurno Cove, +Penzance, from whence it has two cables to Lisbon, one laid in 1880, +850 miles long, the other laid in 1887, 892 miles long (12), and one +cable to Vigo, Spain, laid in 1873, 622 miles long (13). From Lisbon +the cable is continued to Gibraltar and the East, whither we need not +follow it, our intention being to confine ourselves entirely to a +brief account of those cables communicating directly with Europe and +America. As already stated, this company has altogether seventy +cables, of a total length of nearly 22,000 miles. + +The Direct Spanish Telegraph Company has a cable, laid in 1884, from +Kennach Cove, Cornwall, to Bilbao, Spain, 486 miles in length (14). + +Coming now to shorter cables connecting Britain with the Continent, we +have those of the Great Northern Telegraph Company, namely, Peterhead +to Ekersund, Norway, 267 miles (15). Newbiggin, near Newcastle, to +Arendal, Norway, 424 miles, and thence to Marstrand, Sweden, 98 miles. + +Two cables from the same place in England to Denmark (Hirstals and +Sondervig) of 420 and 337 miles respectively (17 and 18). + +The great Northern Company has altogether twenty-two cables, of a +total length of 6,110 miles. The line from Newcastle, is worked direct +to Nylstud, in Russia--a distance of 890 miles--by means of a "relay" +or "repeater," at Gothenburg. The relay is the apparatus at which the +Newcastle current terminates, but in ending there it itself starts a +fresh current on to Russia. + +The other continental connections belong to the government, and are as +follows: two cables to Germany, Lowestoft to Norderney, 232 miles, and +to Emden, 226 miles (19 and 20). + +Two cables to Holland: Lowestoft to Zandvoort, laid in 1858 (21), and +from Benacre, Kessingland, to Zandvoort (22). + +Two cables to Belgium: Ramsgate to Ostend (23), and Dover to Furness +(24). + +Four cables to France: Dover to Calais, laid in 1851 (25), and to +Boulogne (26), laid in 1859; Beachy Head to Dieppe (27), and to Havre +(28). + +There is a cable from the Dorset coast to Alderney and Guernsey, and +from the Devon coast to Guernsey, Jersey, and Coutances, France (29 +and 30). + +A word now as to the instruments used for the transmission of +messages. Those for cables are of two kinds, the mirror galvanometer +and the siphon recorder, both the product of Sir Wm. Thomson's great +inventive genius. + +When the Calais-Dover and other short cables were first worked, it was +found that the ordinary needle instrument in use on land lines was not +sufficiently sensitive to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary +current it was possible to send through a cable. Either the current +must be increased in strength or the instruments used must be more +sensitive. The latter alternative was chosen, and the mirror +galvanometer was the result. + +The principle on which this instrument works may be briefly described +thus: the transmitted current of electricity causes the deflection of +a small magnet, to which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of +an inch in diameter, a beam of light is reflected from a properly +arranged lamp, by the mirror, on to a paper scale. The dots and dashes +of the Morse code are indicated by the motions of the spot of light to +the right and left respectively of the center of the scale. + +The mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely superseded by the +siphon recorder. This is a somewhat complicated apparatus, with the +details of which we need not trouble our readers. Suffice it for us to +explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate its motions, by +means of fine silk fibers, to a very fine glass siphon, one end of +which dips into an insulated metallic vessel containing ink, while the +other extremity rests, when no current is passing, just over the +center of a paper ribbon. When the instrument is in use the ink is +driven out of the siphon in small drops by means of an electrical +arrangement, and the ribbon underneath is at the same time caused to +pass underneath its point by means of clockwork. + +If a current be now sent through the line, the siphon will move above +or below the central line, thus giving a permanent record of the +message, which the mirror instrument does not. The waves written by +the siphon above the central line corresponding to the dots of the +Morse code, and the waves underneath corresponding to the dashes. + +The cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies from one shilling +per word, the rate to New York and east of the Mississippi, to ten +shillings and seven pence per word, the rate to New Zealand. In order +to minimize that cost as much as possible, the use of codes, whereby +one word is made to do duty for a lengthy phrase, is much resorted to. +Of course those code messages form a series of words having no +apparent relation to each other, but occasionally queer sentences +result from the chance grouping of the code words. Thus a certain tea +firm was once astonished to receive from its agent abroad the +startling code message--"Unboiled babies detested"! + +Suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams in their +travels over the world. + +A message to India from London by the cable route requires to be +transmitted eight times at the following places: Porthcurno +(Cornwall), Lisbon, Gibraltar, Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay. + +A message to Australia has thirteen stoppages; the route taken beyond +Bombay being via Madras, Penang, Singapore, Banjoewangie and Port +Darwin (North Australia); or from Banjoewangie to Roebuck Bay (Western +Australia). + +To India by the Indo-European land lines, messages go through Emden, +Warsaw, Odessa, Kertch, Tiflis, Teheran, Bushire (Persian Gulf), Jask +and Kurrachee, but only stop twice between London and Teheran--namely, +at Emden and Odessa. + +Messages from London to New York are transmitted only twice--at the +Irish or Cornwall stations, and at the stations in Canada. Owing to +the great competition for the American traffic, the service between +London, Liverpool, and Glasgow and New York is said to be much +superior to that between any two towns in Britain. The cables are +extensively used by stock brokers, and it is a common occurrence for +one to send a message and receive a reply within five minutes. + +During breakages in cables messages have sometimes to take very +circuitous routes. For instance, during the two days, three years ago, +that a tremendous storm committed such havoc among the telegraph wires +around London, cutting off all communication with the lines connected +with the Channel cables at Dover, Lowestoft, etc., it was of common +occurrence for London merchants to communicate with Paris through New +York. The cablegram leaving London going north to Holyhead and +Ireland, across the Atlantic to New York and back _via_ St. Pierre to +Brest and thence on to Paris, a total distance of about seven thousand +miles. + +Three years ago, when the great blizzard cut off all communication +between New York and Boston, messages were accepted in New York, sent +to this country, and thence back to Boston. + +Some time ago the cables between Madeira and St. Vincent were out of +order, cutting off communication by the direct route to Brazil, and a +message to reach Rio Janeiro had to pass through Ireland, Canada, +United States, to Galveston, thence to Vera Cruz, Guatemala, +Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chili; from Valparaiso across the +Andes, through the Argentine Republic to Buenos Ayres, and thence by +East Coast cables to Rio Janeiro, the message having traversed a +distance of about twelve thousand miles and having passed through +twenty-four cables and some very long land lines, instead of passing, +had it been possible to have sent it by the direct route, over one +short land line and six cables, in all under six thousand miles. + +Perhaps some of our readers may remember having read in the newspapers +of the result of last year's Derby having been sent from Epsom to New +York in fifteen seconds, and may be interested to know how it was +done. A wire was laid from near the winning post on the race course to +the cable company's office in London, and an operator was at the +instrument ready to signal the two or three letters previously +arranged upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed the +post. When the race began, the cable company suspended work on all the +lines from London to New York and kept operators at the Irish and Nova +Scotian stations ready to transmit the letters representing the +winning horse immediately, and without having the message written out +in the usual way. When the race was finished, the operator at Epsom at +once sent the letters representing the winner, and before he had +finished the third letter, the operator in London had started the +first one to Ireland. The clerk in Ireland immediately on bearing the +first signal from London passed it on to Nova Scotia, from whence it +was again passed on to New York. The result being that the name of the +winner was actually known in New York before the horses had pulled up +after passing the judge. It seems almost incredible that such +information could be transmitted such a great distance in fifteen +seconds, but when we get behind the scenes and see exactly how it is +accomplished, and see how the labor and time of signaling can be +economized, we can easily realize the fact. + +The humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been described; we will +conclude by giving only one example. A St. Louis merchant had gone to +New York on business, and while there received a telegram from the +family doctor, which ran: "Your wife has had a child, if we can keep +her from having another to-night, all will be well." As the little +stranger had not been expected, further inquiry was made and elicited +the fact that his wife had simply had a "chill"! This important +difference having been caused simply by the omission of a single dot. + + -.-. .... .. .-.. .-.. + c h i l l = chill + -.-. .... .. .-.. -.. + c h i l d = child + +--_Hardwicke's Science-Gossip_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICITY IN TRANSITU--FROM PLENUM TO VACUUM.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Presidential address before the Institute of Electrical +Engineers, London; continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 792, page 12656.] + +By Prof. WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S. + + +If an idle pole, C, C, Fig. 12 (P=0.0001 millimeter or 0.13 M), +protected all but the point by a thick coating of glass, is brought +into the center of the molecular stream in front of the negative pole, +A, and the whole of the inside and outside of the tube walls are +coated with metal, D, D, and "earthed" so as to carry away the +positive electricity as rapidly as possible, then it is seen that the +molecules leaving the negative pole and striking upon the idle pole, +C, on their journey along the tube carry a negative charge and +communicate negative electricity to the idle pole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.] + +This tube is of interest, since it is the one in which I was first +able to perceive how, in my earlier results, I always obtained a +positive charge from an idle pole placed in the direct stream from the +negative pole. Having got so far, it was easy to devise a form of +apparatus that completely verified the theory, and at the same time +threw considerably more light upon the subject. Fig. 13, a, b, c, is +such a tube, and in this model I have endeavored to show the +electrical state of it at a high vacuum by marking a number of + and - +signs. The exhaustion has been carried to 0.0001 millimeter, or 0.13 +M, and you see that in the neighborhood of the positive pole, and +extending almost to the negative, the tube is strongly electrified +with positive electricity, the negative atoms shooting out from the +negative pole in a rapidly diminishing cone. If an idle pole is placed +in the position shown at Fig. 13, a, the impacts of positive and +negative molecules are about equal, and no decided current will pass +from it, through the galvanometer, to earth. This is the _neutral_ +point. But if we imagine the idle pole to be as at Fig. 13, b, then +the positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate over the +negative molecules, and positive electricity is shown. If the idle +pole is now shifted, as shown at Fig. 13, c, the negative molecules +preponderate, and the pole will give negative electricity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13 A.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13 B.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13 C.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.] + +As the exhaustion proceeds, the positive charge in the tube increases +and the neutral point approaches closer to the negative pole, and at a +point just short of non-conduction so greatly does the positive +electrification preponderate that it is almost impossible to get +negative electricity from the idle pole, unless it actually touches +the negative pole. This tube is before you, and I will now proceed to +show the change in direction of current by moving the idle pole. + +I have not succeeded in getting the "Edison" current incandescent +lamps to change in direction at even the highest degree of exhaustion +which my pump will produce. The subject requires further +investigation, and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies +promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the experimental +philosopher, just as the waste products of the chemist have often +proved the source of new and valuable bodies. + + +PROPERTIES OF RADIANT MATTER. + +One of the most characteristic attributes of radiant matter--whence +its name--is that it moves in approximately straight lines and in a +direction almost normal to the surface of the electrode. If we keep +the induction current passing continuously through a vacuum tube in +the same direction, we can imagine two ways in which the action +proceeds: either the supply of gaseous molecules at the surface of the +negative pole must run short and the phenomena come to an end, or the +molecules must find some means of getting back. I will show you an +experiment which reveals the molecules in the very act of returning. +Here is a tube (Fig. 14) exhausted to a pressure of 0.001 millimeter +or 1.3 M. In the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm, C, +pierced with two holes, D and E. At one part of the tube a concave +pole, A', is focused on the upper hole, D, in the diaphragm. Behind +the upper hole and in front of the lower one are movable vanes, F and +G, capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas through the +holes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.] + +On passing the current with the concave pole negative, the small veins +rotate in such a manner as to prove that at this high exhaustion a +stream of molecules issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm, while +at the same time a stream of freshly charged molecules is forced by +the negative pole through the upper hole. The experiment speaks for +itself, showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that so far the +theory is right. + +This view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced merely as a +working hypothesis, which, in the present state of our knowledge, may +be regarded as a necessary help to be retained only so long as it +proves useful. In experimental research early hypotheses have +necessarily to be modified, or adjusted, or perhaps entirely +abandoned, in deference to more accurate observations. Dumas said, +truly, that hypotheses were like crutches, which we throw away when we +are able to walk without them. + + +RADIANT MATTER AND "RADIANT ELECTRODE MATTER." + +In recording my investigations on the subject of radiant matter and +the state of gaseous residues in high vacua under electrical strain, I +must refer to certain attacks on the views I have propounded. The most +important of these questionings are contained in a volume of "Physical +Memoirs," selected and translated from foreign sources under the +direction of the Physical Society (vol. i., part 2). This volume +contains two memoirs, one by Hittorff on the "Conduction of +Electricity in Gases," and the other by Puluj on "Radiant Electrode +Matter and the So-called Fourth State." Dr. Puluj's paper concerns me +most, as the author has set himself vigorously to the task of opposing +my conclusions. Apart from my desire to keep controversial matter out +of an address of this sort, time would not permit me to discuss the +points raised by my critic; I will, therefore, only observe in passing +that Dr. Puluj has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth +state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine of four +dimensional space. + +Reference has already been made to the mistaken supposition that I +have pronounced the thickness of the dark space in a highly exhausted +tube through which an induction spark is passed to be identical with +the natural mean free path of the molecules of gas at that exhaustion. +I could quote numerous passages from my writings to show that what I +meant and said was the mean free path as amplified and modified by the +electrification.[2] In this view I am supported by Prof. Schuster,[3] +who, in a passage quoted below, distinctly admits that the mean free +path of an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in its +ordinary state. + +[Footnote 2: "The thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative +pole is the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous +molecules between successive collisions. The electrified molecules are +projected from the negative pole with enormous velocity, varying, +however, with the degree of exhaustion and intensity of the induction +current."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 530. + +"The extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited +negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are +advancing toward the pole. The conflict occurs at the boundary of the +dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of +the discharge."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 507. + +"Here, then, we see the induction spark actually illuminating the +lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative +pole."--_R.I. Lecture_, Friday, April 4, 1879. + +"The electrically excited negative pole supplies the _force majeure_, +which entirely, or partially, changes into a rectilinear action the +irregular vibration in all directions."--_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1880. page +472. + +"It is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules +is increased so as to make the mean velocity with which they +leave the negative pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous +molecules."--_Phil. Trans._, part ii., 1881, par. 719.] + +[Footnote 3: "It has been suggested that the extent of the dark space +represents the mean free path of the molecules.... It has been pointed +out by others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably +greater than the mean free path of the molecules, calculated according +to the ordinary way. My measurements make it nearly twenty times as +great. This, however, is not in itself a fatal objection; for, as we +have seen, the mean free path of an ion may be different from that of +a molecule moving among others."--Schuster, _Proc. Roy. Soc_., xlvii., +pp. 556-7.] + +The great difference between Puluj and me lies in his statement +that[4] "the matter which fills the dark space consists of mechanical +detached particles of the electrodes which are charged with statically +negative electricity, and move progressively in a straight direction." + +[Footnote 4: "Physical Memoirs," part ii., vol. i., p. 244. The +paragraph is italicized in the original.] + +To these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes, "of +different sizes, often large lumps,"[5] Puluj attributes all the +phenomena of heat, force and phosphorescence that I from time to time +have described in my several papers. + +[Footnote 5: _Loc. cit._, p. 242.] + +Puluj objects energetically to my definition "Radiant Matter," and +then proposes in its stead the misleading term "Radiant Electrode +Matter." I say "misleading," for while both his and my definitions +equally admit the existence of "Radiant Matter," he drags in the +hypothesis that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated +material of the poles. + +Puluj declares that the phenomena I have described in high vacua are +produced by his irregularly shaped lumps of radiant electrode matter. +My contention is that they are produced by radiant matter of the +residual molecules of gas. + +Were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental evidence, I +would not mention the subject to you. On such an occasion as this +controversial matter must have no place; therefore I content myself at +present by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively prove +my case. + +Let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis. Some metals, +it is well known, such as silver, gold or platinum, when used for the +negative electrode in a vacuum tube, volatilize more or less rapidly, +coating any object in their neighborhood with a very even film. On +this depends the well known method of electrically preparing small +mirrors, etc. Aluminum, however, seems exempt from this volatility. +Hence, and for other reasons, it is generally used for electrodes. + +If, then, the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to the "electrode +matter," the more volatile the metal used, the greater should be the +effect.[6] + +[Footnote 6: In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society, +November 20, 1890, by Professors Liveing and Dewar, on finely divided +metallic dust thrown off the surface of various electrodes, in vacuum +tubes, they find not only that dust, however fine, suspended in a gas +will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its +characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge, but that it is +driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course of the +discharge.] + +Here is a tube (Fig. 15, P=0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M), with two +negative electrodes, AA', so placed as to protect two luminous spots +on the phosphorescent glass of the tube. One electrode, A', is of pure +silver, a volatile metal; the other, A, is of aluminum, practically +non-volatile. A quantity of "electrode matter" will be shot off from +the silver pole, and practically none from the aluminum pole; but you +see that in each case the phosphorescence, CC', is identical. Had the +radiant electrode matter been the active agent, the more intense +phosphorescence would proceed from the more volatile pole. + +A drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus is shown in Fig. +16. A pear-shaped bulb of German glass has near the small end an inner +concave negative pole, A, of pure silver, so mounted that its +inverted image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube. In front +of this pole is a screen of mica, C, having a small hole in the +center, so that only a narrow pencil of rays from the silver pole can +pass through, forming a bright spot, D, at the far end of the bulb. +The exhaustion is about the same as in the previous tube, and the +current has been allowed to pass continuously for many hours so as to +drive off a certain portion of the silver electrode; and upon +examination it is found that the silver has all been deposited in the +immediate neighborhood of the pole; while the spot, D, at the far end +of the tube, that has been continuously glowing with phosphorescent +light, is practically free from silver. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.] + +The experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it here, so I shall not +attempt it; but I have on the table the results for examination. + +The identity of action of silver and aluminum in the first case, and +the non-projection of silver in this second instance, are in +themselves sufficient to condemn Dr. Puluj's hypotheses, since they +prove that phosphorescence is independent of the material of the +negative electrode. In front of me is a set of tubes that to my mind +puts the matter wholly beyond doubt. The tubes contain no inside +electrodes with the residual gaseous molecules; and with them I will +proceed to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments +without any inner metallic poles at all. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.] + +In all these tubes the electrodes, which are of silver, are on the +outside, the current acting through the body of the glass. The first +tube contains gas only slightly rarefied and at the stratification +stage. It is simply a closed glass cylinder, with a coat of silver +deposited outside at each end, and exhausted to a pressure of 2 +millimeters. The outline of the tube is shown in Fig. 17. I pass a +current, and, as you see, the stratifications, though faint, are +perfectly formed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PRESSURE = 2 MM.] + +The next tube, seen in outline in Fig. 18, shows the dark space. Like +the first it is a closed cylinder of glass, with a central indentation +forming a kind of hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two +compartments. This pocket, silvered on the air side, forms a hollow +glass diaphragm that can be connected electrically from the outside, +forming the negative pole, A; the two ends of the tube, also outwardly +silvered, form the positive poles, B B. I pass the current, and you +will see the dark space distinctly visible. The pressure here is 0.076 +millimeter, or 100 M. The next stage, dealing with more rarefied +matter, is that of phosphorescence. Here is an egg-shaped bulb, shown +in Fig 19, containing some pure yttria and a few rough rubies. The +positive electrode, B, is on the bottom of the tube under the +phosphorescent material; the negative, A, is on the upper part of the +tube. See how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows under +molecular bombardment, at an internal pressure of 0.00068 millimeter, +or 0.9 M. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--PRESSURE = 0.076 MM. = 100 M.] + +A shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected on to the +opposite wall of the bulb by means of an outside pole. A mica cross is +supported in the middle of the bulb (Fig. 20), and on connecting a +small silvered patch, A, on one side of the bulb with the negative +pole of the induction coil, and putting the positive pole to another +patch of silver, B, at the top, the opposite side of the bulb glows +with a phosphorescent light, on which the black shadow of the cross +seems sharply cut out. Here the internal pressure is 0.00068 +millimeter, or 0.9 M. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.] + +Passing to the next phenomenon, I proceed to show the production of +mechanical energy in a tube without internal poles. It is shown in +Fig. 21 (P = 0.001 millimeter, or 1.3 M). It contains a light wheel of +aluminum, carrying vanes of transparent mica, the poles, A B, being in +such a position outside that the molecular focus falls upon the vanes +on one side only. The bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is +projected on the screen; if I now pass the current, you see the wheels +rotate rapidly, reversing in direction as I reverse the current. + +Here is an apparatus (Fig. 22) which shows that the residual gaseous +molecules when brought to a focus produce heat. It consists of a glass +tube with a bulb blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool, +C, fixed in the center, and exhausted to a pressure of 0.000076 +millimeter, or 0.1 M. The negative electrode, A, is formed by coating +part of the outside of the bulb with silver, and it is in such a +position that the focus of rays falls upon the carbon wool. The +positive electrode, B, is an outer coating at the other end of the +tube. I pass the current, and those who are close may see the bright +sparks of carbon raised to incandescence by the impact of the +molecular stream. + +You thus have seen that all the old "radiant matter" effects can be +produced in tubes containing no metallic electrodes to volatilize. It +may be suggested that the sides of the tube in contact with the +outside poles become electrodes in this case, and that particles of +the glass itself may be torn off and projected across, and so produce +the effects. This is a strong argument, which fortunately can be +tested by experiment. In the case of this tube (Fig. 23, P = 0.00068 +millimeter, or 0.9 M), the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing +blue under molecular bombardment. Inside the bulb, completely covering +the part that would form the negative pole, A, I have placed a +substantial coat of yttria, so as to interpose a layer of this earth +between the glass and the inside of the tube. The negative and +positive poles are silver disks on the outside of the bulb, A being +the negative and B the positive poles. If, therefore, particles are +torn off and projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence, these +particles will not be particles of glass, but of yttria; and the spot +of phosphorescent light, C, on the opposite side of the bulb will not +be the dull blue of lead glass, but the golden yellow of yttria. You +see there is no such indication; the glass phosphoresces with its +usual blue glow, and there is no evidence that a single particle of +yttria is striking it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pressure = 0.000076 MM. = 0.1 M.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pressure = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.] + +Witnessing these effects I think you will agree I am justified in +adhering to my original theory, that the phenomena are caused by the +radiant matter of the residual gaseous molecules, and certainly not by +the torn-off particles of the negative electrode. + + +PHOSPHORESCENCE IN HIGH VACUA. + +I have already pointed out that the molecular motions rendered visible +in a vacuum tube are not the motions of molecules under ordinary +conditions, but are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions +and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus. + +Experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules may traverse more +than a hundred times the _mean_ free path, with a correspondingly +increased velocity, until they are arrested by collisions. Indeed, the +molecular free path may vary in one and the same tube, and at one and +the same degree of exhaustion. + +Very many bodies, such as ruby, diamond, emerald, alumina, yttria, +samaria, and a large class of earthy oxides and sulphides, +phosphoresce in vacuum tubes when placed in the path of the stream of +electrified molecules proceeding from the negative pole. The +composition of the gaseous residue present does not affect +phosphorescence; thus, the earth yttria phosphoresces well in the +residual vacua of atmospherical air, of oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic +anhydride, hydrogen, iodine, sulphur and mercury. + +With yttria in a vacuum tube, the point of maximum phosphorescence, as +I have already pointed out, lies on the margin of the dark space. The +diagram (Fig. 24) shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence in +different parts of a tube at an internal pressure of 0.25 millimeter, +or 330 M. On the top you see the positive and negative poles, A and B, +the latter having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted +line, C. The curve, D E F, shows the relative intensities of the +phosphorescence at different distances from the negative pole, and the +position inside the dark space at which phosphorescence does not +occur. The height of the curve represents the degree of +phosphorescence. The most decisive effects of phosphorescence are +reached by making the tube so large that the walls are outside the +dark space, while the material submitted to experiment is placed just +at the edge of the dark space. + +Hitherto I have spoken only of the phosphorescence of substances +placed under the negative pole. But from numerous experiments I find +that bodies will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative +pole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24--PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M.] + +This is only a temporary phenomenon, and ceases entirely when the +exhaustion is pushed to a very high point. The experiment is one +scarcely possible to exhibit to an audience, so I must content myself +with describing it. A U-tube, shown in Fig. 25, has a flat aluminum +pole, in the form of a disk, at each end, both coated with a paint of +phosphorescent yttria. As the rarefaction approaches about 0.5 +millimeter the surface of the negative pole, A, becomes faintly +phosphorescent. On continuing the exhaustion this luminosity rapidly +diminishes, not only in intensity but in extent, contracting more and +more from the edge of the disk, until ultimately it is visible only as +a bright spot in the center. This fact does not prop a recent theory, +that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge leaves the center of +the pole and takes place only between the edge and the walls of the +tube. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.] + +If the exhaustion is further pushed, then, at the point where the +surface of the negative pole ceases to be luminous, the material on +the positive pole, B, commences to phosphoresce, increasing in +intensity until the tube refuses to conduct, its greatest brilliancy +being just short of this degree of exhaustion. The probable +explanation is that the vagrant molecules I introduce in the next +experiment, happening to come within the sphere of influence of the +positive pole, rush violently to it, and excite phosphorescence in the +yttria, while losing their negative charge. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 794, page 12690.] + + + + +GASEOUS ILLUMINANTS.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts, +London. From the _Journal_ of the Society.] + +By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES. + + +V. + +Having now brought before you the various methods by which ordinary +coal gas can be enriched, so as to give an increased luminosity to the +flame, I wish now to discuss the methods by which the gas can be +burnt, in order to yield the greatest amount of light, and also the +compounds which are produced during combustion. + +In the first lecture, while discussing the theory of luminous flames, +I pointed out that, in an atmospheric burner, it was not the oxygen of +the air introduced combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons, and +so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon, which gave the +non-luminous flame, but the diluting action of the nitrogen, which +acted by increasing the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are +broken up, and carbon liberated, a fact which was proved by +observation that heating the mixture of gas and air again restored the +luminosity of the flame. This experiment clearly shows that +temperature is a most important factor in the illuminating value of a +flame, and this is still further shown by a study of the action of the +diluents present in coal gas, the non-combustible ones being far more +deleterious than the combustible, as they not only dilute, but +withdraw heat. + +Anything which will increase the temperature of the flame will also +increase the illuminating power, provided, of course, that the +increase in temperature is not obtained at the expense of the too +rapid combustion of the hydrocarbons. + +As has been shown in the experiments relating to the action of +diluents on flame, already quoted, oxygen, when added to coal gas, +increases its illuminating value to a marked and increasing degree, +until a certain percentage has been added, after which the +illuminating power is rapidly decreased, until the point is reached +when the mixture becomes explosive. This is due to the fact that the +added oxygen increases the temperature of the flame by doing the work +of the air, but without the cooling and diluting action of the +nitrogen; when, however, a certain proportion is added, it begins to +burn up the heavy hydrocarbons, and although the temperature goes on +increasing, the light-giving power is rapidly diminished by the +diminution of the amount of free carbon in the flame. + +It has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor coal gas by +admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made under Tatham's patents, in +which crude oils are cracked at a comparatively low temperature, and +are there mixed with from 12 to 24 per cent. of oxygen gas. Oil gas +made at low temperatures, _per se_, is of little use as an illuminant, +as it burns with a smoky flame, and does not travel well, but when +mixed with a certain amount of oxygen, it gives a very brilliant white +light, and no smoke, while as far as experiments have at present gone, +its traveling powers are much improved. + +At first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix a heavy +hydrocarbon gas with oxygen, but it must be remembered that although +hydrogen and carbon monoxide only need to be mixed with half their own +volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture, yet as the number +of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the combustible gas increase, so does +the amount of oxygen needed to give explosion. Thus coal gas needs +rather more than its own volume, and ethylene three times its volume, +to give the maximum explosive results, while these mixtures begin to +be explosive when 10 per cent. of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or +water gas, 30 per cent. with coal gas, and over 50 per cent. of oil +gas of the character used. It is claimed that if this gas was used as +an enricher of coal gas, 5 per cent. of it would increase the +luminosity of 16-candle gas by about 40 per cent. + +Oxygen has been obtained for some time past from the air on a +commercial scale by the Brin process, and at the present time there +seems every prospect of our being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of +about 3s. 6d. per 1,000 cubic feet. Another process by which this +important result can also be obtained was first introduced by Tessie +du Mothay, and has now just been revived. It consists of passing +alternate currents of steam and air over sodic manganate heated to +dull redness in an iron tube; the process has never been commercially +successful, for the reason that the contents of the tube fused, and +flowing over the surface of the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or +retorts, and also as soon as fusion took place, the mass became so +dense that it had little or no action on the air passing over it. Now, +however, this difficulty has been partly overcome by so preparing the +manganate as to prevent fusion, and to keep it in a spongy state, +which gives very high results, and the substance being practically +everlasting, the cost of production is extremely low. + +It is proposed to feed this by a separate system of pipes to small gas +jets, and by converting them into practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes, +to raise solid masses of refractory material to incandescence, and +also by supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular +construction, to obtain a very great increase in illuminating power. + +Whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen would be successful or +not, I do not wish to discuss at the present time, but there is no +doubt but that cheap oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas +manager, as by mixing 0.8 per cent. of oxygen with his coal gas before +purification, he could not only utilize the method so successfully +introduced by Mr. Valon at Ramsgate, but could also increase the +illuminating value of his gas. + +In speaking of the structure of flame, I pointed out that close to the +burner from which the gas giving the flame is issuing, a space exists +in which no combustion is going on--in other words, a flame is never +in contact with the rim of the burner. This is best seen when the gas +is turned low--with a batswing burner, for instance--turned so low +that only a small non-luminous flame is left, the space between burner +and flame will appear as great as the flame itself, while, if the gas +is mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide, the space can be +very much increased. + +Several theories have been brought forward to explain this phenomenon, +but the true one is that the burner abstracts so much heat from the +flame at that point that it is unable to burn there, and this can be +proved by the fact that where a cold object touches the flame, a +dividing space, similar to that noticed between flame and burner, will +always be observed, and the colder the object and the more diluted the +gas the greater is the observed space. If a cold metal wire or rod is +held in a non-luminous flame, it causes an extinction of the gas for +some considerable space around itself; but as the temperature of the +rod rises, this space becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is +heated to redness, and then the flame comes in contact with the rod. + +In the same way, if the burner from which the gas is issuing be heated +to redness, the space between burner and flame disappears. It has +already been shown that cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces +the illuminating value, and finally renders it more luminous; and we +are now in a position to discuss the points which should be aimed at +in the construction of a good gas burner. + +In the first place, a sensible diminution in light takes place when a +metal burner is employed, and the larger the surface and thickness of +the metal the worse will be its action on the illuminating power of +the flame; but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom of +the flame, so that with a small flame the total effect is very great, +and with a very large flame almost _nil_. + +The first point, therefore, to attend to is that the burner shall be +made of a good non-conductor. In the next place, the flow of the gas +must be regulated to the burner, as, if you have a pressure higher +than that for which the burner is constructed, you at once obtain a +roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power, as the too rapid rush +of gas from the burner causes a mingling of gas and air and a +consequent cooling of the flame. The tap also which regulates the +flame is better at a distance from the burner than close to it, as any +constriction near the burner causes eddies, which give an unsteady +flame. + +These general principles govern all burners, and we will now take the +ordinary forms in detail. In the ordinary flat flame burner, given a +good non-conducting material, and a well regulated gas supply, little +more can be done, while burning it in the ordinary way, to increase +its luminosity; and it is the large surface of flame exposed to the +cooling action of the air which causes this form of burner to give the +lowest service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed. Much is done, +moreover, by faulty fittings and shades, to reduce the already poor +light given out, because the light-yielding power of the flame largely +depends upon its having a well rounded base and broad, luminous zone; +and when a globe with a narrow opening is used with such a flame--as +is done in 99 out of 100 cases--the updraught drags the flame out of +shape, and seriously impairs its light-giving powers, a trouble which +can be got over by having the globe with an opening at the bottom not +less than 4 inches in diameter, and having small shoulders fixed to +the burner, which draw out the flame and protect the base from the +disturbing influence of draughts. + +The Argand burner differs from the flat flame burners in that a +circular flame is employed. The air supply is regulated by a +cylindrical glass, and this form of burner gives a better service than +the flat flame burner, as not only can the supply of gas and air be +better adjusted, but the air being slightly warmed by the hot glass +adds to the temperature of the flame, which is also increased by +radiation from the opposite side of the flame itself. + +The chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon the fact that, +being circular, the light from the inner surface has to pass through +the wall of flame, and careful photometric experiments show that the +solid particles present in the flame so reduce its transparency that a +loss amounting to about 25 per cent. of light takes place during its +transmission. + +The height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted to the size of +the flame, as too long a chimney, by increasing the air supply unduly, +cools, and so lowers the illuminating power of the flame. Experiments +with carbureted water gas gave the following results, with a +consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour: + +----------------------------------------------------- + Size of Chimney. | Height of Flame. | Candle Power. | +------------------+------------------+---------------| + 6 X 1-7/8 | 2-1/2 | 21 | + 7 X 1-7/8 | 2-1/4 | 21.3 | + 8 X 1-7/8 | 2-1/8 | 20.8 | + 9 X 1-7/8 | 1-7/8 | 18.2 | +------------------+------------------+---------------+ + +For many years no advance was made upon these forms of burner, but +when, ten years ago, it was recognized that anything which cools the +flame reduces its value, while anything which increases its +temperature raises its illuminating power, then a change took place in +the forms of burner in use, and the regenerative burners, introduced +by such men as Siemens, Grimston, and Bower, commenced what was really +a revolution in gas lighting. + +By utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products of combustion +to raise the temperature of the gas and air which are to enter into +combination in the flame, an enormous increase in the temperature of +the solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained, and a far +greater and whiter light is the result. + +The Bower lamp, in which (at any rate in the later forms) the flame +burns between a downward and an upward current of air, was one of the +first produced, and so well has it been kept up to date that it still +holds its own; while as types of the "inverted cone" regenerative +burner, we may also take the Cromarty and Wenham lights, which have +been followed by a host of imitators, and so closely are the original +types adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what the use of +the Patent Office really is. + +The Schulke, and the last form of Siemens regenerative burner, +however, stand apart from all the others by dealing with flat and not +conical flames, and in both regeneration is carried on to a high +degree. The only drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by +far the best form of gas stove as well as burner, and that the amount +of heat thrown out by the radiant solid matter in the flame is, under +some circumstances, an annoyance. But, on the other hand, we must not +forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead burners, and +that nearly every form of regenerative lamp can be adapted as a +ventilating agent, and that with the withdrawal of the products of +combustion from the air of the room, the great and only serious +objection to gas as an illuminant disappears. + +When coal gas is burned, the hydrogen is supposed to be entirely +converted into water vapor, and the carbon to finally escape into the +air as carbon dioxide; and if this were so, every cubic foot of gas +consumed would produce approximately 0.52 cubic foot of carbon dioxide +and 1.34 cubic feet of water vapor, while the illuminating power +yielded by the cubic foot of gas will, of course, vary with the kind +of burner used. + +Roughly speaking, the ordinary types of burner give the following +results: + + ------------------------------------------------------------ + | Illuminating | Products of Combustion + | Power in | per + Name of Burner. | Candles per | Candle Power. + | c.f. of gas |------------------------ + | Consumed. | Carbon | Water + | | Dioxide. | Vapor. + -----------------+-----------------+------------+----------- + Batswing. | 2.9 | 0.18 c.f. | 0.46 c.f. + Argand. | 3.3 | 0.16 c.f. | 0.40 c.f. + Regenerative. | 10.0 | 0.05 c.f. | 0.13 c.f. + -----------------+-----------------+------------+------------ + +So that the regenerative forms of burner, by giving the greatest +illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, yield a smaller +amount of vitiation to the air per candle of light emitted. + +An ordinary room, say 16' X 12' X 10', would not be considered +properly illuminated unless the light were at least equal to 32 candle +power; and in the table below the amount of the oxygen used up and the +products of combustion formed by each class of illuminant and burner +in attaining this result are given, the number of adults who would +exhale the same amount during respiration being also stated. + +From these data it appears, according to rules by which the degree of +vitiation of the air in any confined space is measured by the amount +of oxygen used up and carbon dioxide formed, that candles are the +worst offenders against health and comfort. Oil lamps come next, and +gas least. This, however, is an assumption which practical experience +does not bear out. Discomfort and oppression in a room lighted by +candles or oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older +forms of gas burner; and the partial explanation of this is to be +found in the fact that, when a room is illuminated with candles or +oil, people are contented with a feebler and more local light than +when using gas. In a room of the size described, the inmates would be +more likely to use two candles placed near their books, or on a table, +than thirty-two scattered about the room. + +Moreover, the amount of water vapor given off during the combustion of +gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants. Water vapor +having a great power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas +becomes heated, and diffusing itself about the room, causes great +feeling of oppression; the air also being highly charged with +moisture, is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapor which is +always evaporating from the surface of our skin, whereby the functions +of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of +_malaise_. + +Added to these, however, is a far more serious factor which has, up to +the present, been overlooked, and that is that an ordinary gas flame, +in burning, yields distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and +acetylene, the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest traces +produces headache and general physical discomfort, while its effect +upon plant life is equally marked. + + +AMOUNT OF OXYGEN REMOVED FROM THE AIR, AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER +VAPOR GENERATED TO GIVE AN ILLUMINATION EQUAL TO 32 CANDLE POWER. + +(The amount of light required in a room 16' X 12' x 10'.) + + |Quantity of | | Products of Combustion| | + | Materials | Oxygen | | Carbon | | +Illuminant | Used | Removed |Water Vapor| Dioxide |Adults| +--------------+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------+ +Sperm Candles |3,840 grains|19.27 c.f.|13.12 c.f. |13.12 c.f. | 21.8 | +Paraffin Oil |1,984 " |12.48 c.f.| 7.04 c.f. | 8.96 c.f. | 14.9 | +Gas (London)--| | | | | | + Burners: | | | | | | + Batswing | 11 c.f. |13.06 c.f.|14.72 c.f. | 5.76 c.f. | 9.6 | + Argand | 9.7 c.f. |11.52 c.f.|12.80 c.f. | 5.12 c.f. | 8.5 | + Regenerative| 3.2 c.f. | 3.68 c.f.| 4.16 c.f. | 1.60 c.f. | 2.6 | + +Ever since the structure of flame has been noted and discussed, it has +been accepted as a fact beyond dispute that the outer almost invisible +zone which is interposed between the air and the luminous zone of the +flame is the area of complete combustion, and that here the unburnt +remnants of the flame gases, meeting the air, freely take up oxygen +and are converted into the comparatively harmless products of +combustion, carbon dioxide and water vapor, which only need partial +removal by any haphazard process of ventilation to keep the air of the +room fit to support animal life. I have, however, long doubted this +fact, and at length, by a delicate process of analysis have been able +to confirm my suspicions. The outer zone of a luminous flame is not +the zone of complete combustion; it is a zone in which luminosity is +destroyed in exactly the same way that it is destroyed in the Bunsen +burner; that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools +down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered +non-luminous, while some of the gas sinks below the point at which it +is capable of burning, with the result that considerable quantities of +the products of incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene +escape into the air, and render it actively injurious. + +I have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe, with a circular +loop on the end, the interior of the loop being pierced with minute +holes, and by making a circular flame burn within the loop so that the +non-luminous zone of the flame just touched the inside of the loop, +and then by aspiration so gentle as not to distort the shape of the +flame, withdrawing the gases escaping from the outer zone. On +analyzing these by a delicate process, which will be described +elsewhere, I arrived at the following results: + + GASES ESCAPING FROM THE OUTER ZONE OF FLAME. + + Luminous. Bunsen. + + Nitrogen. 76.612 80.242 + Water vapor. 14.702 13.345 + Carbon dioxide. 2.201 4.966 + Carbon monoxide. 1.189 0.006 + Oxygen. 2.300 1.430 + Marsh gas. 0.072 0.003 + Hydrogen. 2.888 0.008 + Acetylene. 0.036 Nil. + ------- ------- + 100.000 100.000 + +The gases leaving the luminous flame show that the diluting action of +the nitrogen is so great that considerable quantities even of the +highly inflammable and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion, +while the products of incomplete combustion are present in sufficient +quantity to account perfectly for the deleterious effects of gas +burners in ill-ventilated rooms. The analyses also bring out very +clearly the fact that, although the dilution of coal gas by air in +atmospheric burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of the +heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon, and so destroy +luminosity, yet the presence of the extra supply of oxygen does make +the combustion far more perfect, so that the products of incomplete +combustion are hardly to be found in the escaping gases. + +These experiments are of the gravest import, as they show more clearly +than has ever been done before the absolute necessity for special and +perfect ventilation where coal gas is employed for the illumination of +our dwelling rooms. + +When coal gas was first employed during the early part of this century +as an illuminating agent, the low pitch of the old fashioned rooms, +and the excess of impurities in the gas, rendered it imperative that +the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas should be +conducted from the apartment, and for this purpose arrangements of +tubes with funnel shaped openings were suspended over the burners. The +noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or open air; but +this type of ventilator was unsightly in the extreme, and some few +attempts were made to replace it by a more elegant arrangement, as in +the ventilating lamp invented by Faraday, and in the adaptation of the +same principle by Mr. I.O.N. Rutter, who strove for many years to +direct attention to the necessity of removing the products of +combustion from the room. But with the increase of the gas industry, +the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually more and more +perfect, while the rooms in the modern houses were made more lofty; +and the products of combustion being mixed with a larger volume of +air, and not containing so many deleterious constituents, became, if +not much less noxious, at all events less perceptible to the nose. As +soon as this point was reached, the ventilating tubes were discarded, +and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms has been +contaminated by illuminants, with hardly an effort to alleviate the +effect produced upon health. I say "hardly an effort," for the Messrs. +Boyle tried, by their concentric tube ventilators, to meet the +difficulty, while Mr. De la Garde and Mr. Hammond have each +constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the Rutter lamp; +but either from their being somewhat unsightly, or from their +diminishing the amount of light given out, none of them have met with +any degree of success. In places of public entertainment, where large +quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating purposes, the +absolute necessity for special ventilation gave rise to the "sun +burner," with its ventilating shaft. This, however, gives but a very +poor illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, due partly to +the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced, and partly to +its distance from the objects to be illuminated. + +The great difficulty which in the whole history of ventilation has +opposed itself to the adoption of proper arrangements for removing the +products of combustion has been the necessity of bringing the tube to +carry off the gases low down into the room, and of incasing the burner +in such a way that none of the products should escape; but with the +present revolution in gas burners this necessity is entirely done away +with, and the regenerative burner offers the means not only of +removing all the products of combustion but also of effecting thorough +ventilation of the room itself, as experiments made some few years ago +showed me that a ventilating regenerative burner, burning 20 cubic +feet of gas per hour and properly fitted, will not only remove all its +own products of combustion, but also over 5,000 cubic feet per hour of +the vitiated air from the upper part of the room. I am quite aware +that many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections to fitting +ventilating lamps, these being chiefly due to the fact that it +requires considerable trouble to fit them properly; but I think I have +said enough to show the absolute necessity of some such system, and +when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps, engineering +skill will soon find means to overcome any slight difficulties which +exist. + +Having disposed in a few words of a subject which, if fully treated, +would occupy a long course of lectures by itself, I will pass on to +the consideration of gas as at present used as a fuel. + +There is no doubt that gas is the most convenient and in many ways one +of the best forms of fuel for heating and cooking purposes, and the +efforts which all large gas companies are now making to popularize and +increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly bear fruit +in the future. But before the day can come for gas to be used in this +way on a large scale, there is one fact which the gas manager and gas +stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to, and that is +that no gas stove or gas water heater, of any construction, should be +sent out or fitted without just as great care being taken to provide +for the carrying away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary +fuel range was being fitted. Do not for one moment allow yourself to +be persuaded that, because a gas stove or geyser does not send out a +mass of black smoke, the products of combustion can be neglected and +with safety allowed to mingle with the atmosphere we are to breathe. + +Scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are recorded from the +products of combustion given off from various forms of water heaters +used in bath rooms; scarcely a cookery class is given, with gas +stoves, that one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from an +intense headache, and often in an almost fainting condition. And the +same cause which brings about these extreme cases, on a smaller scale +causes such physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons +that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely decline to have +gas as an illuminant or fuel in any of their living rooms; and if the +use of gas, more especially as fuel, is to be extended, and if gas is +to hold its own in the future against such rivals as the electric +light, then those interested in gas and gas stoves must face the +problem, and by improving the methods of burning and using gas do away +with the present serious drawbacks which exist to its use. + +The feeling has gradually been gaining ground in the public mind that, +when atmospheric burners and other devices for burning coal gas are +employed for heating purposes, certain deleterious products of +incomplete combustion find their way into the air, and that this takes +place to a considerable extent is shown by the facts brought forward +in a paper read by Mr. William Thomson before the last meeting of the +British Association. + +Mr. Thomson attempted to separate and determine the quantity of carbon +monoxide and hydrocarbons present in the flue gases from various forms +of gas stoves and burners, but, like every other observer who has +attempted to solve this most difficult problem, he found it so beset +with difficulties that he had to abandon it, and contented himself +with determining the total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in +an unburned condition, experiments which showed that the combustion of +gas in stoves for heating purposes is much more incomplete than one +had been in the habit of supposing, but his experiments give no clew +as to whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of such +deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene, or comparatively +harmless gases, such as marsh gas and hydrogen. After considerable +work upon the subject, I have succeeded in doing this by a very +delicate process of analysis, and I now wish to lay some of my results +before you. + +If a cold substance, metal or non-metal, be placed in a flame, whether +it be luminous or non-luminous, it will be observed that there is a +clear space, in which no combustion is taking place, formed round the +cool surface, and that as the body gets heated so this space gets less +and less until, when the substance is at the same temperature as the +flame itself, there is contact between the two. Moreover, when a +luminous flame is employed in this experiment the space still exists +between the cool body and the flame, but you also notice that the +luminosity is decreased over a still larger area although the flame +exists. + +This meaning that, in immediate contact with the cold body, the +temperature is so reduced that the flame cannot exist, and so is +extinguished over a small area; while over a still larger space the +temperature is so reduced that it is not hot enough to bring about +decomposition of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon to +the same extent as in hotter portions of the flame. Now, inasmuch as +when water is heated or boiled in an open vessel, the temperature +cannot rise above 100 deg.C., and as the temperature of an ordinary flame +is over 1,000 deg.C., it is evident that the burning gas can never be in +contact with the bottom of the vessel, or, in other words, the gas is +put out before combustion is completed, and the unburned gas and +products of incomplete combustion find their way into the air and +render it perfectly unfit for respiration. + +The portion of the flame which is supposed to be the hottest is about +half an inch above the tip of the inner zone of the flame, and it is +at this point that most vessels containing water to be heated are made +to impinge on the flame; and it is this portion of the flame, also, +which is utilized for raising various solids to a temperature at which +they radiate heat. + +In order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination which the +air undergoes when a geyser or cooking stove is at work, I have +determined the composition of the products of combustion, and the +unburned gases escaping when a vessel containing water at the ordinary +temperatures is heated up to the boiling point by a gas flame, the +vessel being placed, in the first case, half an inch above the inner +cone of the flame, and in the second, at the extreme outer tip of the +flame. + + GASES ESCAPING DURING CHECKED COMBUSTION. + + | Bunsen flame. | Luminous flame. + +-----------+-----------+-------------+---------- + | Inner. | Outer. | Inner. | Outer. + +-----------+-----------+-------------+---------- +Nitrogen | 75.75 | 79.17 | 77.52 | 69.41 +Water vapor | 13.47 | 14.29 | 11.80 | 19.24 +Carbon dioxide | 2.99 | 5.13 | 4.93 | 8.38 +Carbon monoxide | 3.69 | Nil. | 2.45 | 2.58 +Marsh gas | 0.51 | 0.31 | 0.95 | 0.39 +Acetylene | 0.04 | Nil. | 0.27 | Nil. +Hydrogen | 3.55 | 0.47 | 2.08 | Nil. + +-----------+-----------+-------------+---------- + | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 + +These figures are of the greatest interest, as they show conclusively +that the extreme top of the Bunsen flame is the only portion of the +flame which can be used for heating a solid substance without +liberating deleterious gases; and this corroborates the previous +experiment on the gases in the outer zone of a flame, which showed +that the outer zone of a Bunsen flame is the only place where complete +combustion is approached. + +Moreover, this sets at rest a question which has been over and over +again under discussion, and that is whether it is better to use a +luminous or a non-luminous flame for heating purposes. Using a +luminous flame, it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon, which +is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer surface, and the +carbon dioxide formed by the complete combustion of the carbon already +burned up in flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide, so that +even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it is impossible to heat a +cool body without giving rise to carbon monoxide, although acetylene +being absent, gas stoves, in which small flat flame burners are used, +have not that subtile and penetrating odor which marks the ordinary +atmospheric burner stove, with the combustion checked just at the +right spot for the formation of the greatest volume of noxious +products. + +It is the contact of the body to be heated with the flame before +combustion is complete which gives rise to the greatest mischief; any +cooling of the flame extinguishes a portion of the flame, and the +gases present in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along the +cooled surface and escape combustion. + +Dr. Blochmann has shown the composition of the gases in various parts +of the Bunsen flame to be as follows: + + Height above tube. |In tube. |1 inch. |2 inch. |3 inch. |Complete + | | | | |combustion + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + Air with 100 vols. | | | | | + gas | 253.9 | 284.7 | 284.5 | 484.3 | 608.8 + Hydrogen | 48.6 | 36.4 | 17.7 | 16.1 | Nil. + Marsh gas | 39.0 | 40.1 | 28.0 | 5.7 | Nil. + Carbon monoxide | 2.9 | 2.2 | 19.9 | 12.7 | Nil. + Olefiant gas | 4.0 | 3.4 | 2.2 | Nil. | Nil. + Buteylene | 3.0 | 2.5 | 1.6 | Nil. | Nil. + Oxygen | 52.7 | 52.0 | 21.7 | Nil. | Nil. + Nitrogen | 199.1 | 223.8 | 225.9 | 382.4 | 482.3 + Carbon dioxide | 0.8 | 3.5 | 13.0 | 41.7 | 62.4 + Water vapor | 3.1 | 11.8 | 45.8 | 116.1 | 141.2 + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Which results show that it would be impossible to check the flame +anywhere short of the extreme tip (where complete combustion is +approximately taking place), without liberating deleterious products. +I think I have said enough to show that no gas stove, geyser or gas +cooking stove should be used without ample and thorough means of +ventilation being provided, and no trace of the products of combustion +should be allowed to escape into the air; until this is done, the use +of improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious injury on +the health of the people using them, and this will gradually result in +the abandonment of gas as a fuel, instead of, as should be the case, +its coming into general use. The English householder is far too prone +to accept what is offered to him, without using his own common sense, +and will buy the article which tickles his eye the most and his pocket +the least, on the bare assurance of the shopkeeper, who is only +anxious to sell; but when he finds that health and comfort are in +jeopardy, and has discarded the gas stove, it will take years of labor +to convince him that it was the misuse of gas which caused the +trouble. Already signs are not wanting that the employers of gas +stoves are beginning to fight shy of them, and I earnestly hope that +the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to bear upon the +stove manufacturers to give proper attention to this all important +question. + +So strongly do I feel the importance of this question to the gas world +and the public, that I freely offer to analyze the products of +combustion given off by any gas stove or water heater sent to me at +Greenwich during the next six months, on one condition, and that is +that the results, good, bad, or indifferent, will be published in a +paper before this Society, which has always been in the front when +matters of great sanitary importance to the public had to be taken up. +And if after that the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have +not been certified, it is their own fault; but I do think that the +maker of any stove or geyser which causes a death should be put upon +his trial for manslaughter. + +In conclusion, let us consider for a moment what is likely to be the +future of gas during the next half century. The labor troubles, bad as +they are and have been, will not cease for many a weary year. The +victims of imperfect education (more dangerous than none at all, as, +while destroying natural instinct, it leaves nothing in its place) +will still listen and be led by the baneful influence of irresponsible +demagogues, who care for naught so long as they can read their own +inflammatory utterances in the local press, and gain a temporary +notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause they profess to +serve. The natural tendency of this will be that every labor-saving +contrivance that can will be pressed into the gas manager's service; +and that, although coal (of a poorer class than at present used) will +still be employed as a source of gas, the present retort setting will +quickly give way to inclined retorts on the Coze principle; while, +instead of the present wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke, +it will be shot direct into the generator of the water gas plant, and +the water gas carbureted with the benzene hydrocarbons derived from +the smoke of the blast furnace and coke oven, or from the creosote oil +of the tar distiller, by the process foreshadowed in the concluding +sentences of my last lecture. It will then be mixed with the gas from +the retorts, and will supply a far higher illuminant than we at +present possess. In parts of the United Kingdom, such as South Wales, +where gas coal is dear, and anthracite and bastard coals are cheap, +water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant coal gas, with a +saving of fifty per cent. on the prices now existing in those +districts. While these changes have been going on, and while improved +methods of manufacture have been tending to the cheapening of gas, it +will have been steadily growing in public favor as a fuel; and if in +years to come the generation of electricity should have been so +cheapened as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an +illuminant, the gas works will still be found as busy as of yore, the +holder of gas shares as contented as to-day; for with a desire for a +purer atmosphere and a white mist instead of a yellow fog, gas will +have largely supplanted coal as a fuel, and gas stoves, properly +ventilated and free from the reproaches I have hurled at them +to-night, will burn a gas far higher in its heating power, far better +in its power of bearing illuminating hydrocarbons, and free from +poisonous constituents. + +When the demand for it arises, hydrogen gas can be made as cheaply as +water gas itself, and when time is ripe for a fuel gas for use in the +house, it is hydrogen and not water gas which will form its basis. +With carbureted water gas and 20 per cent. of carbon monoxide we are +still below the limit of danger, but a pure water gas with over 40 per +cent. of the same insidious element of danger will never be tolerated +in our households. Already a patent has been taken by Messrs. Crookes +and Ricarde-Seaver for purifying water gas from carbon monoxide, and +converting it mainly into hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature +through a mixture of lime and soda lime, a process which is chemically +perfect, as the most expensive portion of the material used could be +recovered; but in the present state of the labor market it is not +practical, as for the making of every 100,000 cubic feet of gas, +fifteen tons of material would have to be handled, the cost of labor +alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted; moreover, +hydrogen can be made far cheaper directly. + +From the earliest days of gas making, the manufacture of hydrogen by +the passage of steam over red-hot iron has been over and over again +mooted, and attempted on a large scale, but several factors have +combined to render it futile. + +In the first place, for every 478.5 cubic feet of hydrogen made under +perfect theoretical conditions never likely to be obtained in +practice, 56 lb. of iron were converted into the magnetic oxide, and +as there was no ready sale for this article, this alone would prevent +its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen; the next point was that +when steam was passed over the red-hot iron, the temperature was so +rapidly lowered that the generation of gas could only go on for a very +short period, while, finally, the swelling of the mass in the retort +and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into the side renders the +removal of the spent material almost an impossibility. These +difficulties can, however, be got over. Take a fire clay retort, six +feet long and a foot in diameter, and cap it with a casting bearing +two outlet tubes closed by screw valves, while a similar tube leads +from the bottom of the retort. Inclose this retort by a furnace +chamber of iron lined with fire brick, leaving a space of two feet six +inches round the retort, and connect the top of the furnace chamber +with one opening at the top of the upright retort, while air blasts +lead into the bottom of the furnace chamber, below rocking fire bars, +which start at bottom of the retort, and slope upward, to leave room +for ash holes closed by gas tight covers. The retort is filled with +iron or steel borings, alone if pure hydrogen is required, or cast +into balls with pitch if a little carbon monoxide is not a drawback, +as in foundry work. The furnace chamber is now filled with coke, fed +in through manholes, or hoppers, in the top, and the fuel being +ignited, the blast is turned on, and the mixture of nitrogen and +carbon monoxide passes over the iron, heating it to a red heat, while +the fuel in contact with the retort does the same thing. + +When the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red heat, the +air blast is cut off, and the pipe connecting the furnace and retort, +together with the pipe in connection with the bottom of the retort, +are closed, and steam, superheated by passing through a pipe led round +the retort or interior wall of the furnace, is injected at the bottom +of the red-hot mass of iron, which decomposes it, forming magnetic +oxide of iron and hydrogen, which escapes by the second tube at the +top of the retort, and is led away either to a carbureting chamber if +required for illumination, or direct to the gasholder if wanted as a +fuel. The mass of incandescent fuel in the furnace chamber, +surrounding the retort, keeping up the temperature of retort and iron +sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed. + +The hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and the air blast turned +on. The hot carbon monoxide passing over the hot magnetic oxide +quickly reduces it down to metallic iron, which, being in a spongy +condition, acts more freely on the steam during later makes than it +did at first, and being infusible at the temperature employed, may be +used for a practically unlimited period. + +What more simple method than this could be desired? Here we have the +formation of the most valuable of all fuel gases at the cost of the +coke and steam used, a gas also which has double the carrying power +for hydrocarbon vapors possessed by coal gas, while its combustion +gives rise to nothing but water vapor. + +In this course of lectures I have left much unsaid and undone which I +should have liked to have had time to accomplish, and if I have been +obliged to leave out of consideration many important points, it is the +time at my disposal and not my will which is to blame. And now, in +conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to my assistants, Messrs. J.A. +Foster and J.B. Warden, who have heartily co-operated with me in much +of the work embodied in these lectures. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS. + + +The celebrated philosopher Bacon, the founder of the experimental +method, claimed that we see better with one eye than with two, because +the attention is more concentrated and becomes profounder. "On looking +in a mirror," says he, "we may observe that, if we shut one eye, the +pupil of the other dilates." To this question: "But why, then, have we +two eyes?" he responds: "In order that one may remain if the other +gets injured." Despite the reasoning of the learned philosopher, we +may be permitted to believe that the reason that we have two eyes is +for seeing better and especially for perceiving the effects of +perspective and the relief of objects. We have no intention of setting +forth here the theory of binocular vision; one simple experiment will +permit any one to see that the real place of an object is poorly +estimated with one eye. Seated before a desk, pen in hand, suddenly +close one eye, and, at the same time, stretch out the arm in order to +dip the pen in the inkstand; you will fail nine times out of ten. It +is not in one day that the effects of binocular vision have been +established, for the ancients made many observations on the subject. +It was in 1593 that the celebrated Italian physicist Porta was the +first to give an accurate figure of two images seen by each eye +separately, but he desired no apparatus that permitted of +reconstituting the relief on looking at them. Those savants who, after +him, occupied themselves with the question, treated it no further +than from a theoretical point of view. It was not till 1838 that the +English physicist Wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic +apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining simultaneously +with each of the eyes two different images of an object, one having +the perspective that the right eye perceives, and the other that the +left eye perceives. + +This apparatus is described in almost all treatises on physics. We may +merely recall the fact that it operated by reflection, that is to say, +the two images were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors making +an angle of 45 degrees. The instrument was very cumbersome and not +very practical. Another English physicist, David Brewster, in 1844 +devised the stereoscope that we all know; but, what is a curious +thing, he could not succeed in having it constructed in England, where +it was not at first appreciated. It was not till 1850 that he brought +it to Paris, where it was constructed by Mr. Soleil and his son-in-law +Duboscq. Abbot Moigno and the two celebrated opticians succeeded, not +without some difficulty, in having it examined by the _official_ +savants; but, at the great exposition of 1851, it was remarked by the +Queen of England, and from this moment Messrs. Soleil & Duboscq +succeeded with difficulty only in satisfying the numerous orders that +came from all parts. As photography permitted of easily making +identical images, but with different perspective, it contributed +greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus. + +The stereoscope, such as we know it, presents the inconvenience of +being incapable of being used by but one person at once. Several +inventors have endeavored to render the stereoscopic images visible to +several spectators at the same time. In 1858, Mr. Claudet conceived +the idea of projecting the two stereoscopic images upon ground glass +in superposing them. The relief was seen, it appears, but we cannot +very well explain why; the idea, however, had no outcome, because the +image, being quite small, could be observed by but three or four +persons at once. It was Mr. D'Almeida, a French physicist, who toward +the same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable manner, and we +cannot explain why his process (that required no special apparatus) +fell into the desuetude from which Mr. Molteni has just rescued it and +obtained much success. + +[Illustration: STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS] + +This is in what it consists: The impression of the relief appears when +each eye sees that one of the two images which presents the +perspective that it would perceive if it saw the real object. If we +take two transparent stereoscopic images and place each of them in a +projection lantern, in such a way that they can be superposed upon the +screen, we shall obtain thereby a single image. It will always be a +little light and soft, as the superposition cannot be effected +accurately, the perspective not being the same for each of them. It is +a question now to make each eye see the one of the two images proper +to it. To this effect, Mr. D'Almeida conceived the very ingenious idea +of placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image having the +perspective of the right eye, and a red glass in front of the other +image. As green and red are complementary colors, the result was not +changed upon the screen; there was a little less light, that was all. +But if, at this moment, the spectator places a green glass before his +right eye and a red one before his left, he will find himself in the +condition desired for realizing the effect sought. + +Each eye will then see only the image responding to the coloration +chosen, and, as it is precisely the one which has the perspective +proper to it, the relief appears immediately. The effect is striking. +We perceive a diffused image upon the screen with the naked eye, but +as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief appears with as +much distinctness as in the best stereoscope. One must not, for +example, reverse his eye-glass, for if (things being arranged as we +have said) he looks through a red glass before his right eye, and +through a green one before his left, it is the image carrying the +perspective designed for the right eye that will be seen by the left +eye, and reciprocally. There is then produced, especially with certain +images, a very curious effect of reversed perspective, the background +coming to the front. + +Now that photography is within every one's reach, and that many +amateurs are making stereopticon views and own projection lanterns, +we are persuaded that the experiment will be much more successful than +it formerly was. An assemblage of persons all provided with colored +eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate. Our engraving represents +a stereopticon seance, and the draughtsman has well rendered the +effect of the two luminous and differently colored fascicles +superposed upon the screen. + +In a preceding note upon the same subject, Mr. Hospitalier remarked +that upon combining these effects of perspective with those of the +praxinoscope, which give the sensation of motion, we would obtain +entirely new effects. It would be perhaps complicated as to the +installation, and especially as to the making of the images, but, in +certain special cases (for giving the effect of a machine in motion, +for example), it might render genuine services.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EFFECT ON FOWLS OF NITROGENOUS AND CARBONACEOUS RATIONS.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This article is condensed by permission from a thesis +prepared for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, by +James Edward Rice, a graduate of the class of 1890. The work was +planned and wholly carried out in the most careful manner by Mr. Rice +under the immediate supervision of the Director. The results have been +thought worthy of publication in the _Cornell Station Bulletin_.] + + +On July 2, 1889, ten Plymouth Rock hens, one year old, and as nearly +as possible of uniform size, were selected from a flock of +thirty-five. At the same time ten chickens, hatched from the same hens +mated with a Plymouth Rock cock, were similarly chosen. The chickens +were about six weeks old, healthy and vigorous and of nearly the same +size. Up to the time of purchase both hens and chickens had full run +of the farm. The hens foraged for themselves and were given no food; +the chickens had been fed corn meal dough, sour milk and table scraps. + +A preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five days, during +which time both hens and chickens were confined, all together, in a +fairly well lighted and ventilated room, and fed a great variety of +food, in order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly as +possible in the same condition. During this preliminary feeding both +hens and chickens increased in live weight. The ten hens from a total +of 44 lb. 12 oz. to 47 lb. 1.5 oz., or 3.75 oz. each, and laid 93 +eggs. The chickens from a total of 9 lb. 15 oz. to 18 lb., or 12.9 oz. +each. + +Food, shells and water were kept constantly before the fowls. Basins +which contained the food and water were kept within a box constructed +of lath, so arranged that the fowls could reach between the slats and +procure food and drink without wasting or soiling. + +July 26th the hens and chickens were each separated into two lots of +five each, as follows: + + Hens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 23 lb. 8.5 oz. + Hens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 23 lb. 9 oz. + Chickens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 8 lb. 15 oz. + Chickens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 9 lb. 1 oz. + +The four lots were placed in separate pens where they remained during +the entire experiment, which lasted 125 days. They were fed and +watered once daily, and an account kept of the food eaten and water +drank. At each feeding the food and water remaining were weighed back +and deducted from the amount charged at the previous feeding. + +The hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration were given daily all +they would eat of the following mixture: 1/3 part wheat bran, 1/3 part +wheat shorts, 1/3 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts skimmed milk, and +will be designated Lot I. + +The hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration were given daily all +they would eat of a ration of cracked maize and maize dough, and will +be designated Lot II. + +Both groups were given a small amount of green clover as long as it +lasted, and afterward cabbage. + +For convenience the experiment was divided into five periods of twenty +five days. + + +FOOD CONSUMED AND INCREASE IN LIVE WEIGHT. + +During the first period all the fowls seemed in good health except the +carbonaceous fed chickens; they, during this as in all succeeding +periods, were restless and peevish, always moping or hunting for +something to eat, though their trough was filled. When fed they would +greedily take a few mouthfuls and then, with their hunger still +unappeased, would leave the dish. They always ate ravenously the green +food which was given them, as did the hens and chickens of Lot I. The +hens of Lot II., on the contrary, seemed quite willing to squat about +the pen and subsist on the maize diet, and strangely enough cared +little for green food. The clear maize diet was accompanied by such +ill effects that the chickens of each lot, after the first period, +were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat, and the hens each one +ounce. The wheat was increased during the fourth and fifth periods in +the case of the chickens to one ounce each. During the second period +one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food, and during the third period +another of the same lot were taken ill and removed from the +experiment. Both seemed to be suffering from impacted crops, as the +stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be empty. + +The fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous ration, and +since the first period the amount of food eaten by the hens and +chickens of Lot I had continually decreased, led to the belief that +their food might be too nitrogenous, and as during the last days of +the third period one of the hens in Lot I was also ill, it was decided +to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal and to use linseed meal +instead. The hen recovered soon after the change in food. + +The supply of skim milk running short in the last two periods, water +was used instead in mixing the ration of the lots fed nitrogenous +food. + +At the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the linseed meal in +the ration of Lot I was removed, and cotton seed meal substituted. +This combination seemed a happy one, for on this ration both hens and +chickens made large gains. + +At the end of the experiment little difference could be seen in the +hens of the two groups; but the two lots of chickens were in striking +contrast. While the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large, +plump, healthy, active, and well feathered, the chickens fed on a +carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller, sickly, and in +several cases almost destitute of feathers. Two of them had perfectly +bare backs, and so ravenous were they for flesh and blood that they +began eating one another. + +The inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous diet to throw out +new feathers and the ability of the chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet +to grow an enormous coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the +effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain +requirements of animal growth. It was plain to see that maize, even +when assisted by a small amount of wheat and green clover, could not +supply sufficient nitrogen for the growth of feathers. + +It will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost weight during +the experiment, the loss was slightly greater with those fed +nitrogenous food, but these produced by far the most eggs. + +The chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about doubled in weight, +while those fed carbonaceous food only added about one-third to their +weight. + + +PRODUCTION OF EGGS. + +During the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid three eggs while +the others laid two. The two groups were, therefore, practically +evenly divided at the start as to the condition of the laying stage. +At the end of the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid +forty-three eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid twenty. During +the next twenty-five days the former laid thirty and the latter six; +during the third period the former laid six and the latter not any. +From this time on no eggs were received from either group. The decline +in egg production was probably due in large part to the fact that the +hens began to moult during the second period, and continued to do so +during the rest of the experiment. + +The eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of small size, having a +disagreeable flavor and smell, watery albumen, an especially small, +dark colored yolk, with a tender vitelline membrane, which turned +black after being kept several weeks. While the eggs of the +carbonaceous fed hens were large, of fine flavor, of natural smell, +large normal albumen, an especially large, rich yellow yolk, with +strong vitelline membrane, which was perfectly preserved after being +kept for weeks in the same brine with the other eggs. + + TOTAL FOOD CONSUMED DURING EXPERIMENT. + _____________________________________________________________________ + Lot. I.--Nitrogenous. | Lot. II.--Carbonaceous. + _________________________________|___________________________________ + | | | | | + | Hens. |*Chicks| | Hens. |Chicks. + |_______|_______| |_______|________ + | lb. | lb. | | lb. | lb. + Bran. | 29.90 | 21.85 | Maize. | 82.15 | 51.30 + Shorts. | 29.90 | 21.85 | Green clover. | 18.75 | 18.75 + Cotton seed meal.| 21.48 | 13.24 | Cabbage. | 16.00 | 16.00 + Linseed meal. | 8.43 | 8.61 | Wheat | 15.63 | 11.71 + Skimmed milk. |105.49 | 61.33 | | | + Wheat. | 15.63 | 11.71 | | | + Green clover. | 18.75 | 18.75 | | | + Cabbage. | 16.00 | 16.00 | | | + _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________ + Total. |245.58 |173.34 | Total. |132.53 | 92.76 + Nutritive ratio.| 1:3.1 | 1:3 | Nutritive ratio. | 1:7.8 | 1:8 + _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________ + +* Calculated for five chicks, based upon the amount eaten by the three +after the two sick were removed. + + EGGS LAID AND GAIN IN WEIGHT--HENS. + ____________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Lot I. | Lot II. + | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous. + |______________|________________ + | | + Live weight, July 26. | 23.53 | 23.56 + " " November 27. | 21.31 | 22.00 + Loss. | 2.22 | 1.56 + Number of eggs laid. | 79.00 | 26.00 + Weight " " " lb. | 8.25 | 2.92 + Average weight of eggs, oz. | 1.67 | 1.80 + Gain in weight, including eggs, lb. | 6.03 | 1.36 + ____________________________________|______________|________________ + + + GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT--CHICKENS. + ____________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Lot I. | Lot II. + | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous. + |______________|________________ + | | + Live weight, July 26. | 8.94 | 9.06 + " " November 27. | 17.89 | 12.63 + Gain, lb. | 8.95 | 3.57 + " per cent. | 100.11 | 39.40 + ____________________________________|______________|________________ + +Samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately marked and +sold to a boarding house where the cook did not know that the eggs +were undergoing a test. On meeting the cook several days later the +following words were heard: "Do you expect me to cook such eggs as +these! About every other one is spoiled." On examination of the +ovaries after slaughtering, it was found that in the case of one of +the carbonaceous fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage, +but on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much nearer the laying +period. With this single exception, the clusters of ovules in the +carbonaceous fed hens were uniformly small. Neither group would have +laid under any probability for several weeks. It would seem from these +facts, together with the fact that during the experiment the +nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three times as many eggs, that a +nitrogenous ration stimulates egg production. + + +THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING. + +On November 27 the fowls were slaughtered. Each fowl was weighed, +wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering, and killed by severing an +artery in the roof of the mouth. The blood was caught in a glass jar. +The fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed, after which the +body was laid open longitudinally by cutting alongside the sternum and +through the back bone. When all had been thus prepared, they were hung +up in groups to be photographed, but the photographs were quite +unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative proportions of fat and +lean. The accompanying drawing made from the photograph shows the +relative development of an average pair of chickens. Attention is +particularly called to the thighs. + +[Illustration] + +One-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for flavor, succulence, +and tenderness. The other half was carefully prepared for chemical +analysis by separating the meat from the bones. The flesh was +thoroughly mixed and run through a sausage cutter, mixed again, and +the process repeated three times. From different parts of this mixture +a large sample was taken, from which the chemist took his samples for +analysis. The right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by +placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a wire on its +center, on which were placed small weights until the bone gave way. + + DRESSED WEIGHT, INTERNAL ORGANS, ETC. + ____________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Hens. | Chickens. + |___________________|____________________ + | | | | + | Lot I. | Lot II. | Lot I. | Lot II. + | Nitro- | Carbon- | Nitro- | Carbon- + | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous. + |_________|_________|_________|__________ + | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. + Live weight. | 21.31 | 22.0 | 17.89 | 12.63 + Dressed weight. | 14.86 | 15.09 | 12.01 | 8.89 + " " per cent. | 69.7 | 68.6 | 67.1 | 70.5 + Weight of blood. | 0.75 | 0.66 | 0.55 | 0.34 + " " feathers. | 1.41 | 1.25 | 1.28 | 0.66 + " " intestinal fat. | 0.59 | 1.98 | 0.34 | 0.66 + " " offal. | 3.70 | 3.02 | 3.62 | 2.08 + " " bones. | 3.47 | 3.63 | 3.18 | 2.69 + " " flesh. | 11.39 | 11.47 | 8.93 | 6.20 + ___________________________|_________________________________________ + +The breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows for the hens and +chickens of the various lots: + + Average hens, nitrogenous. 48.16 + " " carbonaceous. 51.74 + " chickens, nitrogenous. 46.64 + " " carbonaceous. 31.18 + +There was little difference in the strength of the bones of the hens, +undoubtedly because the bones were mature before the feeding began, +and were little affected by the feeding. We find, however, that the +bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost fifty per +cent. (49.6) stronger than those fed carbonaceous food. + +The difference in the composition of the flesh, as shown by the +analysis of Mr. W.P. Cutter, is given below: + + __________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Hens. | Chickens. + |___________________|____________________ + | | | | + | Lot I. | Lot II. | Lot I. | Lot II. + | Nitro- | Carbon- | Nitro- | Carbon- + | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous. + |_________|_________|_________|__________ + Albuminoids. | 43.81 | 25.13 | 52.00 | 30.06 + Fat. | 12.59 | 20.76 | 5.54 | 11.34 + _________________________________________________________________ + +The flesh of each group was submitted to a number of persons for a +cooking test, and the almost unanimous verdict was that the flesh of +the fowls fed a nitrogenous ration was darker colored, more succulent, +more tender, and better flavored, though on this last there was some +difference of opinion. + + +CONCLUSIONS. + +So far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions from a single +experiment of this kind, it would seem that: + +Chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make a satisfactory +development, particularly of feathers. + +The bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration are fifty per +cent. stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous ration. + +Hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs but of smaller +size and poorer quality than those fed exclusively on corn. + +Hens fed on corn, while not suffering in general health, become +sluggish, deposit large masses of fat on the internal organs, and lay +a few eggs of large size and excellent quality. + +The flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids and less +fat than those fed on a carbonaceous ration, and is darker colored, +juicier and tenderer. + +I.P. ROBERTS, Director. + + * * * * * + + + + +HERBACEOUS GRAFTING. + + +My attention has been called a number of times to the unsatisfactory +records and directions concerning the grafting of herbaceous plants. +There appears to have been very little attention given to the subject, +and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from one author to +another. A few years ago I made some attempts at herbaceous grafting, +but it was not until last winter that experiments were seriously +undertaken. The work was put in the hands of J.R. Lochary as a subject +for a graduating thesis. + +The experiments were undertaken primarily for the purpose of learning +the best methods of grafting herbs, but a secondary and more important +object was the study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion, +particularly in relation to variegation and coloration. This second +feature of the work is still under way, in one form or another, and we +hope for definite results in a few years. As a matter of immediate +advantage, however, herbaceous grafting has its uses, particularly in +securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon the same plant. +There is no difficulty in growing a half dozen kinds or colors, on +geraniums, chrysanthemums, or other plants from one stock of the +respective species. + +Six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter. It was found +that the wood must be somewhat hardened to secure best results. The +very soft and flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation +of grafting, and union does not take place readily. Vigorous coleus +stocks, three months old, gave best results if cut to within two or +three inches of the pot and all or nearly all the leaves removed from +the stump. Geraniums, being harder in wood, made good unions at almost +any place except on the soft growing points. The stock must not have +ceased growth, however. Most of the leaves should be kept down on the +stock. Cions an inch or two long were usually taken from firm growing +tips, in essentially the same manner as in the making of cuttings. +Sometimes an eye of the old wood was used, and in most cases union +took place and a new shoot arose from the bud. The leaves were usually +partly removed from the cion. + +Various styles of grafting were employed, of which the common cleft +and the veneer or side graft were perhaps the most satisfactory. In +most instances it was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly +with bass or raffia. In some soft wooded plants, like coleus, a +covering of common grafting wax over the bandage was an advantage, +probably because it prevented the drying out of the parts. In some +cases, however, wax injured the tissues where it overreached the +bandage. Sphagnum moss was used in many cases tied in a small mass +about the union, but unless the parts were well bandaged the cion sent +roots into the moss and did not unite, and in no case did moss appear +to possess decided advantages. Best results were obtained by placing +the plants at once in a propagating frame, where a damp and confined +atmosphere could be obtained. In some plants, successful unions were +made in the open greenhouse, but they were placed in shade and kept +sprinkled for a day after the grafts were made. The operation should +always be performed quickly to prevent flagging of the cions. Or, if +the cions cannot be used at once, they may be thrust into sand or moss +in the same manner as cuttings, and kept for several days. In one +series, tomato and potato cuttings, which had flagged in the cutting +bed, revived when grafted. And cuttings which had been transported in +the mail for three days grew readily, but they were in good condition +when received. The mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these +grafted plants, for they delighted to crawl under the bandages and +suck the juices from the wounded surfaces. + +Although it is foreign to the purpose of this note, it may be worth +while to mention a few of the plants upon which the experiments were +made. Sections were taken of many of the grafts and microscopic +examinations made to determine the extent of cell union. Coleuses of +many kinds were used, with uniform success, and the cions of some of +them were vigorous a year after being set. Even iresine (better known +as _Achyranthes Verschaffeltii_) united with coleus and grew for a +time. Zonale geraniums bloomed upon the common rose geranium. Tomatoes +upon potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were +transplanted to the open ground, where they grew, flowered and fruited +until killed by frost. The tomato-on-potato plants bore good tomatoes +above and good potatoes beneath, even though no sprouts from the +potato stock were allowed to grow. Peppers united with tomatoes and +tomatoes united with peppers. Egg plants, tomatoes and peppers grew +upon the European husk tomato or alkekengi (_Physalis Alkekengi_). +Peppers and egg plants united with each other reciprocally. A coleus +cion was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound with raffia. +The cion remained green and healthy, and at the end of forty-eight +days the bandage was removed, but it was found that no union had taken +place. Ageratums united upon each other with difficulty. +Chrysanthemums united readily. A bean plant, bearing two partially +grown beans, chanced to grow in a chrysanthemum pot. The stem bearing +the pods was inarched into the chrysanthemum. Union took place +readily, but the beans turned yellow and died. Pumpkin vines united +with squash vines, cucumbers with cucumbers, muskmelons with +watermelons, and muskmelons, watermelons and cucumbers with the wild +cucumber or balsam apple (_Echinocystis lobata_). + +Another interesting feature of the work was the grafting of one fruit +upon another, as a tomato fruit upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon +another cucumber. This work is still under progress and it promises +some interesting results in a new and unexpected direction, reports of +which may be expected later.--_Cornell Station Bulletin_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A HUMOROUS HEALTH OFFICER. + + +The Michigan State Board of Health recently took Health Officer Davis, +of Close Village, to task for failing to send in his weekly reports. +His reply was unique. He says: "There has not been enough sickness +here the last two or three years to do much good. The physicians find +time to go to Milwaukee on excursions, serve as jurors in justice +courts, sit around on drygoods boxes, and beg tobacco, chew gum, and +swap lies. A few sporadic cases of measles have existed, but they were +treated mostly by old women, and no deaths occurred. There was an +undertaker in the village, but he is now in the State prison. It is +hoped and expected when green truck gets around, melons plenty, and +cucumbers in abundance, that something may revive business. If it +does, I will let you know." + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS + + +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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