initial commit of ebook 13443HEADmain

125 files changed, 23589 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/13443-0.txt b/13443-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d65bb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4083 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13443 ***
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 795
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, March 28, 1891.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 795.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    AVICULTURE.--The Effect on Fowls of Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous
+      Rations.--A very valuable report upon the effects of different
+      diet on chickens, with tables of data.--1 illustration
+
+II.   BIOGRAPHY.--N.F. Burnham and his Life Work.--By W.H. BURNHAM.
+      --The life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers,
+      an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery.
+      --1 illustration
+
+III.  BOTANY.--The Source of Chinese Ginger.--An identification of
+      a long unknown plant
+
+IV.   CIVIL ENGINEERING.--A Railway through the Andes.--An
+      interesting enterprise now in progress in South America, with
+      maps.--2 illustrations
+
+      Chicago as a Seaport.--Proposed connection of Chicago with the
+      waters of the Mississippi River, thereby placing it in water
+      communication with the sea.--2 illustrations
+
+      Floating Elevator and Spoil Distributor.--A machine for removing
+      dredged material from barges, as employed on the Baltic Sea
+      Canal Works.--10 illustrations
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY.--Alternate Current Condensers.--A valuable review
+      of the difficulties of constructing these condensers.--An important
+      contribution to the subject.--1 illustration
+
+      Electricity in Transitu.--From Plenum to Vacuum.--By Prof.
+      WILLIAM CROOKES.--Continuation of this important lecture with
+      profuse illustrations of experiments.--14 illustrations
+
+      The Telegraphic Communication between Great Britain,
+      Europe, America, and the East.--By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.--
+      The engineering aspects of electricity.--The world's cables and
+      connections.--2 illustrations
+
+VI.   HORTICULTURE.--Herbaceous Grafting.--A hitherto little practiced
+      and successful method of treating herbs, with curious results
+
+VII.  MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Improved Cold Iron Saw.--The
+      "Demon" cold saw for cutting Iron.--Its capacity and general
+      principles.--1 illustration
+
+VIII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--How to Prevent Hay Fever.--By
+      ALEXANDER RIXA.--A systematic treatment of this very troublesome
+      complaint, with a special prescription and other treatment.
+
+IX.   MISCELLANEOUS.--The Business End of the American Newspaper.--By
+      A.H. SIEGFRIED.--A graphic presentation of the
+      technique of the newspaper office, circulation of the American
+      papers, methods of printing, etc.
+
+      The New Labor Exchange at Paris.--A new establishment, long
+      demanded by the laboring population of Paris.--Its scope and
+      prospects.--2 illustrations
+
+X.    NAVAL ENGINEERING.--The Empress of India.--The pioneer
+      of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the Canadian
+      Pacific Railway between Vancouver, China, and Japan.--1 illustration
+
+XI.   PHYSICS.--Stereoscopic Projections.--A most curious method
+      of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the
+      screen, involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators.
+      --1 illustration
+
+XII.  TECHNOLOGY.--Gaseous Illuminants.--By Prof. VIVIAN B.
+      LEWES.--The fifth and last of Prof. Lewes' Society of Arts lectures,
+      concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE NEW LABOR EXCHANGE AT PARIS.
+
+
+There will soon be inaugurated (probably about the 14th of July) a new
+establishment that has long been demanded by the laboring population,
+that is to say, a new labor exchange, the buildings of which, situated
+on Chateau d'Eau Street, are to succeed the provisional exchange
+installed in the vicinity of Le Louvre Street. The new structures have
+been erected from plans by Mr. Bouvard, and occupy an area of
+seventeen hundred meters.
+
+The main work is now entirely terminated, but the interior decorations
+are not yet completely finished. The distribution comprises a vast
+meeting room, committee rooms for the various syndicates, offices in
+which the workmen of the various bodies of trades will find
+information and advice, and will be enabled to be put in relation with
+employers without passing through the more or less recommendable
+agencies to which they have hitherto been obliged to have recourse.
+
+[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS.]
+
+Upon the whole, the institution, if wisely conducted, is capable of
+bearing fruit and ought to do so, and the laboring population of Paris
+should be grateful to the municipal council for the six million francs
+that our ediles have so generously voted for making this interesting
+work a success. On seeing the precautions, perhaps necessary, that the
+laborer now takes against the capitalist, we cannot help instituting a
+comparison with the antique and solid organization of labor that
+formerly governed the trades unions. Each corporation possessed a
+syndic charged with watching over the management of affairs, and over
+the receipts and the use of the common resources. These syndics were
+appointed for two years, and had to make annually, at least, four
+visits to all the masters, in order to learn how the laborers were
+treated and paid, and how loyally the regulations of the corporation
+were observed. They rendered an account of this to the first assembly
+of the community and cited all the masters in fault.
+
+Evidently, the new Labor Exchange will not cause a revival of these
+old ways of doing things (which perhaps may have had something of
+good in them), but we may hope that laborers will find in it
+protection against those who would require of them an excess of work,
+as well as against those who would preach idleness and revolt to
+them.--_Le Monde Illustré_.
+
+[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE--HALL FOR MEETINGS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BUSINESS END OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A recent address before the Outlook Club,
+of Montclair, N.J.]
+
+By A.H. SIEGFRIED.
+
+
+The controlling motive and direct purpose of the average newspaper are
+financial profit. One is now and then founded, and conducted even at a
+loss, to serve party, social, religious or other ends, but where the
+primary intent is unselfish there remains hope for monetary gain.
+
+The first newspapers never dreamed of teaching or influencing men, but
+were made to collect news and entertainment and deal in them as in any
+other commodity. But because this was the work of intelligence upon
+intelligence, and because of conditions inherent in this kind of
+business, it soon took higher form and service, and came into
+responsibilities of which, in its origin, it had taken no thought.
+Wingate's "Views and Interviews on Journalism" gives the opinions of
+the leading editors and publishers of fifteen years ago upon this
+point of newspaper motive and work. The first notable utterance was by
+Mr. Whitelaw Reid, who said the idea and object of the modern daily
+newspaper are to collect and give news, with the promptest and best
+elucidation and discussion thereof, that is, the selling of these in
+the open market; primarily a "merchant of news." Substantially and
+distinctly the same ideas were given by William Cullen Bryant, Henry
+Watterson, Samuel Bowles, Charles A. Dana, Henry J. Raymond, Horace
+White, David G. Croly, Murat Halstead, Frederick Hudson, George
+William Curtis, E.L. Godkin, Manton Marble, Parke Godwin, George W.
+Smalley, James Gordon Bennett and Horace Greeley. The book is fat with
+discussion by these and other eminent newspaper men, as to the
+motives, methods and ethics of their profession, disclosing high
+ideals and genuine seeking of good for all the world, but the whole of
+it at last rests upon primary motives and controlling principles in
+nowise different or better or worse than those of the Produce Exchange
+and the dry goods district, of Wall Street and Broadway, so that,
+taking publications in the lump, it is neither untrue nor ungenerous,
+nor, when fully considered, is it surprising, to say that the world's
+doing, fact and fancy are collected, reported, discussed, scandalized,
+condemned, commended, supported and turned back upon the world as the
+publisher's merchandise.
+
+The force and reach of this controlling motive elude the reckoning of
+the closest observation and ripest experience, but as somewhat
+measuring its strength and pervasiveness hear, and for a moment think,
+of these facts and figures.
+
+The American Newspaper Directory for 1890, accepted as the standard
+compiler and analyst of newspaper statistics, gives as the number of
+regularly issued publications in the United States and territories,
+17,760. Then when we know that these have an aggregate circulation for
+each separate issue--not for each week, or month, or for a year, but
+for each separate issue of each individual publication, a total of
+41,524,000 copies--many of them repeating themselves each day, some
+each alternate day, some each third day and the remainder each week,
+month or quarter, and that in a single year they produce 3,481,610,000
+copies, knowing, though dimly realizing, this tremendous output, we
+have some faint impression of the numerical strength of this mighty
+force which holds close relation to and bears strong influence upon
+life, thought and work, and which, measured by its units, is as the
+June leaves on the trees--in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable;
+a force expansive, aggressive, pervasive; going everywhere; stopping
+nowhere; ceasing never.
+
+I am to speak to you of "The Business End" of the American newspaper;
+that is of the work of the publisher's department--not the editor's.
+At the outset I am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the
+subject so many and so far reaching that right regard for time compels
+the merest generalization; but, as best I can, and as briefly as I
+can, I shall speak upon the topic under three general divisions:
+
+First.--The personal and material forces which make the newspaper.
+
+Second.--The sources of revenue from the joint working of these
+forces.
+
+Third.--The direct office, bearing and influence of these forces.
+
+It is but natural that the general public has limited idea of the
+personality and mechanism of the publication business, for much of its
+movement is at night, and there is separation and isolation of
+departments, as well as complicated relation of the several parts to
+the whole. Not many years ago a very few men and boys could edit,
+print and distribute the most important of newspapers, where now
+hundreds are necessary parts in a tremendous complexity. But even
+to-day, of the nearly 18,000 publications in the United States, more
+than 11,000 are of that class which, in all their departments, are
+operated by from two to four or five persons, and which furnish scant
+remuneration even for these. Among the thin populations and in the
+remote regions are thousands of weekly papers--and you may spell the
+weekly either with a double _e_ or an _ea_--where there are two men
+and a boy, one of whom does a little writing and much scissoring,
+loafing among the corner groceries and worse, begging for
+subscribers, button-holing for advertisements, and occasionally and
+indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the "esteemed
+contemporary" or the "outraged citizen;" the second of whom sets the
+type, reads the proofs, corrects them more or less, makes the rollers,
+works the old hand press, and curses the editor and the boy
+impartially; and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly, bi-weekly
+or monthly, inks the forms and sometimes pis them, carries the papers,
+and does generally the humble and diversified works of the "printer's
+devil," while between the three the whole thing periodically goes to
+the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now and then by papers of
+this class. Yet there are many of these country papers that Mr.
+Watterson once styled the "Rural Roosters" which are useful and
+honored, and which actively employ as editors and publishers men of
+fair culture and good common sense, with typographical and mechanical
+assistants who are worthy of their craft.
+
+But the personal workers upon the great magazines and the daily
+newspapers are for each a battalion or a regiment, and in the
+aggregate a vast army. The _Century Magazine_ regularly employs in its
+editorial department three editors and eight editorial assistants, of
+whom five are women; in the art department two artists in charge and
+four assistants, of whom three are women; in the business department
+fifty-eight persons, men and women--a total of seventy six persons
+employed on the magazine regularly and wholly, while the printers and
+binders engaged in preparing a monthly edition of 200,000 magazines
+are at least a duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial, art
+and business divisions.
+
+The actual working force upon the average large daily newspaper, as
+well as an outline idea of the work done in each department, and of
+its unified result in the printed sheet, as such newspapers are
+operated in New York, Chicago and Boston, may be realized from an
+exhibit of the exact current status in the establishment of a well
+known Chicago paper.
+
+In its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief, managing
+editors, city editors, telegraph editors, exchange editors, editorial
+writers, special writers and about thirty reporters--56 in all.
+Working in direct connection with this department, and as part of it,
+are three telegraph operators and nine artists, etchers, photographers
+and engravers; in the Washington office three staff correspondents,
+and in the Milwaukee office one such correspondent--making for what
+Mr. Bennett calls the intellectual end a force of 72 men, who are
+usually regarded by the business end as a necessary evil, to be fed
+and clothed, but on the whole as hardly worth the counting.
+
+In the business and mechanical departments the men and women and their
+work are these:
+
+The business office, for general clerical work, receiving and caring
+for advertisements, receiving and disbursing cash, and for the general
+bookkeeping, employs 24 men and women.
+
+On the city circulation, stimulating and managing it within the city
+and the immediate vicinity, 10 persons.
+
+On the country circulation, for handling all out-of-town subscriptions
+and orders of wholesale news agents, 30 persons.
+
+On mailing and delivery, for sending out by mail and express of the
+outside circulation, and for distribution to city agents and newsboys,
+31 persons.
+
+In the New York office, caring for the paper's business throughout the
+East, the Canadas, Great Britain and Europe, two persons.
+
+In the composing room, where the copy is put into type, and in the
+linotype room, where a part of the type-setting is done by machinery,
+95 persons.
+
+In the stereotype foundry, where the plates are cast (for the type
+itself never is put on the press), 11 persons.
+
+In the press room, where the printing, folding, cutting, pasting and
+counting of the papers is done, 30 persons.
+
+In the engine and dynamo room, 8 persons.
+
+In the care of the building, 3 persons.
+
+These numbers include only the minimum and always necessary force, and
+make an aggregate of 316 persons daily and nightly engaged for their
+entire working time, and borne on a pay roll of six thousand dollars a
+week for salaries and wages alone.
+
+But this takes no account of special correspondents subject to instant
+call in several hundred places throughout the country; of European
+correspondents; of 1,900 news agents throughout the West; of 200 city
+carriers; of 42 wholesale city dealers, with their horses and wagons;
+of 200 branch advertisement offices throughout the city, all connected
+with the main office by telephone; and of more than 3 000 news
+boys--all making their living, in whole or in part, from work upon or
+business relations with this one paper--a little army of 6,300 men,
+women, and children, producing and distributing but one of the 1,626
+daily newspapers in the United States.
+
+The leading material forces in newspaper production are type, paper,
+and presses.
+
+Printing types are cast from a composition which is made one-half of
+lead, one-fourth of tin, and one-fourth of antimony, though these
+proportions are slightly reduced, so as to admit what the chemist
+calls of copper "a trace," the sum of these parts aiming at a metal
+which "shall be hard, yet not brittle; ductile, yet tough; flowing
+freely, yet hardening quickly." Body type, that is, those classes ever
+seen in ordinary print, aside from display and fancy styles, is in
+thirteen classes, the smallest technically called brilliant and the
+largest great primer.
+
+In the reading columns of newspapers but four classes are ordinarily
+used--agate for the small advertisements; agate, nonpareil, and minion
+for news, miscellany, etc., and minion and brevier for editorials--the
+minion being used for what are called minor editorials, and the
+brevier for leading articles, as to which it may be said that young
+editorial writers consider life very real and very earnest until they
+are promoted from minion to brevier.
+
+A complete assortment of any one of these classes is called a font,
+the average weight of which is about 800 pounds. Whereas our alphabet
+has 26 letters, the compositor must really use of letters, spaces,
+accent marks, and other characters in an English font 152 distinct
+types, and in each font there are 195,000 individual pieces. The
+largest number of letters in a font belongs to small _e_--12,000; and
+the least number to the _z_--200. The letters, characters, spaces,
+etc., are distributed by the printer in a pair of cases, the upper one
+for capitals, small capitals, and various characters, having 98 boxes,
+and the lower one, for the small letters, punctuation marks, etc.,
+having 54 boxes.
+
+A few newspapers are using typesetting machines for all or part of
+their composition. The New York _Tribune_ is using the Linotype
+machine for all its typesetting except the displayed advertisements,
+and other papers are using it for a portion of their work, while still
+others are using the Rogers and various machines, of which there are
+already six or more. It seems probable that within the early future
+newspaper composition will very generally be done by machinery.
+
+It has been suggested to me that many of my hearers this evening know
+little or nothing of the processes of the printer's art, and that some
+exposition of it may interest a considerable portion of this audience.
+
+The vast number of these little "messengers of thought" which are
+required in a single modern daily newspaper is little known to
+newspaper readers. Set in the manner of ordinary reading, a column of
+the New York _Tribune_ contains 12,200 pieces, counting head lines,
+leads, and so on; while, if set solidly in its medium-sized type,
+there are 18,800 pieces in one column, or about 113,000 in a page, or
+about 1,354,000 in one of its ordinary 12-page issues. A 32-page
+Sunday issue of the New York _Herald_ contains nearly, if not quite,
+2,500,000 distinct types and other pieces of metal, each of which must
+be separately handled between thumb and finger twice--once put into
+the case and once taken out of it--each issue of the paper. No one
+inexperienced in this delicate work has the slightest conception of
+the intensity of attention, fixity of eye, deftness of touch,
+readiness of intelligence, exhaustion of vitality, and destruction of
+brain and nerve which enters into the daily newspaper from
+type-setters alone.
+
+Each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks, by sight and touch
+of which the compositor is guided in rapidly placing them right side
+up in the line. They are taken, one by one, between thumb and
+forefinger, while the mind not only spells out each word, but is
+always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead of the fingers, and
+each letter, syllable and word is set in its order in lines in the
+composing stick, each line being spaced out in the stick so as to
+exactly fit the column width, this process being repeated until the
+stick is full. Then the stickful is emptied upon a galley. Then, when
+the page or the paper is "up," as the printers phrase it, the galleys
+are collected, and the foreman makes up the pages, article by article,
+as they come to us in the printed paper--the preliminary processes of
+printing proofs from the galleys, reading them by the proof readers,
+who mark the errors, and making the corrections by the compositors
+(each one correcting his own work), having been quietly and swiftly
+going on all the while. The page is made up on a portable slab of
+iron, upon which it is sent to the stereotyping room. There wet
+stereotyping paper, several sheets in thickness, is laid over the
+page, and this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously beaten
+evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the soft paper is
+pressed down into all the interstices between the type; then this is
+covered with blankets and the whole is placed upon a steam chest,
+where it is subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes
+perfectly dry. Then, this dried and hardened paper, called a matrix,
+is placed in a circular mould, and melted stereotype metal is poured
+in and cooled, resulting in the circular plate, which is rapidly
+carried to the press room, clamped upon its cylinder, and when all the
+cylinders are filled, page by page in proper sequence, the pressman
+gives the signal, the burr and whirr begin, and men and scarcely less
+sentient machines enter upon their swift race for the early trains. As
+a matter of general interest it may be remarked that this whole
+process of stereotyping a page, from the time the type leaves the
+composing room until the plate is clamped upon the press, averages
+fifteen minutes, and that cases are upon record when the complex task
+has been accomplished in eleven minutes.
+
+The paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled upon wooden or iron
+cores. Some presses take paper the narrow way of the paper, rolls for
+which average between 600 and 700 pounds. Others work upon paper of
+double the width of two pages, that is, four pages wide, and then the
+rolls are sometimes as wide as six feet, and have an average weight of
+1,350 pounds. Each roll from which the New York _Tribune_ is printed
+contains an unbroken sheet 23,000 feet (4-1/3 miles) long. A few hours
+before the paper is to be printed, an iron shaft having journal ends
+is passed through the core, the roll is placed in a frame where it may
+revolve, the end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll
+is unwound at a speed of from 13 to 15 miles an hour, while a fan-like
+spray of water plays evenly across its width, so that the entire sheet
+is unrolled, dampened, for the better taking of the impression to be
+made upon it, and firmly rewound, all in twenty minutes. Each of these
+rolls will make about 7,600 copies of the _Tribune_.
+
+When all is ready, paper and stereotyped pages in place, and all
+adjustments carefully attended to, the almost thinking machine starts
+at the pressman's touch, and with well nigh incredible speed prints,
+places sheet within sheet, pastes the parts together, cuts, folds and
+counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and constancy beyond
+the power of human eye and hand.
+
+The printing press has held its own in the rapid advance of that
+wonderful evolution which, within the last half century, in every
+phase of thought and in every movement of material forces placed under
+the dominion of men, has almost made one of our years the equivalent
+of one of the old centuries. Within average recollection the single
+cylinder printing machine, run by hand or steam, and able under best
+conditions to print one side of a thousand sheets in one hour, was the
+marvel of mankind. In 1850, one such, that we started in an eastern
+Ohio town, drew such crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were
+obliged to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance which would
+allow the astonishing thing to work at all.
+
+To-day, in the United States alone, five millions of dollars are
+invested in the building of printing presses, many of which, by
+slightest violence to figure of speech, do think and speak.
+Inspiration was not wholly a thing of long-gone ages, for if ever men
+received into brain and worked out through hand the divine touch, then
+were Hoe, and Scott, and Campbell taught of God.
+
+Under existing conditions newspapers of any importance, in the smaller
+cities, use one and sometimes two presses, capable of producing from
+7,000 to 9,000 complete eight page papers each hour, each machine
+costing from $10,000 to $15,000. Papers of the second class in the
+large cities use treble or quadruple this press capacity, while the
+great papers, in the four or five leading cities, have machinery
+plants of from four to ten presses of greatest capacity, costing from
+$32,000 to $50,000 each, and able to produce papers of the different
+numbers of pages required, at a speed of from 24,000 to 90,000 four
+page sheets, or of from 24,000 to 48,000 eight, ten, or twelve page
+sheets per hour, each paper complete as you receive it at your
+breakfast table--printed, pasted, cut and folded, and the entire
+product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens, fifties,
+hundreds or thousands, as may be required for instantaneous delivery,
+while, as if to illustrate and emphasize the ever upward trend of
+public demand for the day's news, quick and inclusive, Hoe & Co. are
+now building machines capable of producing in all completeness 150,000
+four page papers each hour.
+
+All this tremendous combination of brain, nerve, muscle, material,
+machinery and capital depends for its movement and remuneration upon
+but two sources of income--circulation and advertisements--the unit
+measurements of which are infinitesimal--for the most part represented
+by wholesale prices; from one-half a cent to two cents per copy for
+the daily newspaper, and in like proportion for the weeklies and
+monthlies; and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line per
+thousand of circulation for advertising space. Verily, in a certain
+and large sense, the vast publishing interests rest upon drops of
+water and grains of sand. Under right conditions no kind of business
+or property is more valuable, and yet no basis of values is more
+intangible. Nothing in all trade or commerce is so difficult to
+establish or more environed by competitions, and yet, once
+established, almost nothing save interior dry rot can pull it down. It
+depends upon the judgment and favor of the million, yet instances are
+few where any external force has seriously and permanently impaired
+it.
+
+About two hundred years have gone since the publication of the first
+number of the first American newspaper. It was a monthly, called
+_Publick Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic_, first printed
+September 25, 1690, by Richard Pierce, and founded by Benjamin Harris.
+At that time public favor did seem to control newspaper interests, for
+that first paper aroused antagonism, and it was almost immediately
+suppressed by the authorities. Only one copy of it is now in
+existence, and that is in London. The first newspaper to live, in this
+country, was the Boston _News Letter_, first issued in 1704 and
+continued until 1776. New York's first newspaper, the New York
+_Gazette_, appeared October 16, 1725. At the outbreak of the
+revolution there were 37 newspapers, and in 1800 there were 200, of
+which several were dailies. In 1890 there were 17,760, of which there
+were 13,164 weeklies, 2,191 monthlies, 1,626 dailies, 280
+semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126 quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38
+bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies.
+
+The circulations belong largely to the weeklies, monthlies and
+dailies, the weeklies having 23,228,750, the monthlies 9,245,750, the
+dailies 6,653,250, leaving only 2,400,000 for all the others.
+
+The largest definitely ascertainable daily average circulation for one
+year, in this country, has been 222,745. Only one other daily paper in
+the world has had more--_Le Petit Journal_, in Paris, which really, as
+we understand it, is not a newspaper, but which regularly prints and
+sells for one sou more than 750,000 copies. The largest American
+weekly is the _Youth's Companion,_ Boston, 461,470. The largest
+monthly is the _Ladies' Home Journal_, Philadelphia, 542,000. The
+largest among the better known magazines is the _Century_, 200,000. Of
+the daily papers which directly interest us--those of the city of New
+York--the actual or approximate daily averages of the morning papers
+are given by "Dauchy's Newspaper Catalogue" for 1891, as follows:
+_Tribune_, daily, 80,000; Sunday, 85,000. _Times_, daily, 40,000;
+Sunday, 55,000. _Herald_, daily, 100,000; Sunday, 120,000. _Morning
+Journal_, 200,000. _Press_, daily, 85,000; Sunday, 45,000. _Sun_,
+daily, 90,000; Sunday, 120,000. _World_, daily, 182,000; Sunday,
+275,000. Of the afternoon papers, _Commercial Advertiser_, 15,000;
+_Evening Post_, 18,000; _Telegram_, 25,000; _Graphic_ (not the old,
+but a new one), 10,000; _Mail and Express_, 40,000; _News_, 173,000;
+_Evening Sun_, 50,000; _Evening World_, 168,000. The entire
+circulation of New York dailies, including with those named others of
+minor importance, and the German, French, Italian, Bohemian, Hebrew
+and Spanish daily newspapers, is 1,540,200 copies.
+
+Obviously, there is and must be ceaseless, incisive and merciless
+competition in securing and holding circulations, as well as in the
+outward statements made of individual circulations to those who
+purchase advertising space. In this, as in all other forms of
+enterprise, there are honest, clean-cut and business-like methods, and
+there are the methods of the time-server, the trickster and the liar.
+
+The vastly greater number of publications secure and hold their
+clientage by making the best possible goods, pushing them upon public
+patronage by aggressive and business-like means, and selling at the
+lowest price consistent with excellence of product and fairness alike
+to producer and consumer. But of the baser sort there are always
+enough to make rugged paths for those who walk uprightly, and to
+contribute to instability of values on the one hand, and on the other
+to flooding the country with publications which the home and the world
+would be better without. Every great city has more of the rightly made
+and rightly sold papers than of the other sort, and the business man,
+the working man, the professional man, the family, no matter of what
+taste, or political faith, or economic bias, or social status, or
+financial plenty or paucity, can have the daily visits of newspapers
+which are able, brilliant, comprehensive, clean and honest. But all
+the time, these men and families will have pressed upon their
+attention and patronage, by every device and artifice of the energetic
+and more or less unscrupulous publisher, other papers equally able and
+brilliant and comprehensive, but bringing also their burden of
+needless sensationalism and mendacity, undue expansion of all manner
+of scandal, amplification of every detail and kind of crime, and every
+phase of covert innuendo or open attack upon official doing and
+private character--the whole infernal mass procured, and stimulated
+and broadcast among the people by the "business end of it," with the
+one and only intent of securing and holding circulation.
+
+Take a representative and pertinent example. Eight years ago there
+were in New York ten or eleven standard newspapers, as ably and
+inclusively edited and as energetically and successfully conducted,
+business-wise, as they are now. Even at their worst they were decently
+mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and they throve by
+legitimate sale of the most and best news and the best possible
+elucidation and discussion thereof. The father could bring the paper
+of his choice to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral
+sense and self-respect might be outraged, or that the face of his wife
+might be crimsoned and the minds of his children befouled. But there
+came from out of the West new men and new forces, quick to see the
+larger opportunity opened in the very center of five millions of
+people, and almost in a night came the metamorphosis of the old World
+into the new. It was deftly given out that existing conditions were
+inadequate to the better deserts of the Knickerbocker, the Jersey-man,
+and the Yankee, and that a new purveyor of more highly seasoned news
+and a more doughty champion of their rights and interests was hither
+from the land of life and movement--at two cents per copy. There was a
+panic in New York newspaper counting rooms, and prices tumbled in two
+days from the three and four cents of fair profit to the two and three
+cents of bare cost or less. The new factors in demoralization cared
+nothing for competition in prices or legitimate goods, for they had
+other ideas of coddling the dear people. Ready to their purpose lay
+disintegrated Liberty, waiting for a rock upon which to plant her feet
+and raise her torch, and the new combination between the world, the
+flesh and the devil, waiting and ready for access to the pockets of
+the public, was only too ready to set up Liberty and itself at one
+stroke, if only the joint operation could be done without expense to
+itself. The people said, "What wonderful enterprise!" "What a generous
+spirit!" The combination, with tongue in cheek and finger laid
+alongside nose, said to itself as it saw its circulation spring in one
+bound from five figures into six, "Verily we've got there! for these
+on the Hudson are greater gudgeons than are they on the Mississippi."
+From then until now, with an outward semblance and constant pretense
+of serving the people; with blare of trumpet and rattle of drum; with
+finding Stanley, who never had been lost; with scurrying peripatetic
+petticoats around the globe; with all manner of unprofessional and
+illegitimate devices; with so-called "contests" and with all manner of
+"schemes" without limit in number, kind, or degree; with every
+cunningly devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity--from then
+until now that combination has been struggling to hold and has held an
+audience of the undiscriminating and the unthinking. But, further,
+and worse, a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation has led
+other papers to follow somewhat at a distance in this demoralizing
+race. None of them has gone to such lengths, but the tendency to
+literary, mental and moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown
+form of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods of
+every New York daily save only the _Tribune_, _Times_, _Commercial
+Advertiser_, and _Evening Post,_ while the converse side of securing
+business clientage is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it
+were not pathetic, by that abnormal and fantastic cross between news
+and pietetics which mails and expresses itself to the truly good.
+These are forms of competition which the business end of legitimately
+conducted newspapers is compelled to meet. In a certain way these
+methods do succeed, but how, and how long and how much shall they
+succeed except by unsettling the mental and moral poise of the people,
+and by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere whose
+thoughts take less account of means than of ends? Which shall we hold
+in higher esteem and in our business patronage--Manton Marble and
+Hurlbut, gentlemen, scholarly, wise leaders, conscientious teachers,
+with barely living financial income; or their successors, parvenus,
+superficial, meretricious, false guides, time-serving leaders, a
+thousand dollars a day of clear profit, housed in the tower of Babel?
+
+Considered in the large, the circulation side of the American
+newspaper has many indefensible aspects. As "nothing succeeds like
+success," or the appearance of success, the prestige of not a few
+newspapers is ministered unto by rotund and deceptive representations
+of circulation. Then, as few can live, much less profit, on their
+circulations alone, it becomes greatly important to make the
+advertiser see circulations through the large end of the telescope,
+and so the fine art of telling truth without lying is a live and
+perennial study in many counting rooms. Discussing the circulation
+question not long ago with the head of a leading religious paper, he
+told me that the number of copies he printed was a thing that he never
+stated definitely, because the publishers of the other religious
+newspapers lied so about their circulations that he would do himself
+injustice if he were to tell the truth about his own. The secular
+papers should set an example for their religious brethren, but they do
+not, for from many of them there is lying--systematic, persistent, and
+more or less colossal. Not long ago, within a few days of each other,
+three men who were simultaneously employed on a certain paper told me
+their _actual_ circulation, _confidentially_, too. One of them put it
+at 85,000, the second at 110,000, and the third at 130,000, and each
+of them lied, for their lying was so diversified and entertaining that
+I felt a real interest in securing the truth, and so I took some
+trouble to ask the pressman about it. He told me, _very_
+confidentially, that it was 120,000--and he lied.
+
+By this time my interest was so heightened that I told my personal
+friend, the publisher, about the inartistic and incoherent mendacity
+of his subordinates, whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation
+book, which clearly, and I have no doubt truthfully, exhibited an
+average of 88,000. The wicked partner is nearly always ready to show
+the actual record of the counting machines on the presses, and
+"figures never lie" but the truth-telling machines which record actual
+work of the impression cylinders make no mention of damaged copies
+thrown aside, of sample copies, files, exchanges, copies kept against
+possible future need, copies unsold, copies nominally sold but sooner
+or later returned and finally sold to the junk shop, and all that sort
+of thing. One prints a large extra issue on a certain day for some
+business corporation which has its own purpose to serve by publication
+of an article in its own interest, whereby many thousands of copies
+are added to that day's normal output, and he makes the exceptional
+number for that day serve as the exponent of his circulation until
+good fortune brings him a similar and possibly larger order, and his
+circulation is reported as "still increasing." Another struck a
+"high-water mark" of "190,500" the day after Mr. Cleveland was
+elected, and that has been the implied measure of circulation for the
+last six years. Another, during a heated political campaign, or a
+great financial crisis, or some other dominant factor in public
+interest, makes a large and genuine temporary increase, but the
+highest mark gained does enforced duty in the eyes of the marines
+until another flood tide sweeps him to a greater transient height.
+These are types of the competitions of the circulation liar. At this
+very hour there are four daily newspapers each of which has the
+largest circulation in the United States. Of the nearly 18,000
+American publications only 103 furnish detailed, open, and entirely
+trustworthy statements of circulation.
+
+As to the general public this is no great matter, but to the vast
+number of business men who buy the real or fancied publicity afforded
+by newspaper advertising it is of exceeding importance. That the large
+buyers of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled is
+because they understand the circulation extravaganza and buy space
+according to their understanding. The time is coming, and it should
+come soon, when newspaper circulations shall be open to the same
+inspection and publicity as is now the case with banks and insurance
+companies, and when the circulation liar and swindler shall be
+amenable to the same law and liable to the same penalty as stands
+against and is visited upon any other perjurer and thief.
+
+_(To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREVENT HAY FEVER.
+
+By ALEXANDER RIXA, M.D., New York.
+
+
+In the May (1890) number of the _Therapeutic Gazette_ I furnished some
+contribution to the "Treatment of Hay Fever." I reported therein a
+favorable result in the treatment of this mysterious disease in the
+experience of my last year's cases.
+
+My experience of this year is far more gratifying, and worthy of
+receiving a wide publicity.
+
+I treated six cases in all, four of which have been habitual for years
+to hay fever proper without complications, while the other two used to
+have the disease aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh.
+I succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease in every
+individual case. The treatment I applied was very simple, and
+consisted of the following:
+
+From the fact that I had known all my patients from previous years, I
+ordered them to my office two weeks before the usual onset of the
+disease. I advised them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of
+chloride of sodium four times a day--morning, noon, evening, and on
+retiring; and, a few minutes after the cleansing of the parts, had the
+nares thoroughly sprayed with peroxide of hydrogen and c.p. glycerin,
+half and half. Those subject to a conjunctivitis I prescribed a two
+per cent. solution of boric acid as a wash. At this period no internal
+medication was given, but three days previous to the usual onset of
+the disease I prescribed phenacetin and salol, five grains of each
+three times a day.
+
+On the respective expected days, to the great surprise of all the
+members concerned successively, who have been in the habit of getting
+the disease almost invariably at a certain date, no hay fever symptoms
+appeared, though everyone had been the victim of the disease for a
+great number of years, varying from five to nineteen years' standing.
+
+It is self-understood that this treatment was kept up all through the
+season, and, as no symptoms developed, the applications were reduced,
+toward the termination, to twice and once a day. The internal
+medication, however, was stopped after the expiration of the first
+week, and all the patients could attend to their various respective
+vocations, something they never have been able to do in previous
+years.
+
+In two cases, though no nasal symptoms developed, about two weeks
+after the calculated onset, slight symptoms of asthma made their
+appearance. However, I could easily suppress them at this time with
+the aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer, a very ingenious little
+apparatus, of which I gave a thorough description in my last year's
+article. I used the ozone inhalations every four hours, in connection
+with the internal administration of the following prescription:
+
+      Rx Iodide of ammonia, 8;
+         Fl. ex. quebracho, 30;
+         Fl. ex. grindelia robusta, 15;
+         Tr. lobelia, 12;
+         Tr. belladonna, 8;
+         Syr. pruni, virg., q.s., ad 120.
+
+  Sig.--Teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four hours.
+
+However, toward the end of the fourth week, especially in one case--a
+stout, heavy-set gentleman--very grave asthmatic symptoms developed,
+which compelled me to apply Chapman's spinal ice bag, as well as
+resort to the internal administration of large doses of codeine during
+the paroxysm, with the most beneficial result.
+
+I gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two cases. I find
+them to act very soothingly in the simple asthma, facilitating
+respiration after a few minutes; but during the paroxysmal stage they
+cannot be utilized, for the reason that respiration is short and
+rapid, and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the gas to
+be inhaled. Consequently, it is either of little use as a remedy; or,
+if too much is taken, a disagreeable headache will be the consequence.
+
+During the catarrhal stage, which, however, was very mild compared
+with last year, I derived great benefit from the administration of
+codeine, in combination with terpine hydrate, in the pill form. The
+codeine has the advantage over all other opium preparations that it
+does not affect the digestive organs, and still acts in a soothing
+manner. While during last year's sickness my patients lost from ten to
+twenty pounds of their bodily weight, this year but one lost eight
+pounds and the other five pounds.
+
+As the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped in
+obscurity, we may fairly conclude, by the success of my treatment, if
+it should meet with the confirmation of the profession, that the much
+pretended sensitive area, situated, according to Dr. Sajous, "at the
+posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and the corresponding
+portion of the septum," or, according to Dr. John Mackenzie, who
+locates this area "at the anterior extremity of the inferior
+turbinated bone," need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by
+cautery, in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever proper.
+
+I examined my patients twice a week, and the closest rhinoscopical
+exploration would not reveal the slightest pathological change in the
+mucous membrane of the nares.
+
+Now, what is the etiological factor of the disease? Is it a specific
+germ conveyed by the air to the parts and--_locus minoris
+resistencia_--deposited at the pretended area, or is the germinal
+matter present in the nasal mucous membrane with certain persons, and
+requires only at a certain time and under certain conditions
+physiological stimulation to manifest periodical pathological changes,
+which give rise to the train of symptoms called hay fever? Dropping
+all hypothetical reasoning, I think some outside vegetable germ is
+causing the disease in those predisposed, and peroxide of hydrogen
+acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles, _i.e._, drives them out
+when and wherever it finds them. I hope the profession will give this
+new measure a thorough trial and report their results.--_Therapeutic
+Gazette._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SOURCE OF CHINESE GINGER.
+
+
+In the Kew _Bulletin_ for January an interesting account is given of
+the identification of the plant yielding the rhizome employed to make
+the well-known Chinese preserved ginger. As long ago as 1878 Dr. E.
+Percival Wright, of Trinity College, Dublin, called the attention of
+Mr. Thiselton Dyer to the fact that the preserved ginger has very much
+larger rhizomes than _Zingiber officinale_, and that it was quite
+improbable that it was the product of that plant. The difficulty in
+identifying the plant arose from the fact that, like many others
+cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely flowers. The first
+flowering plant was sent to Kew from Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the
+superintendent of the Hope Garden there. During the past year the
+plant has flowered both at Dominica in the West Indies and in the
+Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong. Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic
+Garden at Hong-Kong, has identified the plant as _Alpinia Galanga_,
+the source of the greater or Java galangal root of commerce. Mr.
+Watson, of Kew, appears to have been the first to suggest that the
+Chinese ginger plant is probably a species of _Alpinia_, and possibly
+identical with the Siam ginger plant, which was described by Sir J.
+Hooker in the _Botanical Magazine_ (tab. 6,946) in 1887 as a new
+species under the name of _Alpinia zingiberina_. Mr. J.G. Baker, in
+working up the Scitamineæ for the "Flora of British India," arrived at
+the conclusion that it is not distinct from the _Alpinia Galanga_,
+Willd. The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical, and both
+are the produce of _Alpinia Galanga_, Willd.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.
+
+
+We illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor constructed by
+Mr. A.F. Smulders, Utrecht, Holland, for removing dredged material out
+of barges at the Baltic Sea Canal Works. We give a perspective view
+showing the apparatus at work, and on a page plate are given plans,
+longitudinal and cross sections, with details which are from
+_Engineering_. The dredged material is raised out of the launches or
+barges by means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of 10.5
+meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water line, from whence it is pushed
+to the place of deposition by a heavy stream of water supplied by
+centrifugal pumps.
+
+[Illustration: FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC
+SEA CANAL.]
+
+The necessary machinery and superstructure are supported on two
+vessels connected, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, with cross girders, a
+sufficient width being left between each vessel to form a well large
+enough for a barge to float into, and for the working of the bucket
+ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges. The girders
+are braced together and carry the framing for the bucket chains,
+gears, etc.
+
+The port vessel is provided with a compound engine of 150 indicated
+horse power, with injection condenser actuating two powerful
+centrifugal pumps, raising water which enters by a series of holes
+into the bottom of the shoots underneath the dredged material,
+carrying the material to the conduit (as indicated on Fig. 4 and in
+detail on Figs. 6 and 7).
+
+A steel boiler of 80 square meters (860 square feet) heating surface,
+and 6 atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam to the
+engine. Forward on the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical
+two-cylinder high pressure engine of 30 indicated horse power, which
+helps to bring the barge to the desired position between the parallel
+vessels. A horizontal two-cylinder engine of the same power, fitted
+with reversing gear, placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder,
+raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition of a strongly
+framed capstan, as shown on Fig. 5. The gearing throughout is of
+friction pulleys and worm and wormwheel. It is driven by belts.
+
+In the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of 100 indicated
+horse power, with injection condenser, working the bucket chain by
+means of belts and wheel gearing, as shown on Fig. 2. A marine boiler
+of 46 square meters (495 square feet) heating surface and 6
+atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam. In this vessel,
+it may be added, there is a cabin for the crew.
+
+The dimensions of the vessels are as follows; Extreme length, 25
+meters (82 ft.); breadth, 4.5 meters (14 ft. 9 in.); depth (moulded),
+2.7 meters (6 ft. 6¾ in.); average draught of water, 1.4 meters (4 ft.
+7 in.); space between the ships, 6.55 meters (21 ft. 6 in.) The iron
+structure connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form
+stanchions on both ships, connected at the top by two strong box
+girders with tie pieces supporting the main framing. This main
+framing, also of the "box girder" form, is strengthened with angle
+irons and braced together at the tops by a platform supporting the
+gearing of the bucket chains, as shown on Fig. 5. The buckets have a
+capacity of 160 liters (5.65 cubic feet) and the speed in travel is at
+the rate of 25 to 30 buckets per minute, so that with both ladders
+working, 50 to 60 buckets are discharged per minute. The top tumbler
+shaft is placed at a height of 13 meters (42 ft. 8 in.) above the
+water line (Fig. 4), and the dredge conduit has a length of 50 meters
+(164 ft.), Fig. 1. The shooting is done at a height of 8.5 meters (27
+ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the shoot catches the dredged
+products at a height of 10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water
+line, the sliding gradient being 4 to 100. The dredge conduit is
+carried by timberwork resting on two of the upright box form
+stanchions.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.]
+
+All cables are of galvanized steel and provided with open twin
+buckles. The main parts of the apparatus are of steel, and all pieces
+subject to wear and tear are fitted with bushes so formed that they
+can be easily replaced.
+
+The quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus amounts to
+350 cubic meters (12,360 square feet) per hour. Four plants of similar
+construction have been built for the new Baltic Sea Canal, besides a
+fixed elevator of the same power and disposition, with the exception
+that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at a height of 16.1 meters
+(51 ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the dredge conduit placed at
+a distance of 13 meters (43 ft.) from it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.
+
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.]
+
+The engraving given herewith shows a general view of the "Demon" cold
+saw, designed for cutting iron, mild steel, or other metals of fairly
+large sections, that is, up square or round, and any rectangular
+section up to 8 in. by 4 in. The maker, Mr. R.G. Fiege, of London,
+claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw, at once
+powerful, simple and effective. It is always in readiness for work,
+can be worked by inexperienced workmen. The bed plate has T slots, to
+receive a parallel vise, which can be fixed at any angle for angular
+cutting. The articulated lever carries a saw of 10 in. or 12 in.
+diameter, on the spindle of which a bronze pinion is fixed, gearing
+with the worm shown. The latter derives motion from a pair of bevel
+wheels, which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in the
+engraving. The lever and the saw connected with it can be raised and
+held up by a pawl while the work is being fixed. In small work the
+weight of the lever itself is found sufficient to feed the saw, but in
+heavier work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the end of
+the lever. The machine is fitted with fast and loose pulleys, strap
+fork and bar. We are informed that one of these machines is capable of
+making 400 cuts through bars of Bessemer steel 4 in. diameter, each
+cutting occupying six minutes on an average, without changing the
+saw.--_Industries_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.
+
+
+The railway system of the Argentine Republic is separated from the
+Chilian system by the chain of the Andes. The English contractors,
+Messrs. Clark & Co., have undertaken to connect them by a line which
+starts from Mendoza, the terminus of the Argentine system, and ends at
+Santa Rosa in Chili, with a total length of 144 miles. The distance
+from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso will thus be reduced to 816 miles. The
+Argentine lines are of 5.4 foot gauge, and those of Chili of 4.6 foot.
+
+The line in course of construction traverses an extremely hilly
+region. The starting and terminal points are at the levels of 2,338
+feet (Mendoza) and 2,706 feet (Santa Rosa) above the sea; the lowest
+neck of the chain is at the level of 11,287 feet.
+
+Study having shown that a direction line without tunnels, and even
+with the steepest gradients for traction by adhesion, would lead to a
+considerable lengthening of the line, and would expose it to
+avalanches and to obstructions by snow, there was adopted upon a
+certain length a rack track of the Abt system, with gradients of 8 per
+cent., and the neck is traversed by a tunnel 3 miles in length and
+1,968 feet beneath the surface. The number and length of the tunnels
+upon the two declivities, moreover, are considerable. They are all
+provided with rack tracks. The first 80 miles, starting from Mendoza,
+are exploited by adhesion, with maximum gradients of 2½ per cent. Upon
+the remaining 64 miles, traction can be effected either by adhesion or
+racks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--REGION TRAVERSED BY THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE
+ANDES.]
+
+The track is of 3.28 foot gauge, and this will necessitate
+trans-shipments upon the two systems. The rails weigh 19 pounds to the
+running foot in the parts where the exploitation can be effected
+either through adhesion or racks, and 17 pounds in those in which
+adhesion alone will be employed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE
+ANDES.]
+
+The special locomotives for use on the rack sections will weigh 45
+tons in service and will haul 70 ton trains over gradients of 8
+percent. Those that are to be employed upon the parts where traction
+will be by adhesion will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels,
+three of them coupled. The weight distributed over these latter will
+be 28 tons. These engines will haul 140 ton trains over gradients of 2
+per cent.
+
+The earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the length, and the
+track has been laid for a length of 58 miles from Mendoza. It is hoped
+that it will be possible to open the line to traffic as far as to the
+summit tunnels in 1891, and to finish the tunnels in 1893. These
+tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock. To this effect,
+it is intended to use drills actuated by electricity through dynamos
+driven by waterfalls. The Ferroux system seems preferable to the
+Brandt and other hydraulic systems, seeing the danger of the water
+being frozen in the conduits placed outside of the tunnels.--_Le Genie
+Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE EMPRESS OF INDIA.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA.]
+
+The Empress of India is intended to be the pioneer of three fast mail
+steamers, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company for service in
+connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway, between Vancouver and
+the ports of China and Japan, thus forming the last link in the new
+route to the East through British territory. Her sister ships, the
+Empress of China and Empress of Japan, are to be ready in April next.
+These three ships all fulfill the requirements of the Board of Trade
+and of the Admiralty and Lloyd's, and are classed as 100 A1. They will
+also be placed on the list of British armed cruisers for service as
+commerce protectors in time of war. For this service each vessel is to
+be thoroughly fitted. There are two platforms forward and two aft, for
+mounting 7 in. Armstrong guns. These weapons, in the case of the
+Empress of India, are already awaiting the vessel at Vancouver. The
+Empress of India is painted white all over, has three pole masts to
+carry fore and aft sails. She has two buff-colored funnels and a
+clipper stern, and in external build much resembles the City of Rome.
+Her length over all is 485 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth, 36 feet; and
+gross tonnage, 5,920 tons. The hull, of steel, is divided into fifteen
+compartments by bulkheads, and has a cellular double bottom 4 feet in
+depth and 7 feet below the engine room. There are four complete decks.
+The ship is designed to carry 200 saloon passengers, 60 second cabin,
+and 500 steerage--these last chiefly Chinese coolies, for whose
+special delectation an "opium room" has been provided on
+board.--_Daily Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHICAGO AS A SEAPORT.
+
+
+The prairie land in the southwest corner of Lake Michigan, which,
+seventy years ago, was half morass from the overflowing of the
+sluggish creek, whose waters, during flood, spread over the low-lying,
+level plain, or were supplemented in the dry season by the inflow from
+the lake, showed no sign of any future development and prosperity. The
+few streets of wooden houses that had been built by their handful of
+isolated inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect and
+desertion than to increase, and ultimately to be swept away by fire,
+to make room for the extravagant and gigantic buildings that to-day
+characterize American civilization and commercial prosperity. Nearly
+1,000 miles from the Atlantic, a greater distance from the Gulf of
+Mexico, and 2,000 miles from the Pacific, no wilder dream could have
+been imagined fifty years ago than that Chicago should become a
+seaport, the volume of whose business should be second only to that of
+New York; that forty miles of wharves and docks lining the branches of
+the river should be insufficient for the wants of her commerce, and
+that none of the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply
+the demand.
+
+Yet this is the situation to-day, the difficulties of which must
+increase many fold as years pass and business grows, unless some
+changes are made by which increased accommodation can be obtained. The
+nature of these changes has long engrossed the attention of the
+municipality and their engineers, and necessity is forcing them from
+discussion to action. As such action is likely to be taken soon, the
+subject is of sufficient interest to the English reader to devote some
+space to its consideration.
+
+The most important problem, however, which the works to be
+undertaken--and which must of necessity be soon commenced--will have
+to solve, is not one of wharf accommodation or of increased facilities
+of commerce. It is the better disposal of the sewage of the city, the
+system in use at present being inadequate, and growing more and more
+imperfect as the city and its population increase. During the early
+days of Chicago, and indeed long after, the sewage question was
+treated with primitive simplicity, and with a complete disregard of
+sanitary laws.
+
+The river and the lake in front of the city were close at hand and
+convenient to receive all the discharge from the drains that flowed
+into them. But this condition of things had to come to an end, for the
+lake supplied the population with water, and it became too
+contaminated for use. To obtain even this temporary relief involved
+much of the ground level of the city being raised to a height of 14
+ft. above low water, a great undertaking carried out a number of years
+ago. To obtain an adequate supply of pure water, Mr. E.S. Chesborough,
+the city engineer, adopted the ingenious plan of driving a long tunnel
+beneath the bed of the lake, connected at the outer end to an inlet
+tower built in the water, and on shore to pumping engines. This plan
+proved so successful that it is now being repeated on a larger scale,
+and with a much longer tunnel, to meet the increased demands of the
+large population.
+
+But to improve the sanitary condition of the city has been a much more
+difficult undertaking, as may be gathered from the following extract
+from an official report: "The present sanitary condition calls loudly
+for relief. The pollution of the Desplaines and the Illinois Rivers
+extends 81 miles, as far as the mouth of the Fox (see plan, Fig. 1) in
+summer low water, and occasionally to Peoria (158 miles) in winter.
+Outside of the direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable.
+The spewing of the harbor contents into the lake, the sewers
+constantly discharging therein, clouds the source of water supply (the
+lake) with contamination. Relief to Chicago and equity to her
+neighbors is a necessity of the early future." To make this quotation
+clear it is necessary to explain the actual condition of the Chicago
+sewage question.
+
+Long before the present metropolis had arrived at the title and
+dignity of a city, the advantage to be derived from a waterway between
+Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, and thence to the Mississippi,
+was well understood. The scheme was, in fact, considered of sufficient
+importance to call for legislation as early as 1822, in which year an
+act was passed authorizing the construction of a canal having this
+object. It was not commenced, however, till 1836, and was opened to
+navigation in the spring of 1848. This canal extended from Chicago to
+La Salle, a distance of 97¼ miles, and it had a fall of 146 ft. to low
+water in the Illinois River (see Fig. 1). It was only a small affair,
+6 ft. deep, and 60 ft. wide on the surface; the locks were 110 ft.
+long and 18 ft. wide. The summit level, which was only 8 ft. above the
+lake, was 21 miles in length. This limited waterway remained in use
+for a number of years, until, in fact, the growth of Chicago rendered
+it impossible to allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake. In
+1865 the State of Illinois sanctioned widening and lowering the canal
+so that it should flow by gravity from Lake Michigan. The enlargement
+was completed in 1871, by the city of Chicago, and the sewage was then
+discharged toward the Illinois River. But the flow was insufficient,
+and in 1881 the State called on the city to supplement the flow by
+pumping water into the canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+In 1884, engines delivering 60,000 gallons a minute were set to work
+and remedied the evil for a time, so far as the city of Chicago was
+concerned, but the large discharge of sewage through the sluggish
+current of the canal and into the Illinois River proved a serious and
+ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the adjoining
+districts. To enlarge the existing canal, increase the volume and
+speed of its discharge, and to alter the levels, so that there shall
+be a relatively rapid stream flowing at all times from Lake Michigan,
+appears the only practical means of affording relief to the city, and
+immunity to other towns and villages lying along the route of the
+stream.
+
+The physical nature of the country is well suited for carrying out
+such a project on a scale far larger than that required for sewage
+purposes, and works thus carried out would, to a small extent, restore
+the old water _regime_ in this part of the continent. Before the vast
+surface changes produced during the last glacial period, three of the
+great lakes--Michigan, Huron and Superior--discharged their waters
+southward into the Gulf of Mexico by a broad river. The accumulation
+of glacial debris changed all this; the southern outlet was cut off,
+and a new one to the north was opened near where Detroit stands,
+making a channel to Lake Erie, which then became the outlet for the
+whole chain by way of Niagara. A very slight change in levels would
+serve to restore the present _regime_. Around Lake Michigan the land
+has been slightly raised, the summit above mean water level being only
+about 8 ft. Thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is again
+reached at a point near Lockport (see Fig. 2); the fall then becomes
+more marked. At Lake Joliet, 10 miles further, the fall is 77 ft.; and
+at La Salle, 100 miles from Chicago, the total fall reaches 146 feet.
+At La Salle the Illinois River is met, and this stream, after a course
+of 225 miles, enters the Missouri. In the whole distance the Illinois
+River has a fall of 29 ft. "It has a sluggish current; an oozy bed and
+bars, formed chiefly by tributaries, with natural depths of 2 ft. to 4
+ft.; banks half way to high waters, and low bottoms, one to six miles
+wide, bounded by terraces, overflowed during high water from 4 ft. to
+12 ft. deep, and intersected in dry seasons by lake, bayou, lagoon,
+and marsh, the wreck of a mighty past."
+
+The rectification of the Illinois and the construction of a large
+canal from La Salle to Lake Michigan are, therefore, all that is
+necessary to open a waterway to the Gulf of Mexico, and to make
+Chicago doubly a port; on the one hand, for the enormous lake traffic
+now existing; on the other, for the trade that would be created in
+both directions, northward to Lake Michigan, and southward to the
+Gulf.
+
+As a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied the attention
+of the United States government. A bill in 1882 authorized surveys for
+"a canal from a point on the Illinois River, at or near the town of
+Hennepin, by the most practical route to the Mississippi River ... and
+a survey of the Illinois and Michigan Canal connecting the Illinois
+River with Chicago, and estimates from its enlargements." This scheme
+only contemplated navigation for boats up to 600 tons. In 1885 the
+Citizens' Association, of Chicago caused a report to be made for an
+extended plan. The name of Mr. L.E. Cooly, at that time municipal
+sanitary engineer, was closely associated with this report, as it is
+at the present time for the agitation for carrying out the works. This
+report recommended that "an ample channel be created from Chicago to
+the Illinois River, sufficient to carry away in a diluted state the
+sewage of a large population. That this channel may be enlarged by the
+State or national government to any requirement of navigation or water
+supply for the whole river, creating incidentally a great water power
+in the Desplaines valley." Following this report and that of a
+Drainage and Water Supply Commission, a bill was introduced into
+Congress supporting the recommendations that had been made, and
+providing the financial machinery for carrying it into execution.
+Since that date much discussion has taken place, and some little
+action; meanwhile the sanitary requirements of the city are growing
+more urgent, and the pressure created from this cause will enforce
+some decision before long. Whether the new waterway is to be
+practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains yet to be seen, but
+it is tolerably certain that its dimensions and volume of water must
+approximate to the latter, if the large populations of other towns are
+to be satisfied. In fact the actual necessities are so great as
+regards sectional area of canal and flow of water--at least 600,000
+ft. a minute--that comparatively small extra outlay would be needed
+to complete the ship canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+The attention of engineers in Chicago, as well as of the United States
+government, is consequently closely directed at the present time to
+such a solution of the problem as shall secure to Chicago such a
+waterway as will dispose of the sewage question for very many years to
+come; that shall relieve the inhabitants on the line of the canal from
+all nuisances arising from the sewage disposal, and shall provide a
+navigable channel for vessels of deep draught. The maps, Figs. 1 and
+2, give an idea of the most favored scheme--that of Mr. Cooley.
+
+As will be seen, the canal commencing near the mouth of the Chicago
+River passes through a cut in the low ridge forming the summit level;
+then it runs to Lake Joliet, and through the valleys of the Desplaines
+and Illinois Rivers, to the Mississippi at Grafton, a distance of 325
+miles. The elevations and distances of the principal points are as
+follows:
+
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+                              |            |           |           |
+                              |            | Low Water |           |
+                              | Miles from |Level below| High Water|
+                              |     Lake   | Chicago   | above Low |
+                              |  Michigan. |  Datum.   |   Water.  |
+                              |            |           |           |
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+                              |            |           |           |
+                              |            |    ft.    |    ft.    |
+Lake Michigan                 |            |           |    4.7    |
+Lake Joliet                   |     40     |    77     |   5 to 6  |
+Kankakee River                |    51.30   |    93.70  |  18 to 20 |
+Morris                        |     61     |   100.3   |    21     |
+Marseilles                    |     77     |   102.8   |  4 to 5   |
+Ottawa                        |    84.5    |   132.1   |    26     |
+La Salle                      |   100.3    |   146.6   |    28     |
+Hennepin                      |   115.8    |   148.7   |    25     |
+Peoria                        |   161.4    |   151.3   |    21     |
+Mouth of the Illinois         |    325     |   172.4   |    20     |
+                              |            |           |           |
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+The project in contemplation provides that the depth of the canal as
+far as Lake Joliet (which is about six miles long) shall be not less
+than 22 ft., and on to La Salle not less than 14 ft. at first, with
+facilities to increase it to 22 ft. Beyond La Salle to the mouth of
+the Illinois, dredging and flushing by the large volume of water
+pouring in from Lake Michigan would make and maintain ultimately a
+similar depth.
+
+As it appears recognized that the sewage channel of Chicago must be 15
+ft. deep, and as provision is now being made all over the great lake
+system for vessels drawing 20 ft. of water, a comparatively small
+additional outlay would provide for a channel available for the
+largest lake vessels. It is claimed that by the co-operation of the
+Chicago municipality and the general government--the latter to advance
+a sum of not less than $50,000,000--a ship (and sanitary) canal 22 ft.
+deep could be made from the lake to Joliet, extended thence to Utica,
+20 ft. deep, and from there to the Mississippi, 14 ft. deep.
+
+That such a work would vastly enhance the commerce, not only of
+Chicago, but of the whole section of the country through which the
+canal would pass, admits of but little doubt, and probably the outlay
+would be justified by results similar to those achieved with other
+great canal works and rectified rivers in the United States.
+
+The following figures, showing the tonnage carried in 1888-89, give
+some idea of the volumes of water-borne traffic in America:
+
+                                    Tons.
+   Detroit River                19,099,060
+   Erie Canal                    5,370,369
+   Sault Ste. Marie              7,516,022
+   Welland Canal                   828,271
+   St. Lawrence Canal            1,500,096
+   Mississippi to New Orleans    3,177,000
+        "      below St. Louis     845,000
+   Ohio                          2,236,917
+   Chicago Canal and lake       11,029,575
+
+Except on the Mississippi, it may be reckoned that navigation is
+closed by ice during five months a year. It may be mentioned, by way
+of comparison, that the traffic on the Suez Canal during the year
+1888-89 was 6,640,834 tons.
+
+One very interesting point in connection with this work is the effect
+that the diversion of so large a body of water from the lakes will
+have upon their _regime_. At least 10,000 cubic feet a second would be
+taken from Lake Michigan and find its way into the Mississippi; this
+is approximately 4½ per cent. of the total amount that now passes
+through the St. Clair River and thence over Niagara.
+
+The following table gives some particulars of the great lakes and the
+discharge from them:
+
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-----------------------
+               |          |       |        |Cubic Feet per Second.
+               |Elevation |Area of| Area of+-------+-------+-------
+               |  above   | Basin,|  Lake, |       |       |
+    Lake.      |Mean Tide.| Square|  Square| Rain- |Evapo- | Dis-
+               |  Feet.   | Miles.|  Miles.| fall. |ration.|charge.
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+Superior       |  601.78  | 90,505| 38,875 |187,386| 34,495| 80,870
+Huron and Mich.|  581.28  |121,941| 50,400 |262,964| 66,754|216,435
+Erie           |  572.86  | 40,298| 10,000 | 96,654| 13,870|235,578
+Ontario        |  246.61  | 31,558|  7,220 | 75,692| 10,568|272,095
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The average variation in level of the lakes is from 18 in. to 24 in.
+during the year, and the range in evaporation from year to year is
+also very considerable; thus the evaporation per second on Huron and
+Michigan, as given in the table above, is nearly 67,000 ft., but the
+figures for another year show nearly 89,000 ft. per second, which
+would represent a difference of 6½ in. in water level. As a discharge
+of 10,000 cubic feet a second into the new canal would lower the level
+of these two lakes by 2.87 in. in a year, it follows that the
+difference between a year of maximum and one of minimum evaporation is
+more than twice as great as would be required for the canal, and even
+under the most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from the whole
+chain of lakes would not lower them an inch.
+
+When the variations in level due to different causes--rain, wind, and
+evaporation being the chief--are taken into consideration, the effect
+of 10,000 cubic feet a second abstracted would probably not be
+noticeable. That this would be so is the opinion, after careful
+investigation, of many eminent American engineers. On the other hand
+there is a similar unanimity of opinion as to the advantages that
+would be obtained in the condition of the Mississippi by adding to it
+a tributary of such importance as the proposed canal.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+N.F. BURNHAM AND HIS LIFE WORK.
+
+By W.H. BURNHAM.
+
+
+The inventor and patentee of all water wheels known as the Burham
+turbine died from Bright's disease of the kidneys at his home, York,
+Pa., Dec. 22, 1890, aged 68 years 9 months and 9 days. He was born in
+the city of New York, March 13, 1822, and was of English-Irish and
+French descent. His father was a millwright and with him worked at the
+trade in Orange county, N.Y., until he was 16 years old. He then
+commenced learning the watchmakers' business, which he was obliged to
+relinquish, after three years, on account of his health. He then went
+to Laurel, Md., in 1844, and engaged with Patuxent & Co. as mercantile
+clerk and bookkeeper. In 1856 he commenced the manufacture of the
+French turbine water wheel. In 1879 he sold out his Laurel interests,
+went to New York and commenced manufacturing his own patents. On May
+22, 1883, he founded the Drovers' and Mechanics' National Bank of
+York, and was elected its first president, which position he held at
+the time of his death. In 1881, with others, he built the York opera
+house, at a cost of $40,000. He was a Knight Templar, and past master
+of the I.O.O.F., and past sachem of Red Men.
+
+[Illustration: N.F. BURNHAM.]
+
+He was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living, having been
+actually engaged in the manufacture of turbines since 1856. He first
+made and sold the French Jonval turbine, which was then the best
+turbine made, but being complicated in construction, it soon wore out
+and leaked. From the experience he had from this wheel he invented and
+patented Feb. 22, 1859, his improved Jonval turbine, which was very
+simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage of power than the
+French Jonval turbines. Hundreds of these improved wheels, which were
+put in operation between the years 1859 and 1868, are still in use.
+(We show no cut of this wheel, but it had four chutes instead of six,
+as shown in March 24, 1863, patent.)
+
+The first wheel (72 inch) made after the patent was granted was sold
+to Brightwell & Davis, Farmville, Va., and put into their flour mill
+under six feet head. In 1870, Brightwell & Davis sold their mill to
+Scott & Davis. Afterward G.W. Davis owned and operated the mill and
+put in one 1858 patent "New Turbine." In 1889 the Farmville Mill
+Company bought and remodeled the mill to roller process and required
+more power than the old 1856 Jonval turbine and 1868 "New Turbine"
+would yield, and on Aug. 30, 1889, sold the Farmville Mill Company two
+54 inch new improved Standard turbines to displace the two old wheels.
+In 1860 he commenced experimenting with different forms of buckets and
+chutes, and used six chutes instead of four as first made, and was
+granted patent March 24, 1863.
+
+This addition of chutes proved beneficial, as the wheel worked better
+with the gates partly opened than it did with four chutes. His next
+invention was granted him Dec. 24, 1867, which he called Burnham's
+improved central and vertical discharge turbine.
+
+This improvement consisted in making the guide blade straight on the
+outside (instead of rounding, as then made by all others), from inner
+point back to bolt or gudgeon, and thick enough at the latter point to
+let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt and the
+arrangement for shifting the water guides. Two 42-inch wheels of this
+pattern were built and put into operation, but they soon commenced
+leaking water and became troublesome on account of the many small
+pieces of castings and bolts, and were abandoned as worthless. There
+are several manufacturers of this style of wheel that advertise them
+as "simple and durable." Such a complicated case with twelve chutes
+cannot be made to operate unless by a large number of castings, bolts
+and studs. With these adjustable water guides, one of the objects was
+obtained. Admitting the water to the wheel through chutes
+corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets exposed, but not
+placing the water against the face of the buckets at right angles with
+the center of the wheel, except when the guide blades were full
+opened, for as the guides are changed so is the current of the water
+likewise changed.
+
+After making several differently constructed wheels and testing them a
+number of times, he selected the best one and obtained a patent for it
+March 3, 1868, and called it "new turbine," which he still further
+improved and patented May 9, 1871. This "new turbine" consisted of the
+former improved Jonval wheel, hub and buckets, with a new circular
+case and new form of chutes, having a register gate entirely
+surrounding the case and having apertures corresponding to those in
+the case for admitting water to the wheel. This register gate was
+moved by means of a segment and pinion.
+
+This "new turbine" soon gained for itself a reputation enjoyed by no
+other water wheel. It was selected by the United States Patent Office,
+and put at work in room 189, to run a pump which forces water to the
+top of the building. It was likewise selected by the Japan commission
+when they were in this country to select samples of our best machines.
+He continued making the 1868 patent and improved in 1871 "new turbine"
+but a few years, for as long as he could detect a defect in the wheel,
+case or gate, he continued improving and simplifying them, and in 1873
+he erected a very complete testing flume, also made a very sensitive
+dynamometer, it having a combination screw for tightening the friction
+band, which required 100 turns to make one inch, and commenced making
+and experimenting with different constructed turbines. He made five
+different wheels and made over a hundred tests before he was
+satisfied. Application was then made for a patent, which was granted
+March 31, 1874, for his "Standard turbine."
+
+This "Standard turbine" was a combination of his former improvements,
+with the cover extending over top of the gate to prevent it from
+tilting, and an eccentric wheel working in cam yoke to open and close
+the gate.
+
+Thousands of Standard turbines are to-day working and giving the best
+satisfaction, and we venture to say that not one of the Standard
+turbines has been displaced by any other make of turbine, which gave
+better results for the water used. In 1881 he again commenced
+experimenting to find out how much water could be put through a wheel
+of given diameter. After making and testing several wheels it was
+found that the amount of water with full gate drawn named in tables
+found in Burnham Bros.' latest catalogue for each size wheel yielded
+84 per cent. and that the water used with 7/8 gate drawn yielded the
+same percentage (84), or with 3/4 gate 82 per cent., 5/8 gate 79, and 1/2
+gate 75 per cent. A patent for the mechanism was applied for and
+granted March 27, 1883, and named Burnham's Improved Standard Turbine.
+
+It was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached, to prevent
+the gate from rising and tilting and rubbing the curb, soon wore and
+allowed the gate to rub against the curb, and he experimented with
+several devices of gate arms. While so engaged he found that the great
+weight of water on the top of the cover sprang it, causing the sleeve
+bearing on the under side of the cover to be thrown out of place, and
+the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was almost
+impossible to move it, and after thoroughly testing with the different
+devices of gate arms, application was made and patent granted for
+adjustable gate arms, also for the new worm gate gearing May 1, 1888,
+and named Burham's new improved standard turbine.
+
+This he improved and patented May 13, 1890, to run on horizontal
+shaft.
+
+In the year 1872 he had two patents granted him for improvement in
+water wheels, but never had any wheels built of that pattern. After
+completing and patents granted for his new improved Standard turbine,
+he was perfectly satisfied, and often remarked, "I cannot improve on
+my register gate turbine any more, as it is as near perfection as can
+be made," and he was fully convinced, for the past year he was
+experimenting with a cylinder gate turbine, and patent was granted
+Oct. 21, 1890. Previously he had made a 24-inch wheel, which was
+tested Aug. 14, 1890, at Holyoke testing flume, and gave fair results,
+and at the time of his demise he was having made a new runner for the
+cylinder gate turbine, which we will complete and have tested. His
+idea was to have us manufacture and sell register and cylinder gate
+turbines. His inventive powers were not confined to water wheels, for
+on Feb. 23, 1886, patents were granted him for automatic steam engine,
+governor and lubricating device. We also remember in the year 1873 or
+1874, when his mind was occupied with his "Standard turbine," he was
+hindered by some device used now on locomotives of the present
+construction (what it was we are unable to say), but when draughting
+at his water wheel, would conflict the two, and by his invitation we
+wrote to a prominent locomotive builder and had him examine the
+drawings, which he had not fully completed, and sold same to him. Of
+this we only have a faint recollection, but do recollect his saying:
+"Well, that is off my mind now, and I can devote it to the finishing
+of my new wheel."--_American Miller_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALTERNATE CURRENT CONDENSERS.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Physical Society, London, Mr. James
+Swinburne read a paper on alternate current condensers. It is, he
+said, generally assumed that there is no difficulty in making
+commercial condensers for high pressure alternating currents. The
+first difficulty is insulation, for the dielectric must be very thin,
+else the volume of the condenser is too great. Some dielectrics 0.2
+mm. thick can be made to stand up to 8,000 volts when in small pieces,
+but in complete condensers a much greater margin must be allowed.
+Another difficulty arises from absorption, and whenever this occurs,
+the apparent capacity is greater than the calculated. Supposing the
+fibers of paper in a paper condenser to be conductors embedded in
+insulating hydrocarbon, then every time the condenser is charged the
+fibers have their ends at different potentials, so a current passes to
+equalize them and energy is lost. This current increases the capacity.
+One condenser made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally
+large current and heated rapidly. At a high temperature it gave off
+water, and the power wasted and current taken gradually decreased.
+
+When a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils, it heats
+excessively; and the fall of potential over the air films separating
+the mica and foil is great enough to cause disruptive discharge to the
+surface of the mica. There appears to be a luminous layer of minute
+sparks under the foils, and there is a strong smell of ozone. In a
+dielectric which heats, there may be three kinds of conduction, viz.,
+metallic, when an ordinary conductor is embedded in an insulator;
+disruptive, as probably occurs in the case of mica; and electrolytic,
+which might occur in glass. In a transparent dielectric the conduction
+must be either electrolytic or disruptive, otherwise light vibrations
+would be damped. The dielectric loss in a cable may be serious.
+Calculating from the waste in a condenser made of paper soaked in hot
+ozokerite, the loss in one of the Deptford mains came out 7,000 watts.
+Another effect observed at Deptford is a rise of pressure in the
+mains. There is as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what
+happens, and it is generally assumed that the effect depends on the
+relation of capacity to self-induction, and is a sort of resonator
+action. This would need a large self-induction, and a small change of
+speed would stop the effect. The following explanation is suggested.
+When a condenser is put on a dynamo, the condenser current leads
+relatively to the electromotive force, and therefore strengthens the
+field magnets and increases the pressure.
+
+[Illustration: T_{1} and T_{2} are large transformers; t_{1} and t_{2}
+are small transformers or voltmeters V_{1} and V_{2}. The numbers 1,
+4, 1, 25, represent their conversion ratios.]
+
+In order to test this, the following experiment was made for the
+author by Mr. W.F. Bourne. A Gramme alternator was coupled to the low
+pressure coil of a transformer, and a hot wire voltmeter put across
+the primary circuit. On putting a condenser on the high pressure
+circuit, the voltmeter wire fused. The possibility of making an
+alternator excite itself like a series machine, by putting a condenser
+on it, was pointed out. Prof. Perry said it would seem possible to
+obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the magnets
+independently, the field being altogether due to the armature
+currents. Mr. Swinburne remarked that this could be done by making the
+rotating magnets a star-shaped mass of iron. Sir W. Thomson thought
+Mr. Swinburne's estimate of the loss in the Deptford mains was rather
+high. He himself had calculated the power spent in charging them, and
+found it to be about 16 horse power, and although a considerable
+fraction might be lost, it would not amount to nine-sixteenths. He was
+surprised to hear that glass condensers heated, and inquired whether
+this heating was due to flashes passing between the foil and the
+glass. Mr. A.P. Trotter said Mr. Ferranti informed him that the
+capacity of his mains was about 1/3 microfarad per mile, thus making
+2-1/3 microfarads for the seven miles. The heaping up of the potential
+only took place when transformers were used, and not when the dynamos
+were connected direct. In the former case the increase of volts was
+proportional to the length of main used, and 8,500 at Deptford gave
+10,000 at London.
+
+Mr. Blakesley described a simple method of determining the loss of
+power in a condenser by the use of three electrodynamometers, one of
+which has its coils separate. Of these coils, one is put in the
+condenser circuit, and the other in series with a non-inductive
+resistance r, shutting the condenser. If a_{2} be the reading of a
+dynamometer in the shunt circuit, and a_{3} that of the divided
+dynamometer, the power lost is given by r (Ca_{3} - Ba_{2}) where B and
+C are the constants of the instruments on which a_{2} and a_{3} are
+the respective readings. Prof. S.P. Thompson asked if Mr. Swinburne
+had found any dielectric which had no absorption. So far as he was
+aware, pure quartz crystal was the only substance. Prof. Forbes said
+Dr. Hopkinson had found a glass which showed none. Sir William
+Thomson, referring to the same subject, said that many years ago he
+made some tests on glass bottles, which showed no appreciable
+absorption. Sulphuric acid was used for the coatings, and he found
+them to be completely discharged by an instantaneous contact of two
+balls. The duration of contact would, according to some remarkable
+mathematical work done by Hertz in 1882, be about 0.0004 second, and
+even this short time sufficed to discharge them completely.
+
+On the other hand, Leyden jars with tinfoil coatings showed
+considerable absorption, and this he thought due to want of close
+contact between the foil and the glass. To test this he suggested that
+mercury coatings be tried. Mr. Kapp considered the loss of power in
+condensers due to two causes: first, that due to the charge soaking
+in; and second, to imperfect elasticity of the dielectric. Speaking of
+the extraordinary rise of pressure on the Deptford mains, he said he
+had observed similar effects with other cables. In his experiments the
+sparking distance of a 14,000 volt transformer was increased from 3/16
+of an inch to 1 inch by connecting the cables to its terminals. No
+difference was detected between the sparking distances at the two ends
+of the cable, nor was any rise of pressure observed when the cables
+were joined direct on the dynamo.
+
+In his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance, and would
+be a maximum for some particular frequency. Mr. Mordey mentioned a
+peculiar phenomenon observed in the manufacture of his alternators.
+Each coil, he said, was tested to double the pressure of the completed
+dynamo, but when they were all fitted together, their insulation broke
+down at the same volts. The difficulty had been overcome by making the
+separate coils to stand much higher pressures. Prof. Rucker called
+attention to the fact that dielectrics alter in volume under electric
+stress, and said that if the material was imperfectly elastic, some
+loss would result. The president said that, as some doubt existed as
+to what Mr. Ferranti had actually observed, he would illustrate the
+arrangements by a diagram. Speaking of condensers, he said he had
+recently tried lead plates in water to get large capacities, but so
+far had not been successful.
+
+Mr. Swinburne, in replying, said he had not made a perfect condenser
+yet, for, although he had some which did not heat much, they made a
+great noise. He did not see how the rise of pressure observed by Mr.
+Ferranti and Mr. Kapp could be due to resonance. Mr. Kapp's experiment
+was not conclusive, for the length of spark is not an accurate measure
+of electromotive force. As regards Mr. Mordey's observation, he
+thought the action explicable on the theory of the leading condenser
+current acting on the field magnets. The same explanation is also
+applicable to the Deptford case, for when the dynamo is direct on, the
+condenser current is about 10 amperes, and this exerts only a small
+influence on the strongly magnetized magnets. When transformers are
+used, the field magnets are weak, while the condenser current rises
+to 40 amperes. Mr. Blakesley's method of determining losses was, he
+said, inapplicable except where the currents were sine functions of
+the time; and consequently could not be used to determine loss due to
+hysteresis in iron, or in a transparent dielectric.--_Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, EUROPE, AMERICA,
+AND THE EAST.
+
+By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.
+
+
+There are at present twenty-six submarine cable companies, the
+combined capital of which is about forty million pounds sterling.
+Their revenue, including subsidies, amounts to 3,204,060£.; and their
+reserves and sinking funds to 3,610,000£.; and their dividends are
+from one to 14¾ per cent. The receipts from the Atlantic cables alone
+amount to about 800,000£. annually.
+
+The number of cables laid down throughout the world is 1,045, of which
+798 belong to governments and 247 to private companies. The total
+length of those cables is 120,070 nautical miles, of which 107,546 are
+owned by private telegraph companies, nearly all British; the
+remainder, or 12,524 miles, are owned by governments.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND
+THE CONTINENT.]
+
+The largest telegraphic organization in the world is that of the
+Eastern Telegraphic Company, with seventy cables, of a total length of
+21,859 nautical miles. The second largest is the Eastern Extension,
+Australasia and China Telegraph Company, with twenty-two cables, of a
+total length of 12,958 nautical miles. The Eastern Company work all
+the cables on the way to Bombay, and the Eastern Extension Company
+from Madras eastward. The cables landing in Japan, however, are owned
+by a Danish company, the Great Northern. The English station of the
+Eastern Company is at Porthcurno, Cornwall, and through it pass most
+of the messages for Spain, Portugal, Egypt, India, China, Japan, and
+Australia.
+
+The third largest cable company is the Anglo-American Telegraph
+Company, with thirteen cables, of a total length of 10,196 miles.
+
+The British government has one hundred and three cables around our
+shores, of a total length of 1,489 miles. If we include India and the
+colonies, the British empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen
+cables of a total length of 3,811 miles.
+
+The longest government cable in British waters is that from Sinclair
+Bay, Wick, to Sandwick Bay, Shetland, of the length of 122 miles, and
+laid in 1885. The shortest being four cables across the Gloucester and
+Sharpness Canal, at the latter place, and each less than 300 ft. in
+length.
+
+Of government cables the greatest number is owned by Norway, with two
+hundred and thirty-six, averaging, however, less than a mile each in
+length.
+
+The greatest mileage is owned by the government of France with 3,269
+miles, of the total length of fifty-one cables.
+
+The next being British India with 1,714 miles, and eighty-nine cables;
+and Germany third with 1,570 miles and forty-three cables.
+
+Britain being fourth with ninety miles less. The oldest cable still
+in use is the one that was first laid, that namely from Dover to
+Calais. It dates from 1851.
+
+The two next oldest cables in use being those respectively from
+Ramsgate to Ostend, and St. Petersburg to Cronstadt, and both laid
+down in 1853.
+
+Several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect England and Ireland
+by means of a cable between Holyhead and Howth; but communication
+between the two countries was finally effected in 1853, when a cable
+was successfully laid between Portpatrick and Donaghadee (31).
+
+As showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in comparatively
+shallow waters are exposed, we may relate the curious accident that
+befell the Portpatrick cable in 1873. During a severe storm in that
+year the Port Glasgow ship Marseilles capsized in the vicinity of
+Portpatrick, the anchor fell out and caught on to the telegraph cable,
+which, however, gave way. The ship was afterward captured and towed
+into Rothesay Bay, in an inverted position, by a Greenock tug, when
+part of the cable was found entangled about the anchor.
+
+The smallest private companies are the Indo-European Telegraph
+Company, with two cables in the Crimea, of a total length of fourteen
+and a half miles; and the River Plate Telegraph Company, with one
+cable from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, thirty-two miles long.
+
+The smallest government telegraph organization is that of New
+Caledonia, with its one solitary cable one mile long.
+
+We will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding the companies
+having cables from Europe to America.
+
+The most important company is the Anglo-American Telegraph Company,
+whose history is inseparably connected with that of the trials and
+struggles of the pioneers of cable laying.
+
+Its history begins in 1851 when Tebets, an American, and Gisborne, an
+English engineer, formed the Electric Telegraph Company of
+Newfoundland, and laid down twelve miles of cable between Cape Breton
+and Nova Scotia. This company was shortly afterward dissolved, and its
+property transferred to the Telegraphic Company of New York,
+Newfoundland and London, founded by Cyrus W. Field, and who in 1854
+obtained an extension of the monopoly from the government to lay
+cables.
+
+A cable, eighty-five miles long, was laid between Cape Breton and
+Newfoundland (22).
+
+Field then came to England and floated an English company, which
+amalgamated with the American one under the title of the Atlantic
+Telegraph Company.
+
+The story of the laying of the Atlantic cables of 1857 and 1865, their
+success and failures, has often been told, so we need not go into any
+details. It may be noted, however, that communication was first
+established between Valentia and Newfoundland on August 5. 1858, but
+the cable ceased to transmit signals on September 1, following.
+
+During that period, ninety-seven messages had been sent from Valentia,
+and two hundred and sixty-nine from Newfoundland. At the present time,
+the ten Atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages daily
+between the two continents. The losses attending the laying of the
+1865 cable resulted in the financial ruin of the Atlantic company and
+its amalgamation with the Anglo-American. In 1866 the Great Eastern
+successfully laid the first cable for the new company, and with the
+assistance of other vessels succeeded in picking up the broken end of
+the 1865 cable and completing its connection with Newfoundland.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES FROM EUROPE AND THEIR
+CONNECTIONS WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Reference to places--A, Heart's Content; B, Placentia; C, St. Peter
+Miquelon; D, North Sydney, Cape Breton Island; E, Louisbourg; F Canso,
+Nova Scotia; G, Halifax; H, Bird Rock; I, Madeline Isles; J,
+Anticosti; K, Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island; LLL, Banks of
+Newfoundland.]
+
+The three cables of this company presently in use and connecting
+Valentia in Ireland with Heart's Content in Newfoundland, were laid in
+1873, 1874, and 1880; and (1) are respectively 1886, 1846, and 1890
+nautical miles in length. This company also owns the longest cable in
+the world, that namely from Brest in France to St. Pierre Miquelon,
+one of a small group of islands off the south coast of Newfoundland
+and which, strange to say, still belongs to France (6).
+
+The length of this cable is 2,685 nautical miles, or 3,092 statute
+miles. It was laid in 1869. There are seven cables of a total length
+of 1773 miles, connecting Heart's Content, Placentia Bay and St.
+Pierre, with North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and Duxbury, near Boston,
+belonging to the American company. Communication is maintained with
+Germany and the rest of the Continent by means of a cable from
+Valentia to Emden 846 miles long (7); and a cable from Brest to
+Salcombe, Devon, connects the St. Pierre and Brest cable with the
+London office of the company (10).[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cables not fully described in the text, Map B. Eight
+cables at the Anglo-American Company: 7, Heart's Content to Placentia,
+two cables; 8, Placentia to St. Pierre; 9, St. Pierre to North Sydney;
+10, Placentia to North Sydney, two cables; 11, St. Pierre to Duxbury;
+18, Charlotte's Town to Nova Scotia; 19, Government Cable, North
+Sydney to Bird Rock, Madeline Isles, and Anticosti; 21, Halifax and
+Bermuda Cable Company's proposed cable to Bermuda.]
+
+The station of the Direct United States Cable Company is situated at
+Ballinskelligs Bay, Ireland (2). Its cable was laid in 1874-5, and is
+2,565 miles in length. The terminal point on the other side of the
+Atlantic is at Halifax, Nova Scotia, from whence the cable is
+continued to Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a distance of 536 miles, and
+thence by a land line of 500 miles to New York (17).
+
+The Commercial Cable Company's station in Ireland is at Waterville, a
+short distance from Ballinskelligs (3). It owns two cables laid in
+1885; the northern cable being 2,350, and the southern 2,388 miles
+long. They terminate in America at Canso, Nova Scotia. From Canso a
+cable is laid to Rockfort, about thirty miles south of Boston, Mass.,
+a distance of 518 miles (16), and another is laid to New York, 840
+miles in length (15). This company has direct communication with the
+Continent by means of a cable from Waterville to Havre of 510 miles
+(9), and with England by a cable to Weston-super-Mare, near Bristol,
+of 328 miles (8).
+
+The Western Union Telegraph Company (the lessees of the lines of the
+American Telegraph and Cable Company) has two cables from Sennen Cove,
+Land's End, to Canso, Nova Scotia (4). The cable of 1881 is 2,531 and
+that of 1882 is 2,576 miles in length. Two cables were laid November,
+1889, between Canso and New York (14).
+
+The Compagnie Française du Telegraphe de Paris à New York has a cable
+from Brest to St. Pierre Miquelon of 2,242 miles in length (5), from
+thence a cable is laid to Louisbourg, Cape Breton (12), and another
+to Cape Cod (13). It has also a cable from Brest to Porcella Cove,
+Cornwall (11).
+
+Those ten cables owned by the six companies named, of the total milage
+of 22,959, not counting connections, represent the entire direct
+communication between the continents of Europe and North America.
+
+A new company, not included in the preceding statistics, proposes to
+lay a cable from Westport, Ireland, to some point in the Straits of
+Belle Isle on the Labrador coast (Map A32, Map B20).
+
+The station of the Eastern Telegraph Company is at Porthcurno Cove,
+Penzance, from whence it has two cables to Lisbon, one laid in 1880,
+850 miles long, the other laid in 1887, 892 miles long (12), and one
+cable to Vigo, Spain, laid in 1873, 622 miles long (13). From Lisbon
+the cable is continued to Gibraltar and the East, whither we need not
+follow it, our intention being to confine ourselves entirely to a
+brief account of those cables communicating directly with Europe and
+America. As already stated, this company has altogether seventy
+cables, of a total length of nearly 22,000 miles.
+
+The Direct Spanish Telegraph Company has a cable, laid in 1884, from
+Kennach Cove, Cornwall, to Bilbao, Spain, 486 miles in length (14).
+
+Coming now to shorter cables connecting Britain with the Continent, we
+have those of the Great Northern Telegraph Company, namely, Peterhead
+to Ekersund, Norway, 267 miles (15). Newbiggin, near Newcastle, to
+Arendal, Norway, 424 miles, and thence to Marstrand, Sweden, 98 miles.
+
+Two cables from the same place in England to Denmark (Hirstals and
+Sondervig) of 420 and 337 miles respectively (17 and 18).
+
+The great Northern Company has altogether twenty-two cables, of a
+total length of 6,110 miles. The line from Newcastle, is worked direct
+to Nylstud, in Russia--a distance of 890 miles--by means of a "relay"
+or "repeater," at Gothenburg. The relay is the apparatus at which the
+Newcastle current terminates, but in ending there it itself starts a
+fresh current on to Russia.
+
+The other continental connections belong to the government, and are as
+follows: two cables to Germany, Lowestoft to Norderney, 232 miles, and
+to Emden, 226 miles (19 and 20).
+
+Two cables to Holland: Lowestoft to Zandvoort, laid in 1858 (21), and
+from Benacre, Kessingland, to Zandvoort (22).
+
+Two cables to Belgium: Ramsgate to Ostend (23), and Dover to Furness
+(24).
+
+Four cables to France: Dover to Calais, laid in 1851 (25), and to
+Boulogne (26), laid in 1859; Beachy Head to Dieppe (27), and to Havre
+(28).
+
+There is a cable from the Dorset coast to Alderney and Guernsey, and
+from the Devon coast to Guernsey, Jersey, and Coutances, France (29
+and 30).
+
+A word now as to the instruments used for the transmission of
+messages. Those for cables are of two kinds, the mirror galvanometer
+and the siphon recorder, both the product of Sir Wm. Thomson's great
+inventive genius.
+
+When the Calais-Dover and other short cables were first worked, it was
+found that the ordinary needle instrument in use on land lines was not
+sufficiently sensitive to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary
+current it was possible to send through a cable. Either the current
+must be increased in strength or the instruments used must be more
+sensitive. The latter alternative was chosen, and the mirror
+galvanometer was the result.
+
+The principle on which this instrument works may be briefly described
+thus: the transmitted current of electricity causes the deflection of
+a small magnet, to which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, a beam of light is reflected from a properly
+arranged lamp, by the mirror, on to a paper scale. The dots and dashes
+of the Morse code are indicated by the motions of the spot of light to
+the right and left respectively of the center of the scale.
+
+The mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely superseded by the
+siphon recorder. This is a somewhat complicated apparatus, with the
+details of which we need not trouble our readers. Suffice it for us to
+explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate its motions, by
+means of fine silk fibers, to a very fine glass siphon, one end of
+which dips into an insulated metallic vessel containing ink, while the
+other extremity rests, when no current is passing, just over the
+center of a paper ribbon. When the instrument is in use the ink is
+driven out of the siphon in small drops by means of an electrical
+arrangement, and the ribbon underneath is at the same time caused to
+pass underneath its point by means of clockwork.
+
+If a current be now sent through the line, the siphon will move above
+or below the central line, thus giving a permanent record of the
+message, which the mirror instrument does not. The waves written by
+the siphon above the central line corresponding to the dots of the
+Morse code, and the waves underneath corresponding to the dashes.
+
+The cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies from one shilling
+per word, the rate to New York and east of the Mississippi, to ten
+shillings and seven pence per word, the rate to New Zealand. In order
+to minimize that cost as much as possible, the use of codes, whereby
+one word is made to do duty for a lengthy phrase, is much resorted to.
+Of course those code messages form a series of words having no
+apparent relation to each other, but occasionally queer sentences
+result from the chance grouping of the code words. Thus a certain tea
+firm was once astonished to receive from its agent abroad the
+startling code message--"Unboiled babies detested"!
+
+Suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams in their
+travels over the world.
+
+A message to India from London by the cable route requires to be
+transmitted eight times at the following places: Porthcurno
+(Cornwall), Lisbon, Gibraltar, Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay.
+
+A message to Australia has thirteen stoppages; the route taken beyond
+Bombay being via Madras, Penang, Singapore, Banjoewangie and Port
+Darwin (North Australia); or from Banjoewangie to Roebuck Bay (Western
+Australia).
+
+To India by the Indo-European land lines, messages go through Emden,
+Warsaw, Odessa, Kertch, Tiflis, Teheran, Bushire (Persian Gulf), Jask
+and Kurrachee, but only stop twice between London and Teheran--namely,
+at Emden and Odessa.
+
+Messages from London to New York are transmitted only twice--at the
+Irish or Cornwall stations, and at the stations in Canada. Owing to
+the great competition for the American traffic, the service between
+London, Liverpool, and Glasgow and New York is said to be much
+superior to that between any two towns in Britain. The cables are
+extensively used by stock brokers, and it is a common occurrence for
+one to send a message and receive a reply within five minutes.
+
+During breakages in cables messages have sometimes to take very
+circuitous routes. For instance, during the two days, three years ago,
+that a tremendous storm committed such havoc among the telegraph wires
+around London, cutting off all communication with the lines connected
+with the Channel cables at Dover, Lowestoft, etc., it was of common
+occurrence for London merchants to communicate with Paris through New
+York. The cablegram leaving London going north to Holyhead and
+Ireland, across the Atlantic to New York and back _via_ St. Pierre to
+Brest and thence on to Paris, a total distance of about seven thousand
+miles.
+
+Three years ago, when the great blizzard cut off all communication
+between New York and Boston, messages were accepted in New York, sent
+to this country, and thence back to Boston.
+
+Some time ago the cables between Madeira and St. Vincent were out of
+order, cutting off communication by the direct route to Brazil, and a
+message to reach Rio Janeiro had to pass through Ireland, Canada,
+United States, to Galveston, thence to Vera Cruz, Guatemala,
+Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chili; from Valparaiso across the
+Andes, through the Argentine Republic to Buenos Ayres, and thence by
+East Coast cables to Rio Janeiro, the message having traversed a
+distance of about twelve thousand miles and having passed through
+twenty-four cables and some very long land lines, instead of passing,
+had it been possible to have sent it by the direct route, over one
+short land line and six cables, in all under six thousand miles.
+
+Perhaps some of our readers may remember having read in the newspapers
+of the result of last year's Derby having been sent from Epsom to New
+York in fifteen seconds, and may be interested to know how it was
+done. A wire was laid from near the winning post on the race course to
+the cable company's office in London, and an operator was at the
+instrument ready to signal the two or three letters previously
+arranged upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed the
+post. When the race began, the cable company suspended work on all the
+lines from London to New York and kept operators at the Irish and Nova
+Scotian stations ready to transmit the letters representing the
+winning horse immediately, and without having the message written out
+in the usual way. When the race was finished, the operator at Epsom at
+once sent the letters representing the winner, and before he had
+finished the third letter, the operator in London had started the
+first one to Ireland. The clerk in Ireland immediately on bearing the
+first signal from London passed it on to Nova Scotia, from whence it
+was again passed on to New York. The result being that the name of the
+winner was actually known in New York before the horses had pulled up
+after passing the judge. It seems almost incredible that such
+information could be transmitted such a great distance in fifteen
+seconds, but when we get behind the scenes and see exactly how it is
+accomplished, and see how the labor and time of signaling can be
+economized, we can easily realize the fact.
+
+The humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been described; we will
+conclude by giving only one example. A St. Louis merchant had gone to
+New York on business, and while there received a telegram from the
+family doctor, which ran: "Your wife has had a child, if we can keep
+her from having another to-night, all will be well." As the little
+stranger had not been expected, further inquiry was made and elicited
+the fact that his wife had simply had a "chill"! This important
+difference having been caused simply by the omission of a single dot.
+
+   -.-. .... .. .-.. .-..
+      c    h  i    l    l = chill
+   -.-. .... .. .-..  -..
+      c    h  i    l    d = child
+
+--_Hardwicke's Science-Gossip_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY IN TRANSITU--FROM PLENUM TO VACUUM.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Presidential address before the Institute of Electrical
+Engineers, London; continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 792, page 12656.]
+
+By Prof. WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.
+
+
+If an idle pole, C, C, Fig. 12 (P=0.0001 millimeter or 0.13 M),
+protected all but the point by a thick coating of glass, is brought
+into the center of the molecular stream in front of the negative pole,
+A, and the whole of the inside and outside of the tube walls are
+coated with metal, D, D, and "earthed" so as to carry away the
+positive electricity as rapidly as possible, then it is seen that the
+molecules leaving the negative pole and striking upon the idle pole,
+C, on their journey along the tube carry a negative charge and
+communicate negative electricity to the idle pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+This tube is of interest, since it is the one in which I was first
+able to perceive how, in my earlier results, I always obtained a
+positive charge from an idle pole placed in the direct stream from the
+negative pole. Having got so far, it was easy to devise a form of
+apparatus that completely verified the theory, and at the same time
+threw considerably more light upon the subject. Fig. 13, a, b, c, is
+such a tube, and in this model I have endeavored to show the
+electrical state of it at a high vacuum by marking a number of + and -
+signs. The exhaustion has been carried to 0.0001 millimeter, or 0.13
+M, and you see that in the neighborhood of the positive pole, and
+extending almost to the negative, the tube is strongly electrified
+with positive electricity, the negative atoms shooting out from the
+negative pole in a rapidly diminishing cone. If an idle pole is placed
+in the position shown at Fig. 13, a, the impacts of positive and
+negative molecules are about equal, and no decided current will pass
+from it, through the galvanometer, to earth. This is the _neutral_
+point. But if we imagine the idle pole to be as at Fig. 13, b, then
+the positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate over the
+negative molecules, and positive electricity is shown. If the idle
+pole is now shifted, as shown at Fig. 13, c, the negative molecules
+preponderate, and the pole will give negative electricity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 A.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 B.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 C.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+As the exhaustion proceeds, the positive charge in the tube increases
+and the neutral point approaches closer to the negative pole, and at a
+point just short of non-conduction so greatly does the positive
+electrification preponderate that it is almost impossible to get
+negative electricity from the idle pole, unless it actually touches
+the negative pole. This tube is before you, and I will now proceed to
+show the change in direction of current by moving the idle pole.
+
+I have not succeeded in getting the "Edison" current incandescent
+lamps to change in direction at even the highest degree of exhaustion
+which my pump will produce. The subject requires further
+investigation, and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies
+promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the experimental
+philosopher, just as the waste products of the chemist have often
+proved the source of new and valuable bodies.
+
+
+PROPERTIES OF RADIANT MATTER.
+
+One of the most characteristic attributes of radiant matter--whence
+its name--is that it moves in approximately straight lines and in a
+direction almost normal to the surface of the electrode. If we keep
+the induction current passing continuously through a vacuum tube in
+the same direction, we can imagine two ways in which the action
+proceeds: either the supply of gaseous molecules at the surface of the
+negative pole must run short and the phenomena come to an end, or the
+molecules must find some means of getting back. I will show you an
+experiment which reveals the molecules in the very act of returning.
+Here is a tube (Fig. 14) exhausted to a pressure of 0.001 millimeter
+or 1.3 M. In the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm, C,
+pierced with two holes, D and E. At one part of the tube a concave
+pole, A', is focused on the upper hole, D, in the diaphragm. Behind
+the upper hole and in front of the lower one are movable vanes, F and
+G, capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas through the
+holes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.]
+
+On passing the current with the concave pole negative, the small veins
+rotate in such a manner as to prove that at this high exhaustion a
+stream of molecules issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm, while
+at the same time a stream of freshly charged molecules is forced by
+the negative pole through the upper hole. The experiment speaks for
+itself, showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that so far the
+theory is right.
+
+This view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced merely as a
+working hypothesis, which, in the present state of our knowledge, may
+be regarded as a necessary help to be retained only so long as it
+proves useful. In experimental research early hypotheses have
+necessarily to be modified, or adjusted, or perhaps entirely
+abandoned, in deference to more accurate observations. Dumas said,
+truly, that hypotheses were like crutches, which we throw away when we
+are able to walk without them.
+
+
+RADIANT MATTER AND "RADIANT ELECTRODE MATTER."
+
+In recording my investigations on the subject of radiant matter and
+the state of gaseous residues in high vacua under electrical strain, I
+must refer to certain attacks on the views I have propounded. The most
+important of these questionings are contained in a volume of "Physical
+Memoirs," selected and translated from foreign sources under the
+direction of the Physical Society (vol. i., part 2). This volume
+contains two memoirs, one by Hittorff on the "Conduction of
+Electricity in Gases," and the other by Puluj on "Radiant Electrode
+Matter and the So-called Fourth State." Dr. Puluj's paper concerns me
+most, as the author has set himself vigorously to the task of opposing
+my conclusions. Apart from my desire to keep controversial matter out
+of an address of this sort, time would not permit me to discuss the
+points raised by my critic; I will, therefore, only observe in passing
+that Dr. Puluj has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth
+state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine of four
+dimensional space.
+
+Reference has already been made to the mistaken supposition that I
+have pronounced the thickness of the dark space in a highly exhausted
+tube through which an induction spark is passed to be identical with
+the natural mean free path of the molecules of gas at that exhaustion.
+I could quote numerous passages from my writings to show that what I
+meant and said was the mean free path as amplified and modified by the
+electrification.[2] In this view I am supported by Prof. Schuster,[3]
+who, in a passage quoted below, distinctly admits that the mean free
+path of an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in its
+ordinary state.
+
+[Footnote 2: "The thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative
+pole is the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous
+molecules between successive collisions. The electrified molecules are
+projected from the negative pole with enormous velocity, varying,
+however, with the degree of exhaustion and intensity of the induction
+current."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 530.
+
+"The extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited
+negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are
+advancing toward the pole. The conflict occurs at the boundary of the
+dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of
+the discharge."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 507.
+
+"Here, then, we see the induction spark actually illuminating the
+lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative
+pole."--_R.I. Lecture_, Friday, April 4, 1879.
+
+"The electrically excited negative pole supplies the _force majeure_,
+which entirely, or partially, changes into a rectilinear action the
+irregular vibration in all directions."--_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1880. page
+472.
+
+"It is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules
+is increased so as to make the mean velocity with which they
+leave the negative pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous
+molecules."--_Phil. Trans._, part ii., 1881, par. 719.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "It has been suggested that the extent of the dark space
+represents the mean free path of the molecules.... It has been pointed
+out by others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably
+greater than the mean free path of the molecules, calculated according
+to the ordinary way. My measurements make it nearly twenty times as
+great. This, however, is not in itself a fatal objection; for, as we
+have seen, the mean free path of an ion may be different from that of
+a molecule moving among others."--Schuster, _Proc. Roy. Soc_., xlvii.,
+pp. 556-7.]
+
+The great difference between Puluj and me lies in his statement
+that[4] "the matter which fills the dark space consists of mechanical
+detached particles of the electrodes which are charged with statically
+negative electricity, and move progressively in a straight direction."
+
+[Footnote 4: "Physical Memoirs," part ii., vol. i., p. 244. The
+paragraph is italicized in the original.]
+
+To these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes, "of
+different sizes, often large lumps,"[5] Puluj attributes all the
+phenomena of heat, force and phosphorescence that I from time to time
+have described in my several papers.
+
+[Footnote 5: _Loc. cit._, p. 242.]
+
+Puluj objects energetically to my definition "Radiant Matter," and
+then proposes in its stead the misleading term "Radiant Electrode
+Matter." I say "misleading," for while both his and my definitions
+equally admit the existence of "Radiant Matter," he drags in the
+hypothesis that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated
+material of the poles.
+
+Puluj declares that the phenomena I have described in high vacua are
+produced by his irregularly shaped lumps of radiant electrode matter.
+My contention is that they are produced by radiant matter of the
+residual molecules of gas.
+
+Were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental evidence, I
+would not mention the subject to you. On such an occasion as this
+controversial matter must have no place; therefore I content myself at
+present by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively prove
+my case.
+
+Let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis. Some metals,
+it is well known, such as silver, gold or platinum, when used for the
+negative electrode in a vacuum tube, volatilize more or less rapidly,
+coating any object in their neighborhood with a very even film. On
+this depends the well known method of electrically preparing small
+mirrors, etc. Aluminum, however, seems exempt from this volatility.
+Hence, and for other reasons, it is generally used for electrodes.
+
+If, then, the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to the "electrode
+matter," the more volatile the metal used, the greater should be the
+effect.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society,
+November 20, 1890, by Professors Liveing and Dewar, on finely divided
+metallic dust thrown off the surface of various electrodes, in vacuum
+tubes, they find not only that dust, however fine, suspended in a gas
+will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its
+characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge, but that it is
+driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course of the
+discharge.]
+
+Here is a tube (Fig. 15, P=0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M), with two
+negative electrodes, AA', so placed as to protect two luminous spots
+on the phosphorescent glass of the tube. One electrode, A', is of pure
+silver, a volatile metal; the other, A, is of aluminum, practically
+non-volatile. A quantity of "electrode matter" will be shot off from
+the silver pole, and practically none from the aluminum pole; but you
+see that in each case the phosphorescence, CC', is identical. Had the
+radiant electrode matter been the active agent, the more intense
+phosphorescence would proceed from the more volatile pole.
+
+A drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus is shown in Fig.
+16. A pear-shaped bulb of German glass has near the small end an inner
+concave negative pole, A, of pure silver, so mounted that its
+inverted image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube. In front
+of this pole is a screen of mica, C, having a small hole in the
+center, so that only a narrow pencil of rays from the silver pole can
+pass through, forming a bright spot, D, at the far end of the bulb.
+The exhaustion is about the same as in the previous tube, and the
+current has been allowed to pass continuously for many hours so as to
+drive off a certain portion of the silver electrode; and upon
+examination it is found that the silver has all been deposited in the
+immediate neighborhood of the pole; while the spot, D, at the far end
+of the tube, that has been continuously glowing with phosphorescent
+light, is practically free from silver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+The experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it here, so I shall not
+attempt it; but I have on the table the results for examination.
+
+The identity of action of silver and aluminum in the first case, and
+the non-projection of silver in this second instance, are in
+themselves sufficient to condemn Dr. Puluj's hypotheses, since they
+prove that phosphorescence is independent of the material of the
+negative electrode. In front of me is a set of tubes that to my mind
+puts the matter wholly beyond doubt. The tubes contain no inside
+electrodes with the residual gaseous molecules; and with them I will
+proceed to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments
+without any inner metallic poles at all.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+In all these tubes the electrodes, which are of silver, are on the
+outside, the current acting through the body of the glass. The first
+tube contains gas only slightly rarefied and at the stratification
+stage. It is simply a closed glass cylinder, with a coat of silver
+deposited outside at each end, and exhausted to a pressure of 2
+millimeters. The outline of the tube is shown in Fig. 17. I pass a
+current, and, as you see, the stratifications, though faint, are
+perfectly formed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PRESSURE = 2 MM.]
+
+The next tube, seen in outline in Fig. 18, shows the dark space. Like
+the first it is a closed cylinder of glass, with a central indentation
+forming a kind of hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two
+compartments. This pocket, silvered on the air side, forms a hollow
+glass diaphragm that can be connected electrically from the outside,
+forming the negative pole, A; the two ends of the tube, also outwardly
+silvered, form the positive poles, B B. I pass the current, and you
+will see the dark space distinctly visible. The pressure here is 0.076
+millimeter, or 100 M. The next stage, dealing with more rarefied
+matter, is that of phosphorescence. Here is an egg-shaped bulb, shown
+in Fig 19, containing some pure yttria and a few rough rubies. The
+positive electrode, B, is on the bottom of the tube under the
+phosphorescent material; the negative, A, is on the upper part of the
+tube. See how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows under
+molecular bombardment, at an internal pressure of 0.00068 millimeter,
+or 0.9 M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--PRESSURE = 0.076 MM. = 100 M.]
+
+A shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected on to the
+opposite wall of the bulb by means of an outside pole. A mica cross is
+supported in the middle of the bulb (Fig. 20), and on connecting a
+small silvered patch, A, on one side of the bulb with the negative
+pole of the induction coil, and putting the positive pole to another
+patch of silver, B, at the top, the opposite side of the bulb glows
+with a phosphorescent light, on which the black shadow of the cross
+seems sharply cut out. Here the internal pressure is 0.00068
+millimeter, or 0.9 M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.]
+
+Passing to the next phenomenon, I proceed to show the production of
+mechanical energy in a tube without internal poles. It is shown in
+Fig. 21 (P = 0.001 millimeter, or 1.3 M). It contains a light wheel of
+aluminum, carrying vanes of transparent mica, the poles, A B, being in
+such a position outside that the molecular focus falls upon the vanes
+on one side only. The bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is
+projected on the screen; if I now pass the current, you see the wheels
+rotate rapidly, reversing in direction as I reverse the current.
+
+Here is an apparatus (Fig. 22) which shows that the residual gaseous
+molecules when brought to a focus produce heat. It consists of a glass
+tube with a bulb blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool,
+C, fixed in the center, and exhausted to a pressure of 0.000076
+millimeter, or 0.1 M. The negative electrode, A, is formed by coating
+part of the outside of the bulb with silver, and it is in such a
+position that the focus of rays falls upon the carbon wool. The
+positive electrode, B, is an outer coating at the other end of the
+tube. I pass the current, and those who are close may see the bright
+sparks of carbon raised to incandescence by the impact of the
+molecular stream.
+
+You thus have seen that all the old "radiant matter" effects can be
+produced in tubes containing no metallic electrodes to volatilize. It
+may be suggested that the sides of the tube in contact with the
+outside poles become electrodes in this case, and that particles of
+the glass itself may be torn off and projected across, and so produce
+the effects. This is a strong argument, which fortunately can be
+tested by experiment. In the case of this tube (Fig. 23, P = 0.00068
+millimeter, or 0.9 M), the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing
+blue under molecular bombardment. Inside the bulb, completely covering
+the part that would form the negative pole, A, I have placed a
+substantial coat of yttria, so as to interpose a layer of this earth
+between the glass and the inside of the tube. The negative and
+positive poles are silver disks on the outside of the bulb, A being
+the negative and B the positive poles. If, therefore, particles are
+torn off and projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence, these
+particles will not be particles of glass, but of yttria; and the spot
+of phosphorescent light, C, on the opposite side of the bulb will not
+be the dull blue of lead glass, but the golden yellow of yttria. You
+see there is no such indication; the glass phosphoresces with its
+usual blue glow, and there is no evidence that a single particle of
+yttria is striking it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pressure = 0.000076 MM. = 0.1 M.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pressure = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+Witnessing these effects I think you will agree I am justified in
+adhering to my original theory, that the phenomena are caused by the
+radiant matter of the residual gaseous molecules, and certainly not by
+the torn-off particles of the negative electrode.
+
+
+PHOSPHORESCENCE IN HIGH VACUA.
+
+I have already pointed out that the molecular motions rendered visible
+in a vacuum tube are not the motions of molecules under ordinary
+conditions, but are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions
+and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus.
+
+Experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules may traverse more
+than a hundred times the _mean_ free path, with a correspondingly
+increased velocity, until they are arrested by collisions. Indeed, the
+molecular free path may vary in one and the same tube, and at one and
+the same degree of exhaustion.
+
+Very many bodies, such as ruby, diamond, emerald, alumina, yttria,
+samaria, and a large class of earthy oxides and sulphides,
+phosphoresce in vacuum tubes when placed in the path of the stream of
+electrified molecules proceeding from the negative pole. The
+composition of the gaseous residue present does not affect
+phosphorescence; thus, the earth yttria phosphoresces well in the
+residual vacua of atmospherical air, of oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic
+anhydride, hydrogen, iodine, sulphur and mercury.
+
+With yttria in a vacuum tube, the point of maximum phosphorescence, as
+I have already pointed out, lies on the margin of the dark space. The
+diagram (Fig. 24) shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence in
+different parts of a tube at an internal pressure of 0.25 millimeter,
+or 330 M. On the top you see the positive and negative poles, A and B,
+the latter having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted
+line, C. The curve, D E F, shows the relative intensities of the
+phosphorescence at different distances from the negative pole, and the
+position inside the dark space at which phosphorescence does not
+occur. The height of the curve represents the degree of
+phosphorescence. The most decisive effects of phosphorescence are
+reached by making the tube so large that the walls are outside the
+dark space, while the material submitted to experiment is placed just
+at the edge of the dark space.
+
+Hitherto I have spoken only of the phosphorescence of substances
+placed under the negative pole. But from numerous experiments I find
+that bodies will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative
+pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M.]
+
+This is only a temporary phenomenon, and ceases entirely when the
+exhaustion is pushed to a very high point. The experiment is one
+scarcely possible to exhibit to an audience, so I must content myself
+with describing it. A U-tube, shown in Fig. 25, has a flat aluminum
+pole, in the form of a disk, at each end, both coated with a paint of
+phosphorescent yttria. As the rarefaction approaches about 0.5
+millimeter the surface of the negative pole, A, becomes faintly
+phosphorescent. On continuing the exhaustion this luminosity rapidly
+diminishes, not only in intensity but in extent, contracting more and
+more from the edge of the disk, until ultimately it is visible only as
+a bright spot in the center. This fact does not prop a recent theory,
+that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge leaves the center of
+the pole and takes place only between the edge and the walls of the
+tube.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+If the exhaustion is further pushed, then, at the point where the
+surface of the negative pole ceases to be luminous, the material on
+the positive pole, B, commences to phosphoresce, increasing in
+intensity until the tube refuses to conduct, its greatest brilliancy
+being just short of this degree of exhaustion. The probable
+explanation is that the vagrant molecules I introduce in the next
+experiment, happening to come within the sphere of influence of the
+positive pole, rush violently to it, and excite phosphorescence in the
+yttria, while losing their negative charge.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 794, page 12690.]
+
+
+
+
+GASEOUS ILLUMINANTS.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts,
+London. From the _Journal_ of the Society.]
+
+By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES.
+
+
+V.
+
+Having now brought before you the various methods by which ordinary
+coal gas can be enriched, so as to give an increased luminosity to the
+flame, I wish now to discuss the methods by which the gas can be
+burnt, in order to yield the greatest amount of light, and also the
+compounds which are produced during combustion.
+
+In the first lecture, while discussing the theory of luminous flames,
+I pointed out that, in an atmospheric burner, it was not the oxygen of
+the air introduced combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons, and
+so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon, which gave the
+non-luminous flame, but the diluting action of the nitrogen, which
+acted by increasing the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are
+broken up, and carbon liberated, a fact which was proved by
+observation that heating the mixture of gas and air again restored the
+luminosity of the flame. This experiment clearly shows that
+temperature is a most important factor in the illuminating value of a
+flame, and this is still further shown by a study of the action of the
+diluents present in coal gas, the non-combustible ones being far more
+deleterious than the combustible, as they not only dilute, but
+withdraw heat.
+
+Anything which will increase the temperature of the flame will also
+increase the illuminating power, provided, of course, that the
+increase in temperature is not obtained at the expense of the too
+rapid combustion of the hydrocarbons.
+
+As has been shown in the experiments relating to the action of
+diluents on flame, already quoted, oxygen, when added to coal gas,
+increases its illuminating value to a marked and increasing degree,
+until a certain percentage has been added, after which the
+illuminating power is rapidly decreased, until the point is reached
+when the mixture becomes explosive. This is due to the fact that the
+added oxygen increases the temperature of the flame by doing the work
+of the air, but without the cooling and diluting action of the
+nitrogen; when, however, a certain proportion is added, it begins to
+burn up the heavy hydrocarbons, and although the temperature goes on
+increasing, the light-giving power is rapidly diminished by the
+diminution of the amount of free carbon in the flame.
+
+It has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor coal gas by
+admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made under Tatham's patents, in
+which crude oils are cracked at a comparatively low temperature, and
+are there mixed with from 12 to 24 per cent. of oxygen gas. Oil gas
+made at low temperatures, _per se_, is of little use as an illuminant,
+as it burns with a smoky flame, and does not travel well, but when
+mixed with a certain amount of oxygen, it gives a very brilliant white
+light, and no smoke, while as far as experiments have at present gone,
+its traveling powers are much improved.
+
+At first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix a heavy
+hydrocarbon gas with oxygen, but it must be remembered that although
+hydrogen and carbon monoxide only need to be mixed with half their own
+volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture, yet as the number
+of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the combustible gas increase, so does
+the amount of oxygen needed to give explosion. Thus coal gas needs
+rather more than its own volume, and ethylene three times its volume,
+to give the maximum explosive results, while these mixtures begin to
+be explosive when 10 per cent. of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or
+water gas, 30 per cent. with coal gas, and over 50 per cent. of oil
+gas of the character used. It is claimed that if this gas was used as
+an enricher of coal gas, 5 per cent. of it would increase the
+luminosity of 16-candle gas by about 40 per cent.
+
+Oxygen has been obtained for some time past from the air on a
+commercial scale by the Brin process, and at the present time there
+seems every prospect of our being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of
+about 3s. 6d. per 1,000 cubic feet. Another process by which this
+important result can also be obtained was first introduced by Tessie
+du Mothay, and has now just been revived. It consists of passing
+alternate currents of steam and air over sodic manganate heated to
+dull redness in an iron tube; the process has never been commercially
+successful, for the reason that the contents of the tube fused, and
+flowing over the surface of the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or
+retorts, and also as soon as fusion took place, the mass became so
+dense that it had little or no action on the air passing over it. Now,
+however, this difficulty has been partly overcome by so preparing the
+manganate as to prevent fusion, and to keep it in a spongy state,
+which gives very high results, and the substance being practically
+everlasting, the cost of production is extremely low.
+
+It is proposed to feed this by a separate system of pipes to small gas
+jets, and by converting them into practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes,
+to raise solid masses of refractory material to incandescence, and
+also by supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular
+construction, to obtain a very great increase in illuminating power.
+
+Whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen would be successful or
+not, I do not wish to discuss at the present time, but there is no
+doubt but that cheap oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas
+manager, as by mixing 0.8 per cent. of oxygen with his coal gas before
+purification, he could not only utilize the method so successfully
+introduced by Mr. Valon at Ramsgate, but could also increase the
+illuminating value of his gas.
+
+In speaking of the structure of flame, I pointed out that close to the
+burner from which the gas giving the flame is issuing, a space exists
+in which no combustion is going on--in other words, a flame is never
+in contact with the rim of the burner. This is best seen when the gas
+is turned low--with a batswing burner, for instance--turned so low
+that only a small non-luminous flame is left, the space between burner
+and flame will appear as great as the flame itself, while, if the gas
+is mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide, the space can be
+very much increased.
+
+Several theories have been brought forward to explain this phenomenon,
+but the true one is that the burner abstracts so much heat from the
+flame at that point that it is unable to burn there, and this can be
+proved by the fact that where a cold object touches the flame, a
+dividing space, similar to that noticed between flame and burner, will
+always be observed, and the colder the object and the more diluted the
+gas the greater is the observed space. If a cold metal wire or rod is
+held in a non-luminous flame, it causes an extinction of the gas for
+some considerable space around itself; but as the temperature of the
+rod rises, this space becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is
+heated to redness, and then the flame comes in contact with the rod.
+
+In the same way, if the burner from which the gas is issuing be heated
+to redness, the space between burner and flame disappears. It has
+already been shown that cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces
+the illuminating value, and finally renders it more luminous; and we
+are now in a position to discuss the points which should be aimed at
+in the construction of a good gas burner.
+
+In the first place, a sensible diminution in light takes place when a
+metal burner is employed, and the larger the surface and thickness of
+the metal the worse will be its action on the illuminating power of
+the flame; but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom of
+the flame, so that with a small flame the total effect is very great,
+and with a very large flame almost _nil_.
+
+The first point, therefore, to attend to is that the burner shall be
+made of a good non-conductor. In the next place, the flow of the gas
+must be regulated to the burner, as, if you have a pressure higher
+than that for which the burner is constructed, you at once obtain a
+roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power, as the too rapid rush
+of gas from the burner causes a mingling of gas and air and a
+consequent cooling of the flame. The tap also which regulates the
+flame is better at a distance from the burner than close to it, as any
+constriction near the burner causes eddies, which give an unsteady
+flame.
+
+These general principles govern all burners, and we will now take the
+ordinary forms in detail. In the ordinary flat flame burner, given a
+good non-conducting material, and a well regulated gas supply, little
+more can be done, while burning it in the ordinary way, to increase
+its luminosity; and it is the large surface of flame exposed to the
+cooling action of the air which causes this form of burner to give the
+lowest service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed. Much is done,
+moreover, by faulty fittings and shades, to reduce the already poor
+light given out, because the light-yielding power of the flame largely
+depends upon its having a well rounded base and broad, luminous zone;
+and when a globe with a narrow opening is used with such a flame--as
+is done in 99 out of 100 cases--the updraught drags the flame out of
+shape, and seriously impairs its light-giving powers, a trouble which
+can be got over by having the globe with an opening at the bottom not
+less than 4 inches in diameter, and having small shoulders fixed to
+the burner, which draw out the flame and protect the base from the
+disturbing influence of draughts.
+
+The Argand burner differs from the flat flame burners in that a
+circular flame is employed. The air supply is regulated by a
+cylindrical glass, and this form of burner gives a better service than
+the flat flame burner, as not only can the supply of gas and air be
+better adjusted, but the air being slightly warmed by the hot glass
+adds to the temperature of the flame, which is also increased by
+radiation from the opposite side of the flame itself.
+
+The chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon the fact that,
+being circular, the light from the inner surface has to pass through
+the wall of flame, and careful photometric experiments show that the
+solid particles present in the flame so reduce its transparency that a
+loss amounting to about 25 per cent. of light takes place during its
+transmission.
+
+The height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted to the size of
+the flame, as too long a chimney, by increasing the air supply unduly,
+cools, and so lowers the illuminating power of the flame. Experiments
+with carbureted water gas gave the following results, with a
+consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour:
+
+-----------------------------------------------------
+ Size of Chimney. | Height of Flame. | Candle Power. |
+------------------+------------------+---------------|
+    6 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/2       |     21        |
+    7 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/4       |     21.3      |
+    8 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/8       |     20.8      |
+    9 X 1-7/8     |      1-7/8       |     18.2      |
+------------------+------------------+---------------+
+
+For many years no advance was made upon these forms of burner, but
+when, ten years ago, it was recognized that anything which cools the
+flame reduces its value, while anything which increases its
+temperature raises its illuminating power, then a change took place in
+the forms of burner in use, and the regenerative burners, introduced
+by such men as Siemens, Grimston, and Bower, commenced what was really
+a revolution in gas lighting.
+
+By utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products of combustion
+to raise the temperature of the gas and air which are to enter into
+combination in the flame, an enormous increase in the temperature of
+the solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained, and a far
+greater and whiter light is the result.
+
+The Bower lamp, in which (at any rate in the later forms) the flame
+burns between a downward and an upward current of air, was one of the
+first produced, and so well has it been kept up to date that it still
+holds its own; while as types of the "inverted cone" regenerative
+burner, we may also take the Cromarty and Wenham lights, which have
+been followed by a host of imitators, and so closely are the original
+types adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what the use of
+the Patent Office really is.
+
+The Schulke, and the last form of Siemens regenerative burner,
+however, stand apart from all the others by dealing with flat and not
+conical flames, and in both regeneration is carried on to a high
+degree. The only drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by
+far the best form of gas stove as well as burner, and that the amount
+of heat thrown out by the radiant solid matter in the flame is, under
+some circumstances, an annoyance. But, on the other hand, we must not
+forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead burners, and
+that nearly every form of regenerative lamp can be adapted as a
+ventilating agent, and that with the withdrawal of the products of
+combustion from the air of the room, the great and only serious
+objection to gas as an illuminant disappears.
+
+When coal gas is burned, the hydrogen is supposed to be entirely
+converted into water vapor, and the carbon to finally escape into the
+air as carbon dioxide; and if this were so, every cubic foot of gas
+consumed would produce approximately 0.52 cubic foot of carbon dioxide
+and 1.34 cubic feet of water vapor, while the illuminating power
+yielded by the cubic foot of gas will, of course, vary with the kind
+of burner used.
+
+Roughly speaking, the ordinary types of burner give the following
+results:
+
+   ------------------------------------------------------------
+                    | Illuminating    | Products of Combustion
+                    |  Power in       |           per
+    Name of Burner. | Candles per     |      Candle Power.
+                    |  c.f. of gas    |------------------------
+                    |  Consumed.      |   Carbon   |  Water
+                    |                 |  Dioxide.  |  Vapor.
+   -----------------+-----------------+------------+-----------
+    Batswing.       |      2.9        | 0.18 c.f.  | 0.46 c.f.
+    Argand.         |      3.3        | 0.16 c.f.  | 0.40 c.f.
+    Regenerative.   |     10.0        | 0.05 c.f.  | 0.13 c.f.
+   -----------------+-----------------+------------+------------
+
+So that the regenerative forms of burner, by giving the greatest
+illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, yield a smaller
+amount of vitiation to the air per candle of light emitted.
+
+An ordinary room, say 16' X 12' X 10', would not be considered
+properly illuminated unless the light were at least equal to 32 candle
+power; and in the table below the amount of the oxygen used up and the
+products of combustion formed by each class of illuminant and burner
+in attaining this result are given, the number of adults who would
+exhale the same amount during respiration being also stated.
+
+From these data it appears, according to rules by which the degree of
+vitiation of the air in any confined space is measured by the amount
+of oxygen used up and carbon dioxide formed, that candles are the
+worst offenders against health and comfort. Oil lamps come next, and
+gas least. This, however, is an assumption which practical experience
+does not bear out. Discomfort and oppression in a room lighted by
+candles or oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older
+forms of gas burner; and the partial explanation of this is to be
+found in the fact that, when a room is illuminated with candles or
+oil, people are contented with a feebler and more local light than
+when using gas. In a room of the size described, the inmates would be
+more likely to use two candles placed near their books, or on a table,
+than thirty-two scattered about the room.
+
+Moreover, the amount of water vapor given off during the combustion of
+gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants. Water vapor
+having a great power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas
+becomes heated, and diffusing itself about the room, causes great
+feeling of oppression; the air also being highly charged with
+moisture, is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapor which is
+always evaporating from the surface of our skin, whereby the functions
+of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of
+_malaise_.
+
+Added to these, however, is a far more serious factor which has, up to
+the present, been overlooked, and that is that an ordinary gas flame,
+in burning, yields distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and
+acetylene, the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest traces
+produces headache and general physical discomfort, while its effect
+upon plant life is equally marked.
+
+
+AMOUNT OF OXYGEN REMOVED FROM THE AIR, AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER
+VAPOR GENERATED TO GIVE AN ILLUMINATION EQUAL TO 32 CANDLE POWER.
+
+(The amount of light required in a room 16' X 12' x 10'.)
+
+              |Quantity of |          | Products of Combustion|      |
+              |  Materials | Oxygen   |           |  Carbon   |      |
+Illuminant    |    Used    | Removed  |Water Vapor|  Dioxide  |Adults|
+--------------+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------+
+Sperm Candles |3,840 grains|19.27 c.f.|13.12 c.f. |13.12 c.f. | 21.8 |
+Paraffin Oil  |1,984   "   |12.48 c.f.| 7.04 c.f. | 8.96 c.f. | 14.9 |
+Gas (London)--|            |          |           |           |      |
+ Burners:     |            |          |           |           |      |
+  Batswing    |  11  c.f.  |13.06 c.f.|14.72 c.f. | 5.76 c.f. |  9.6 |
+  Argand      |   9.7 c.f. |11.52 c.f.|12.80 c.f. | 5.12 c.f. |  8.5 |
+  Regenerative|   3.2 c.f. | 3.68 c.f.| 4.16 c.f. | 1.60 c.f. |  2.6 |
+
+Ever since the structure of flame has been noted and discussed, it has
+been accepted as a fact beyond dispute that the outer almost invisible
+zone which is interposed between the air and the luminous zone of the
+flame is the area of complete combustion, and that here the unburnt
+remnants of the flame gases, meeting the air, freely take up oxygen
+and are converted into the comparatively harmless products of
+combustion, carbon dioxide and water vapor, which only need partial
+removal by any haphazard process of ventilation to keep the air of the
+room fit to support animal life. I have, however, long doubted this
+fact, and at length, by a delicate process of analysis have been able
+to confirm my suspicions. The outer zone of a luminous flame is not
+the zone of complete combustion; it is a zone in which luminosity is
+destroyed in exactly the same way that it is destroyed in the Bunsen
+burner; that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools
+down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered
+non-luminous, while some of the gas sinks below the point at which it
+is capable of burning, with the result that considerable quantities of
+the products of incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene
+escape into the air, and render it actively injurious.
+
+I have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe, with a circular
+loop on the end, the interior of the loop being pierced with minute
+holes, and by making a circular flame burn within the loop so that the
+non-luminous zone of the flame just touched the inside of the loop,
+and then by aspiration so gentle as not to distort the shape of the
+flame, withdrawing the gases escaping from the outer zone. On
+analyzing these by a delicate process, which will be described
+elsewhere, I arrived at the following results:
+
+    GASES ESCAPING FROM THE OUTER ZONE OF FLAME.
+
+                             Luminous.   Bunsen.
+
+    Nitrogen.                76.612      80.242
+    Water vapor.             14.702      13.345
+    Carbon dioxide.           2.201       4.966
+    Carbon monoxide.          1.189       0.006
+    Oxygen.                   2.300       1.430
+    Marsh gas.                0.072       0.003
+    Hydrogen.                 2.888       0.008
+    Acetylene.                0.036        Nil.
+                            -------     -------
+                            100.000     100.000
+
+The gases leaving the luminous flame show that the diluting action of
+the nitrogen is so great that considerable quantities even of the
+highly inflammable and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion,
+while the products of incomplete combustion are present in sufficient
+quantity to account perfectly for the deleterious effects of gas
+burners in ill-ventilated rooms. The analyses also bring out very
+clearly the fact that, although the dilution of coal gas by air in
+atmospheric burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of the
+heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon, and so destroy
+luminosity, yet the presence of the extra supply of oxygen does make
+the combustion far more perfect, so that the products of incomplete
+combustion are hardly to be found in the escaping gases.
+
+These experiments are of the gravest import, as they show more clearly
+than has ever been done before the absolute necessity for special and
+perfect ventilation where coal gas is employed for the illumination of
+our dwelling rooms.
+
+When coal gas was first employed during the early part of this century
+as an illuminating agent, the low pitch of the old fashioned rooms,
+and the excess of impurities in the gas, rendered it imperative that
+the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas should be
+conducted from the apartment, and for this purpose arrangements of
+tubes with funnel shaped openings were suspended over the burners. The
+noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or open air; but
+this type of ventilator was unsightly in the extreme, and some few
+attempts were made to replace it by a more elegant arrangement, as in
+the ventilating lamp invented by Faraday, and in the adaptation of the
+same principle by Mr. I.O.N. Rutter, who strove for many years to
+direct attention to the necessity of removing the products of
+combustion from the room. But with the increase of the gas industry,
+the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually more and more
+perfect, while the rooms in the modern houses were made more lofty;
+and the products of combustion being mixed with a larger volume of
+air, and not containing so many deleterious constituents, became, if
+not much less noxious, at all events less perceptible to the nose. As
+soon as this point was reached, the ventilating tubes were discarded,
+and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms has been
+contaminated by illuminants, with hardly an effort to alleviate the
+effect produced upon health. I say "hardly an effort," for the Messrs.
+Boyle tried, by their concentric tube ventilators, to meet the
+difficulty, while Mr. De la Garde and Mr. Hammond have each
+constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the Rutter lamp;
+but either from their being somewhat unsightly, or from their
+diminishing the amount of light given out, none of them have met with
+any degree of success. In places of public entertainment, where large
+quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating purposes, the
+absolute necessity for special ventilation gave rise to the "sun
+burner," with its ventilating shaft. This, however, gives but a very
+poor illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, due partly to
+the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced, and partly to
+its distance from the objects to be illuminated.
+
+The great difficulty which in the whole history of ventilation has
+opposed itself to the adoption of proper arrangements for removing the
+products of combustion has been the necessity of bringing the tube to
+carry off the gases low down into the room, and of incasing the burner
+in such a way that none of the products should escape; but with the
+present revolution in gas burners this necessity is entirely done away
+with, and the regenerative burner offers the means not only of
+removing all the products of combustion but also of effecting thorough
+ventilation of the room itself, as experiments made some few years ago
+showed me that a ventilating regenerative burner, burning 20 cubic
+feet of gas per hour and properly fitted, will not only remove all its
+own products of combustion, but also over 5,000 cubic feet per hour of
+the vitiated air from the upper part of the room. I am quite aware
+that many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections to fitting
+ventilating lamps, these being chiefly due to the fact that it
+requires considerable trouble to fit them properly; but I think I have
+said enough to show the absolute necessity of some such system, and
+when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps, engineering
+skill will soon find means to overcome any slight difficulties which
+exist.
+
+Having disposed in a few words of a subject which, if fully treated,
+would occupy a long course of lectures by itself, I will pass on to
+the consideration of gas as at present used as a fuel.
+
+There is no doubt that gas is the most convenient and in many ways one
+of the best forms of fuel for heating and cooking purposes, and the
+efforts which all large gas companies are now making to popularize and
+increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly bear fruit
+in the future. But before the day can come for gas to be used in this
+way on a large scale, there is one fact which the gas manager and gas
+stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to, and that is
+that no gas stove or gas water heater, of any construction, should be
+sent out or fitted without just as great care being taken to provide
+for the carrying away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary
+fuel range was being fitted. Do not for one moment allow yourself to
+be persuaded that, because a gas stove or geyser does not send out a
+mass of black smoke, the products of combustion can be neglected and
+with safety allowed to mingle with the atmosphere we are to breathe.
+
+Scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are recorded from the
+products of combustion given off from various forms of water heaters
+used in bath rooms; scarcely a cookery class is given, with gas
+stoves, that one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from an
+intense headache, and often in an almost fainting condition. And the
+same cause which brings about these extreme cases, on a smaller scale
+causes such physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons
+that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely decline to have
+gas as an illuminant or fuel in any of their living rooms; and if the
+use of gas, more especially as fuel, is to be extended, and if gas is
+to hold its own in the future against such rivals as the electric
+light, then those interested in gas and gas stoves must face the
+problem, and by improving the methods of burning and using gas do away
+with the present serious drawbacks which exist to its use.
+
+The feeling has gradually been gaining ground in the public mind that,
+when atmospheric burners and other devices for burning coal gas are
+employed for heating purposes, certain deleterious products of
+incomplete combustion find their way into the air, and that this takes
+place to a considerable extent is shown by the facts brought forward
+in a paper read by Mr. William Thomson before the last meeting of the
+British Association.
+
+Mr. Thomson attempted to separate and determine the quantity of carbon
+monoxide and hydrocarbons present in the flue gases from various forms
+of gas stoves and burners, but, like every other observer who has
+attempted to solve this most difficult problem, he found it so beset
+with difficulties that he had to abandon it, and contented himself
+with determining the total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in
+an unburned condition, experiments which showed that the combustion of
+gas in stoves for heating purposes is much more incomplete than one
+had been in the habit of supposing, but his experiments give no clew
+as to whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of such
+deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene, or comparatively
+harmless gases, such as marsh gas and hydrogen. After considerable
+work upon the subject, I have succeeded in doing this by a very
+delicate process of analysis, and I now wish to lay some of my results
+before you.
+
+If a cold substance, metal or non-metal, be placed in a flame, whether
+it be luminous or non-luminous, it will be observed that there is a
+clear space, in which no combustion is taking place, formed round the
+cool surface, and that as the body gets heated so this space gets less
+and less until, when the substance is at the same temperature as the
+flame itself, there is contact between the two. Moreover, when a
+luminous flame is employed in this experiment the space still exists
+between the cool body and the flame, but you also notice that the
+luminosity is decreased over a still larger area although the flame
+exists.
+
+This meaning that, in immediate contact with the cold body, the
+temperature is so reduced that the flame cannot exist, and so is
+extinguished over a small area; while over a still larger space the
+temperature is so reduced that it is not hot enough to bring about
+decomposition of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon to
+the same extent as in hotter portions of the flame. Now, inasmuch as
+when water is heated or boiled in an open vessel, the temperature
+cannot rise above 100°C., and as the temperature of an ordinary flame
+is over 1,000°C., it is evident that the burning gas can never be in
+contact with the bottom of the vessel, or, in other words, the gas is
+put out before combustion is completed, and the unburned gas and
+products of incomplete combustion find their way into the air and
+render it perfectly unfit for respiration.
+
+The portion of the flame which is supposed to be the hottest is about
+half an inch above the tip of the inner zone of the flame, and it is
+at this point that most vessels containing water to be heated are made
+to impinge on the flame; and it is this portion of the flame, also,
+which is utilized for raising various solids to a temperature at which
+they radiate heat.
+
+In order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination which the
+air undergoes when a geyser or cooking stove is at work, I have
+determined the composition of the products of combustion, and the
+unburned gases escaping when a vessel containing water at the ordinary
+temperatures is heated up to the boiling point by a gas flame, the
+vessel being placed, in the first case, half an inch above the inner
+cone of the flame, and in the second, at the extreme outer tip of the
+flame.
+
+         GASES ESCAPING DURING CHECKED COMBUSTION.
+
+                    |    Bunsen flame.      |     Luminous flame.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+                    |   Inner.  |   Outer.  |     Inner.  |  Outer.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+Nitrogen            |   75.75   |    79.17  |     77.52   |   69.41
+Water vapor         |   13.47   |    14.29  |     11.80   |   19.24
+Carbon dioxide      |    2.99   |     5.13  |      4.93   |    8.38
+Carbon monoxide     |    3.69   |     Nil.  |      2.45   |    2.58
+Marsh gas           |    0.51   |     0.31  |      0.95   |    0.39
+Acetylene           |    0.04   |     Nil.  |      0.27   |    Nil.
+Hydrogen            |    3.55   |     0.47  |      2.08   |    Nil.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+                    |  100.00   |   100.00  |    100.00   |  100.00
+
+These figures are of the greatest interest, as they show conclusively
+that the extreme top of the Bunsen flame is the only portion of the
+flame which can be used for heating a solid substance without
+liberating deleterious gases; and this corroborates the previous
+experiment on the gases in the outer zone of a flame, which showed
+that the outer zone of a Bunsen flame is the only place where complete
+combustion is approached.
+
+Moreover, this sets at rest a question which has been over and over
+again under discussion, and that is whether it is better to use a
+luminous or a non-luminous flame for heating purposes. Using a
+luminous flame, it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon, which
+is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer surface, and the
+carbon dioxide formed by the complete combustion of the carbon already
+burned up in flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide, so that
+even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it is impossible to heat a
+cool body without giving rise to carbon monoxide, although acetylene
+being absent, gas stoves, in which small flat flame burners are used,
+have not that subtile and penetrating odor which marks the ordinary
+atmospheric burner stove, with the combustion checked just at the
+right spot for the formation of the greatest volume of noxious
+products.
+
+It is the contact of the body to be heated with the flame before
+combustion is complete which gives rise to the greatest mischief; any
+cooling of the flame extinguishes a portion of the flame, and the
+gases present in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along the
+cooled surface and escape combustion.
+
+Dr. Blochmann has shown the composition of the gases in various parts
+of the Bunsen flame to be as follows:
+
+  Height above tube. |In tube. |1 inch. |2 inch. |3 inch. |Complete
+                     |         |        |        |        |combustion
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Air with 100 vols. |         |        |        |        |
+    gas              | 253.9   | 284.7  | 284.5  | 484.3  | 608.8
+  Hydrogen           |  48.6   |  36.4  |  17.7  |  16.1  |  Nil.
+  Marsh gas          |  39.0   |  40.1  |  28.0  |   5.7  |  Nil.
+  Carbon monoxide    |   2.9   |   2.2  |  19.9  |  12.7  |  Nil.
+  Olefiant gas       |   4.0   |   3.4  |   2.2  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Buteylene          |   3.0   |   2.5  |   1.6  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Oxygen             |  52.7   |  52.0  |  21.7  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Nitrogen           | 199.1   | 223.8  | 225.9  | 382.4  | 482.3
+  Carbon dioxide     |   0.8   |   3.5  |  13.0  |  41.7  |  62.4
+  Water vapor        |   3.1   |  11.8  |  45.8  | 116.1  | 141.2
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Which results show that it would be impossible to check the flame
+anywhere short of the extreme tip (where complete combustion is
+approximately taking place), without liberating deleterious products.
+I think I have said enough to show that no gas stove, geyser or gas
+cooking stove should be used without ample and thorough means of
+ventilation being provided, and no trace of the products of combustion
+should be allowed to escape into the air; until this is done, the use
+of improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious injury on
+the health of the people using them, and this will gradually result in
+the abandonment of gas as a fuel, instead of, as should be the case,
+its coming into general use. The English householder is far too prone
+to accept what is offered to him, without using his own common sense,
+and will buy the article which tickles his eye the most and his pocket
+the least, on the bare assurance of the shopkeeper, who is only
+anxious to sell; but when he finds that health and comfort are in
+jeopardy, and has discarded the gas stove, it will take years of labor
+to convince him that it was the misuse of gas which caused the
+trouble. Already signs are not wanting that the employers of gas
+stoves are beginning to fight shy of them, and I earnestly hope that
+the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to bear upon the
+stove manufacturers to give proper attention to this all important
+question.
+
+So strongly do I feel the importance of this question to the gas world
+and the public, that I freely offer to analyze the products of
+combustion given off by any gas stove or water heater sent to me at
+Greenwich during the next six months, on one condition, and that is
+that the results, good, bad, or indifferent, will be published in a
+paper before this Society, which has always been in the front when
+matters of great sanitary importance to the public had to be taken up.
+And if after that the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have
+not been certified, it is their own fault; but I do think that the
+maker of any stove or geyser which causes a death should be put upon
+his trial for manslaughter.
+
+In conclusion, let us consider for a moment what is likely to be the
+future of gas during the next half century. The labor troubles, bad as
+they are and have been, will not cease for many a weary year. The
+victims of imperfect education (more dangerous than none at all, as,
+while destroying natural instinct, it leaves nothing in its place)
+will still listen and be led by the baneful influence of irresponsible
+demagogues, who care for naught so long as they can read their own
+inflammatory utterances in the local press, and gain a temporary
+notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause they profess to
+serve. The natural tendency of this will be that every labor-saving
+contrivance that can will be pressed into the gas manager's service;
+and that, although coal (of a poorer class than at present used) will
+still be employed as a source of gas, the present retort setting will
+quickly give way to inclined retorts on the Coze principle; while,
+instead of the present wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke,
+it will be shot direct into the generator of the water gas plant, and
+the water gas carbureted with the benzene hydrocarbons derived from
+the smoke of the blast furnace and coke oven, or from the creosote oil
+of the tar distiller, by the process foreshadowed in the concluding
+sentences of my last lecture. It will then be mixed with the gas from
+the retorts, and will supply a far higher illuminant than we at
+present possess. In parts of the United Kingdom, such as South Wales,
+where gas coal is dear, and anthracite and bastard coals are cheap,
+water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant coal gas, with a
+saving of fifty per cent. on the prices now existing in those
+districts. While these changes have been going on, and while improved
+methods of manufacture have been tending to the cheapening of gas, it
+will have been steadily growing in public favor as a fuel; and if in
+years to come the generation of electricity should have been so
+cheapened as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an
+illuminant, the gas works will still be found as busy as of yore, the
+holder of gas shares as contented as to-day; for with a desire for a
+purer atmosphere and a white mist instead of a yellow fog, gas will
+have largely supplanted coal as a fuel, and gas stoves, properly
+ventilated and free from the reproaches I have hurled at them
+to-night, will burn a gas far higher in its heating power, far better
+in its power of bearing illuminating hydrocarbons, and free from
+poisonous constituents.
+
+When the demand for it arises, hydrogen gas can be made as cheaply as
+water gas itself, and when time is ripe for a fuel gas for use in the
+house, it is hydrogen and not water gas which will form its basis.
+With carbureted water gas and 20 per cent. of carbon monoxide we are
+still below the limit of danger, but a pure water gas with over 40 per
+cent. of the same insidious element of danger will never be tolerated
+in our households. Already a patent has been taken by Messrs. Crookes
+and Ricarde-Seaver for purifying water gas from carbon monoxide, and
+converting it mainly into hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature
+through a mixture of lime and soda lime, a process which is chemically
+perfect, as the most expensive portion of the material used could be
+recovered; but in the present state of the labor market it is not
+practical, as for the making of every 100,000 cubic feet of gas,
+fifteen tons of material would have to be handled, the cost of labor
+alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted; moreover,
+hydrogen can be made far cheaper directly.
+
+From the earliest days of gas making, the manufacture of hydrogen by
+the passage of steam over red-hot iron has been over and over again
+mooted, and attempted on a large scale, but several factors have
+combined to render it futile.
+
+In the first place, for every 478.5 cubic feet of hydrogen made under
+perfect theoretical conditions never likely to be obtained in
+practice, 56 lb. of iron were converted into the magnetic oxide, and
+as there was no ready sale for this article, this alone would prevent
+its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen; the next point was that
+when steam was passed over the red-hot iron, the temperature was so
+rapidly lowered that the generation of gas could only go on for a very
+short period, while, finally, the swelling of the mass in the retort
+and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into the side renders the
+removal of the spent material almost an impossibility. These
+difficulties can, however, be got over. Take a fire clay retort, six
+feet long and a foot in diameter, and cap it with a casting bearing
+two outlet tubes closed by screw valves, while a similar tube leads
+from the bottom of the retort. Inclose this retort by a furnace
+chamber of iron lined with fire brick, leaving a space of two feet six
+inches round the retort, and connect the top of the furnace chamber
+with one opening at the top of the upright retort, while air blasts
+lead into the bottom of the furnace chamber, below rocking fire bars,
+which start at bottom of the retort, and slope upward, to leave room
+for ash holes closed by gas tight covers. The retort is filled with
+iron or steel borings, alone if pure hydrogen is required, or cast
+into balls with pitch if a little carbon monoxide is not a drawback,
+as in foundry work. The furnace chamber is now filled with coke, fed
+in through manholes, or hoppers, in the top, and the fuel being
+ignited, the blast is turned on, and the mixture of nitrogen and
+carbon monoxide passes over the iron, heating it to a red heat, while
+the fuel in contact with the retort does the same thing.
+
+When the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red heat, the
+air blast is cut off, and the pipe connecting the furnace and retort,
+together with the pipe in connection with the bottom of the retort,
+are closed, and steam, superheated by passing through a pipe led round
+the retort or interior wall of the furnace, is injected at the bottom
+of the red-hot mass of iron, which decomposes it, forming magnetic
+oxide of iron and hydrogen, which escapes by the second tube at the
+top of the retort, and is led away either to a carbureting chamber if
+required for illumination, or direct to the gasholder if wanted as a
+fuel. The mass of incandescent fuel in the furnace chamber,
+surrounding the retort, keeping up the temperature of retort and iron
+sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed.
+
+The hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and the air blast turned
+on. The hot carbon monoxide passing over the hot magnetic oxide
+quickly reduces it down to metallic iron, which, being in a spongy
+condition, acts more freely on the steam during later makes than it
+did at first, and being infusible at the temperature employed, may be
+used for a practically unlimited period.
+
+What more simple method than this could be desired? Here we have the
+formation of the most valuable of all fuel gases at the cost of the
+coke and steam used, a gas also which has double the carrying power
+for hydrocarbon vapors possessed by coal gas, while its combustion
+gives rise to nothing but water vapor.
+
+In this course of lectures I have left much unsaid and undone which I
+should have liked to have had time to accomplish, and if I have been
+obliged to leave out of consideration many important points, it is the
+time at my disposal and not my will which is to blame. And now, in
+conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to my assistants, Messrs. J.A.
+Foster and J.B. Warden, who have heartily co-operated with me in much
+of the work embodied in these lectures.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS.
+
+
+The celebrated philosopher Bacon, the founder of the experimental
+method, claimed that we see better with one eye than with two, because
+the attention is more concentrated and becomes profounder. "On looking
+in a mirror," says he, "we may observe that, if we shut one eye, the
+pupil of the other dilates." To this question: "But why, then, have we
+two eyes?" he responds: "In order that one may remain if the other
+gets injured." Despite the reasoning of the learned philosopher, we
+may be permitted to believe that the reason that we have two eyes is
+for seeing better and especially for perceiving the effects of
+perspective and the relief of objects. We have no intention of setting
+forth here the theory of binocular vision; one simple experiment will
+permit any one to see that the real place of an object is poorly
+estimated with one eye. Seated before a desk, pen in hand, suddenly
+close one eye, and, at the same time, stretch out the arm in order to
+dip the pen in the inkstand; you will fail nine times out of ten. It
+is not in one day that the effects of binocular vision have been
+established, for the ancients made many observations on the subject.
+It was in 1593 that the celebrated Italian physicist Porta was the
+first to give an accurate figure of two images seen by each eye
+separately, but he desired no apparatus that permitted of
+reconstituting the relief on looking at them. Those savants who, after
+him, occupied themselves with the question, treated it no further
+than from a theoretical point of view. It was not till 1838 that the
+English physicist Wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic
+apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining simultaneously
+with each of the eyes two different images of an object, one having
+the perspective that the right eye perceives, and the other that the
+left eye perceives.
+
+This apparatus is described in almost all treatises on physics. We may
+merely recall the fact that it operated by reflection, that is to say,
+the two images were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors making
+an angle of 45 degrees. The instrument was very cumbersome and not
+very practical. Another English physicist, David Brewster, in 1844
+devised the stereoscope that we all know; but, what is a curious
+thing, he could not succeed in having it constructed in England, where
+it was not at first appreciated. It was not till 1850 that he brought
+it to Paris, where it was constructed by Mr. Soleil and his son-in-law
+Duboscq. Abbot Moigno and the two celebrated opticians succeeded, not
+without some difficulty, in having it examined by the _official_
+savants; but, at the great exposition of 1851, it was remarked by the
+Queen of England, and from this moment Messrs. Soleil & Duboscq
+succeeded with difficulty only in satisfying the numerous orders that
+came from all parts. As photography permitted of easily making
+identical images, but with different perspective, it contributed
+greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus.
+
+The stereoscope, such as we know it, presents the inconvenience of
+being incapable of being used by but one person at once. Several
+inventors have endeavored to render the stereoscopic images visible to
+several spectators at the same time. In 1858, Mr. Claudet conceived
+the idea of projecting the two stereoscopic images upon ground glass
+in superposing them. The relief was seen, it appears, but we cannot
+very well explain why; the idea, however, had no outcome, because the
+image, being quite small, could be observed by but three or four
+persons at once. It was Mr. D'Almeida, a French physicist, who toward
+the same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable manner, and we
+cannot explain why his process (that required no special apparatus)
+fell into the desuetude from which Mr. Molteni has just rescued it and
+obtained much success.
+
+[Illustration: STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS]
+
+This is in what it consists: The impression of the relief appears when
+each eye sees that one of the two images which presents the
+perspective that it would perceive if it saw the real object. If we
+take two transparent stereoscopic images and place each of them in a
+projection lantern, in such a way that they can be superposed upon the
+screen, we shall obtain thereby a single image. It will always be a
+little light and soft, as the superposition cannot be effected
+accurately, the perspective not being the same for each of them. It is
+a question now to make each eye see the one of the two images proper
+to it. To this effect, Mr. D'Almeida conceived the very ingenious idea
+of placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image having the
+perspective of the right eye, and a red glass in front of the other
+image. As green and red are complementary colors, the result was not
+changed upon the screen; there was a little less light, that was all.
+But if, at this moment, the spectator places a green glass before his
+right eye and a red one before his left, he will find himself in the
+condition desired for realizing the effect sought.
+
+Each eye will then see only the image responding to the coloration
+chosen, and, as it is precisely the one which has the perspective
+proper to it, the relief appears immediately. The effect is striking.
+We perceive a diffused image upon the screen with the naked eye, but
+as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief appears with as
+much distinctness as in the best stereoscope. One must not, for
+example, reverse his eye-glass, for if (things being arranged as we
+have said) he looks through a red glass before his right eye, and
+through a green one before his left, it is the image carrying the
+perspective designed for the right eye that will be seen by the left
+eye, and reciprocally. There is then produced, especially with certain
+images, a very curious effect of reversed perspective, the background
+coming to the front.
+
+Now that photography is within every one's reach, and that many
+amateurs are making stereopticon views and own projection lanterns,
+we are persuaded that the experiment will be much more successful than
+it formerly was. An assemblage of persons all provided with colored
+eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate. Our engraving represents
+a stereopticon seance, and the draughtsman has well rendered the
+effect of the two luminous and differently colored fascicles
+superposed upon the screen.
+
+In a preceding note upon the same subject, Mr. Hospitalier remarked
+that upon combining these effects of perspective with those of the
+praxinoscope, which give the sensation of motion, we would obtain
+entirely new effects. It would be perhaps complicated as to the
+installation, and especially as to the making of the images, but, in
+certain special cases (for giving the effect of a machine in motion,
+for example), it might render genuine services.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE EFFECT ON FOWLS OF NITROGENOUS AND CARBONACEOUS RATIONS.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This article is condensed by permission from a thesis
+prepared for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, by
+James Edward Rice, a graduate of the class of 1890. The work was
+planned and wholly carried out in the most careful manner by Mr. Rice
+under the immediate supervision of the Director. The results have been
+thought worthy of publication in the _Cornell Station Bulletin_.]
+
+
+On July 2, 1889, ten Plymouth Rock hens, one year old, and as nearly
+as possible of uniform size, were selected from a flock of
+thirty-five. At the same time ten chickens, hatched from the same hens
+mated with a Plymouth Rock cock, were similarly chosen. The chickens
+were about six weeks old, healthy and vigorous and of nearly the same
+size. Up to the time of purchase both hens and chickens had full run
+of the farm. The hens foraged for themselves and were given no food;
+the chickens had been fed corn meal dough, sour milk and table scraps.
+
+A preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five days, during
+which time both hens and chickens were confined, all together, in a
+fairly well lighted and ventilated room, and fed a great variety of
+food, in order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly as
+possible in the same condition. During this preliminary feeding both
+hens and chickens increased in live weight. The ten hens from a total
+of 44 lb. 12 oz. to 47 lb. 1.5 oz., or 3.75 oz. each, and laid 93
+eggs. The chickens from a total of 9 lb. 15 oz. to 18 lb., or 12.9 oz.
+each.
+
+Food, shells and water were kept constantly before the fowls. Basins
+which contained the food and water were kept within a box constructed
+of lath, so arranged that the fowls could reach between the slats and
+procure food and drink without wasting or soiling.
+
+July 26th the hens and chickens were each separated into two lots of
+five each, as follows:
+
+      Hens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 23 lb. 8.5 oz.
+      Hens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 23 lb. 9 oz.
+      Chickens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 8 lb. 15 oz.
+      Chickens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 9 lb. 1 oz.
+
+The four lots were placed in separate pens where they remained during
+the entire experiment, which lasted 125 days. They were fed and
+watered once daily, and an account kept of the food eaten and water
+drank. At each feeding the food and water remaining were weighed back
+and deducted from the amount charged at the previous feeding.
+
+The hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration were given daily all
+they would eat of the following mixture: 1/3 part wheat bran, 1/3 part
+wheat shorts, 1/3 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts skimmed milk, and
+will be designated Lot I.
+
+The hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration were given daily all
+they would eat of a ration of cracked maize and maize dough, and will
+be designated Lot II.
+
+Both groups were given a small amount of green clover as long as it
+lasted, and afterward cabbage.
+
+For convenience the experiment was divided into five periods of twenty
+five days.
+
+
+FOOD CONSUMED AND INCREASE IN LIVE WEIGHT.
+
+During the first period all the fowls seemed in good health except the
+carbonaceous fed chickens; they, during this as in all succeeding
+periods, were restless and peevish, always moping or hunting for
+something to eat, though their trough was filled. When fed they would
+greedily take a few mouthfuls and then, with their hunger still
+unappeased, would leave the dish. They always ate ravenously the green
+food which was given them, as did the hens and chickens of Lot I. The
+hens of Lot II., on the contrary, seemed quite willing to squat about
+the pen and subsist on the maize diet, and strangely enough cared
+little for green food. The clear maize diet was accompanied by such
+ill effects that the chickens of each lot, after the first period,
+were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat, and the hens each one
+ounce. The wheat was increased during the fourth and fifth periods in
+the case of the chickens to one ounce each. During the second period
+one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food, and during the third period
+another of the same lot were taken ill and removed from the
+experiment. Both seemed to be suffering from impacted crops, as the
+stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be empty.
+
+The fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous ration, and
+since the first period the amount of food eaten by the hens and
+chickens of Lot I had continually decreased, led to the belief that
+their food might be too nitrogenous, and as during the last days of
+the third period one of the hens in Lot I was also ill, it was decided
+to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal and to use linseed meal
+instead. The hen recovered soon after the change in food.
+
+The supply of skim milk running short in the last two periods, water
+was used instead in mixing the ration of the lots fed nitrogenous
+food.
+
+At the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the linseed meal in
+the ration of Lot I was removed, and cotton seed meal substituted.
+This combination seemed a happy one, for on this ration both hens and
+chickens made large gains.
+
+At the end of the experiment little difference could be seen in the
+hens of the two groups; but the two lots of chickens were in striking
+contrast. While the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large,
+plump, healthy, active, and well feathered, the chickens fed on a
+carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller, sickly, and in
+several cases almost destitute of feathers. Two of them had perfectly
+bare backs, and so ravenous were they for flesh and blood that they
+began eating one another.
+
+The inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous diet to throw out
+new feathers and the ability of the chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet
+to grow an enormous coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the
+effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain
+requirements of animal growth. It was plain to see that maize, even
+when assisted by a small amount of wheat and green clover, could not
+supply sufficient nitrogen for the growth of feathers.
+
+It will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost weight during
+the experiment, the loss was slightly greater with those fed
+nitrogenous food, but these produced by far the most eggs.
+
+The chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about doubled in weight,
+while those fed carbonaceous food only added about one-third to their
+weight.
+
+
+PRODUCTION OF EGGS.
+
+During the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid three eggs while
+the others laid two. The two groups were, therefore, practically
+evenly divided at the start as to the condition of the laying stage.
+At the end of the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid
+forty-three eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid twenty. During
+the next twenty-five days the former laid thirty and the latter six;
+during the third period the former laid six and the latter not any.
+From this time on no eggs were received from either group. The decline
+in egg production was probably due in large part to the fact that the
+hens began to moult during the second period, and continued to do so
+during the rest of the experiment.
+
+The eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of small size, having a
+disagreeable flavor and smell, watery albumen, an especially small,
+dark colored yolk, with a tender vitelline membrane, which turned
+black after being kept several weeks. While the eggs of the
+carbonaceous fed hens were large, of fine flavor, of natural smell,
+large normal albumen, an especially large, rich yellow yolk, with
+strong vitelline membrane, which was perfectly preserved after being
+kept for weeks in the same brine with the other eggs.
+
+          TOTAL FOOD CONSUMED DURING EXPERIMENT.
+ _____________________________________________________________________
+ Lot. I.--Nitrogenous.            | Lot. II.--Carbonaceous.
+ _________________________________|___________________________________
+                  |       |       |                  |       |
+                  | Hens. |*Chicks|                  | Hens. |Chicks.
+                  |_______|_______|                  |_______|________
+                  |  lb.  |  lb.  |                  |  lb.  |  lb.
+ Bran.            | 29.90 | 21.85 | Maize.           | 82.15 | 51.30
+ Shorts.          | 29.90 | 21.85 | Green clover.    | 18.75 | 18.75
+ Cotton seed meal.| 21.48 | 13.24 | Cabbage.         | 16.00 | 16.00
+ Linseed meal.    |  8.43 |  8.61 | Wheat            | 15.63 | 11.71
+ Skimmed milk.    |105.49 | 61.33 |                  |       |
+ Wheat.           | 15.63 | 11.71 |                  |       |
+ Green clover.    | 18.75 | 18.75 |                  |       |
+ Cabbage.         | 16.00 | 16.00 |                  |       |
+ _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________
+  Total.          |245.58 |173.34 | Total.           |132.53 | 92.76
+  Nutritive ratio.| 1:3.1 |  1:3  | Nutritive ratio. | 1:7.8 |  1:8
+ _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________
+
+* Calculated for five chicks, based upon the amount eaten by the three
+after the two sick were removed.
+
+                 EGGS LAID AND GAIN IN WEIGHT--HENS.
+  ____________________________________________________________________
+                                      |              |
+                                      |    Lot I.    |    Lot II.
+                                      | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous.
+                                      |______________|________________
+                                      |              |
+  Live weight, July 26.               |     23.53    |     23.56
+   "     "     November 27.           |     21.31    |     22.00
+  Loss.                               |      2.22    |      1.56
+  Number of eggs laid.                |     79.00    |     26.00
+  Weight "   "    "   lb.             |      8.25    |      2.92
+  Average weight of eggs, oz.         |      1.67    |      1.80
+  Gain in weight, including eggs, lb. |      6.03    |      1.36
+  ____________________________________|______________|________________
+
+
+                     GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT--CHICKENS.
+  ____________________________________________________________________
+                                      |              |
+                                      |    Lot I.    |    Lot II.
+                                      | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous.
+                                      |______________|________________
+                                      |              |
+  Live weight, July 26.               |      8.94    |      9.06
+   "     "     November 27.           |     17.89    |     12.63
+  Gain, lb.                           |      8.95    |      3.57
+   "    per cent.                     |    100.11    |     39.40
+  ____________________________________|______________|________________
+
+Samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately marked and
+sold to a boarding house where the cook did not know that the eggs
+were undergoing a test. On meeting the cook several days later the
+following words were heard: "Do you expect me to cook such eggs as
+these! About every other one is spoiled." On examination of the
+ovaries after slaughtering, it was found that in the case of one of
+the carbonaceous fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage,
+but on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much nearer the laying
+period. With this single exception, the clusters of ovules in the
+carbonaceous fed hens were uniformly small. Neither group would have
+laid under any probability for several weeks. It would seem from these
+facts, together with the fact that during the experiment the
+nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three times as many eggs, that a
+nitrogenous ration stimulates egg production.
+
+
+THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING.
+
+On November 27 the fowls were slaughtered. Each fowl was weighed,
+wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering, and killed by severing an
+artery in the roof of the mouth. The blood was caught in a glass jar.
+The fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed, after which the
+body was laid open longitudinally by cutting alongside the sternum and
+through the back bone. When all had been thus prepared, they were hung
+up in groups to be photographed, but the photographs were quite
+unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative proportions of fat and
+lean. The accompanying drawing made from the photograph shows the
+relative development of an average pair of chickens. Attention is
+particularly called to the thighs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+One-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for flavor, succulence,
+and tenderness. The other half was carefully prepared for chemical
+analysis by separating the meat from the bones. The flesh was
+thoroughly mixed and run through a sausage cutter, mixed again, and
+the process repeated three times. From different parts of this mixture
+a large sample was taken, from which the chemist took his samples for
+analysis. The right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by
+placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a wire on its
+center, on which were placed small weights until the bone gave way.
+
+               DRESSED WEIGHT, INTERNAL ORGANS, ETC.
+ ____________________________________________________________________
+                            |                   |
+                            |       Hens.       |     Chickens.
+                            |___________________|____________________
+                            |         |         |         |
+                            | Lot I.  | Lot II. | Lot I.  | Lot II.
+                            | Nitro-  | Carbon- | Nitro-  | Carbon-
+                            | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous.
+                            |_________|_________|_________|__________
+                            |   lb.   |   lb.   |   lb.   |   lb.
+ Live weight.               |  21.31  |  22.0   |  17.89  |  12.63
+ Dressed weight.            |  14.86  |  15.09  |  12.01  |   8.89
+    "      "     per cent.  |  69.7   |  68.6   |  67.1   |  70.5
+ Weight of blood.           |   0.75  |   0.66  |   0.55  |   0.34
+   "    "  feathers.        |   1.41  |   1.25  |   1.28  |   0.66
+   "    "  intestinal fat.  |   0.59  |   1.98  |   0.34  |   0.66
+   "    "  offal.           |   3.70  |   3.02  |   3.62  |   2.08
+   "    "  bones.           |   3.47  |   3.63  |   3.18  |   2.69
+   "    "  flesh.           |  11.39  |  11.47  |   8.93  |   6.20
+ ___________________________|_________________________________________
+
+The breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows for the hens and
+chickens of the various lots:
+
+  Average hens, nitrogenous.                         48.16
+     "     "    carbonaceous.                        51.74
+     "    chickens, nitrogenous.                     46.64
+     "       "      carbonaceous.                    31.18
+
+There was little difference in the strength of the bones of the hens,
+undoubtedly because the bones were mature before the feeding began,
+and were little affected by the feeding. We find, however, that the
+bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost fifty per
+cent. (49.6) stronger than those fed carbonaceous food.
+
+The difference in the composition of the flesh, as shown by the
+analysis of Mr. W.P. Cutter, is given below:
+
+  __________________________________________________________________
+                           |                   |
+                           |       Hens.       |     Chickens.
+                           |___________________|____________________
+                           |         |         |         |
+                           | Lot I.  | Lot II. | Lot I.  | Lot II.
+                           | Nitro-  | Carbon- | Nitro-  | Carbon-
+                           | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous.
+                           |_________|_________|_________|__________
+  Albuminoids.             |  43.81  |  25.13  |  52.00  |  30.06
+  Fat.                     |  12.59  |  20.76  |   5.54  |  11.34
+  _________________________________________________________________
+
+The flesh of each group was submitted to a number of persons for a
+cooking test, and the almost unanimous verdict was that the flesh of
+the fowls fed a nitrogenous ration was darker colored, more succulent,
+more tender, and better flavored, though on this last there was some
+difference of opinion.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+So far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions from a single
+experiment of this kind, it would seem that:
+
+Chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make a satisfactory
+development, particularly of feathers.
+
+The bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration are fifty per
+cent. stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous ration.
+
+Hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs but of smaller
+size and poorer quality than those fed exclusively on corn.
+
+Hens fed on corn, while not suffering in general health, become
+sluggish, deposit large masses of fat on the internal organs, and lay
+a few eggs of large size and excellent quality.
+
+The flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids and less
+fat than those fed on a carbonaceous ration, and is darker colored,
+juicier and tenderer.
+
+I.P. ROBERTS, Director.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HERBACEOUS GRAFTING.
+
+
+My attention has been called a number of times to the unsatisfactory
+records and directions concerning the grafting of herbaceous plants.
+There appears to have been very little attention given to the subject,
+and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from one author to
+another. A few years ago I made some attempts at herbaceous grafting,
+but it was not until last winter that experiments were seriously
+undertaken. The work was put in the hands of J.R. Lochary as a subject
+for a graduating thesis.
+
+The experiments were undertaken primarily for the purpose of learning
+the best methods of grafting herbs, but a secondary and more important
+object was the study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion,
+particularly in relation to variegation and coloration. This second
+feature of the work is still under way, in one form or another, and we
+hope for definite results in a few years. As a matter of immediate
+advantage, however, herbaceous grafting has its uses, particularly in
+securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon the same plant.
+There is no difficulty in growing a half dozen kinds or colors, on
+geraniums, chrysanthemums, or other plants from one stock of the
+respective species.
+
+Six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter. It was found
+that the wood must be somewhat hardened to secure best results. The
+very soft and flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation
+of grafting, and union does not take place readily. Vigorous coleus
+stocks, three months old, gave best results if cut to within two or
+three inches of the pot and all or nearly all the leaves removed from
+the stump. Geraniums, being harder in wood, made good unions at almost
+any place except on the soft growing points. The stock must not have
+ceased growth, however. Most of the leaves should be kept down on the
+stock. Cions an inch or two long were usually taken from firm growing
+tips, in essentially the same manner as in the making of cuttings.
+Sometimes an eye of the old wood was used, and in most cases union
+took place and a new shoot arose from the bud. The leaves were usually
+partly removed from the cion.
+
+Various styles of grafting were employed, of which the common cleft
+and the veneer or side graft were perhaps the most satisfactory. In
+most instances it was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly
+with bass or raffia. In some soft wooded plants, like coleus, a
+covering of common grafting wax over the bandage was an advantage,
+probably because it prevented the drying out of the parts. In some
+cases, however, wax injured the tissues where it overreached the
+bandage. Sphagnum moss was used in many cases tied in a small mass
+about the union, but unless the parts were well bandaged the cion sent
+roots into the moss and did not unite, and in no case did moss appear
+to possess decided advantages. Best results were obtained by placing
+the plants at once in a propagating frame, where a damp and confined
+atmosphere could be obtained. In some plants, successful unions were
+made in the open greenhouse, but they were placed in shade and kept
+sprinkled for a day after the grafts were made. The operation should
+always be performed quickly to prevent flagging of the cions. Or, if
+the cions cannot be used at once, they may be thrust into sand or moss
+in the same manner as cuttings, and kept for several days. In one
+series, tomato and potato cuttings, which had flagged in the cutting
+bed, revived when grafted. And cuttings which had been transported in
+the mail for three days grew readily, but they were in good condition
+when received. The mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these
+grafted plants, for they delighted to crawl under the bandages and
+suck the juices from the wounded surfaces.
+
+Although it is foreign to the purpose of this note, it may be worth
+while to mention a few of the plants upon which the experiments were
+made. Sections were taken of many of the grafts and microscopic
+examinations made to determine the extent of cell union. Coleuses of
+many kinds were used, with uniform success, and the cions of some of
+them were vigorous a year after being set. Even iresine (better known
+as _Achyranthes Verschaffeltii_) united with coleus and grew for a
+time. Zonale geraniums bloomed upon the common rose geranium. Tomatoes
+upon potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were
+transplanted to the open ground, where they grew, flowered and fruited
+until killed by frost. The tomato-on-potato plants bore good tomatoes
+above and good potatoes beneath, even though no sprouts from the
+potato stock were allowed to grow. Peppers united with tomatoes and
+tomatoes united with peppers. Egg plants, tomatoes and peppers grew
+upon the European husk tomato or alkekengi (_Physalis Alkekengi_).
+Peppers and egg plants united with each other reciprocally. A coleus
+cion was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound with raffia.
+The cion remained green and healthy, and at the end of forty-eight
+days the bandage was removed, but it was found that no union had taken
+place. Ageratums united upon each other with difficulty.
+Chrysanthemums united readily. A bean plant, bearing two partially
+grown beans, chanced to grow in a chrysanthemum pot. The stem bearing
+the pods was inarched into the chrysanthemum. Union took place
+readily, but the beans turned yellow and died. Pumpkin vines united
+with squash vines, cucumbers with cucumbers, muskmelons with
+watermelons, and muskmelons, watermelons and cucumbers with the wild
+cucumber or balsam apple (_Echinocystis lobata_).
+
+Another interesting feature of the work was the grafting of one fruit
+upon another, as a tomato fruit upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon
+another cucumber. This work is still under progress and it promises
+some interesting results in a new and unexpected direction, reports of
+which may be expected later.--_Cornell Station Bulletin_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A HUMOROUS HEALTH OFFICER.
+
+
+The Michigan State Board of Health recently took Health Officer Davis,
+of Close Village, to task for failing to send in his weekly reports.
+His reply was unique. He says: "There has not been enough sickness
+here the last two or three years to do much good. The physicians find
+time to go to Milwaukee on excursions, serve as jurors in justice
+courts, sit around on drygoods boxes, and beg tobacco, chew gum, and
+swap lies. A few sporadic cases of measles have existed, but they were
+treated mostly by old women, and no deaths occurred. There was an
+undertaker in the village, but he is now in the State prison. It is
+hoped and expected when green truck gets around, melons plenty, and
+cucumbers in abundance, that something may revive business. If it
+does, I will let you know."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS
+
+
+Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years,
+sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New
+York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION.
+
+$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.
+
+
+This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued
+monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about
+forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book
+pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF
+ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with
+fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern
+Architectural Construction and allied subjects.
+
+A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of
+the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country,
+including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive.
+Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full
+Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of
+Details.
+
+No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and
+specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans
+we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of
+construction.
+
+Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
+furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building
+or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before
+them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best
+examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.
+
+Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
+Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated.
+An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given,
+in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods,
+Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with
+addresses of the makers, etc.
+
+The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have
+won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication in
+the world.
+
+A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry,
+Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of
+industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.
+
+MUNN& CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUILDING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
+
+
+In connection with the publication of the BUILDING EDITION of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn & Co. furnish plans and
+specifications for buildings of every kind, including Churches,
+Schools, Stores, Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.
+
+In this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects.
+Full plans, details, and specifications for the various buildings
+illustrated in this paper can be supplied.
+
+Those who contemplate building, or who wish to alter, improve, extend,
+or add to existing buildings, whether wings, porches, bay windows, or
+attic rooms, are invited to communicate with the undersigned. Our work
+extends to all parts of the country. Estimates, plans, and drawings
+promptly prepared. Terms moderate. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. The
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR.
+
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January
+I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in
+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+USEFUL ENGINEERING BOOKS
+
+
+Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers, Mechanics,
+Builders, men of leisure, and professional men, of all classes, need
+good books in the line of their respective callings. Our post office
+department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very
+small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different
+authors, on more than fifty different subjects, has recently been
+published, for free circulation, at the office of this paper. Subjects
+classified with names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only to
+ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address,
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+
+In connection with the Scientific American, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 42 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the Scientific American of all inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the
+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & Co.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs and how procured. Address
+
+MUNN & CO.,
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+BRANCH OFFICE, 622 AND 624 F ST., WASHINGTON, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+795, March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13443 ***
diff --git a/13443-h/13443-h.htm b/13443-h/13443-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a8c09e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/13443-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,5064 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+"text/html; charset=UTF-8">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, 795</title>
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white}
+img {border: 0;}
+h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;}
+.note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+.ctr {text-align: center;}
+-->
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13443 ***</div>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 795</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, March 28, 1891</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 795.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#avi1">
+AVICULTURE.&mdash;The Effect on Fowls of Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations.&mdash;
+A very valuable report upon the effects of different diet on chickens, with tables of
+data.&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#bio1">
+BIOGRAPHY.&mdash;N.F. Burnham and his Life Work.&mdash;By W.H. BURNHAM.&mdash;The
+life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers,
+an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery.
+&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#bot1">
+BOTANY.&mdash;The Source of Chinese Ginger.&mdash;An identification of
+a long unknown plant</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#civ1">
+CIVIL ENGINEERING.&mdash;A Railway through the Andes.&mdash;An
+interesting enterprise now in progress in South America, with
+maps.&mdash;2 illustrations</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#civ2">
+Chicago as a Seaport.&mdash;Proposed connection of Chicago with the
+waters of the Mississippi River, thereby placing it in water
+communication with the sea.&mdash;2 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#civ3">
+Floating Elevator and Spoil Distributor.&mdash;A machine for removing
+dredged material from barges, as employed on the Baltic Sea
+Canal Works.&mdash;10 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#elec1">
+ELECTRICITY.&mdash;Alternate Current Condensers.&mdash;A valuable review
+of the difficulties of constructing these condensers.&mdash;An important
+contribution to the subject.&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#elec2">
+Electricity in Transitu.&mdash;From Plenum to Vacuum.&mdash;By Prof.
+WILLIAM CROOKES.&mdash;Continuation of this important lecture with
+profuse illustrations of experiments.&mdash;14 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#elec3">
+The Telegraphic Communication between Great Britain,
+Europe, America, and the East.&mdash;By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.&mdash;
+The engineering aspects of electricity.&mdash;The world's cables and
+connections.&mdash;2 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#hort1">
+HORTICULTURE.&mdash;Herbaceous Grafting.&mdash;A hitherto little practiced
+ and successful method of treating herbs, with curious results
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#mech1">
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;Improved Cold Iron Saw.&mdash;The
+"Demon" cold saw for cutting Iron.&mdash;Its capacity and general
+principles.&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#med1">
+MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.&mdash;How to Prevent Hay Fever.&mdash;By
+ALEXANDER RIXA.&mdash;A systematic treatment of this very troublesome
+complaint, with a special prescription and other treatment.
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IX.</td>
+<td><a href="#misc1">
+MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;The Business End of the American Newspaper.&mdash;By
+A.H. SIEGFRIED.&mdash;A graphic presentation of the
+technique of the newspaper office, circulation of the American
+papers, methods of printing, etc.
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#misc2">
+The New Labor Exchange at Paris.&mdash;A new establishment, long
+demanded by the laboring population of Paris.&mdash;Its scope and
+prospects.&mdash;2 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">X.</td>
+<td><a href="#nav1">
+NAVAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;The Empress of India.&mdash;The pioneer
+of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the Canadian
+Pacific Railway between Vancouver, China, and Japan.&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XI.</td>
+<td><a href="#phys1">
+PHYSICS.&mdash;Stereoscopic Projections.&mdash;A most curious method
+of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the
+screen, involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators.
+&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XII.</td>
+<td><a href="#tech1">
+TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Gaseous Illuminants.&mdash;By Prof. VIVIAN B.
+LEWES.&mdash;The fifth and last of Prof. Lewes' Society of Arts lectures,
+concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr>
+
+<a name="misc2"></a><h2>THE NEW LABOR EXCHANGE
+AT PARIS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a href="./images/01-1.png"><img src="images/01-1.jpg" alt="NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p>There will soon be inaugurated
+(probably about the 14th of July) a new
+establishment that has long been demanded
+by the laboring population,
+that is to say, a new labor exchange,
+the buildings of which, situated on
+Chateau d'Eau Street, are to succeed
+the provisional exchange installed in
+the vicinity of Le Louvre Street. The
+new structures have been erected from
+plans by Mr. Bouvard, and occupy an
+area of seventeen hundred meters.</p>
+
+<p>The main work is now entirely terminated,
+but the interior decorations
+are not yet completely finished. The
+distribution comprises a vast meeting
+room, committee rooms for the various
+syndicates, offices in which the
+workmen of the various bodies of
+trades will find information and advice,
+and will be enabled to be put in relation
+with employers without passing
+through the more or less recommendable
+agencies to which they have hitherto
+been obliged to have recourse.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, the institution, if
+wisely conducted, is capable of bearing
+fruit and ought to do so, and the
+laboring population of Paris should be
+grateful to the municipal council for the
+six million francs that our ediles have
+so generously voted for making this interesting
+work a success. On seeing the
+precautions, perhaps necessary, that
+the laborer now takes against the capitalist,
+we cannot help instituting a
+comparison with the antique and solid
+organization of labor that formerly
+governed the trades unions. Each corporation
+possessed a syndic charged
+with watching over the management
+of affairs, and over the receipts and
+the use of the common resources.
+These syndics were appointed for two
+years, and had to make annually, at
+least, four visits to all the masters, in
+order to learn how the laborers were
+treated and paid, and how loyally the
+regulations of the corporation were
+observed. They rendered an account
+of this to the first assembly of the community
+and cited all the masters in
+fault.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently, the new Labor Exchange
+will not cause a revival of these old
+ways of doing things (which perhaps
+
+may have had something of good in
+them), but we may hope that laborers
+will find in it protection against those
+who would require of them an excess
+of work, as well as against those who
+would preach idleness and revolt to
+them.&mdash;<i>Le Monde Illustré</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a href="./images/01-2.png"><img src="images/01-2.jpg" alt="NEW LABOR EXCHANGE&mdash;HALL FOR MEETINGS." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />NEW LABOR EXCHANGE&mdash;HALL FOR MEETINGS.</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="misc1"></a><h2>THE BUSINESS END OF THE
+AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.<a name="FNm1_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNm1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+<h3>By A.H. SIEGFRIED.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The controlling motive and direct
+purpose of the average newspaper are
+financial profit. One is now and then
+founded, and conducted even at a loss,
+to serve party, social, religious or other
+ends, but where the primary intent
+is unselfish there remains hope for
+monetary gain.</p>
+
+<p>The first newspapers never dreamed
+of teaching or influencing men, but
+were made to collect news and entertainment
+and deal in them as in any
+other commodity. But because this
+was the work of intelligence upon intelligence,
+and because of conditions
+inherent in this kind of business, it
+soon took higher form and service,
+and came into responsibilities of which,
+in its origin, it had taken no thought.
+Wingate's "Views and Interviews on
+Journalism" gives the opinions of the
+leading editors and publishers of fifteen
+years ago upon this point of newspaper
+motive and work. The first
+notable utterance was by Mr. Whitelaw
+Reid, who said the idea and object
+of the modern daily newspaper are to
+collect and give news, with the promptest
+and best elucidation and discussion
+thereof, that is, the selling of
+these in the open market; primarily
+a "merchant of news." Substantially
+and distinctly the same ideas
+were given by William Cullen Bryant,
+Henry Watterson, Samuel Bowles,
+Charles A. Dana, Henry J. Raymond,
+Horace White, David G. Croly, Murat
+Halstead, Frederick Hudson, George
+William Curtis, E.L. Godkin, Manton
+Marble, Parke Godwin, George
+W. Smalley, James Gordon Bennett
+and Horace Greeley. The book is fat
+with discussion by these and other
+eminent newspaper men, as to the
+
+motives, methods and ethics of their profession, disclosing
+high ideals and genuine seeking of good for all
+the world, but the whole of it at last rests upon primary
+motives and controlling principles in nowise
+different or better or worse than those of the Produce
+Exchange and the dry goods district, of Wall Street and
+Broadway, so that, taking publications in the lump, it
+is neither untrue nor ungenerous, nor, when fully considered,
+is it surprising, to say that the world's doing, fact
+and fancy are collected, reported, discussed, scandalized,
+condemned, commended, supported and turned
+back upon the world as the publisher's merchandise.</p>
+
+<p>The force and reach of this controlling motive elude
+the reckoning of the closest observation and ripest
+experience, but as somewhat measuring its strength
+and pervasiveness hear, and for a moment think, of
+these facts and figures.</p>
+
+<p>The American Newspaper Directory for 1890, accepted
+as the standard compiler and analyst of newspaper
+statistics, gives as the number of regularly issued publications
+in the United States and territories, 17,760.
+Then when we know that these have an aggregate
+circulation for each separate issue&mdash;not for each week,
+or month, or for a year, but for each separate issue of
+each individual publication, a total of 41,524,000 copies&mdash;many of them repeating themselves each day, some
+each alternate day, some each third day and the remainder
+each week, month or quarter, and that in a
+single year they produce 3,481,610,000 copies, knowing,
+though dimly realizing, this tremendous output, we
+have some faint impression of the numerical strength
+of this mighty force which holds close relation to and
+bears strong influence upon life, thought and work,
+and which, measured by its units, is as the June leaves
+on the trees&mdash;in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable;
+a force expansive, aggressive, pervasive; going
+everywhere; stopping nowhere; ceasing never.</p>
+
+<p>I am to speak to you of "The Business End" of the
+American newspaper; that is of the work of the publisher's
+department&mdash;not the editor's. At the outset I
+am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the
+subject so many and so far reaching that right regard
+for time compels the merest generalization; but, as
+best I can, and as briefly as I can, I shall speak upon
+the topic under three general divisions:</p>
+
+<p>First.&mdash;The personal and material forces which make
+the newspaper.</p>
+
+<p>Second.&mdash;The sources of revenue from the joint working
+of these forces.</p>
+
+<p>Third.&mdash;The direct office, bearing and influence of
+these forces.</p>
+
+<p>It is but natural that the general public has limited
+idea of the personality and mechanism of the publication
+business, for much of its movement is at night,
+and there is separation and isolation of departments,
+as well as complicated relation of the several parts to
+the whole. Not many years ago a very few men and
+boys could edit, print and distribute the most important
+of newspapers, where now hundreds are necessary
+parts in a tremendous complexity. But even to-day,
+of the nearly 18,000 publications in the United States,
+more than 11,000 are of that class which, in all their
+departments, are operated by from two to four or five
+persons, and which furnish scant remuneration even
+for these. Among the thin populations and in the remote
+regions are thousands of weekly papers&mdash;and you
+may spell the weekly either with a double <i>e</i> or an <i>ea</i>&mdash;
+where there are two men and a boy, one of whom does
+a little writing and much scissoring, loafing among the
+corner groceries and worse, begging for subscribers,
+button-holing for advertisements, and occasionally and
+indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the
+"esteemed contemporary" or the "outraged citizen;"
+the second of whom sets the type, reads the proofs, corrects
+them more or less, makes the rollers, works the
+old hand press, and curses the editor and the boy impartially;
+and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly,
+bi-weekly or monthly, inks the forms and sometimes
+pis them, carries the papers, and does generally
+the humble and diversified works of the "printer's
+devil," while between the three the whole thing periodically
+goes to the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now
+and then by papers of this class. Yet there are many of
+these country papers that Mr. Watterson once styled
+the "Rural Roosters" which are useful and honored,
+and which actively employ as editors and publishers
+men of fair culture and good common sense, with typographical
+and mechanical assistants who are worthy
+of their craft.</p>
+
+<p>But the personal workers upon the great magazines
+and the daily newspapers are for each a battalion or a
+regiment, and in the aggregate a vast army. The
+<i>Century Magazine</i> regularly employs in its editorial
+department three editors and eight editorial assistants,
+of whom five are women; in the art department two
+artists in charge and four assistants, of whom three
+are women; in the business department fifty-eight
+persons, men and women&mdash;a total of seventy six persons
+employed on the magazine regularly and wholly,
+while the printers and binders engaged in preparing
+a monthly edition of 200,000 magazines are at least a
+duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial, art
+and business divisions.</p>
+
+<p>The actual working force upon the average large
+daily newspaper, as well as an outline idea of the
+work done in each department, and of its unified result
+in the printed sheet, as such newspapers are operated
+in New York, Chicago and Boston, may be realized
+from an exhibit of the exact current status in the
+establishment of a well known Chicago paper.</p>
+
+<p>In its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief,
+managing editors, city editors, telegraph editors,
+exchange editors, editorial writers, special writers
+and about thirty reporters&mdash;56 in all. Working in
+direct connection with this department, and as part of
+it, are three telegraph operators and nine artists,
+etchers, photographers and engravers; in the Washington
+office three staff correspondents, and in the
+Milwaukee office one such correspondent&mdash;making for
+what Mr. Bennett calls the intellectual end a force of
+72 men, who are usually regarded by the business end
+as a necessary evil, to be fed and clothed, but on the
+whole as hardly worth the counting.</p>
+
+<p>In the business and mechanical departments the
+men and women and their work are these:</p>
+
+<p>The business office, for general clerical work, receiving
+and caring for advertisements, receiving and disbursing
+cash, and for the general bookkeeping, employs
+24 men and women.</p>
+
+<p>On the city circulation, stimulating and managing
+
+it within the city and the immediate vicinity, 10 persons.</p>
+
+<p>On the country circulation, for handling all out-of-town
+subscriptions and orders of wholesale news
+agents, 30 persons.</p>
+
+<p>On mailing and delivery, for sending out by mail
+and express of the outside circulation, and for distribution
+to city agents and newsboys, 31 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the New York office, caring for the paper's business
+throughout the East, the Canadas, Great Britain
+and Europe, two persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the composing room, where the copy is put into
+type, and in the linotype room, where a part of the
+type-setting is done by machinery, 95 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the stereotype foundry, where the plates are cast
+(for the type itself never is put on the press), 11 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the press room, where the printing, folding, cutting,
+pasting and counting of the papers is done, 30
+persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the engine and dynamo room, 8 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the care of the building, 3 persons.</p>
+
+<p>These numbers include only the minimum and always
+necessary force, and make an aggregate of 316
+persons daily and nightly engaged for their entire
+working time, and borne on a pay roll of six thousand
+dollars a week for salaries and wages alone.</p>
+
+<p>But this takes no account of special correspondents
+subject to instant call in several hundred places
+throughout the country; of European correspondents;
+of 1,900 news agents throughout the West; of 200
+city carriers; of 42 wholesale city dealers, with their
+horses and wagons; of 200 branch advertisement
+offices throughout the city, all connected with the
+main office by telephone; and of more than 3 000 news
+boy&mdash;ash;all making their living, in whole or in part, from
+work upon or business relations with this one paper&mdash;a
+little army of 6,300 men, women, and children, producing
+and distributing but one of the 1,626 daily
+newspapers in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The leading material forces in newspaper production
+are type, paper, and presses.</p>
+
+<p>Printing types are cast from a composition which is
+made one-half of lead, one-fourth of tin, and one-fourth
+of antimony, though these proportions are
+slightly reduced, so as to admit what the chemist calls
+of copper "a trace," the sum of these parts aiming at
+a metal which "shall be hard, yet not brittle; ductile,
+yet tough; flowing freely, yet hardening quickly."
+Body type, that is, those classes ever seen in ordinary
+print, aside from display and fancy styles, is in thirteen
+classes, the smallest technically called brilliant and
+the largest great primer.</p>
+
+<p>In the reading columns of newspapers but four
+classes are ordinarily used&mdash;agate for the small advertisements;
+agate, nonpareil, and minion for news,
+miscellany, etc., and minion and brevier for editorials&mdash;the minion being used for what are called minor editorials,
+and the brevier for leading articles, as to which
+it may be said that young editorial writers consider
+life very real and very earnest until they are promoted
+from minion to brevier.</p>
+
+<p>A complete assortment of any one of these classes is
+called a font, the average weight of which is about
+800 pounds. Whereas our alphabet has 26 letters, the
+compositor must really use of letters, spaces, accent
+marks, and other characters in an English font 152 distinct
+types, and in each font there are 195,000 individual
+pieces. The largest number of letters in a font
+belongs to small <i>e</i>&mdash;12,000; and the least number to
+the <i>z</i>&mdash;200. The letters, characters, spaces, etc., are
+distributed by the printer in a pair of cases, the upper
+one for capitals, small capitals, and various characters,
+having 98 boxes, and the lower one, for the small letters,
+punctuation marks, etc., having 54 boxes.</p>
+
+<p>A few newspapers are using typesetting machines
+for all or part of their composition. The New York
+<i>Tribune</i> is using the Linotype machine for all its typesetting
+except the displayed advertisements, and other
+papers are using it for a portion of their work, while
+still others are using the Rogers and various machines,
+of which there are already six or more. It seems
+probable that within the early future newspaper composition
+will very generally be done by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested to me that many of my hearers
+this evening know little or nothing of the processes of
+the printer's art, and that some exposition of it may
+interest a considerable portion of this audience.</p>
+
+<p>The vast number of these little "messengers of
+thought" which are required in a single modern daily
+newspaper is little known to newspaper readers. Set
+in the manner of ordinary reading, a column of the
+New York <i>Tribune</i> contains 12,200 pieces, counting head
+lines, leads, and so on; while, if set solidly in its medium-sized
+type, there are 18,800 pieces in one column,
+or about 113,000 in a page, or about 1,354,000 in one of
+its ordinary 12-page issues. A 32-page Sunday issue of
+the New York <i>Herald</i> contains nearly, if not quite,
+2,500,000 distinct types and other pieces of metal, each
+of which must be separately handled between thumb
+and finger twice&mdash;once put into the case and once
+taken out of it&mdash;each issue of the paper. No one inexperienced
+in this delicate work has the slightest conception
+of the intensity of attention, fixity of eye,
+deftness of touch, readiness of intelligence, exhaustion
+of vitality, and destruction of brain and nerve which
+enters into the daily newspaper from type-setters alone.</p>
+
+<p>Each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks,
+by sight and touch of which the compositor is guided
+in rapidly placing them right side up in the line. They
+are taken, one by one, between thumb and forefinger,
+while the mind not only spells out each word, but is
+always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead
+of the fingers, and each letter, syllable and word
+is set in its order in lines in the composing stick, each
+line being spaced out in the stick so as to exactly fit
+the column width, this process being repeated until the
+stick is full. Then the stickful is emptied upon a galley.
+Then, when the page or the paper is "up," as the
+printers phrase it, the galleys are collected, and the
+foreman makes up the pages, article by article, as they
+come to us in the printed paper&mdash;the preliminary processes
+of printing proofs from the galleys, reading them
+by the proof readers, who mark the errors, and making
+the corrections by the compositors (each one correcting
+his own work), having been quietly and swiftly
+going on all the while. The page is made up on a
+portable slab of iron, upon which it is sent to the
+stereotyping room. There wet stereotyping paper,
+several sheets in thickness, is laid over the page, and
+
+this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously
+beaten evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the
+soft paper is pressed down into all the interstices between
+the type; then this is covered with blankets
+and the whole is placed upon a steam chest, where it is
+subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes
+perfectly dry. Then, this dried and hardened
+paper, called a matrix, is placed in a circular mould,
+and melted stereotype metal is poured in and cooled,
+resulting in the circular plate, which is rapidly carried
+to the press room, clamped upon its cylinder, and
+when all the cylinders are filled, page by page in proper
+sequence, the pressman gives the signal, the burr
+and whirr begin, and men and scarcely less sentient
+machines enter upon their swift race for the early
+trains. As a matter of general interest it may be remarked
+that this whole process of stereotyping a page,
+from the time the type leaves the composing room until
+the plate is clamped upon the press, averages fifteen
+minutes, and that cases are upon record when the complex
+task has been accomplished in eleven minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled
+upon wooden or iron cores. Some presses take paper
+the narrow way of the paper, rolls for which average
+between 600 and 700 pounds. Others work upon
+paper of double the width of two pages, that is, four
+pages wide, and then the rolls are sometimes as wide
+as six feet, and have an average weight of 1,350 pounds.
+Each roll from which the New York <i>Tribune</i> is printed
+contains an unbroken sheet 23,000 feet (4-1/3 miles) long.
+A few hours before the paper is to be printed, an iron
+shaft having journal ends is passed through the core,
+the roll is placed in a frame where it may revolve, the
+end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll
+is unwound at a speed of from 13 to 15 miles an hour,
+while a fan-like spray of water plays evenly across its
+width, so that the entire sheet is unrolled, dampened,
+for the better taking of the impression to be made upon
+it, and firmly rewound, all in twenty minutes. Each
+of these rolls will make about 7,600 copies of the <i>Tribune</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When all is ready, paper and stereotyped pages in
+place, and all adjustments carefully attended to, the
+almost thinking machine starts at the pressman's touch,
+and with well nigh incredible speed prints, places sheet
+within sheet, pastes the parts together, cuts, folds and
+counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and
+constancy beyond the power of human eye and hand.</p>
+
+<p>The printing press has held its own in the rapid advance
+of that wonderful evolution which, within the
+last half century, in every phase of thought and in
+every movement of material forces placed under the
+dominion of men, has almost made one of our years
+the equivalent of one of the old centuries. Within
+average recollection the single cylinder printing machine,
+run by hand or steam, and able under best conditions
+to print one side of a thousand sheets in one
+hour, was the marvel of mankind. In 1850, one such,
+that we started in an eastern Ohio town, drew such
+crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were obliged
+to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance
+which would allow the astonishing thing to work at
+all.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, in the United States alone, five millions of
+dollars are invested in the building of printing presses,
+many of which, by slightest violence to figure of speech,
+do think and speak. Inspiration was not wholly a
+thing of long-gone ages, for if ever men received into
+brain and worked out through hand the divine touch,
+then were Hoe, and Scott, and Campbell taught of
+God.</p>
+
+<p>Under existing conditions newspapers of any importance,
+in the smaller cities, use one and sometimes two
+presses, capable of producing from 7,000 to 9,000 complete
+eight page papers each hour, each machine costing
+from $10,000 to $15,000. Papers of the second class
+in the large cities use treble or quadruple this press
+capacity, while the great papers, in the four or five
+leading cities, have machinery plants of from four to
+ten presses of greatest capacity, costing from $32,000 to
+$50,000 each, and able to produce papers of the different
+numbers of pages required, at a speed of from
+24,000 to 90,000 four page sheets, or of from 24,000 to
+48,000 eight, ten, or twelve page sheets per hour, each
+paper complete as you receive it at your breakfast
+table&mdash;printed, pasted, cut and folded, and the entire
+product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens,
+fifties, hundreds or thousands, as may be required for
+instantaneous delivery, while, as if to illustrate and
+emphasize the ever upward trend of public demand
+for the day's news, quick and inclusive, Hoe &amp; Co. are
+now building machines capable of producing in all
+completeness 150,000 four page papers each hour.</p>
+
+<p>All this tremendous combination of brain, nerve,
+muscle, material, machinery and capital depends for
+its movement and remuneration upon but two sources
+of income&mdash;circulation and advertisements&mdash;the unit
+measurements of which are infinitesimal&mdash;for the most
+part represented by wholesale prices; from one-half
+a cent to two cents per copy for the daily newspaper,
+and in like proportion for the weeklies and monthlies;
+and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line
+per thousand of circulation for advertising space.
+Verily, in a certain and large sense, the vast publishing
+interests rest upon drops of water and grains of
+sand. Under right conditions no kind of business or
+property is more valuable, and yet no basis of values is
+more intangible. Nothing in all trade or commerce is
+so difficult to establish or more environed by competitions,
+and yet, once established, almost nothing save
+interior dry rot can pull it down. It depends upon the
+judgment and favor of the million, yet instances are
+few where any external force has seriously and permanently
+impaired it.</p>
+
+<p>About two hundred years have gone since the publication
+of the first number of the first American newspaper.
+It was a monthly, called <i>Publick Occurrences,
+both Foreign and Domestic</i>, first printed September
+25, 1690, by Richard Pierce, and founded by Benjamin
+Harris. At that time public favor did seem to control
+newspaper interests, for that first paper aroused antagonism,
+and it was almost immediately suppressed
+by the authorities. Only one copy of it is now in existence,
+and that is in London. The first newspaper to
+live, in this country, was the Boston <i>News Letter</i>, first
+issued in 1704 and continued until 1776. New York's
+first newspaper, the New York <i>Gazette</i>, appeared October
+16, 1725. At the outbreak of the revolution there
+were 37 newspapers, and in 1800 there were 200, of
+which several were dailies. In 1890 there were 17,760,
+
+of which there were 13,164 weeklies, 2,191 monthlies,
+1,626 dailies, 280 semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126
+quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38 bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies.</p>
+
+<p>The circulations belong largely to the weeklies,
+monthlies and dailies, the weeklies having 23,228,750,
+the monthlies 9,245,750, the dailies 6,653,250, leaving
+only 2,400,000 for all the others.</p>
+
+<p>The largest definitely ascertainable daily average
+circulation for one year, in this country, has been
+222,745. Only one other daily paper in the world has
+had more&mdash;<i>Le Petit Journal</i>, in Paris, which really,
+as we understand it, is not a newspaper, but which regularly
+prints and sells for one sou more than 750,000
+copies. The largest American weekly is the <i>Youth's
+Companion,</i> Boston, 461,470. The largest monthly is
+the <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, Philadelphia, 542,000. The
+largest among the better known magazines is the
+<i>Century</i>, 200,000. Of the daily papers which directly
+interest us&mdash;those of the city of New York&mdash;the actual
+or approximate daily averages of the morning papers
+are given by "Dauchy's Newspaper Catalogue" for
+1891, as follows: <i>Tribune</i>, daily, 80,000; Sunday,
+85,000. <i>Times</i>, daily, 40,000; Sunday, 55,000. <i>Herald</i>,
+daily, 100,000; Sunday, 120,000. <i>Morning Journal</i>,
+200,000. <i>Press</i>, daily, 85,000; Sunday, 45,000. <i>Sun</i>, daily,
+90,000; Sunday, 120,000. <i>World</i>, daily, 182,000; Sunday,
+275,000. Of the afternoon papers, <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>,
+15,000; <i>Evening Post</i>, 18,000; <i>Telegram</i>, 25,000;
+<i>Graphic</i> (not the old, but a new one), 10,000; <i>Mail and
+Express</i>, 40,000; <i>News</i>, 173,000; <i>Evening Sun</i>, 50,000;
+<i>Evening World</i>, 168,000. The entire circulation of New
+York dailies, including with those named others of
+minor importance, and the German, French, Italian,
+Bohemian, Hebrew and Spanish daily newspapers, is
+1,540,200 copies.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, there is and must be ceaseless, incisive
+and merciless competition in securing and holding circulations,
+as well as in the outward statements made of
+individual circulations to those who purchase advertising
+space. In this, as in all other forms of enterprise,
+there are honest, clean-cut and business-like
+methods, and there are the methods of the time-server,
+the trickster and the liar.</p>
+
+<p>The vastly greater number of publications secure
+and hold their clientage by making the best possible
+goods, pushing them upon public patronage by aggressive
+and business-like means, and selling at the lowest
+price consistent with excellence of product and fairness
+alike to producer and consumer. But of the baser
+sort there are always enough to make rugged paths
+for those who walk uprightly, and to contribute to instability
+of values on the one hand, and on the other
+to flooding the country with publications which the
+home and the world would be better without. Every
+great city has more of the rightly made and rightly
+sold papers than of the other sort, and the business
+man, the working man, the professional man, the family,
+no matter of what taste, or political faith, or economic
+bias, or social status, or financial plenty or paucity,
+can have the daily visits of newspapers which are able,
+brilliant, comprehensive, clean and honest. But all
+the time, these men and families will have pressed upon
+their attention and patronage, by every device and
+artifice of the energetic and more or less unscrupulous
+publisher, other papers equally able and brilliant and
+comprehensive, but bringing also their burden of needless
+sensationalism and mendacity, undue expansion of
+all manner of scandal, amplification of every detail
+and kind of crime, and every phase of covert innuendo
+or open attack upon official doing and private character&mdash;the
+whole infernal mass procured, and stimulated
+and broadcast among the people by the "business end
+of it," with the one and only intent of securing and
+holding circulation.</p>
+
+<p>Take a representative and pertinent example. Eight
+years ago there were in New York ten or eleven standard
+newspapers, as ably and inclusively edited and as
+energetically and successfully conducted, business-wise,
+as they are now. Even at their worst they were decently
+mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and
+they throve by legitimate sale of the most and best
+news and the best possible elucidation and discussion
+thereof. The father could bring the paper of his choice
+to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral
+sense and self-respect might be outraged, or that the
+face of his wife might be crimsoned and the minds of
+his children befouled. But there came from out of the
+West new men and new forces, quick to see the larger
+opportunity opened in the very center of five millions
+of people, and almost in a night came the metamorphosis
+of the old World into the new. It was deftly
+given out that existing conditions were inadequate to
+the better deserts of the Knickerbocker, the Jersey-man,
+and the Yankee, and that a new purveyor of
+more highly seasoned news and a more doughty champion
+of their rights and interests was hither from
+the land of life and movement&mdash;at two cents per
+copy. There was a panic in New York newspaper
+counting rooms, and prices tumbled in two days from
+the three and four cents of fair profit to the two
+and three cents of bare cost or less. The new factors
+in demoralization cared nothing for competition in
+prices or legitimate goods, for they had other ideas of
+coddling the dear people. Ready to their purpose lay
+disintegrated Liberty, waiting for a rock upon which
+to plant her feet and raise her torch, and the new combination
+between the world, the flesh and the devil,
+waiting and ready for access to the pockets of the public,
+was only too ready to set up Liberty and itself at
+one stroke, if only the joint operation could be done
+without expense to itself. The people said, "What
+wonderful enterprise!" "What a generous spirit!"
+The combination, with tongue in cheek and finger laid
+alongside nose, said to itself as it saw its circulation
+spring in one bound from five figures into six, "Verily
+we've got there! for these on the Hudson are greater
+gudgeons than are they on the Mississippi." From
+then until now, with an outward semblance and constant
+pretense of serving the people; with blare of
+trumpet and rattle of drum; with finding Stanley, who
+never had been lost; with scurrying peripatetic petticoats
+around the globe; with all manner of unprofessional
+and illegitimate devices; with so-called "contests"
+and with all manner of "schemes" without
+limit in number, kind, or degree; with every cunningly
+devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity
+&mdash;from then until now that combination has been
+struggling to hold and has held an audience of the
+undiscriminating and the unthinking. But, further,
+
+and worse, a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation
+has led other papers to follow somewhat at a distance
+in this demoralizing race. None of them has gone to
+such lengths, but the tendency to literary, mental and
+moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown form
+of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods
+of every New York daily save only the <i>Tribune,
+Times, Commercial Advertiser</i>, and <i>Evening Post,</i>
+while the converse side of securing business clientage
+is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it
+were not pathetic, by that abnormal and fantastic
+cross between news and pietetics which mails and expresses
+itself to the truly good. These are forms of
+competition which the business end of legitimately
+conducted newspapers is compelled to meet. In a certain
+way these methods do succeed, but how, and how
+long and how much shall they succeed except by unsettling
+the mental and moral poise of the people, and
+by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere
+whose thoughts take less account of means than
+of ends? Which shall we hold in higher esteem and in
+our business patronage&mdash;Manton Marble and Hurlbut,
+gentlemen, scholarly, wise leaders, conscientious teachers,
+with barely living financial income; or their
+successors, parvenus, superficial, meretricious, false
+guides, time-serving leaders, a thousand dollars a day
+of clear profit, housed in the tower of Babel?</p>
+
+<p>Considered in the large, the circulation side of the
+American newspaper has many indefensible aspects.
+As "nothing succeeds like success," or the appearance
+of success, the prestige of not a few newspapers is ministered
+unto by rotund and deceptive representations
+of circulation. Then, as few can live, much less profit,
+on their circulations alone, it becomes greatly important
+to make the advertiser see circulations through
+the large end of the telescope, and so the fine art of telling
+truth without lying is a live and perennial study in
+many counting rooms. Discussing the circulation question
+not long ago with the head of a leading religious
+paper, he told me that the number of copies he printed
+was a thing that he never stated definitely, because
+the publishers of the other religious newspapers lied so
+about their circulations that he would do himself injustice
+if he were to tell the truth about his own. The
+secular papers should set an example for their religious
+brethren, but they do not, for from many of them
+there is lying&mdash;systematic, persistent, and more or less
+colossal. Not long ago, within a few days of each
+other, three men who were simultaneously employed
+on a certain paper told me their <i>actual</i> circulation,
+<i>confidentially</i>, too. One of them put it at 85,000, the
+second at 110,000, and the third at 130,000, and each of
+them lied, for their lying was so diversified and entertaining
+that I felt a real interest in securing the truth,
+and so I took some trouble to ask the pressman about
+it. He told me, <i>very</i> confidentially, that it was 120,000&mdash;and he lied.</p>
+
+<p>By this time my interest was so heightened that I
+told my personal friend, the publisher, about the inartistic
+and incoherent mendacity of his subordinates,
+whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation
+book, which clearly, and I have no doubt truthfully,
+exhibited an average of 88,000. The wicked partner is
+nearly always ready to show the actual record of the
+counting machines on the presses, and "figures never
+lie" but the truth-telling machines which record actual
+work of the impression cylinders make no mention of
+damaged copies thrown aside, of sample copies, files,
+exchanges, copies kept against possible future need,
+copies unsold, copies nominally sold but sooner or later
+returned and finally sold to the junk shop, and all
+that sort of thing. One prints a large extra issue on a
+certain day for some business corporation which has
+its own purpose to serve by publication of an article in
+its own interest, whereby many thousands of copies
+are added to that day's normal output, and he makes
+the exceptional number for that day serve as the exponent
+of his circulation until good fortune brings him
+a similar and possibly larger order, and his circulation
+is reported as "still increasing." Another struck a
+"high-water mark" of "190,500" the day after Mr.
+Cleveland was elected, and that has been the implied
+measure of circulation for the last six years. Another,
+during a heated political campaign, or a great financial
+crisis, or some other dominant factor in public interest,
+makes a large and genuine temporary increase,
+but the highest mark gained does enforced duty in the
+eyes of the marines until another flood tide sweeps him
+to a greater transient height. These are types of the
+competitions of the circulation liar. At this very hour
+there are four daily newspapers each of which has the
+largest circulation in the United States. Of the nearly
+18,000 American publications only 103 furnish detailed,
+open, and entirely trustworthy statements of circulation.</p>
+
+<p>As to the general public this is no great matter, but
+to the vast number of business men who buy the real
+or fancied publicity afforded by newspaper advertising
+it is of exceeding importance. That the large buyers
+of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled
+is because they understand the circulation extravaganza
+and buy space according to their understanding.
+The time is coming, and it should come soon, when
+newspaper circulations shall be open to the same inspection
+and publicity as is now the case with banks
+and insurance companies, and when the circulation
+liar and swindler shall be amenable to the same law
+and liable to the same penalty as stands against and is
+visited upon any other perjurer and thief.</p>
+
+<p><i>(To be continued</i>.)</p>
+
+<a name="FNm1_1"></a><a href="#FNm1_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note">A recent address before the Outlook Club, of Montclair, N.J.</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="med1"></a><h2>HOW TO PREVENT HAY FEVER.</h2>
+
+<h3>By ALEXANDER RIXA, M.D., New York.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the May (1890) number of the <i>Therapeutic Gazette</i>
+I furnished some contribution to the "Treatment of
+Hay Fever." I reported therein a favorable result in
+the treatment of this mysterious disease in the experience
+of my last year's cases.</p>
+
+<p>My experience of this year is far more gratifying, and
+worthy of receiving a wide publicity.</p>
+
+<p>I treated six cases in all, four of which have been
+habitual for years to hay fever proper without complications,
+while the other two used to have the disease
+aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh.
+I succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease
+in every individual case. The treatment I applied
+was very simple, and consisted of the following:</p>
+
+<p>From the fact that I had known all my patients
+
+from previous years, I ordered them to my office two
+weeks before the usual onset of the disease. I advised
+them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of
+chloride of sodium four times a day&mdash;morning, noon,
+evening, and on retiring; and, a few minutes after the
+cleansing of the parts, had the nares thoroughly sprayed
+with peroxide of hydrogen and c.p. glycerin, half and
+half. Those subject to a conjunctivitis I prescribed a
+two per cent. solution of boric acid as a wash. At this
+period no internal medication was given, but three
+days previous to the usual onset of the disease I prescribed
+phenacetin and salol, five grains of each three
+times a day.</p>
+
+<p>On the respective expected days, to the great surprise
+of all the members concerned successively, who
+have been in the habit of getting the disease almost
+invariably at a certain date, no hay fever symptoms
+appeared, though everyone had been the victim of the
+disease for a great number of years, varying from five
+to nineteen years' standing.</p>
+
+<p>It is self-understood that this treatment was kept
+up all through the season, and, as no symptoms developed,
+the applications were reduced, toward the
+termination, to twice and once a day. The internal
+medication, however, was stopped after the expiration
+of the first week, and all the patients could attend to
+their various respective vocations, something they
+never have been able to do in previous years.</p>
+
+<p>In two cases, though no nasal symptoms developed,
+about two weeks after the calculated onset, slight
+symptoms of asthma made their appearance. However,
+I could easily suppress them at this time with the
+aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer, a very ingenious
+little apparatus, of which I gave a thorough description
+in my last year's article. I used the ozone
+inhalations every four hours, in connection with the
+internal administration of the following prescription:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Rx Iodide of ammonia, 8;
+     Fl. ex. quebracho, 30;
+     Fl. ex. grindelia robusta, 15;
+     Tr. lobelia, 12;
+     Tr. belladonna, 8;
+     Syr. pruni, virg., q.s., ad 120.
+
+Sig.&mdash;Teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four
+hours.
+</pre>
+
+<p>However, toward the end of the fourth week, especially
+in one case&mdash;a stout, heavy-set gentleman&mdash;very
+grave asthmatic symptoms developed, which compelled
+me to apply Chapman's spinal ice bag, as well as resort
+to the internal administration of large doses of codeine
+during the paroxysm, with the most beneficial result.</p>
+
+<p>I gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two
+cases. I find them to act very soothingly in the simple
+asthma, facilitating respiration after a few minutes;
+but during the paroxysmal stage they cannot be utilized,
+for the reason that respiration is short and rapid,
+and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the
+gas to be inhaled. Consequently, it is either of little
+use as a remedy; or, if too much is taken, a disagreeable
+headache will be the consequence.</p>
+
+<p>During the catarrhal stage, which, however, was very
+mild compared with last year, I derived great benefit
+from the administration of codeine, in combination
+with terpine hydrate, in the pill form. The codeine
+has the advantage over all other opium preparations
+that it does not affect the digestive organs, and still
+acts in a soothing manner. While during last year's
+sickness my patients lost from ten to twenty pounds of
+their bodily weight, this year but one lost eight pounds
+and the other five pounds.</p>
+
+<p>As the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped
+in obscurity, we may fairly conclude, by the
+success of my treatment, if it should meet with the
+confirmation of the profession, that the much pretended
+sensitive area, situated, according to Dr. Sajous, "at
+the posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and
+the corresponding portion of the septum," or, according
+to Dr. John Mackenzie, who locates this area "at
+the anterior extremity of the inferior turbinated bone,"
+need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by cautery,
+in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever
+proper.</p>
+
+<p>I examined my patients twice a week, and the closest
+rhinoscopical exploration would not reveal the slightest
+pathological change in the mucous membrane of
+the nares.</p>
+
+<p>Now, what is the etiological factor of the disease?
+Is it a specific germ conveyed by the air to the parts
+and&mdash;<i>locus minoris resistencia</i>&mdash;deposited at the pretended
+area, or is the germinal matter present in the
+nasal mucous membrane with certain persons, and requires
+only at a certain time and under certain conditions
+physiological stimulation to manifest periodical
+pathological changes, which give rise to the train of
+symptoms called hay fever? Dropping all hypothetical
+reasoning, I think some outside vegetable germ is
+causing the disease in those predisposed, and peroxide
+of hydrogen acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles,
+<i>i.e.</i>, drives them out when and wherever it finds
+them. I hope the profession will give this new measure
+a thorough trial and report their results.&mdash;<i>Therapeutic
+Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="bot1"></a><h2>THE SOURCE OF CHINESE GINGER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the Kew <i>Bulletin</i> for January an interesting
+account is given of the identification of the plant yielding
+the rhizome employed to make the well-known
+Chinese preserved ginger. As long ago as 1878 Dr. E.
+Percival Wright, of Trinity College, Dublin, called the
+attention of Mr. Thiselton Dyer to the fact that the
+preserved ginger has very much larger rhizomes than
+<i>Zingiber officinale</i>, and that it was quite improbable
+that it was the product of that plant. The difficulty
+in identifying the plant arose from the fact that, like
+many others cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely
+flowers. The first flowering plant was sent to Kew from
+Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the superintendent of the Hope
+Garden there. During the past year the plant has
+flowered both at Dominica in the West Indies and in
+the Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong. Mr. C. Ford, the
+director of the Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong, has
+identified the plant as <i>Alpinia Galanga</i>, the source of
+the greater or Java galangal root of commerce. Mr.
+Watson, of Kew, appears to have been the first to
+suggest that the Chinese ginger plant is probably a
+species of <i>Alpinia</i>, and possibly identical with the
+
+Siam ginger plant, which was described by Sir J.
+Hooker in the <i>Botanical Magazine</i> (tab. 6,946) in 1887
+as a new species under the name of <i>Alpinia zingiberina</i>.
+Mr. J.G. Baker, in working up the Scitamineæ for the
+"Flora of British India," arrived at the conclusion that
+it is not distinct from the <i>Alpinia Galanga</i>, Willd.
+The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical,
+and both are the produce of <i>Alpinia Galanga</i>, Willd.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="civ3"></a><h2>FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.</h2>
+
+
+<p>We illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor
+constructed by Mr. A.F. Smulders, Utrecht, Holland,
+for removing dredged material out of barges at
+the Baltic Sea Canal Works. We give a perspective
+view showing the apparatus at work, and on a page
+plate are given plans, longitudinal and cross sections,
+with details which are from <i>Engineering</i>. The dredged
+material is raised out of the launches or barges by
+means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of
+10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water line, from
+whence it is pushed to the place of deposition by a
+heavy stream of water supplied by centrifugal pumps.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig2-3.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig2-3.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 2, 3" title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 2, 3</p>
+
+<p>The necessary machinery and superstructure are
+supported on two vessels connected, as shown in Figs.
+4 and 5, with cross girders, a sufficient width being left
+between each vessel to form a well large enough for a
+barge to float into, and for the working of the bucket
+ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges.
+The girders are braced together and carry the framing
+for the bucket chains, gears, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The port vessel is provided with a compound engine
+of 150 indicated horse power, with injection condenser
+actuating two powerful centrifugal pumps, raising water
+which enters by a series of holes into the bottom of
+the shoots underneath the dredged material, carrying
+the material to the conduit (as indicated on Fig. 4 and
+in detail on Figs. 6 and 7).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig4.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig4.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 4." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 4.</p>
+
+<p>A steel boiler of 80 square meters (860 square feet)
+heating surface, and 6 atmospheres (90 lb.) working
+pressure, supplies steam to the engine. Forward on
+the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical two-cylinder
+high pressure engine of 30 indicated horse power,
+which helps to bring the barge to the desired position
+between the parallel vessels. A horizontal two-cylinder
+engine of the same power, fitted with reversing
+gear, placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder,
+raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition
+of a strongly framed capstan, as shown on Fig. 5.
+The gearing throughout is of friction pulleys and worm
+and wormwheel. It is driven by belts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig5.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig5.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 5." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p>In the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of
+100 indicated horse power, with injection condenser,
+working the bucket chain by means of belts and wheel
+gearing, as shown on Fig. 2. A marine boiler of 46
+square meters (495 square feet) heating surface and 6
+atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam.
+In this vessel, it may be added, there is a cabin for the
+crew.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig6.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig6.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 6." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 6.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the vessels are as follows; Extreme
+length, 25 meters (82 ft.); breadth, 4.5 meters (14 ft. 9
+in.); depth (moulded), 2.7 meters (6 ft. 6¾ in.); average
+draught of water, 1.4 meters (4 ft. 7 in.); space between
+the ships, 6.55 meters (21 ft. 6 in.) The iron structure
+connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form
+stanchions on both ships, connected at the top by
+two strong box girders with tie pieces supporting the
+main framing. This main framing, also of the "box
+girder" form, is strengthened with angle irons and
+braced together at the tops by a platform supporting
+the gearing of the bucket chains, as shown on Fig. 5.
+The buckets have a capacity of 160 liters (5.65 cubic
+feet) and the speed in travel is at the rate of 25 to 30
+buckets per minute, so that with both ladders working,
+50 to 60 buckets are discharged per minute. The
+top tumbler shaft is placed at a height of 13 meters
+(42 ft. 8 in.) above the water line (Fig. 4), and the
+dredge conduit has a length of 50 meters (164 ft.), Fig.
+1. The shooting is done at a height of 8.5 meters (27 ft.
+10 in.) above the water line, and the shoot catches the
+dredged products at a height of 10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.)
+above the water line, the sliding gradient being 4 to
+100. The dredge conduit is carried by timberwork
+resting on two of the upright box form stanchions.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig7-9.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig7-9.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 7,8,9." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 7,8,9.</p>
+
+<p>All cables are of galvanized steel and provided with
+open twin buckles. The main parts of the apparatus
+are of steel, and all pieces subject to wear and tear
+are fitted with bushes so formed that they can be easily
+replaced.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-elev.png">
+<img src="images/05-elev.jpg" alt="IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus
+amounts to 350 cubic meters (12,360 square feet)
+per hour. Four plants of similar construction have
+been built for the new Baltic Sea Canal, besides a fixed
+elevator of the same power and disposition, with the
+exception that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at
+a height of 16.1 meters (51 ft. 10 in.) above the water
+line, and the dredge conduit placed at a distance of 13
+meters (43 ft.) from it.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="mech1"></a><h2>IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.</h2>
+
+<p><a href="./images/05-saw.png">
+<img src="images/05-saw.jpg" align="right" alt="IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW." title="">
+</a>The engraving given herewith shows a general view
+of the "Demon" cold saw, designed for cutting iron,
+mild steel, or other metals of fairly large sections, that
+is, up square or round, and any rectangular section up
+to 8 in. by 4 in. The maker, Mr. R.G. Fiege, of London,
+claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw,
+at once powerful, simple and effective. It is always in
+readiness for work, can be worked by inexperienced
+workmen. The bed plate has T slots, to receive a parallel
+vise, which can be fixed at any angle for angular
+cutting. The articulated lever carries a saw of 10 in.
+or 12 in. diameter, on the spindle of which a bronze
+pinion is fixed, gearing with the worm shown. The
+latter derives motion from a pair of bevel wheels,
+which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in
+the engraving. The lever and the saw connected with
+it can be raised and held up by a pawl while the work
+is being fixed. In small work the weight of the lever
+itself is found sufficient to feed the saw, but in heavier
+work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the
+end of the lever. The machine is fitted with fast and
+loose pulleys, strap fork and bar. We are informed
+that one of these machines is capable of making 400
+cuts through bars of Bessemer steel 4 in. diameter,
+each cutting occupying six minutes on an average,
+without changing the saw.&mdash;<i>Industries</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="civ1"></a><h2>A RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The railway system of the Argentine Republic is
+separated from the Chilian system by the chain of the
+Andes. The English contractors, Messrs. Clark &amp; Co.,
+have undertaken to connect them by a line which
+starts from Mendoza, the terminus of the Argentine
+system, and ends at Santa Rosa in Chili, with a total
+length of 144 miles. The distance from Buenos Ayres
+to Valparaiso will thus be reduced to 816 miles. The
+Argentine lines are of 5.4 foot gauge, and those of Chili
+of 4.6 foot.</p>
+
+<p>The line in course of construction traverses an extremely
+hilly region. The starting and terminal points
+are at the levels of 2,338 feet (Mendoza) and 2,706 feet
+(Santa Rosa) above the sea; the lowest neck of the
+chain is at the level of 11,287 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Study having shown that a direction line without
+tunnels, and even with the steepest gradients for traction
+by adhesion, would lead to a considerable lengthening
+of the line, and would expose it to avalanches
+and to obstructions by snow, there was adopted upon
+a certain length a rack track of the Abt system, with
+gradients of 8 per cent., and the neck is traversed by a
+tunnel 3 miles in length and 1,968 feet beneath the surface.
+The number and length of the tunnels upon the
+two declivities, moreover, are considerable. They are
+all provided with rack tracks. The first 80 miles, starting
+from Mendoza, are exploited by adhesion, with
+maximum gradients of 2½ per cent. Upon the remaining
+64 miles, traction can be effected either by adhesion
+or racks.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-fig1.png"><img src="images/05-fig1.jpg" alt="FIG. 1.&mdash;REGION TRAVERSED BY THE
+RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES." title=""></a><br clear="all" />FIG. 1.&mdash;REGION TRAVERSED BY THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.</p>
+
+<p>The track is of 3.28 foot gauge, and this will necessitate
+trans-shipments upon the two systems. The rails
+weigh 19 pounds to the running foot in the parts where
+the exploitation can be effected either through adhesion
+or racks, and 17 pounds in those in which adhesion
+alone will be employed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-fig2.png"><img src="images/05-fig2.jpg" alt="FIG. 2.&mdash;DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY
+THROUGH THE ANDES." title=""></a><br clear="all" />FIG. 2.&mdash;DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.
+</p>
+
+<p>The special locomotives for use on the rack sections
+will weigh 45 tons in service and will haul 70 ton trains
+over gradients of 8 percent. Those that are to be employed
+upon the parts where traction will be by adhesion
+will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels, three
+of them coupled. The weight distributed over these
+latter will be 28 tons. These engines will haul 140 ton
+trains over gradients of 2 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>The earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the
+length, and the track has been laid for a length of 58
+miles from Mendoza. It is hoped that it will be possible
+to open the line to traffic as far as to the summit
+tunnels in 1891, and to finish the tunnels in 1893. These
+tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock.
+To this effect, it is intended to use drills actuated by
+electricity through dynamos driven by waterfalls.
+The Ferroux system seems preferable to the Brandt
+and other hydraulic systems, seeing the danger of the
+water being frozen in the conduits placed outside of
+the tunnels.&mdash;<i>Le Genie Civil</i>.
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="nav1"></a><h2>THE EMPRESS OF INDIA.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/06-empress.png">
+<img src="images/06-empress.jpg" alt="THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA.</p>
+
+<p>The Empress of India is intended to be the pioneer
+of three fast mail steamers, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding
+Company for service in connection with the
+Canadian Pacific Railway, between Vancouver and the
+ports of China and Japan, thus forming the last link
+in the new route to the East through British territory.
+Her sister ships, the Empress of China and Empress of
+Japan, are to be ready in April next. These three
+ships all fulfill the requirements of the Board of Trade
+and of the Admiralty and Lloyd's, and are classed as
+100 A1. They will also be placed on the list of British
+armed cruisers for service as commerce protectors in
+time of war. For this service each vessel is to be thoroughly
+fitted. There are two platforms forward and
+two aft, for mounting 7 in. Armstrong guns. These
+weapons, in the case of the Empress of India, are
+already awaiting the vessel at Vancouver. The Empress
+of India is painted white all over, has three pole
+masts to carry fore and aft sails. She has two buff-colored
+funnels and a clipper stern, and in external
+build much resembles the City of Rome. Her length
+over all is 485 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth, 36 feet; and
+gross tonnage, 5,920 tons. The hull, of steel, is divided
+into fifteen compartments by bulkheads, and has a cellular
+double bottom 4 feet in depth and 7 feet below
+the engine room. There are four complete decks. The
+ship is designed to carry 200 saloon passengers, 60 second
+cabin, and 500 steerage&mdash;these last chiefly Chinese
+coolies, for whose special delectation an "opium room"
+has been provided on board.&mdash;<i>Daily Graphic</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="civ2"></a><h2>CHICAGO AS A SEAPORT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The prairie land in the southwest corner of Lake
+Michigan, which, seventy years ago, was half morass
+from the overflowing of the sluggish creek, whose waters,
+during flood, spread over the low-lying, level
+plain, or were supplemented in the dry season by the
+inflow from the lake, showed no sign of any future
+development and prosperity. The few streets of wooden
+houses that had been built by their handful of isolated
+inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect
+and desertion than to increase, and ultimately to
+be swept away by fire, to make room for the extravagant
+and gigantic buildings that to-day characterize
+American civilization and commercial prosperity.
+Nearly 1,000 miles from the Atlantic, a greater distance
+from the Gulf of Mexico, and 2,000 miles from the Pacific,
+no wilder dream could have been imagined fifty
+years ago than that Chicago should become a seaport,
+the volume of whose business should be second only to
+that of New York; that forty miles of wharves and
+docks lining the branches of the river should be insufficient
+for the wants of her commerce, and that none of
+the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply
+the demand.</p>
+
+<p>Yet this is the situation to-day, the difficulties of
+which must increase many fold as years pass and business
+grows, unless some changes are made by which
+increased accommodation can be obtained. The nature
+of these changes has long engrossed the attention of
+the municipality and their engineers, and necessity is
+forcing them from discussion to action. As such action
+is likely to be taken soon, the subject is of sufficient
+interest to the English reader to devote some space to
+its consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The most important problem, however, which the
+works to be undertaken&mdash;and which must of necessity
+be soon commenced&mdash;will have to solve, is not one of
+wharf accommodation or of increased facilities of commerce.
+It is the better disposal of the sewage of the
+city, the system in use at present being inadequate,
+and growing more and more imperfect as the city and
+its population increase. During the early days of
+Chicago, and indeed long after, the sewage question
+was treated with primitive simplicity, and with a complete
+disregard of sanitary laws.</p>
+
+<p>The river and the lake in front of the city were close
+at hand and convenient to receive all the discharge
+from the drains that flowed into them. But this condition
+of things had to come to an end, for the lake
+supplied the population with water, and it became too
+contaminated for use. To obtain even this temporary
+relief involved much of the ground level of the city
+being raised to a height of 14 ft. above low water, a
+great undertaking carried out a number of years ago.
+To obtain an adequate supply of pure water, Mr. E.S.
+Chesborough, the city engineer, adopted the ingenious
+plan of driving a long tunnel beneath the bed of the
+lake, connected at the outer end to an inlet tower built
+in the water, and on shore to pumping engines. This
+
+plan proved so successful that it is now being repeated
+on a larger scale, and with a much longer tunnel, to
+meet the increased demands of the large population.</p>
+
+<p>But to improve the sanitary condition of the city has
+been a much more difficult undertaking, as may be
+gathered from the following extract from an official
+report: "The present sanitary condition calls loudly
+for relief. The pollution of the Desplaines and the Illinois
+Rivers extends 81 miles, as far as the mouth of the
+Fox (see plan, Fig. 1) in summer low water, and occasionally
+to Peoria (158 miles) in winter. Outside of the
+direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable.
+The spewing of the harbor contents into the lake, the
+sewers constantly discharging therein, clouds the source
+of water supply (the lake) with contamination. Relief
+to Chicago and equity to her neighbors is a necessity
+of the early future." To make this quotation clear it
+is necessary to explain the actual condition of the
+Chicago sewage question.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the present metropolis had arrived at
+the title and dignity of a city, the advantage to be derived
+from a waterway between Lake Michigan and the
+Illinois River, and thence to the Mississippi, was well
+understood. The scheme was, in fact, considered of
+sufficient importance to call for legislation as early as
+1822, in which year an act was passed authorizing the
+construction of a canal having this object. It was not
+commenced, however, till 1836, and was opened to navigation
+in the spring of 1848. This canal extended from
+Chicago to La Salle, a distance of 97¼ miles, and it had
+a fall of 146 ft. to low water in the Illinois River (see
+Fig. 1). It was only a small affair, 6 ft. deep, and 60 ft.
+wide on the surface; the locks were 110 ft. long and 18
+ft. wide. The summit level, which was only 8 ft. above
+the lake, was 21 miles in length. This limited waterway
+remained in use for a number of years, until, in
+fact, the growth of Chicago rendered it impossible to
+allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake. In
+1865 the State of Illinois sanctioned widening and lowering
+the canal so that it should flow by gravity from
+Lake Michigan. The enlargement was completed in
+1871, by the city of Chicago, and the sewage was then
+discharged toward the Illinois River. But the flow
+was insufficient, and in 1881 the State called on the city
+to supplement the flow by pumping water into the
+canal.</p>
+
+<p><a href="./images/06-fig1.png">
+<img src="images/06-fig1.jpg" align="right" alt="FIG. 1" title="">
+</a>
+In 1884, engines delivering 60,000 gallons a minute
+were set to work and remedied the evil for a time, so
+far as the city of Chicago was concerned, but the large
+discharge of sewage through the sluggish current of
+the canal and into the Illinois River proved a serious
+and ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the
+adjoining districts. To enlarge the existing canal, increase
+the volume and speed of its discharge, and to
+alter the levels, so that there shall be a relatively rapid
+stream flowing at all times from Lake Michigan, appears
+the only practical means of affording relief to
+the city, and immunity to other towns and villages lying
+along the route of the stream.</p>
+
+<p>The physical nature of the country is well suited for
+carrying out such a project on a scale far larger than
+that required for sewage purposes, and works thus carried
+out would, to a small extent, restore the old water
+<i>regime</i> in this part of the continent. Before the vast
+surface changes produced during the last glacial period,
+three of the great lakes&mdash;Michigan, Huron and
+Superior&mdash;discharged their waters southward into the
+Gulf of Mexico by a broad river. The accumulation of
+glacial debris changed all this; the southern outlet
+was cut off, and a new one to the north was opened
+near where Detroit stands, making a channel to Lake
+Erie, which then became the outlet for the whole chain
+by way of Niagara. A very slight change in levels
+would serve to restore the present <i>regime</i>. Around
+Lake Michigan the land has been slightly raised, the
+summit above mean water level being only about 8 ft.
+Thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is
+again reached at a point near Lockport (see Fig. 2);
+the fall then becomes more marked. At Lake Joliet, 10
+miles further, the fall is 77 ft.; and at La Salle, 100
+miles from Chicago, the total fall reaches 146 feet. At
+La Salle the Illinois River is met, and this stream, after
+a course of 225 miles, enters the Missouri. In the whole
+distance the Illinois River has a fall of 29 ft. "It has
+a sluggish current; an oozy bed and bars, formed
+chiefly by tributaries, with natural depths of 2 ft.
+to 4 ft.; banks half way to high waters, and low bottoms,
+one to six miles wide, bounded by terraces, overflowed
+during high water from 4 ft. to 12 ft. deep, and
+intersected in dry seasons by lake, bayou, lagoon, and
+marsh, the wreck of a mighty past."</p>
+
+<p>The rectification of the Illinois and the construction
+of a large canal from La Salle to Lake Michigan are,
+therefore, all that is necessary to open a waterway
+to the Gulf of Mexico, and to make Chicago doubly a
+port; on the one hand, for the enormous lake traffic
+now existing; on the other, for the trade that would
+be created in both directions, northward to Lake
+Michigan, and southward to the Gulf.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied
+the attention of the United States government.
+A bill in 1882 authorized surveys for "a canal from a
+point on the Illinois River, at or near the town of Hennepin,
+by the most practical route to the Mississippi
+River ... and a survey of the Illinois and Michigan
+Canal connecting the Illinois River with Chicago,
+and estimates from its enlargements." This scheme
+only contemplated navigation for boats up to 600
+tons. In 1885 the Citizens' Association, of Chicago
+caused a report to be made for an extended plan. The
+name of Mr. L.E. Cooly, at that time municipal sanitary
+engineer, was closely associated with this report,
+as it is at the present time for the agitation for carrying
+out the works. This report recommended that
+"an ample channel be created from Chicago to the
+Illinois River, sufficient to carry away in a diluted
+state the sewage of a large population. That this
+channel may be enlarged by the State or national
+government to any requirement of navigation or water
+supply for the whole river, creating incidentally a
+great water power in the Desplaines valley." Following
+this report and that of a Drainage and Water Supply
+Commission, a bill was introduced into Congress supporting
+the recommendations that had been made, and
+providing the financial machinery for carrying it into
+execution. Since that date much discussion has taken
+place, and some little action; meanwhile the sanitary
+requirements of the city are growing more urgent, and
+the pressure created from this cause will enforce some
+decision before long. Whether the new waterway is to
+be practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains
+yet to be seen, but it is tolerably certain that its dimensions
+and volume of water must approximate to
+the latter, if the large populations of other towns are
+to be satisfied. In fact the actual necessities are so
+great as regards sectional area of canal and flow of
+water&mdash;at least 600,000 ft. a minute&mdash;that comparatively
+small extra outlay would be needed to complete the
+ship canal.</p>
+
+<p><a href="./images/06-fig2.png"><img src="images/06-fig2.jpg" align="left" alt="FIG. 2" title="">
+</a>The attention of engineers in Chicago, as well as of
+the United States government, is consequently closely
+directed at the present time to such a solution of the
+problem as shall secure to Chicago such a waterway
+as will dispose of the sewage question for very many
+years to come; that shall relieve the inhabitants on
+the line of the canal from all nuisances arising from
+the sewage disposal, and shall provide a navigable
+channel for vessels of deep draught. The maps, Figs.
+1 and 2, give an idea of the most favored scheme&mdash;that
+of Mr. Cooley.</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen, the canal commencing near the
+mouth of the Chicago River passes through a cut in
+the low ridge forming the summit level; then it
+runs to Lake Joliet, and through the valleys of
+the Desplaines and Illinois Rivers, to the Mississippi
+at Grafton, a distance of 325 miles. The elevations
+and distances of the principal points are as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Elevations">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" >Miles from Lake Michigan.</td><td align="center" >Low Water Level below Chicago Datum.</td><td align="center" >High Water above Low Water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">ft.</td><td align="center">ft.</td>
+<tr><td align="left">Lake Michigan</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">4.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lake Joliet</td><td align="right">40</td><td align="right">77</td><td align="right">5 to 6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kankakee River</td><td align="right">51.30</td><td align="right">93.70</td><td align="right">18 to 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morris</td><td align="right">61</td><td align="right">100.3</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Marseilles</td><td align="right">77</td><td align="right">102.8</td><td align="right">4 to 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ottawa</td><td align="right">84.5</td><td align="right">132.1</td><td align="right">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">La Salle</td><td align="right">100.3</td><td align="right">146.6</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hennepin</td><td align="right">115.8</td><td align="right">148.7</td><td align="right">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peoria</td><td align="right">161.4</td><td align="right">151.3</td><td align="right">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mouth of the Illinois</td><td align="right">325</td><td align="right">172.4</td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The project in contemplation provides that the depth
+of the canal as far as Lake Joliet (which is about six
+miles long) shall be not less than 22 ft., and on to La
+Salle not less than 14 ft. at first, with facilities to increase
+it to 22 ft. Beyond La Salle to the mouth of
+the Illinois, dredging and flushing by the large
+volume of water pouring in from Lake Michigan
+would make and maintain ultimately a similar depth.</p>
+
+<p>As it appears recognized that the sewage channel
+of Chicago must be 15 ft. deep, and as provision is
+now being made all over the great lake system for
+vessels drawing 20 ft. of water, a comparatively small
+additional outlay would provide for a channel available
+for the largest lake vessels. It is claimed that
+by the co-operation of the Chicago municipality and
+the general government&mdash;the latter to advance a sum
+of not less than $50,000,000&mdash;a ship (and sanitary) canal
+22 ft. deep could be made from the lake to Joliet, extended
+thence to Utica, 20 ft. deep, and from there to
+the Mississippi, 14 ft. deep.</p>
+
+<p>That such a work would vastly enhance the commerce,
+not only of Chicago, but of the whole section
+of the country through which the canal would pass,
+admits of but little doubt, and probably the outlay
+would be justified by results similar to those
+achieved with other great canal works and rectified
+rivers in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The following figures, showing the tonnage carried
+in 1888-89, give some idea of the volumes of water-borne
+traffic in America:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" summary="Water Traffic">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">Tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Detroit River</td><td align='right'>19,099,060</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Erie Canal</td><td align='right'>5,370,369</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sault Ste. Marie</td><td align='right'>7,516,022</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Welland Canal</td><td align='right'>828,271</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">St. Lawrence Canal</td><td align='right'>1,500,096</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mississippi to New Orleans</td><td align='right'>3,177,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mississippi below St. Louis</td><td align='right'>845,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ohio</td><td align='right'>2,236,917</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicago Canal and lake</td><td align='right'>11,029,575</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Except on the Mississippi, it may be reckoned that
+navigation is closed by ice during five months a year.
+It may be mentioned, by way of comparison, that the
+traffic on the Suez Canal during the year 1888-89 was
+6,640,834 tons.</p>
+
+<p>One very interesting point in connection with this
+work is the effect that the diversion of so large a body
+of water from the lakes will have upon their <i>regime</i>.
+At least 10,000 cubic feet a second would be taken from
+Lake Michigan and find its way into the Mississippi;
+this is approximately 4½ per cent. of the total amount
+that now passes through the St. Clair River and thence
+over Niagara.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives some particulars of the
+great lakes and the discharge from them:</p>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Great Lakes">
+<tr><td colspan=4> </td><td align="center" colspan=3>Cubic Feet per Second</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Lake.</td><td align="center">Elevation above Mean Tide.</td><td align="center">Area of Basin, Square Miles.</td>
+<td align="center">Area of Lake, Square Miles.</td><td align="center">Rainfall.</td><td>Evaporation</td><td>Discharge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Superior</td><td align='right'>601.78</td><td align='right'>90,505</td><td align='right'>38,875</td><td align='right'>187,386</td><td align='right'>34,495</td><td align='right'>80,870</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Huron and Mich.</td><td align='right'>581.28</td><td align='right'>121,941</td><td align='right'>50,400</td><td align='right'>262,964</td><td align='right'>66,754</td><td align="right">216,435</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Erie</td><td align='right'>572.86</td><td align='right'>40,298</td><td align='right'>10,000</td><td align='right'>96,654</td><td align='right'>13,870</td><td align="right">235,578</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ontario</td><td align='right'>246.61</td><td align='right'>31,558</td><td align='right'>7,220</td><td align='right'>75,692</td><td align='right'>10,568</td><td align="right">272,095</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The average variation in level of the lakes is from 18
+in. to 24 in. during the year, and the range in evaporation
+from year to year is also very considerable; thus
+the evaporation per second on Huron and Michigan,
+as given in the table above, is nearly 67,000 ft.,
+but the figures for another year show nearly 89,000
+ft. per second, which would represent a difference of
+6½ in. in water level. As a discharge of 10,000 cubic
+feet a second into the new canal would lower the level
+of these two lakes by 2.87 in. in a year, it follows that
+the difference between a year of maximum and one of
+minimum evaporation is more than twice as great as
+would be required for the canal, and even under the
+most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from
+the whole chain of lakes would not lower them an
+inch.</p>
+
+<p>When the variations in level due to different causes&mdash;rain,
+wind, and evaporation being the chief&mdash;are
+taken into consideration, the effect of 10,000 cubic feet
+a second abstracted would probably not be noticeable.
+
+That this would be so is the opinion, after careful investigation,
+of many eminent American engineers. On
+the other hand there is a similar unanimity of opinion
+as to the advantages that would be obtained in the condition
+of the Mississippi by adding to it a tributary of
+such importance as the proposed canal.&mdash;<i>Engineering</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="bio1"></a><h2>N.F. BURNHAM AND HIS LIFE WORK.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W.H. BURNHAM.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The inventor and patentee of all water wheels
+known as the Burham turbine died from Bright's disease
+of the kidneys at his home, York, Pa., Dec. 22,
+1890, aged 68 years 9 months and 9 days. He was born
+in the city of New York, March 13, 1822, and was of
+English-Irish and French descent. His father was a
+millwright and with him worked at the trade in
+Orange county, N.Y., until he was 16 years old. He
+then commenced learning the watchmakers' business,
+which he was obliged to relinquish, after three years,
+on account of his health. He then went to Laurel,
+Md., in 1844, and engaged with Patuxent &amp; Co. as mercantile
+clerk and bookkeeper. In 1856 he commenced
+the manufacture of the French turbine water wheel.
+In 1879 he sold out his Laurel interests, went to New
+York and commenced manufacturing his own patents.
+On May 22, 1883, he founded the Drovers' and
+Mechanics' National Bank of York, and was elected its
+first president, which position he held at the time of
+his death. In 1881, with others, he built the York
+opera house, at a cost of $40,000. He was a Knight
+Templar, and past master of the I.O.O.F., and past
+sachem of Red Men.</p>
+
+<a href="./images/07-burnham.png"><img src="images/07-burnham.jpg" align="right" alt="N.F. BURNHAM." title="">
+</a>
+
+<p>He was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living,
+having been actually engaged in the manufacture
+of turbines since 1856. He first made and sold the
+French Jonval turbine, which was then the best
+turbine made, but being complicated in construction,
+it soon wore out and leaked. From the experience he
+had from this wheel he invented and patented Feb. 22,
+1859, his improved Jonval turbine, which was very
+simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage
+of power than the French Jonval turbines. Hundreds
+of these improved wheels, which were put in operation
+between the years 1859 and 1868, are still in
+use. (We show no cut of this wheel, but it had
+four chutes instead of six, as shown in March 24, 1863,
+patent.)</p>
+
+<p>The first wheel (72 inch) made after the patent was
+granted was sold to Brightwell &amp; Davis, Farmville,
+Va., and put into their flour mill under six feet head.
+In 1870, Brightwell &amp; Davis sold their mill to Scott &amp;
+Davis. Afterward G.W. Davis owned and operated the
+mill and put in one 1858 patent "New Turbine." In
+1889 the Farmville Mill Company bought and remodeled
+the mill to roller process and required more power
+than the old 1856 Jonval turbine and 1868 "New
+Turbine" would yield, and on Aug. 30, 1889, sold the
+Farmville Mill Company two 54 inch new improved
+Standard turbines to displace the two old wheels. In
+1860 he commenced experimenting with different
+forms of buckets and chutes, and used six chutes instead
+of four as first made, and was granted patent
+March 24, 1863.</p>
+
+<p>This addition of chutes proved beneficial, as the
+wheel worked better with the gates partly opened
+than it did with four chutes. His next invention was
+granted him Dec. 24, 1867, which he called Burnham's
+improved central and vertical discharge turbine.</p>
+
+<p>This improvement consisted in making the guide
+blade straight on the outside (instead of rounding, as
+then made by all others), from inner point back to
+bolt or gudgeon, and thick enough at the latter point
+to let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt
+and the arrangement for shifting the water guides.
+Two 42-inch wheels of this pattern were built and put
+into operation, but they soon commenced leaking
+water and became troublesome on account of the
+many small pieces of castings and bolts, and were
+abandoned as worthless. There are several manufacturers
+of this style of wheel that advertise them as
+"simple and durable." Such a complicated case with
+twelve chutes cannot be made to operate unless by a
+large number of castings, bolts and studs. With these
+adjustable water guides, one of the objects was obtained.
+
+Admitting the water to the wheel through chutes
+corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets
+exposed, but not placing the water against the face of
+the buckets at right angles with the center of the
+wheel, except when the guide blades were full opened,
+for as the guides are changed so is the current of the
+water likewise changed.</p>
+
+<p>After making several differently constructed wheels
+and testing them a number of times, he selected the
+best one and obtained a patent for it March 3, 1868,
+and called it "new turbine," which he still further improved
+and patented May 9, 1871. This "new turbine"
+consisted of the former improved Jonval wheel, hub
+and buckets, with a new circular case and new form of
+chutes, having a register gate entirely surrounding
+the case and having apertures corresponding to those
+in the case for admitting water to the wheel. This
+register gate was moved by means of a segment and
+pinion.</p>
+
+<p>This "new turbine" soon gained for itself a reputation
+enjoyed by no other water wheel. It was selected
+by the United States Patent Office, and put at work
+in room 189, to run a pump which forces water to the
+top of the building. It was likewise selected by the
+Japan commission when they were in this country to
+select samples of our best machines. He continued
+making the 1868 patent and improved in 1871 "new
+turbine" but a few years, for as long as he could detect
+a defect in the wheel, case or gate, he continued
+improving and simplifying them, and in 1873 he erected
+a very complete testing flume, also made a very
+sensitive dynamometer, it having a combination screw
+for tightening the friction band, which required 100
+turns to make one inch, and commenced making and
+experimenting with different constructed turbines. He
+made five different wheels and made over a hundred
+tests before he was satisfied. Application was then
+made for a patent, which was granted March 31, 1874,
+for his "Standard turbine."</p>
+
+<p>This "Standard turbine" was a combination of his
+former improvements, with the cover extending over
+top of the gate to prevent it from tilting, and an eccentric
+wheel working in cam yoke to open and close
+the gate.</p>
+
+<p>Thousands of Standard turbines are to-day working
+and giving the best satisfaction, and we venture to
+say that not one of the Standard turbines has been
+displaced by any other make of turbine, which gave
+better results for the water used. In 1881 he again
+commenced experimenting to find out how much water
+could be put through a wheel of given diameter. After
+making and testing several wheels it was found that
+the amount of water with full gate drawn named in
+tables found in Burnham Bros.' latest catalogue for
+each size wheel yielded 84 per cent. and that the water
+used with 7/8 gate drawn yielded the same percentage
+(84), or with ¾ gate 82 per cent., 5/8 gate 79, and ½ gate
+75 per cent. A patent for the mechanism was applied
+for and granted March 27, 1883, and named Burnham's
+Improved Standard Turbine.</p>
+
+<p>It was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached,
+to prevent the gate from rising and tilting and
+rubbing the curb, soon wore and allowed the gate to
+rub against the curb, and he experimented with
+several devices of gate arms. While so engaged he
+found that the great weight of water on the top of the
+cover sprang it, causing the sleeve bearing on the
+under side of the cover to be thrown out of place, and
+the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was
+almost impossible to move it, and after thoroughly
+testing with the different devices of gate arms, application
+was made and patent granted for adjustable gate
+arms, also for the new worm gate gearing May 1,
+1888, and named Burham's new improved standard
+turbine.</p>
+
+<p>This he improved and patented May 13, 1890, to run
+on horizontal shaft.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1872 he had two patents granted him for
+improvement in water wheels, but never had any
+wheels built of that pattern. After completing and
+patents granted for his new improved Standard turbine,
+he was perfectly satisfied, and often remarked, "I
+cannot improve on my register gate turbine any more,
+as it is as near perfection as can be made," and he was
+fully convinced, for the past year he was experimenting
+with a cylinder gate turbine, and patent was
+
+granted Oct. 21, 1890. Previously he had made a 24-inch
+wheel, which was tested Aug. 14, 1890, at Holyoke
+testing flume, and gave fair results, and at the time of
+his demise he was having made a new runner for the
+cylinder gate turbine, which we will complete and
+have tested. His idea was to have us manufacture and
+sell register and cylinder gate turbines. His inventive
+powers were not confined to water wheels, for on Feb.
+23, 1886, patents were granted him for automatic
+steam engine, governor and lubricating device. We
+also remember in the year 1873 or 1874, when his mind
+was occupied with his "Standard turbine," he was hindered
+by some device used now on locomotives of the
+present construction (what it was we are unable to say),
+but when draughting at his water wheel, would conflict
+the two, and by his invitation we wrote to a prominent
+locomotive builder and had him examine the
+drawings, which he had not fully completed, and sold
+same to him. Of this we only have a faint recollection,
+but do recollect his saying: "Well, that is off my
+mind now, and I can devote it to the finishing of my
+new wheel."&mdash;<i>American Miller</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="elec1"></a><h2>ALTERNATE CURRENT CONDENSERS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the Physical Society, London,
+Mr. James Swinburne read a paper on alternate current
+condensers. It is, he said, generally assumed that
+there is no difficulty in making commercial condensers
+for high pressure alternating currents. The first
+difficulty is insulation, for the dielectric must be very
+thin, else the volume of the condenser is too great.
+Some dielectrics 0.2 mm. thick can be made to stand
+up to 8,000 volts when in small pieces, but in complete
+condensers a much greater margin must be allowed.
+Another difficulty arises from absorption, and whenever
+this occurs, the apparent capacity is greater than the
+calculated. Supposing the fibers of paper in a paper
+condenser to be conductors embedded in insulating
+hydrocarbon, then every time the condenser is charged
+the fibers have their ends at different potentials, so a
+current passes to equalize them and energy is lost.
+This current increases the capacity. One condenser
+made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally
+large current and heated rapidly. At a high temperature
+it gave off water, and the power wasted and current
+taken gradually decreased.</p>
+
+<p>When a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils, it
+heats excessively; and the fall of potential over the
+air films separating the mica and foil is great enough
+to cause disruptive discharge to the surface of the
+mica. There appears to be a luminous layer of minute
+sparks under the foils, and there is a strong smell of
+ozone. In a dielectric which heats, there may be three
+kinds of conduction, viz., metallic, when an ordinary
+conductor is embedded in an insulator; disruptive, as
+probably occurs in the case of mica; and electrolytic,
+which might occur in glass. In a transparent dielectric
+the conduction must be either electrolytic or disruptive,
+otherwise light vibrations would be damped.
+The dielectric loss in a cable may be serious. Calculating
+from the waste in a condenser made of paper
+soaked in hot ozokerite, the loss in one of the Deptford
+mains came out 7,000 watts. Another effect observed
+at Deptford is a rise of pressure in the mains. There is
+as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what
+happens, and it is generally assumed that the effect
+depends on the relation of capacity to self-induction,
+and is a sort of resonator action. This would need a
+large self-induction, and a small change of speed would
+stop the effect. The following explanation is suggested.
+When a condenser is put on a dynamo, the condenser
+current leads relatively to the electromotive force, and
+therefore strengthens the field magnets and increases
+the pressure.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/08-fig1.png">
+<img src="images/08-fig1.jpg" alt="Condensor and dynamo" title=""></a>
+<br clear="all" />T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub> are large transformers; t<sub>1</sub> and t<sub>2</sub> are small
+transformers or voltmeters V<sub>1</sub> and V<sub>2</sub>. The numbers
+1, 4, 1, 25, represent their conversion ratios.
+</p>
+
+<p>In order to test this, the following experiment was
+made for the author by Mr. W.F. Bourne. A Gramme
+alternator was coupled to the low pressure coil of a
+transformer, and a hot wire voltmeter put across
+the primary circuit. On putting a condenser on the
+high pressure circuit, the voltmeter wire fused. The
+possibility of making an alternator excite itself like a
+series machine, by putting a condenser on it, was
+pointed out. Prof. Perry said it would seem possible to
+obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the
+magnets independently, the field being altogether due
+to the armature currents. Mr. Swinburne remarked
+that this could be done by making the rotating magnets
+a star-shaped mass of iron. Sir W. Thomson
+thought Mr. Swinburne's estimate of the loss in the
+Deptford mains was rather high. He himself had
+calculated the power spent in charging them, and
+found it to be about 16 horse power, and although a
+considerable fraction might be lost, it would not
+amount to nine-sixteenths. He was surprised to hear
+that glass condensers heated, and inquired whether
+this heating was due to flashes passing between the
+foil and the glass. Mr. A.P. Trotter said Mr. Ferranti
+informed him that the capacity of his mains was about
+1/3 microfarad per mile, thus making 2-1/3 microfarads for
+the seven miles. The heaping up of the potential
+only took place when transformers were used, and not
+when the dynamos were connected direct. In the
+former case the increase of volts was proportional to
+the length of main used, and 8,500 at Deptford gave
+10,000 at London.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Blakesley described a simple method of determining
+the loss of power in a condenser by the use of three
+electrodynamometers, one of which has its coils separate.
+Of these coils, one is put in the condenser circuit,
+and the other in series with a non-inductive resistance r,
+shutting the condenser. If a<sub>2</sub> be the reading of a dynamometer
+in the shunt circuit, and a<sub>3</sub> that of the divided
+dynamometer, the power lost is given by r (Ca<sub>3</sub>
+-Ba<sub>2</sub>) where B and C are the constants of the instruments
+on which a<sub>2</sub> and a<sub>3</sub> are the respective readings.
+
+Prof. S.P. Thompson asked if Mr. Swinburne had found
+any dielectric which had no absorption. So far as he
+was aware, pure quartz crystal was the only substance.
+Prof. Forbes said Dr. Hopkinson had found a glass
+which showed none. Sir William Thomson, referring
+to the same subject, said that many years ago he made
+some tests on glass bottles, which showed no appreciable
+absorption. Sulphuric acid was used for the coatings,
+and he found them to be completely discharged by an
+instantaneous contact of two balls. The duration of
+contact would, according to some remarkable mathematical
+work done by Hertz in 1882, be about 0.0004
+second, and even this short time sufficed to discharge
+them completely.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Leyden jars with tinfoil coatings
+showed considerable absorption, and this he thought
+due to want of close contact between the foil and the
+glass. To test this he suggested that mercury coatings
+be tried. Mr. Kapp considered the loss of power in
+condensers due to two causes: first, that due to the
+charge soaking in; and second, to imperfect elasticity
+of the dielectric. Speaking of the extraordinary rise
+of pressure on the Deptford mains, he said he had observed
+similar effects with other cables. In his experiments
+the sparking distance of a 14,000 volt transformer
+was increased from 3/16 of an inch to 1 inch by connecting
+the cables to its terminals. No difference was detected
+between the sparking distances at the two ends
+of the cable, nor was any rise of pressure observed when
+the cables were joined direct on the dynamo.</p>
+
+<p>In his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance,
+and would be a maximum for some particular
+frequency. Mr. Mordey mentioned a peculiar phenomenon
+observed in the manufacture of his alternators.
+Each coil, he said, was tested to double the pressure
+of the completed dynamo, but when they were
+all fitted together, their insulation broke down at the
+same volts. The difficulty had been overcome by making
+the separate coils to stand much higher pressures.
+Prof. Rucker called attention to the fact that dielectrics
+alter in volume under electric stress, and said that
+if the material was imperfectly elastic, some loss would
+result. The president said that, as some doubt existed
+as to what Mr. Ferranti had actually observed, he
+would illustrate the arrangements by a diagram.
+Speaking of condensers, he said he had recently tried
+lead plates in water to get large capacities, but so far
+had not been successful.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Swinburne, in replying, said he had not made a
+perfect condenser yet, for, although he had some which
+did not heat much, they made a great noise. He did
+not see how the rise of pressure observed by Mr. Ferranti
+and Mr. Kapp could be due to resonance.
+Mr. Kapp's experiment was not conclusive, for the
+length of spark is not an accurate measure of electromotive
+force. As regards Mr. Mordey's observation,
+he thought the action explicable on the theory
+of the leading condenser current acting on the field
+magnets. The same explanation is also applicable to
+the Deptford case, for when the dynamo is direct on,
+the condenser current is about 10 amperes, and this
+exerts only a small influence on the strongly magnetized
+magnets. When transformers are used, the field
+magnets are weak, while the condenser current rises to
+
+40 amperes. Mr. Blakesley's method of determining
+losses was, he said, inapplicable except where the currents
+were sine functions of the time; and consequently
+could not be used to determine loss due to hysteresis in
+iron, or in a transparent dielectric.&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="elec3"></a><h2>THE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION BETWEEN
+GREAT BRITAIN, EUROPE, AMERICA, AND THE EAST.</h2>
+
+<h3>By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.</h3>
+
+
+<p>There are at present twenty-six submarine cable
+companies, the combined capital of which is about
+forty million pounds sterling. Their revenue, including
+subsidies, amounts to 3,204,060£.; and their reserves
+and sinking funds to 3,610,000£.; and their dividends are
+from one to 14¾ per cent. The receipts from the Atlantic
+cables alone amount to about 800,000£. annually.</p>
+
+<p>The number of cables laid down throughout the
+world is 1,045, of which 798 belong to governments and
+247 to private companies. The total length of those
+cables is 120,070 nautical miles, of which 107,546 are
+owned by private telegraph companies, nearly all
+British; the remainder, or 12,524 miles, are owned by
+governments.</p>
+
+<p><a href="./images/08-map.png">
+<img src="images/08-map.jpg" align="right" alt="MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND THE CONTINENT." title="">
+</a>The largest telegraphic organization in the world is
+that of the Eastern Telegraphic Company, with seventy
+cables, of a total length of 21,859 nautical miles. The
+second largest is the Eastern Extension, Australasia
+and China Telegraph Company, with twenty-two
+cables, of a total length of 12,958 nautical miles. The
+Eastern Company work all the cables on the way to
+Bombay, and the Eastern Extension Company from
+Madras eastward. The cables landing in Japan, however,
+are owned by a Danish company, the Great
+Northern. The English station of the Eastern Company
+is at Porthcurno, Cornwall, and through it pass
+most of the messages for Spain, Portugal, Egypt,
+India, China, Japan, and Australia.</p>
+<br clear="right" /><div style="margin-left: 50%">
+MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND THE CONTINENT.</div>
+
+<p>The third largest cable company is the Anglo-American
+Telegraph Company, with thirteen cables, of a
+total length of 10,196 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The British government has one hundred and three
+cables around our shores, of a total length of 1,489
+miles. If we include India and the colonies, the
+British empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen
+cables of a total length of 3,811 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The longest government cable in British waters is
+that from Sinclair Bay, Wick, to Sandwick Bay, Shetland,
+of the length of 122 miles, and laid in 1885. The
+shortest being four cables across the Gloucester and
+Sharpness Canal, at the latter place, and each less than
+300 ft. in length.</p>
+
+<p>Of government cables the greatest number is owned
+by Norway, with two hundred and thirty-six, averaging,
+however, less than a mile each in length.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest mileage is owned by the government of
+France with 3,269 miles, of the total length of fifty-one
+cables.</p>
+
+<p>The next being British India with 1,714 miles, and
+eighty-nine cables; and Germany third with 1,570 miles
+and forty-three cables.</p>
+
+<p>Britain being fourth with ninety miles less.
+
+The oldest cable still in use is the one that was first
+laid, that namely from Dover to Calais. It dates from
+1851.</p>
+
+<p>The two next oldest cables in use being those respectively
+from Ramsgate to Ostend, and St. Petersburg to
+Cronstadt, and both laid down in 1853.</p>
+
+<p>Several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect
+England and Ireland by means of a cable between
+Holyhead and Howth; but communication between
+the two countries was finally effected in 1853, when a
+cable was successfully laid between Portpatrick and
+Donaghadee (31).</p>
+
+<p>As showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in
+comparatively shallow waters are exposed, we may relate
+the curious accident that befell the Portpatrick
+cable in 1873. During a severe storm in that year the
+Port Glasgow ship Marseilles capsized in the vicinity of
+Portpatrick, the anchor fell out and caught on to the
+telegraph cable, which, however, gave way. The ship
+was afterward captured and towed into Rothesay Bay,
+in an inverted position, by a Greenock tug, when part
+of the cable was found entangled about the anchor.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest private companies are the Indo-European
+Telegraph Company, with two cables in the
+Crimea, of a total length of fourteen and a half miles;
+and the River Plate Telegraph Company, with one
+cable from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, thirty-two
+miles long.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest government telegraph organization is
+that of New Caledonia, with its one solitary cable one
+mile long.</p>
+
+<p>We will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding
+the companies having cables from Europe to
+America.</p>
+
+<p>The most important company is the Anglo-American
+Telegraph Company, whose history is inseparably connected
+with that of the trials and struggles of the
+pioneers of cable laying.</p>
+
+<p>Its history begins in 1851 when Tebets, an American,
+and Gisborne, an English engineer, formed the Electric
+Telegraph Company of Newfoundland, and laid down
+twelve miles of cable between Cape Breton and Nova
+Scotia. This company was shortly afterward dissolved,
+and its property transferred to the Telegraphic Company
+of New York, Newfoundland and London,
+founded by Cyrus W. Field, and who in 1854 obtained
+an extension of the monopoly from the government to
+lay cables.</p>
+
+<p>A cable, eighty-five miles long, was laid between
+Cape Breton and Newfoundland (22).</p>
+
+<p>Field then came to England and floated an English
+company, which amalgamated with the American one
+under the title of the Atlantic Telegraph Company.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the laying of the Atlantic cables of 1857
+and 1865, their success and failures, has often been told,
+so we need not go into any details. It may be noted,
+however, that communication was first established
+between Valentia and Newfoundland on August 5.
+1858, but the cable ceased to transmit signals on September
+1, following.</p>
+
+<p>During that period, ninety-seven messages had been
+sent from Valentia, and two hundred and sixty-nine
+from Newfoundland. At the present time, the ten
+Atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages
+daily between the two continents. The losses attending
+
+the laying of the 1865 cable resulted in the
+financial ruin of the Atlantic company and its amalgamation
+with the Anglo-American. In 1866 the Great
+Eastern successfully laid the first cable for the new
+company, and with the assistance of other vessels succeeded
+in picking up the broken end of the 1865 cable
+and completing its connection with Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/09-map.png">
+<img src="images/09-map.jpg" alt="MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES" title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES FROM EUROPE AND THEIR CONNECTIONS WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.<br/>
+Reference to places&mdash;A, Heart's Content; B, Placentia; C, St. Peter Miquelon; D, North
+Sydney, Cape Breton Island; E, Louisbourg; F Canso, Nova Scotia; G, Halifax; H,
+Bird Rock; I, Madeline Isles; J, Anticosti; K, Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island;
+LLL, Banks of Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p>The three cables of this company presently in use
+and connecting Valentia in Ireland with Heart's Content
+in Newfoundland, were laid in 1873, 1874, and 1880;
+and (1) are respectively 1886, 1846, and 1890 nautical
+miles in length. This company also owns the longest
+cable in the world, that namely from Brest in France
+to St. Pierre Miquelon, one of a small group of islands
+off the south coast of Newfoundland and which, strange
+to say, still belongs to France (6).</p>
+
+<p>The length of this cable is 2,685 nautical miles, or
+3,092 statute miles. It was laid in 1869. There are
+seven cables of a total length of 1773 miles, connecting
+Heart's Content, Placentia Bay and St. Pierre, with
+North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and Duxbury, near Boston,
+belonging to the American company. Communication
+is maintained with Germany and the rest of the Continent
+by means of a cable from Valentia to Emden 846
+miles long (7); and a cable from Brest to Salcombe,
+Devon, connects the St. Pierre and Brest cable with
+the London office of the company (10).<a name="FNe3_anch_1"></a><a href="#FNe3_1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The station of the Direct United States Cable Company
+is situated at Ballinskelligs Bay, Ireland (2).
+Its cable was laid in 1874-5, and is 2,565 miles in length.
+The terminal point on the other side of the Atlantic
+is at Halifax, Nova Scotia, from whence the cable
+is continued to Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a distance
+of 536 miles, and thence by a land line of 500 miles to
+New York (17).</p>
+
+<p>The Commercial Cable Company's station in Ireland
+is at Waterville, a short distance from Ballinskelligs
+(3). It owns two cables laid in 1885; the northern
+cable being 2,350, and the southern 2,388 miles
+long. They terminate in America at Canso, Nova
+Scotia. From Canso a cable is laid to Rockfort,
+about thirty miles south of Boston, Mass., a distance
+of 518 miles (16), and another is laid to New York, 840
+miles in length (15). This company has direct communication
+with the Continent by means of a cable from
+Waterville to Havre of 510 miles (9), and with England
+by a cable to Weston-super-Mare, near Bristol, of 328
+miles (8).</p>
+
+<p>The Western Union Telegraph Company (the lessees
+of the lines of the American Telegraph and Cable Company)
+has two cables from Sennen Cove, Land's End,
+to Canso, Nova Scotia (4). The cable of 1881 is 2,531
+and that of 1882 is 2,576 miles in length. Two cables
+were laid November, 1889, between Canso and New
+York (14).</p>
+
+<p>The Compagnie Française du Telegraphe de Paris à
+New York has a cable from Brest to St. Pierre Miquelon
+of 2,242 miles in length (5), from thence a cable is
+laid to Louisbourg, Cape Breton (12), and another to
+
+Cape Cod (13). It has also a cable from Brest to Porcella
+Cove, Cornwall (11).</p>
+
+<p>Those ten cables owned by the six companies named,
+of the total milage of 22,959, not counting connections,
+represent the entire direct communication between the
+continents of Europe and North America.</p>
+
+<p>A new company, not included in the preceding statistics,
+proposes to lay a cable from Westport, Ireland,
+to some point in the Straits of Belle Isle on the Labrador
+coast (Map A32, Map B20).</p>
+
+<p>The station of the Eastern Telegraph Company is at
+Porthcurno Cove, Penzance, from whence it has two
+cables to Lisbon, one laid in 1880, 850 miles long, the
+other laid in 1887, 892 miles long (12), and one cable to
+Vigo, Spain, laid in 1873, 622 miles long (13). From Lisbon
+the cable is continued to Gibraltar and the East,
+whither we need not follow it, our intention being to
+confine ourselves entirely to a brief account of those
+cables communicating directly with Europe and
+America. As already stated, this company has altogether
+seventy cables, of a total length of nearly 22,000
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Direct Spanish Telegraph Company has a cable,
+laid in 1884, from Kennach Cove, Cornwall, to Bilbao,
+Spain, 486 miles in length (14).</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to shorter cables connecting Britain
+with the Continent, we have those of the Great Northern
+Telegraph Company, namely, Peterhead to Ekersund,
+Norway, 267 miles (15). Newbiggin, near Newcastle,
+to Arendal, Norway, 424 miles, and thence to Marstrand,
+Sweden, 98 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Two cables from the same place in England to Denmark
+(Hirstals and Sondervig) of 420 and 337 miles respectively
+(17 and 18).</p>
+
+<p>The great Northern Company has altogether twenty-two
+cables, of a total length of 6,110 miles. The line
+from Newcastle, is worked direct to Nylstud, in Russia&mdash;a
+distance of 890 miles&mdash;by means of a "relay" or
+"repeater," at Gothenburg. The relay is the apparatus
+at which the Newcastle current terminates,
+but in ending there it itself starts a fresh current on
+to Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The other continental connections belong to the
+government, and are as follows: two cables to Germany,
+Lowestoft to Norderney, 232 miles, and to
+Emden, 226 miles (19 and 20).</p>
+
+<p>Two cables to Holland: Lowestoft to Zandvoort,
+laid in 1858 (21), and from Benacre, Kessingland, to
+Zandvoort (22).</p>
+
+<p>Two cables to Belgium: Ramsgate to Ostend (23),
+and Dover to Furness (24).</p>
+
+<p>Four cables to France: Dover to Calais, laid in 1851
+(25), and to Boulogne (26), laid in 1859; Beachy Head to
+Dieppe (27), and to Havre (28).</p>
+
+<p>There is a cable from the Dorset coast to Alderney
+and Guernsey, and from the Devon coast to Guernsey,
+Jersey, and Coutances, France (29 and 30).</p>
+
+<p>A word now as to the instruments used for the transmission
+of messages. Those for cables are of two kinds,
+the mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder,
+both the product of Sir Wm. Thomson's great inventive
+genius.</p>
+
+<p>When the Calais-Dover and other short cables were
+first worked, it was found that the ordinary needle instrument
+in use on land lines was not sufficiently sensitive
+to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary current
+it was possible to send through a cable. Either
+the current must be increased in strength or the instruments
+used must be more sensitive. The latter
+alternative was chosen, and the mirror galvanometer
+was the result.</p>
+
+<p>The principle on which this instrument works may
+be briefly described thus: the transmitted current of
+electricity causes the deflection of a small magnet, to
+which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, a beam of light is reflected from
+a properly arranged lamp, by the mirror, on to a paper
+scale. The dots and dashes of the Morse code are indicated
+by the motions of the spot of light to the right
+and left respectively of the center of the scale.</p>
+
+<p>The mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely
+superseded by the siphon recorder. This is a somewhat
+complicated apparatus, with the details of which
+we need not trouble our readers. Suffice it for us to
+explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate
+its motions, by means of fine silk fibers, to a very fine
+glass siphon, one end of which dips into an insulated
+metallic vessel containing ink, while the other extremity
+rests, when no current is passing, just over the center
+of a paper ribbon. When the instrument is in use
+the ink is driven out of the siphon in small drops by
+means of an electrical arrangement, and the ribbon underneath
+is at the same time caused to pass underneath
+its point by means of clockwork.</p>
+
+<p>If a current be now sent through the line, the siphon
+will move above or below the central line, thus giving
+a permanent record of the message, which the mirror
+instrument does not. The waves written by the siphon
+above the central line corresponding to the dots of the
+Morse code, and the waves underneath corresponding
+to the dashes.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies
+from one shilling per word, the rate to New York and
+east of the Mississippi, to ten shillings and seven pence
+per word, the rate to New Zealand. In order to minimize
+that cost as much as possible, the use of codes,
+whereby one word is made to do duty for a lengthy
+phrase, is much resorted to. Of course those code
+messages form a series of words having no apparent
+relation to each other, but occasionally queer sentences
+result from the chance grouping of the code words.
+Thus a certain tea firm was once astonished to receive
+from its agent abroad the startling code message&mdash;"Unboiled
+babies detested"!</p>
+
+<p>Suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams
+in their travels over the world.</p>
+
+<p>A message to India from London by the cable route
+requires to be transmitted eight times at the following
+places: Porthcurno (Cornwall), Lisbon, Gibraltar,
+Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay.</p>
+
+<p>A message to Australia has thirteen stoppages; the
+route taken beyond Bombay being via Madras, Penang,
+Singapore, Banjoewangie and Port Darwin (North
+Australia); or from Banjoewangie to Roebuck Bay
+(Western Australia).</p>
+
+<p>To India by the Indo-European land lines, messages
+go through Emden, Warsaw, Odessa, Kertch, Tiflis,
+Teheran, Bushire (Persian Gulf), Jask and Kurrachee,
+but only stop twice between London and Teheran&mdash;namely,
+at Emden and Odessa.
+
+Messages from London to New York are transmitted
+only twice&mdash;at the Irish or Cornwall stations, and at
+the stations in Canada. Owing to the great competition
+for the American traffic, the service between London,
+Liverpool, and Glasgow and New York is said to
+be much superior to that between any two towns in
+Britain. The cables are extensively used by stock
+brokers, and it is a common occurrence for one to send
+a message and receive a reply within five minutes.</p>
+
+<p>During breakages in cables messages have sometimes
+to take very circuitous routes. For instance, during
+the two days, three years ago, that a tremendous storm
+committed such havoc among the telegraph wires
+around London, cutting off all communication with
+the lines connected with the Channel cables at Dover,
+Lowestoft, etc., it was of common occurrence for London
+merchants to communicate with Paris through
+New York. The cablegram leaving London going
+north to Holyhead and Ireland, across the Atlantic to
+New York and back <i>via</i> St. Pierre to Brest and thence
+on to Paris, a total distance of about seven thousand
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>Three years ago, when the great blizzard cut off all
+communication between New York and Boston, messages
+were accepted in New York, sent to this country,
+and thence back to Boston.</p>
+
+<p>Some time ago the cables between Madeira and St.
+Vincent were out of order, cutting off communication
+by the direct route to Brazil, and a message to reach
+Rio Janeiro had to pass through Ireland, Canada,
+United States, to Galveston, thence to Vera Cruz,
+Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chili;
+from Valparaiso across the Andes, through the Argentine
+Republic to Buenos Ayres, and thence by East
+Coast cables to Rio Janeiro, the message having traversed
+a distance of about twelve thousand miles and
+having passed through twenty-four cables and some
+very long land lines, instead of passing, had it been
+possible to have sent it by the direct route, over one
+short land line and six cables, in all under six thousand
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps some of our readers may remember having
+read in the newspapers of the result of last year's Derby
+having been sent from Epsom to New York in fifteen
+seconds, and may be interested to know how it was
+done. A wire was laid from near the winning post on
+the race course to the cable company's office in London,
+and an operator was at the instrument ready to
+signal the two or three letters previously arranged
+upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed
+the post. When the race began, the cable company
+suspended work on all the lines from London to New
+York and kept operators at the Irish and Nova Scotian
+stations ready to transmit the letters representing the
+winning horse immediately, and without having the
+message written out in the usual way. When the race
+was finished, the operator at Epsom at once sent the
+letters representing the winner, and before he had finished
+the third letter, the operator in London had
+started the first one to Ireland. The clerk in Ireland
+immediately on bearing the first signal from London
+passed it on to Nova Scotia, from whence it was again
+passed on to New York. The result being that the
+name of the winner was actually known in New York
+before the horses had pulled up after passing the
+judge. It seems almost incredible that such information
+could be transmitted such a great distance in
+fifteen seconds, but when we get behind the scenes and
+see exactly how it is accomplished, and see how the
+labor and time of signaling can be economized, we can
+easily realize the fact.</p>
+
+<p>The humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been
+described; we will conclude by giving only one example.
+A St. Louis merchant had gone to New York on
+business, and while there received a telegram from
+the family doctor, which ran: "Your wife has had a
+child, if we can keep her from having another to-night,
+all will be well." As the little stranger had not been
+expected, further inquiry was made and elicited the
+fact that his wife had simply had a "chill"! This important
+difference having been caused simply by the
+omission of a single dot.</p>
+
+<pre>
+     -.-. .... .. .-.. .-..
+      c    h  i    l    l = chill
+     -.-. .... .. .-..  -..
+      c    h  i    l    d = child
+</pre>
+
+<p>&mdash;<i>Hardwicke's Science-Gossip</i>.</p>
+
+
+<a name="FNe3_1"></a><a href="#FNe3_anch_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>Cables not fully described in the text, Map B. Eight cables at the
+Anglo-American Company: 7, Heart's Content to Placentia, two cables;
+8, Placentia to St. Pierre; 9, St. Pierre to North Sydney; 10, Placentia to
+North Sydney, two cables; 11, St. Pierre to Duxbury; 18, Charlotte's Town
+to Nova Scotia; 19, Government Cable, North Sydney to Bird Rock,
+Madeline Isles, and Anticosti; 21, Halifax and Bermuda Cable Company's
+proposed cable to Bermuda.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<a name="elec2"></a><h2>ELECTRICITY IN TRANSITU&mdash;FROM PLENUM
+TO VACUUM.<a name="FNe2_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNe2_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Prof. WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.</h3>
+
+
+<p>If an idle pole, C, C, Fig. 12 (P=0.0001 millimeter
+or 0.13 M), protected all but the point by a thick coating
+of glass, is brought into the center of the molecular
+stream in front of the negative pole, A, and the whole
+of the inside and outside of the tube walls are coated
+with metal, D, D, and "earthed" so as to carry away
+the positive electricity as rapidly as possible, then it is
+seen that the molecules leaving the negative pole and
+striking upon the idle pole, C, on their journey along
+the tube carry a negative charge and communicate
+negative electricity to the idle pole.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10-fig12.png" alt="FIG. 12.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 12.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.</p>
+
+<p>This tube is of interest, since it is the one in which I
+was first able to perceive how, in my earlier results, I
+always obtained a positive charge from an idle pole
+placed in the direct stream from the negative pole.
+Having got so far, it was easy to devise a form of apparatus
+that completely verified the theory, and at the
+same time threw considerably more light upon the subject.
+Fig. 13, a, b, c, is such a tube, and in this model
+I have endeavored to show the electrical state of it at
+a high vacuum by marking a number of + and - signs.
+The exhaustion has been carried to 0.0001 millimeter,
+or 0.13 M, and you see that in the neighborhood of the
+positive pole, and extending almost to the negative, the
+tube is strongly electrified with positive electricity, the
+negative atoms shooting out from the negative pole in
+a rapidly diminishing cone. If an idle pole is placed
+in the position shown at Fig. 13, a, the impacts of positive
+and negative molecules are about equal, and no
+decided current will pass from it, through the galvanometer,
+to earth. This is the <i>neutral</i> point. But if we
+imagine the idle pole to be as at Fig. 13, b, then the
+positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate
+over the negative molecules, and positive electricity is
+shown. If the idle pole is now shifted, as shown at Fig.
+13, c, the negative molecules preponderate, and the
+pole will give negative electricity.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10-fig13a.png" alt="FIG. 13 A.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 13 A.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M<br clear="all" />
+
+<img src="images/10-fig13b.png" alt="FIG. 13 B.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 13 B.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.<br clear="all" />
+
+<img src="images/10-fig13c.png" alt="FIG. 13 C.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 13 C.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.</p>
+
+<p>As the exhaustion proceeds, the positive charge in
+the tube increases and the neutral point approaches
+closer to the negative pole, and at a point just short of
+non-conduction so greatly does the positive electrification
+preponderate that it is almost impossible to get
+negative electricity from the idle pole, unless it actually
+touches the negative pole. This tube is before you,
+and I will now proceed to show the change in direction
+of current by moving the idle pole.
+
+<p>I have not succeeded in getting the "Edison" current
+incandescent lamps to change in direction at even
+the highest degree of exhaustion which my pump will
+produce. The subject requires further investigation,
+and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies
+promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the
+experimental philosopher, just as the waste products of
+the chemist have often proved the source of new and
+valuable bodies.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROPERTIES OF RADIANT MATTER.</h3>
+
+
+<p>One of the most characteristic attributes of radiant
+matter&mdash;whence its name&mdash;is that it moves in approximately
+straight lines and in a direction almost normal to
+the surface of the electrode. If we keep the induction
+current passing continuously through a vacuum tube
+in the same direction, we can imagine two ways in
+which the action proceeds: either the supply of gaseous
+molecules at the surface of the negative pole must
+run short and the phenomena come to an end, or the
+molecules must find some means of getting back. I
+will show you an experiment which reveals the molecules
+in the very act of returning. Here is a tube (Fig.
+14) exhausted to a pressure of 0.001 millimeter or 1.3 M.
+In the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm,
+C, pierced with two holes, D and E. At one part of
+the tube a concave pole, A', is focused on the upper
+hole, D, in the diaphragm. Behind the upper hole and
+in front of the lower one are movable vanes, F and G,
+capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas
+through the holes.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10-fig14.png" alt="FIG. 14&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 14&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.</p>
+
+<p>On passing the current with the concave pole negative,
+the small veins rotate in such a manner as to
+prove that at this high exhaustion a stream of molecules
+issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm,
+while at the same time a stream of freshly charged
+molecules is forced by the negative pole through
+the upper hole. The experiment speaks for itself,
+showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that
+so far the theory is right.</p>
+
+<p>This view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced
+merely as a working hypothesis, which, in the
+present state of our knowledge, may be regarded as a
+
+necessary help to be retained only so long as it proves
+useful. In experimental research early hypotheses
+have necessarily to be modified, or adjusted, or perhaps
+entirely abandoned, in deference to more accurate
+observations. Dumas said, truly, that hypotheses were
+like crutches, which we throw away when we are able
+to walk without them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RADIANT MATTER AND "RADIANT ELECTRODE
+MATTER."</h3>
+
+
+<p>In recording my investigations on the subject of radiant
+matter and the state of gaseous residues in high
+vacua under electrical strain, I must refer to certain
+attacks on the views I have propounded. The most
+important of these questionings are contained in a
+volume of "Physical Memoirs," selected and translated
+from foreign sources under the direction of the Physical
+Society (vol. i., part 2). This volume contains two
+memoirs, one by Hittorff on the "Conduction of Electricity
+in Gases," and the other by Puluj on "Radiant
+Electrode Matter and the So-called Fourth State." Dr.
+Puluj's paper concerns me most, as the author has set
+himself vigorously to the task of opposing my conclusions.
+Apart from my desire to keep controversial
+matter out of an address of this sort, time would not
+permit me to discuss the points raised by my critic; I
+will, therefore, only observe in passing that Dr. Puluj
+has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth
+state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine
+of four dimensional space.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has already been made to the mistaken
+supposition that I have pronounced the thickness of
+the dark space in a highly exhausted tube through
+which an induction spark is passed to be identical
+with the natural mean free path of the molecules of
+gas at that exhaustion. I could quote numerous passages
+from my writings to show that what I meant
+and said was the mean free path as amplified and
+modified by the electrification.<a name="FNe2_anc_2"></a><a href="#FNe2_2"><sup>2</sup></a> In this view I am
+supported by Prof. Schuster,<a name="FNe2_anc_3"></a><a href="#FNe2_3"><sup>3</sup></a> who, in a passage quoted
+below, distinctly admits that the mean free path of
+an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in
+its ordinary state.</p>
+
+<p>The great difference between Puluj and me lies in his
+statement that<a name="FNe2_anc_4"></a><a href="#FNe2_4"><sup>4</sup></a> "the matter which fills the dark space
+consists of mechanical detached particles of the electrodes
+which are charged with statically negative electricity,
+and move progressively in a straight direction."</p>
+
+<p>To these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes,
+"of different sizes, often large lumps,"<a name="FNe2_anc_5"></a><a href="#FNe2_5"><sup>5</sup></a> Puluj
+attributes all the phenomena of heat, force and phosphorescence
+that I from time to time have described in
+my several papers.</p>
+
+<p>Puluj objects energetically to my definition "Radiant
+Matter," and then proposes in its stead the misleading
+term "Radiant Electrode Matter." I say "misleading,"
+for while both his and my definitions equally admit
+the existence of "Radiant Matter," he drags in the hypothesis
+that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated
+material of the poles.</p>
+
+<p>Puluj declares that the phenomena I have described
+in high vacua are produced by his irregularly shaped
+lumps of radiant electrode matter. My contention is
+that they are produced by radiant matter of the residual
+molecules of gas.</p>
+
+<p>Were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental
+evidence, I would not mention the subject to
+you. On such an occasion as this controversial matter
+must have no place; therefore I content myself at present
+by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively
+prove my case.</p>
+
+<p>Let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis.
+Some metals, it is well known, such as silver,
+gold or platinum, when used for the negative electrode
+in a vacuum tube, volatilize more or less rapidly, coating
+any object in their neighborhood with a very even
+film. On this depends the well known method of electrically
+preparing small mirrors, etc. Aluminum, however,
+seems exempt from this volatility. Hence, and
+for other reasons, it is generally used for electrodes.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to
+the "electrode matter," the more volatile the metal
+used, the greater should be the effect.<a name="FNe2_anc_6"></a><a href="#FNe2_6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig15.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 15.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+Here is a tube (Fig. 15, P=0.00068 millimeter, or
+0.9 M), with two negative electrodes, AA', so placed as
+to protect two luminous spots on the phosphorescent
+glass of the tube. One electrode, A', is of pure silver,
+a volatile metal; the other, A, is of aluminum, practically
+non-volatile. A quantity of "electrode matter"
+will be shot off from the silver pole, and practically
+none from the aluminum pole; but you see that in
+each case the phosphorescence, CC', is identical. Had
+the radiant electrode matter been the active agent, the
+more intense phosphorescence would proceed from the
+more volatile pole.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig16.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 16" title="">
+A drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus
+is shown in Fig. 16. A pear-shaped bulb of German
+glass has near the small end an inner concave negative
+pole, A, of pure silver, so mounted that its inverted
+image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube.
+In front of this pole is a screen of mica, C, having a
+small hole in the center, so that only a narrow pencil
+of rays from the silver pole can pass through, forming
+a bright spot, D, at the far end of the bulb. The exhaustion
+is about the same as in the previous tube, and
+the current has been allowed to pass continuously for
+many hours so as to drive off a certain portion of the
+silver electrode; and upon examination it is found that
+the silver has all been deposited in the immediate
+neighborhood of the pole; while the spot, D, at the far
+end of the tube, that has been continuously glowing
+with phosphorescent light, is practically free from
+silver.
+</p>
+
+<p>The experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it
+here, so I shall not attempt it; but I have on the table
+the results for examination.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig17.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 17" title="">
+The identity of action of silver and aluminum in the
+first case, and the non-projection of silver in this second
+instance, are in themselves sufficient to condemn
+Dr. Puluj's hypotheses, since they prove that phosphorescence
+is independent of the material of the negative
+electrode. In front of me is a set of tubes that
+to my mind puts the matter wholly beyond doubt.
+The tubes contain no inside electrodes with the residual
+gaseous molecules; and with them I will proceed
+to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments
+without any inner metallic poles at all.
+</p>
+
+<p>In all these tubes the electrodes, which are of silver,
+are on the outside, the current acting through the body
+of the glass. The first tube contains gas only slightly
+rarefied and at the stratification stage. It is simply a
+closed glass cylinder, with a coat of silver deposited
+outside at each end, and exhausted to a pressure of 2
+millimeters. The outline of the tube is shown in Fig.
+17. I pass a current, and, as you see, the stratifications,
+though faint, are perfectly formed.
+<img src="images/11-fig18.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 18.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.076 MM. = 100 M." title="">
+</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig19.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 19.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+The next tube, seen in outline in Fig. 18, shows the
+dark space. Like the first it is a closed cylinder of
+glass, with a central indentation forming a kind of
+hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two
+compartments. This pocket, silvered on the air side,
+forms a hollow glass diaphragm that can be connected
+electrically from the outside, forming the negative
+pole, A; the two ends of the tube, also outwardly
+silvered, form the positive poles, B B. I pass the current,
+and you will see the dark space distinctly visible.
+The pressure here is 0.076 millimeter, or 100 M. The
+next stage, dealing with more rarefied matter, is that
+of phosphorescence. Here is an egg-shaped bulb,
+shown in Fig 19, containing some pure yttria and a
+few rough rubies. The positive electrode, B, is on the
+bottom of the tube under the phosphorescent material;
+the negative, A, is on the upper part of the tube. See
+how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows
+under molecular bombardment, at an internal pressure
+of 0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M.
+</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig20.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 20.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+A shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected
+on to the opposite wall of the bulb by means of
+an outside pole. A mica cross is supported in the middle
+of the bulb (Fig. 20), and on connecting a small
+silvered patch, A, on one side of the bulb with the
+negative pole of the induction coil, and putting the
+positive pole to another patch of silver, B, at the top,
+the opposite side of the bulb glows with a phosphorescent
+light, on which the black shadow of the cross
+seems sharply cut out. Here the internal pressure is
+0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M.</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig21.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 21.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M." title="">
+Passing to the next phenomenon, I proceed to show
+the production of mechanical energy in a tube without
+internal poles. It is shown in Fig. 21 (P = 0.001
+millimeter, or 1.3 M). It contains a light wheel of
+aluminum, carrying vanes of transparent mica, the
+poles, A B, being in such a position outside that the
+molecular focus falls upon the vanes on one side only.
+The bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is projected
+on the screen; if I now pass the current, you
+see the wheels rotate rapidly, reversing in direction as
+I reverse the current.
+</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig22.png" align="left" alt="Fig. 22.&mdash;Pressure = 0.000076 MM. = 0.1 M." title="">
+Here is an apparatus (Fig. 22) which shows that the
+residual gaseous molecules when brought to a focus
+produce heat. It consists of a glass tube with a bulb
+blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool,
+C, fixed in the center, and exhausted to a pressure of
+0.000076 millimeter, or 0.1 M. The negative electrode,
+A, is formed by coating part of the outside of the bulb
+with silver, and it is in such a position that the focus
+of rays falls upon the carbon wool. The positive electrode,
+B, is an outer coating at the other end of the
+tube. I pass the current, and those who are close may
+see the bright sparks of carbon raised to incandescence
+by the impact of the molecular stream.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>You thus have seen that all the old "radiant matter"
+effects can be produced in tubes containing no metallic
+electrodes to volatilize. It may be suggested that the
+sides of the tube in contact with the outside poles become
+electrodes in this case, and that particles of the
+glass itself may be torn off and projected across, and
+so produce the effects. This is a strong argument,
+which fortunately can be tested by experiment. In
+the case of this tube (Fig. 23, P = 0.00068 millimeter,
+or 0.9 M), the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing
+blue under molecular bombardment. Inside
+the bulb, completely covering the part that would
+form the negative pole, A, I have placed a substantial
+coat of yttria, so as to interpose a layer of this earth
+between the glass and the inside of the tube. The
+negative and positive poles are silver disks on the outside
+of the bulb, A being the negative and B the positive
+poles. If, therefore, particles are torn off and
+projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence,
+these particles will not be particles of glass, but of
+yttria; and the spot of phosphorescent light, C, on
+the opposite side of the bulb will not be the dull blue
+of lead glass, but the golden yellow of yttria. You see
+there is no such indication; the glass phosphoresces
+with its usual blue glow, and there is no evidence that
+a single particle of yttria is striking it.
+<img src="images/11-fig23.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 23.&mdash;Pressure = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+</p>
+
+<p>Witnessing these effects I think you will agree I am
+justified in adhering to my original theory, that the
+phenomena are caused by the radiant matter of the
+residual gaseous molecules, and certainly not by the
+torn-off particles of the negative electrode.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHOSPHORESCENCE IN HIGH VACUA.</h3>
+
+
+<p>I have already pointed out that the molecular motions
+rendered visible in a vacuum tube are not the
+motions of molecules under ordinary conditions, but
+are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions
+and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules
+may traverse more than a hundred times the <i>mean</i>
+free path, with a correspondingly increased velocity,
+until they are arrested by collisions. Indeed, the molecular
+free path may vary in one and the same tube,
+and at one and the same degree of exhaustion.</p>
+
+<p>Very many bodies, such as ruby, diamond, emerald,
+alumina, yttria, samaria, and a large class of earthy
+oxides and sulphides, phosphoresce in vacuum tubes
+when placed in the path of the stream of electrified
+molecules proceeding from the negative pole. The
+composition of the gaseous residue present does not
+affect phosphorescence; thus, the earth yttria phosphoresces
+well in the residual vacua of atmospherical
+air, of oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic anhydride, hydrogen,
+iodine, sulphur and mercury.</p>
+
+<p>With yttria in a vacuum tube, the point of maximum
+phosphorescence, as I have already pointed out,
+lies on the margin of the dark space. The diagram
+(Fig. 24) shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence
+in different parts of a tube at an internal pressure
+of 0.25 millimeter, or 330 M. On the top you see
+the positive and negative poles, A and B, the latter
+having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted
+line, C. The curve, D E F, shows the relative intensities
+of the phosphorescence at different distances from
+the negative pole, and the position inside the dark
+space at which phosphorescence does not occur. The
+height of the curve represents the degree of phosphorescence.
+The most decisive effects of phosphorescence
+are reached by making the tube so large that the
+walls are outside the dark space, while the material
+submitted to experiment is placed just at the edge of
+the dark space.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/12-fig24.png" alt="FIG. 24&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 24&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto I have spoken only of the phosphorescence
+of substances placed under the negative pole.
+But from numerous experiments I find that bodies
+will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative
+pole.</p>
+
+<p>This is only a temporary phenomenon, and ceases
+entirely when the exhaustion is pushed to a very high
+point. The experiment is one scarcely possible to exhibit
+to an audience, so I must content myself with describing
+it. A U-tube, shown in Fig. 25, has a flat aluminum
+pole, in the form of a disk, at each end, both
+coated with a paint of phosphorescent yttria. As the
+rarefaction approaches about 0.5 millimeter the surface
+of the negative pole, A, becomes faintly phosphorescent.
+On continuing the exhaustion this luminosity
+rapidly diminishes, not only in intensity but in
+extent, contracting more and more from the edge of
+the disk, until ultimately it is visible only as a bright
+spot in the center. This fact does not prop a recent
+theory, that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge
+leaves the center of the pole and takes place
+only between the edge and the walls of the tube.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<img src="images/12-fig25.png" alt="FIG. 25." title="">
+<br /> FIG. 25</p>
+
+<p>If the exhaustion is further pushed, then, at the
+point where the surface of the negative pole ceases to
+be luminous, the material on the positive pole, B, commences
+to phosphoresce, increasing in intensity until
+the tube refuses to conduct, its greatest brilliancy being
+just short of this degree of exhaustion. The probable
+explanation is that the vagrant molecules I introduce
+in the next experiment, happening to come within
+the sphere of influence of the positive pole, rush violently
+to it, and excite phosphorescence in the yttria,
+while losing their negative charge.</p>
+
+
+
+<a name="FNe2_1"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>Presidential address before the Institute of Electrical Engineers,
+London; continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 792, page 12656.</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_2"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_2">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>"The thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative pole is
+the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous molecules between
+successive collisions. The electrified molecules are projected from
+the negative pole with enormous velocity, varying, however, with the degree
+of exhaustion and intensity of the induction current."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans</i>.,
+part i., 1879, par. 530.</p>
+
+
+<p>"The extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited
+negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are
+advancing toward the pole. The conflict occurs at the boundary of the
+dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of the
+discharge."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans</i>., part i., 1879, par. 507.</p>
+
+<p>"Here, then, we see the induction spark actually illuminating the lines
+of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative pole."&mdash;<i>R.I.
+Lecture</i>, Friday, April 4, 1879.</p>
+
+<p>"The electrically excited negative pole supplies the <i>force majeure</i>,
+which entirely, or partially, changes into a rectilinear action the irregular
+vibration in all directions."&mdash;<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1880. page 472.</p>
+
+<p>"It is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules is increased
+so as to make the mean velocity with which they leave the negative
+pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous molecules."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans</i>.,
+part ii., 1881, par. 719.]</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_3"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_3">[3]</a><div class="note"><p>"It has been suggested that the extent of the dark space represents
+the mean free path of the molecules.... It has been pointed out by
+others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably greater
+than the mean free path of the molecules, calculated according to the
+ordinary way. My measurements make it nearly twenty times as great.
+This, however, is not in itself a fatal objection; for, as we have seen, the
+mean free path of an ion may be different from that of a molecule moving
+among others."&mdash;Schuster, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc</i>., xlvii., pp. 556-7.</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_4"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_4">[4]</a><div class="note"><p>"Physical Memoirs," part ii., vol. i., p. 244. The paragraph is italicized
+in the original.</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_5"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_5">[5]</a><div class="note"><i>Loc. cit</i>., p. 242.</div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_6"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_6">[6]</a><div class="note"><p>In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society, November 20, 1890,
+by Professors Liveing and Dewar, on finely divided metallic dust thrown
+off the surface of various electrodes, in vacuum tubes, they find not only
+that dust, however fine, suspended in a gas will not act like gaseous matter
+in becoming luminous with its characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge,
+but that it is driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course
+of the discharge.</p></div>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 794, page 12690.]</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="tech1"></a><h2>GASEOUS ILLUMINANTS.<a name="FNt1_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNt1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES.</h3>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>Having now brought before you the various methods
+by which ordinary coal gas can be enriched, so as to
+give an increased luminosity to the flame, I wish now
+to discuss the methods by which the gas can be burnt,
+in order to yield the greatest amount of light, and also
+the compounds which are produced during combustion.</p>
+
+<p>In the first lecture, while discussing the theory of
+luminous flames, I pointed out that, in an atmospheric
+burner, it was not the oxygen of the air introduced
+combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons,
+and so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon,
+which gave the non-luminous flame, but the diluting
+action of the nitrogen, which acted by increasing
+the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are broken
+up, and carbon liberated, a fact which was proved
+by observation that heating the mixture of gas and air
+again restored the luminosity of the flame. This experiment
+clearly shows that temperature is a most important
+factor in the illuminating value of a flame, and
+this is still further shown by a study of the action of
+the diluents present in coal gas, the non-combustible
+ones being far more deleterious than the combustible,
+as they not only dilute, but withdraw heat.</p>
+
+<p>Anything which will increase the temperature of the
+flame will also increase the illuminating power, provided,
+of course, that the increase in temperature is not,
+obtained at the expense of the too rapid combustion of
+the hydrocarbons.</p>
+
+<p>As has been shown in the experiments relating to the
+action of diluents on flame, already quoted, oxygen,
+when added to coal gas, increases its illuminating value
+to a marked and increasing degree, until a certain percentage
+has been added, after which the illuminating
+power is rapidly decreased, until the point is reached
+when the mixture becomes explosive. This is due to
+the fact that the added oxygen increases the temperature
+of the flame by doing the work of the air, but
+without the cooling and diluting action of the nitrogen;
+when, however, a certain proportion is added, it
+begins to burn up the heavy hydrocarbons, and although
+the temperature goes on increasing, the light-giving
+power is rapidly diminished by the diminution
+of the amount of free carbon in the flame.</p>
+
+<p>It has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor
+coal gas by admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made
+under Tatham's patents, in which crude oils are cracked
+at a comparatively low temperature, and are there
+mixed with from 12 to 24 per cent. of oxygen gas. Oil
+gas made at low temperatures, <i>per se</i>, is of little
+use as an illuminant, as it burns with a smoky flame,
+and does not travel well, but when mixed with a certain
+amount of oxygen, it gives a very brilliant white
+light, and no smoke, while as far as experiments have
+at present gone, its traveling powers are much improved.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix
+a heavy hydrocarbon gas with oxygen, but it must be
+remembered that although hydrogen and carbon monoxide
+only need to be mixed with half their own
+volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture,
+yet as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in
+the combustible gas increase, so does the amount of
+oxygen needed to give explosion. Thus coal gas needs
+rather more than its own volume, and ethylene three
+times its volume, to give the maximum explosive results,
+while these mixtures begin to be explosive when
+10 per cent. of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or water
+gas, 30 per cent. with coal gas, and over 50 per cent. of
+oil gas of the character used. It is claimed that if this
+gas was used as an enricher of coal gas, 5 per cent. of
+it would increase the luminosity of 16-candle gas by
+about 40 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen has been obtained for some time past from
+the air on a commercial scale by the Brin process, and
+at the present time there seems every prospect of our
+being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of about 3s. 6d.
+per 1,000 cubic feet. Another process by which this
+important result can also be obtained was first introduced
+by Tessie du Mothay, and has now just been
+revived. It consists of passing alternate currents of
+steam and air over sodic manganate heated to dull
+redness in an iron tube; the process has never been
+commercially successful, for the reason that the contents
+of the tube fused, and flowing over the surface of
+the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or retorts, and
+also as soon as fusion took place, the mass became so
+dense that it had little or no action on the air passing
+over it. Now, however, this difficulty has been partly
+overcome by so preparing the manganate as to prevent
+fusion, and to keep it in a spongy state, which gives
+very high results, and the substance being practically
+everlasting, the cost of production is extremely low.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed to feed this by a separate system of
+pipes to small gas jets, and by converting them into
+practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes, to raise solid masses
+of refractory material to incandescence, and also by
+supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular
+construction, to obtain a very great increase in
+illuminating power.</p>
+
+<p>Whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen
+would be successful or not, I do not wish to discuss at
+the present time, but there is no doubt but that cheap
+oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas manager,
+as by mixing 0.8 per cent. of oxygen with his coal
+gas before purification, he could not only utilize the
+method so successfully introduced by Mr. Valon at
+Ramsgate, but could also increase the illuminating
+value of his gas.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the structure of flame, I pointed out
+that close to the burner from which the gas giving the
+flame is issuing, a space exists in which no combustion
+is going on&mdash;in other words, a flame is never in contact
+with the rim of the burner. This is best seen when
+the gas is turned low&mdash;with a batswing burner, for instance&mdash;turned
+so low that only a small non-luminous
+flame is left, the space between burner and flame will
+appear as great as the flame itself, while, if the gas is
+mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide, the
+space can be very much increased.</p>
+
+<p>Several theories have been brought forward to explain
+this phenomenon, but the true one is that the
+burner abstracts so much heat from the flame at that
+point that it is unable to burn there, and this can be
+proved by the fact that where a cold object touches
+the flame, a dividing space, similar to that noticed between
+flame and burner, will always be observed, and
+the colder the object and the more diluted the gas the
+greater is the observed space. If a cold metal wire or
+rod is held in a non-luminous flame, it causes an extinction
+of the gas for some considerable space around itself;
+but as the temperature of the rod rises, this space
+becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is heated to
+redness, and then the flame comes in contact with the
+rod.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way, if the burner from which the gas is
+issuing be heated to redness, the space between burner
+and flame disappears. It has already been shown that
+cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces the illuminating
+value, and finally renders it more luminous;
+and we are now in a position to discuss the points
+which should be aimed at in the construction of a good
+gas burner.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, a sensible diminution in light takes
+place when a metal burner is employed, and the larger
+the surface and thickness of the metal the worse will
+be its action on the illuminating power of the flame;
+but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom
+of the flame, so that with a small flame the total effect
+is very great, and with a very large flame almost <i>nil</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first point, therefore, to attend to is that the
+burner shall be made of a good non-conductor. In the
+next place, the flow of the gas must be regulated to
+the burner, as, if you have a pressure higher than that
+for which the burner is constructed, you at once obtain
+a roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power,
+as the too rapid rush of gas from the burner causes a
+mingling of gas and air and a consequent cooling of
+the flame. The tap also which regulates the flame
+is better at a distance from the burner than close to it,
+as any constriction near the burner causes eddies,
+which give an unsteady flame.</p>
+
+<p>These general principles govern all burners, and we
+will now take the ordinary forms in detail. In the
+ordinary flat flame burner, given a good non-conducting
+material, and a well regulated gas supply, little
+more can be done, while burning it in the ordinary
+way, to increase its luminosity; and it is the large surface
+of flame exposed to the cooling action of the air
+which causes this form of burner to give the lowest
+service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed. Much
+is done, moreover, by faulty fittings and shades, to reduce
+the already poor light given out, because the
+light-yielding power of the flame largely depends upon
+its having a well rounded base and broad, luminous
+zone; and when a globe with a narrow opening is used
+with such a flame&mdash;as is done in 99 out of 100 cases&mdash;the
+updraught drags the flame out of shape, and seriously
+impairs its light-giving powers, a trouble which can be
+got over by having the globe with an opening at the
+bottom not less than 4 inches in diameter, and having
+small shoulders fixed to the burner, which draw out
+the flame and protect the base from the disturbing influence
+of draughts.</p>
+
+<p>The Argand burner differs from the flat flame burners
+in that a circular flame is employed. The air supply
+is regulated by a cylindrical glass, and this form of
+burner gives a better service than the flat flame burner,
+as not only can the supply of gas and air be better adjusted,
+but the air being slightly warmed by the hot
+glass adds to the temperature of the flame, which is
+also increased by radiation from the opposite side of
+the flame itself.</p>
+
+<p>The chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon
+the fact that, being circular, the light from the inner
+surface has to pass through the wall of flame, and careful
+photometric experiments show that the solid particles
+present in the flame so reduce its transparency
+that a loss amounting to about 25 per cent. of light
+takes place during its transmission.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted
+to the size of the flame, as too long a chimney,
+by increasing the air supply unduly, cools, and so
+lowers the illuminating power of the flame. Experiments
+with carbureted water gas gave the following
+results, with a consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour:</p>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup span=3 align="center"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Size of Chimney.</td><td>Height of Flame.</td><td>Candle Power.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>6 X 1-7/8</td><td>2-1/2</td><td>21</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>7 X 1-7/8</td><td>2-1/4</td><td>21.3</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>8 X 1-7/8</td><td>2-1/8</td><td>20.8</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>9 X 1-7/8</td><td>1-7/8</td><td>18.2</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>For many years no advance was made upon these
+forms of burner, but when, ten years ago, it was recognized
+that anything which cools the flame reduces its
+value, while anything which increases its temperature
+raises its illuminating power, then a change took place
+in the forms of burner in use, and the regenerative
+burners, introduced by such men as Siemens, Grimston,
+and Bower, commenced what was really a revolution
+in gas lighting.</p>
+
+<p>By utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products
+of combustion to raise the temperature of the
+gas and air which are to enter into combination in the
+flame, an enormous increase in the temperature of the
+solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained, and
+a far greater and whiter light is the result.</p>
+
+<p>The Bower lamp, in which (at any rate in the later
+forms) the flame burns between a downward and an
+upward current of air, was one of the first produced,
+and so well has it been kept up to date that it still
+holds its own; while as types of the "inverted cone"
+regenerative burner, we may also take the Cromarty
+and Wenham lights, which have been followed by a
+host of imitators, and so closely are the original types
+adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what
+the use of the Patent Office really is.</p>
+
+<p>The Schulke, and the last form of Siemens regenerative
+burner, however, stand apart from all the others
+by dealing with flat and not conical flames, and in both
+regeneration is carried on to a high degree. The only
+drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by
+far the best form of gas stove as well as burner, and
+that the amount of heat thrown out by the radiant
+solid matter in the flame is, under some circumstances,
+an annoyance. But, on the other hand, we must not
+forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead
+burners, and that nearly every form of regenerative
+lamp can be adapted as a ventilating agent, and that
+with the withdrawal of the products of combustion from
+the air of the room, the great and only serious objection
+to gas as an illuminant disappears.</p>
+
+<p>When coal gas is burned, the hydrogen is supposed
+to be entirely converted into water vapor, and the
+carbon to finally escape into the air as carbon dioxide;
+and if this were so, every cubic foot of gas consumed
+would produce approximately 0.52 cubic foot of carbon
+dioxide and 1.34 cubic feet of water vapor, while
+the illuminating power yielded by the cubic foot
+of gas will, of course, vary with the kind of burner
+used.</p>
+
+<p>Roughly speaking, the ordinary types of burner give
+the following results:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan=2></td><td colspan=2 align="center">Products of Combustion per Candle Power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Name of Burner.</td><td align="center">Illuminating Power in Candles per c.f. of gas Consumed.</td><td align="center">Carbon Dioxide.</td><td align="center">Water Vapor.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Batswing.</td><td align="center">2.9</td><td align="center">0.18 c.f.</td><td align="center">0.46 c.f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Argand.</td><td align="center">3.3</td><td align="center">0.16 c.f.</td><td align="center">0.40 c.f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Regenerative.</td><td align="center">10.0</td><td align="center">0.05 c.f.</td><td align="center">0.13 c.f.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>So that the regenerative forms of burner, by giving
+the greatest illuminating power per cubic foot of gas
+consumed, yield a smaller amount of vitiation to the
+air per candle of light emitted.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary room, say 16' X 12' X 10', would not be
+considered properly illuminated unless the light were
+at least equal to 32 candle power; and in the table below
+the amount of the oxygen used up and the products
+of combustion formed by each class of illuminant
+and burner in attaining this result are given, the number
+of adults who would exhale the same amount during
+respiration being also stated.</p>
+
+<p>From these data it appears, according to rules by
+which the degree of vitiation of the air in any confined
+space is measured by the amount of oxygen used up
+and carbon dioxide formed, that candles are the worst
+offenders against health and comfort. Oil lamps come
+next, and gas least. This, however, is an assumption
+which practical experience does not bear out. Discomfort
+and oppression in a room lighted by candles or
+
+oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older
+forms of gas burner; and the partial explanation of
+this is to be found in the fact that, when a room is
+illuminated with candles or oil, people are contented
+with a feebler and more local light than when using
+gas. In a room of the size described, the inmates
+would be more likely to use two candles placed near
+their books, or on a table, than thirty-two scattered
+about the room.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the amount of water vapor given off during
+the combustion of gas is greater than in the case of
+the other illuminants. Water vapor having a great
+power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas
+becomes heated, and diffusing itself about the room,
+causes great feeling of oppression; the air also being
+highly charged with moisture, is unable to take up so
+rapidly the water vapor which is always evaporating
+from the surface of our skin, whereby the functions of
+the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling
+of <i>malaise</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Added to these, however, is a far more serious factor
+which has, up to the present, been overlooked, and
+that is that an ordinary gas flame, in burning, yields
+distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and acetylene,
+the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest
+traces produces headache and general physical discomfort,
+while its effect upon plant life is equally marked.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">AMOUNT OF OXYGEN REMOVED FROM THE AIR, AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER VAPOR GENERATED
+TO GIVE AN ILLUMINATION EQUAL TO 32 CANDLE POWER.<br /><br /></p>
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Oxygen Removed">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span="5" align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan=6>(The amount of light required in a room 16' X 12' x 10'.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=3></td><td colspan=2>Products of Combustion</td>
+<tr><td>Illuminant</td><td align="center"> Quantity of Materials Used</td><td align="center">Oxygen Removed</td><td>Water Vapor</td><td> Carbon Dioxide</td><td> Adults </td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sperm Candles</td><td align="right">3,840 grains</td><td>19.27 c.f.</td><td>13.12 c.f.</td><td>13.12 c.f.</td><td>21.8</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Paraffin Oil</td><td align="right">1,984 grains</td><td>12.48 c.f.</td><td>7.04 c.f.</td><td>8.96 c.f.</td><td>14.9</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gas (London)--</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;Burners:</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp; Batswing</td><td align="right">11 c.f.</td><td>13.06 c.f.</td><td>14.72 c.f.</td><td>5.76 c.f.</td><td>9.6</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp; Argand</td><td align="right">9.7 c.f.</td><td>11.52 c.f.</td><td>12.80 c.f.</td><td>5.12 c.f.</td><td>8.5</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp; Regenerative</td><td>3.2 c.f.</td><td>3.68 c.f.</td><td>4.16 c.f.</td><td>1.60 c.f.</td><td>2.6</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Ever since the structure of flame has been noted and
+discussed, it has been accepted as a fact beyond dispute
+that the outer almost invisible zone which is interposed
+between the air and the luminous zone of the
+flame is the area of complete combustion, and that here
+the unburnt remnants of the flame gases, meeting the
+air, freely take up oxygen and are converted into the
+comparatively harmless products of combustion, carbon
+dioxide and water vapor, which only need partial
+removal by any haphazard process of ventilation
+to keep the air of the room fit to support animal life.
+I have, however, long doubted this fact, and at length,
+by a delicate process of analysis have been able to confirm
+my suspicions. The outer zone of a luminous
+flame is not the zone of complete combustion; it is a
+zone in which luminosity is destroyed in exactly the
+same way that it is destroyed in the Bunsen burner;
+that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools
+down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered
+non-luminous, while some of the gas sinks below
+the point at which it is capable of burning, with the
+result that considerable quantities of the products of
+incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene
+escape into the air, and render it actively injurious.</p>
+
+<p>I have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe,
+with a circular loop on the end, the interior of the loop
+being pierced with minute holes, and by making a
+circular flame burn within the loop so that the non-luminous
+zone of the flame just touched the inside of
+the loop, and then by aspiration so gentle as not to
+distort the shape of the flame, withdrawing the gases
+escaping from the outer zone. On analyzing these by
+a delicate process, which will be described elsewhere, I
+arrived at the following results:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GASES ESCAPING FROM THE OUTER ZONE OF FLAME.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >Luminous.</td><td >Bunsen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Nitrogen.</td><td >76.612</td><td >80.242</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Water vapor.</td><td >14.702</td><td >13.345</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon dioxide.</td><td >2.201</td><td >4.966</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon monoxide.</td><td >1.189</td><td >0.006</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Oxygen.</td><td >2.300</td><td >1.430</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Marsh gas.</td><td >0.072</td><td >0.003</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Hydrogen.</td><td >2.888</td><td >0.008</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Acetylene.</td><td >0.036</td><td >Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >100.000</td><td >100.000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The gases leaving the luminous flame show that the
+diluting action of the nitrogen is so great that considerable
+quantities even of the highly inflammable
+and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion,
+while the products of incomplete combustion are present
+in sufficient quantity to account perfectly for the
+deleterious effects of gas burners in ill-ventilated rooms.
+The analyses also bring out very clearly the fact that,
+although the dilution of coal gas by air in atmospheric
+burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of
+the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon, and
+so destroy luminosity, yet the presence of the extra
+supply of oxygen does make the combustion far more
+perfect, so that the products of incomplete combustion
+are hardly to be found in the escaping gases.</p>
+
+<p>These experiments are of the gravest import, as they
+show more clearly than has ever been done before the
+absolute necessity for special and perfect ventilation
+where coal gas is employed for the illumination of our
+dwelling rooms.</p>
+
+<p>When coal gas was first employed during the early
+part of this century as an illuminating agent, the low
+pitch of the old fashioned rooms, and the excess
+of impurities in the gas, rendered it imperative that
+the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas
+should be conducted from the apartment, and for this
+purpose arrangements of tubes with funnel shaped
+openings were suspended over the burners. The
+noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or
+open air; but this type of ventilator was unsightly in
+the extreme, and some few attempts were made to replace
+it by a more elegant arrangement, as in the ventilating
+lamp invented by Faraday, and in the adaptation
+of the same principle by Mr. I.O.N. Rutter,
+who strove for many years to direct attention to the
+
+necessity of removing the products of combustion from
+the room. But with the increase of the gas industry,
+the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually
+more and more perfect, while the rooms in the
+modern houses were made more lofty; and the products
+of combustion being mixed with a larger volume
+of air, and not containing so many deleterious constituents,
+became, if not much less noxious, at all
+events less perceptible to the nose. As soon as this
+point was reached, the ventilating tubes were discarded,
+and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms
+has been contaminated by illuminants, with hardly an
+effort to alleviate the effect produced upon health. I
+say "hardly an effort," for the Messrs. Boyle tried, by
+their concentric tube ventilators, to meet the difficulty,
+while Mr. De la Garde and Mr. Hammond have each
+constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the
+Rutter lamp; but either from their being somewhat unsightly,
+or from their diminishing the amount of light
+given out, none of them have met with any degree of
+success. In places of public entertainment, where large
+quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating
+purposes, the absolute necessity for special ventilation
+gave rise to the "sun burner," with its ventilating
+shaft. This, however, gives but a very poor illuminating
+power per cubic foot of gas consumed, due partly
+to the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced,
+and partly to its distance from the objects to
+be illuminated.</p>
+
+<p>The great difficulty which in the whole history of
+ventilation has opposed itself to the adoption of proper
+arrangements for removing the products of combustion
+has been the necessity of bringing the tube to carry off
+the gases low down into the room, and of incasing the
+burner in such a way that none of the products should
+escape; but with the present revolution in gas burners
+this necessity is entirely done away with, and the regenerative
+burner offers the means not only of removing
+all the products of combustion but also of effecting
+thorough ventilation of the room itself, as experiments
+made some few years ago showed me that a
+ventilating regenerative burner, burning 20 cubic
+feet of gas per hour and properly fitted, will not only
+remove all its own products of combustion, but also
+over 5,000 cubic feet per hour of the vitiated air from
+the upper part of the room. I am quite aware that
+many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections
+to fitting ventilating lamps, these being chiefly
+due to the fact that it requires considerable trouble to
+fit them properly; but I think I have said enough to
+show the absolute necessity of some such system, and
+when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps,
+engineering skill will soon find means to overcome any
+slight difficulties which exist.</p>
+
+<p>Having disposed in a few words of a subject which,
+if fully treated, would occupy a long course of lectures
+by itself, I will pass on to the consideration of gas as at
+present used as a fuel.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that gas is the most convenient
+and in many ways one of the best forms of fuel for
+heating and cooking purposes, and the efforts which
+all large gas companies are now making to popularize
+and increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly
+bear fruit in the future. But before the
+day can come for gas to be used in this way on a large
+scale, there is one fact which the gas manager and gas
+stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to,
+and that is that no gas stove or gas water heater, of any
+construction, should be sent out or fitted without just
+as great care being taken to provide for the carrying
+away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary
+fuel range was being fitted. Do not for one moment
+allow yourself to be persuaded that, because a gas
+stove or geyser does not send out a mass of black
+smoke, the products of combustion can be neglected
+and with safety allowed to mingle with the
+atmosphere we are to breathe.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are
+recorded from the products of combustion given off
+from various forms of water heaters used in bath rooms;
+scarcely a cookery class is given, with gas stoves, that
+one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from
+an intense headache, and often in an almost fainting
+condition. And the same cause which brings about
+these extreme cases, on a smaller scale causes such
+physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons
+that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely
+decline to have gas as an illuminant or fuel in
+any of their living rooms; and if the use of gas, more
+especially as fuel, is to be extended, and if gas is to hold
+its own in the future against such rivals as the electric
+light, then those interested in gas and gas stoves must
+face the problem, and by improving the methods of
+burning and using gas do away with the present serious
+drawbacks which exist to its use.</p>
+
+<p>The feeling has gradually been gaining ground in
+the public mind that, when atmospheric burners and
+other devices for burning coal gas are employed for
+heating purposes, certain deleterious products of incomplete
+combustion find their way into the air, and
+that this takes place to a considerable extent is shown
+by the facts brought forward in a paper read by Mr.
+William Thomson before the last meeting of the British
+Association.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomson attempted to separate and determine
+the quantity of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
+present in the flue gases from various forms of gas
+stoves and burners, but, like every other observer who
+has attempted to solve this most difficult problem, he
+found it so beset with difficulties that he had to abandon
+
+it, and contented himself with determining the
+total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in an
+unburned condition, experiments which showed that
+the combustion of gas in stoves for heating purposes is
+much more incomplete than one had been in the habit
+of supposing, but his experiments give no clew as to
+whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of
+such deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene,
+or comparatively harmless gases, such as marsh
+gas and hydrogen. After considerable work upon the
+subject, I have succeeded in doing this by a very delicate
+process of analysis, and I now wish to lay some of
+my results before you.</p>
+
+<p>If a cold substance, metal or non-metal, be placed
+in a flame, whether it be luminous or non-luminous,
+it will be observed that there is a clear space, in which
+no combustion is taking place, formed round the cool
+surface, and that as the body gets heated so this space
+gets less and less until, when the substance is at the
+same temperature as the flame itself, there is contact
+between the two. Moreover, when a luminous flame
+is employed in this experiment the space still exists between
+the cool body and the flame, but you also notice
+that the luminosity is decreased over a still larger area
+although the flame exists.</p>
+
+<p>This meaning that, in immediate contact with the
+cold body, the temperature is so reduced that the flame
+cannot exist, and so is extinguished over a small area;
+while over a still larger space the temperature is so reduced
+that it is not hot enough to bring about decomposition
+of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of
+carbon to the same extent as in hotter portions of the
+flame. Now, inasmuch as when water is heated or boiled
+in an open vessel, the temperature cannot rise above
+100°C., and as the temperature of an ordinary flame
+is over 1,000°C., it is evident that the burning gas can
+never be in contact with the bottom of the vessel, or,
+in other words, the gas is put out before combustion is
+completed, and the unburned gas and products of incomplete
+combustion find their way into the air and
+render it perfectly unfit for respiration.</p>
+
+<p>The portion of the flame which is supposed to be the
+hottest is about half an inch above the tip of the inner
+zone of the flame, and it is at this point that most
+vessels containing water to be heated are made to impinge
+on the flame; and it is this portion of the flame,
+also, which is utilized for raising various solids to a
+temperature at which they radiate heat.</p>
+
+<p>In order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination
+which the air undergoes when a geyser or
+cooking stove is at work, I have determined the composition
+of the products of combustion, and the unburned
+gases escaping when a vessel containing water
+at the ordinary temperatures is heated up to the boiling
+point by a gas flame, the vessel being placed, in the
+first case, half an inch above the inner cone of the
+flame, and in the second, at the extreme outer tip of
+the flame.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GASES ESCAPING DURING CHECKED COMBUSTION.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Gases Escaping">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=4 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan=2 align="center">Bunsen flame.</td><td colspan=2 align="center">Luminous flame.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >Inner.</td><td >Outer.</td><td >Inner.</td><td >Outer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Nitrogen</td><td >75.75</td><td >79.17</td><td >77.52</td><td >69.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Water vapor</td><td >13.47</td><td >14.29</td><td >11.80</td><td >19.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon dioxide</td><td >2.99</td><td >5.13</td><td >4.93</td><td >8.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon monoxide</td><td >3.69</td><td >Nil.</td><td >2.45</td><td >2.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Marsh gas</td><td >0.51</td><td >0.31</td><td >0.95</td><td >0.39</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Acetylene</td><td >0.04</td><td >Nil.</td><td >0.27</td><td >Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Hydrogen</td><td >3.55</td><td >0.47</td><td >2.08</td><td >Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >100.00</td><td >100.00</td><td >100.00</td><td >100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These figures are of the greatest interest, as they
+show conclusively that the extreme top of the Bunsen
+flame is the only portion of the flame which can be used
+for heating a solid substance without liberating deleterious
+gases; and this corroborates the previous experiment
+on the gases in the outer zone of a flame,
+which showed that the outer zone of a Bunsen
+flame is the only place where complete combustion is
+approached.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, this sets at rest a question which has been
+over and over again under discussion, and that is
+whether it is better to use a luminous or a non-luminous
+flame for heating purposes. Using a luminous
+flame, it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon,
+which is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer
+surface, and the carbon dioxide formed by the complete
+combustion of the carbon already burned up in
+flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide, so
+that even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it
+is impossible to heat a cool body without giving rise
+to carbon monoxide, although acetylene being absent,
+gas stoves, in which small flat flame burners are used,
+have not that subtile and penetrating odor which
+marks the ordinary atmospheric burner stove, with
+the combustion checked just at the right spot for the
+formation of the greatest volume of noxious products.</p>
+
+<p>It is the contact of the body to be heated with the
+flame before combustion is complete which gives rise
+to the greatest mischief; any cooling of the flame extinguishes
+a portion of the flame, and the gases present
+in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along
+the cooled surface and escape combustion.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Blochmann has shown the composition of the
+gases in various parts of the Bunsen flame to be as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Gas composition">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=5 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Height above tube.</td><td>In tube.</td><td>1 inch.</td><td>2 inch.</td><td>3 inch.</td><td>Complete</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Air with 100 vols. gas</td><td>253.9</td><td>284.7</td><td>284.5</td><td>484.3</td><td>608.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hydrogen</td><td>48.6</td><td>36.4</td><td>17.7</td><td>16.1</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Marsh gas</td><td>39.0</td><td>40.1</td><td>28.0</td><td>5.7</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carbon monoxide</td><td>2.9</td><td>2.2</td><td>19.9</td><td>12.7</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Olefiant gas</td><td>4.0</td><td>3.4</td><td>2.2</td><td>Nil.</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Buteylene</td><td>3.0</td><td>2.5</td><td>1.6</td><td>Nil.</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oxygen</td><td>52.7</td><td>52.0</td><td>21.7</td><td>Nil.</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nitrogen</td><td>199.1</td><td>223.8</td><td>225.9</td><td>382.4</td><td>482.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carbon dioxide</td><td>0.8</td><td>3.5</td><td>13.0</td><td>41.7</td><td>62.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water vapor</td><td>3.1</td><td>11.8</td><td>45.8</td><td>116.1</td><td>141.2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Which results show that it would be impossible to
+check the flame anywhere short of the extreme tip
+(where complete combustion is approximately taking
+place), without liberating deleterious products. I think
+I have said enough to show that no gas stove, geyser
+or gas cooking stove should be used without ample
+and thorough means of ventilation being provided, and
+no trace of the products of combustion should be allowed
+to escape into the air; until this is done, the use of
+improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious
+injury on the health of the people using them, and
+this will gradually result in the abandonment of gas
+as a fuel, instead of, as should be the case, its coming
+into general use. The English householder is far too
+prone to accept what is offered to him, without using
+his own common sense, and will buy the article which
+tickles his eye the most and his pocket the least, on the
+bare assurance of the shopkeeper, who is only anxious
+to sell; but when he finds that health and comfort are in
+jeopardy, and has discarded the gas stove, it will take
+years of labor to convince him that it was the misuse
+of gas which caused the trouble. Already signs are
+not wanting that the employers of gas stoves are beginning
+to fight shy of them, and I earnestly hope that
+the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to
+bear upon the stove manufacturers to give proper attention
+to this all important question.</p>
+
+<p>So strongly do I feel the importance of this question
+to the gas world and the public, that I freely offer to analyze
+the products of combustion given off by any gas
+stove or water heater sent to me at Greenwich during
+the next six months, on one condition, and that is that
+the results, good, bad, or indifferent, will be published
+in a paper before this Society, which has always been
+in the front when matters of great sanitary importance
+to the public had to be taken up. And if after that
+the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have
+not been certified, it is their own fault; but I do
+think that the maker of any stove or geyser which
+causes a death should be put upon his trial for manslaughter.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, let us consider for a moment what is
+likely to be the future of gas during the next half century.
+The labor troubles, bad as they are and have
+been, will not cease for many a weary year. The victims
+of imperfect education (more dangerous than none
+at all, as, while destroying natural instinct, it leaves
+nothing in its place) will still listen and be led by the
+baneful influence of irresponsible demagogues, who care
+for naught so long as they can read their own inflammatory
+utterances in the local press, and gain a temporary
+notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause
+they profess to serve. The natural tendency of this will
+be that every labor-saving contrivance that can will
+be pressed into the gas manager's service; and that,
+although coal (of a poorer class than at present used)
+will still be employed as a source of gas, the present
+retort setting will quickly give way to inclined retorts
+on the Coze principle; while, instead of the present
+wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke, it will
+be shot direct into the generator of the water gas
+plant, and the water gas carbureted with the benzene
+hydrocarbons derived from the smoke of the blast furnace
+and coke oven, or from the creosote oil of the tar
+distiller, by the process foreshadowed in the concluding
+sentences of my last lecture. It will then be mixed
+with the gas from the retorts, and will supply a far
+higher illuminant than we at present possess. In parts
+of the United Kingdom, such as South Wales, where
+gas coal is dear, and anthracite and bastard coals are
+cheap, water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant
+coal gas, with a saving of fifty per cent. on the
+prices now existing in those districts. While these
+changes have been going on, and while improved
+methods of manufacture have been tending to the
+cheapening of gas, it will have been steadily growing
+in public favor as a fuel; and if in years to come the
+generation of electricity should have been so cheapened
+as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an
+illuminant, the gas works will still be found as busy as
+of yore, the holder of gas shares as contented as to-day;
+for with a desire for a purer atmosphere and a
+white mist instead of a yellow fog, gas will have largely
+supplanted coal as a fuel, and gas stoves, properly
+ventilated and free from the reproaches I have hurled
+at them to-night, will burn a gas far higher in its heating
+power, far better in its power of bearing illuminating
+hydrocarbons, and free from poisonous constituents.</p>
+
+<p>When the demand for it arises, hydrogen gas can be
+made as cheaply as water gas itself, and when time is
+ripe for a fuel gas for use in the house, it is hydrogen
+and not water gas which will form its basis. With
+carbureted water gas and 20 per cent. of carbon monoxide
+we are still below the limit of danger, but a pure
+water gas with over 40 per cent. of the same insidious
+element of danger will never be tolerated in our households.
+Already a patent has been taken by Messrs.
+Crookes and Ricarde-Seaver for purifying water gas
+from carbon monoxide, and converting it mainly into
+hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature through
+a mixture of lime and soda lime, a process which is
+chemically perfect, as the most expensive portion of
+the material used could be recovered; but in the present
+state of the labor market it is not practical, as for
+the making of every 100,000 cubic feet of gas, fifteen
+tons of material would have to be handled, the cost of
+labor alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted;
+moreover, hydrogen can be made far cheaper
+directly.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest days of gas making, the manufacture
+of hydrogen by the passage of steam over red-hot
+iron has been over and over again mooted, and attempted
+on a large scale, but several factors have combined
+to render it futile.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, for every 478.5 cubic feet of hydrogen
+made under perfect theoretical conditions never
+likely to be obtained in practice, 56 lb. of iron were
+converted into the magnetic oxide, and as there was
+no ready sale for this article, this alone would prevent
+its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen; the next
+point was that when steam was passed over the red-hot
+iron, the temperature was so rapidly lowered that
+the generation of gas could only go on for a very short
+period, while, finally, the swelling of the mass in the
+retort and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into
+the side renders the removal of the spent material almost
+an impossibility. These difficulties can, however,
+be got over. Take a fire clay retort, six feet long
+and a foot in diameter, and cap it with a casting bearing
+two outlet tubes closed by screw valves, while a
+
+similar tube leads from the bottom of the retort. Inclose
+this retort by a furnace chamber of iron lined
+with fire brick, leaving a space of two feet six inches
+round the retort, and connect the top of the furnace
+chamber with one opening at the top of the upright
+retort, while air blasts lead into the bottom of the furnace
+chamber, below rocking fire bars, which start at
+bottom of the retort, and slope upward, to leave room
+for ash holes closed by gas tight covers. The retort is
+filled with iron or steel borings, alone if pure hydrogen
+is required, or cast into balls with pitch if a little carbon
+monoxide is not a drawback, as in foundry work.
+The furnace chamber is now filled with coke, fed in
+through manholes, or hoppers, in the top, and the fuel
+being ignited, the blast is turned on, and the mixture
+of nitrogen and carbon monoxide passes over the iron,
+heating it to a red heat, while the fuel in contact with
+the retort does the same thing.</p>
+
+<p>When the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red
+heat, the air blast is cut off, and the pipe connecting
+the furnace and retort, together with the pipe in
+connection with the bottom of the retort, are closed,
+and steam, superheated by passing through a pipe led
+round the retort or interior wall of the furnace, is injected
+at the bottom of the red-hot mass of iron, which
+decomposes it, forming magnetic oxide of iron and hydrogen,
+which escapes by the second tube at the top
+of the retort, and is led away either to a carbureting
+chamber if required for illumination, or direct to the
+gasholder if wanted as a fuel. The mass of incandescent
+fuel in the furnace chamber, surrounding the retort,
+keeping up the temperature of retort and iron
+sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed.</p>
+
+<p>The hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and
+the air blast turned on. The hot carbon monoxide
+passing over the hot magnetic oxide quickly reduces
+it down to metallic iron, which, being in a spongy condition,
+acts more freely on the steam during later makes
+than it did at first, and being infusible at the temperature
+employed, may be used for a practically unlimited
+period.</p>
+
+<p>What more simple method than this could be desired?
+Here we have the formation of the most valuable of all
+fuel gases at the cost of the coke and steam used, a gas
+also which has double the carrying power for hydrocarbon
+vapors possessed by coal gas, while its combustion
+gives rise to nothing but water vapor.</p>
+
+<p>In this course of lectures I have left much unsaid and
+undone which I should have liked to have had time to
+accomplish, and if I have been obliged to leave out of
+consideration many important points, it is the time at
+my disposal and not my will which is to blame. And
+now, in conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to my
+assistants, Messrs. J.A. Foster and J.B. Warden, who
+have heartily co-operated with me in much of the work
+embodied in these lectures.</p>
+
+
+<a name="FNt1_1"></a><a href="#FNt1_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note">Lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts, London. From the <i>Journal</i> of the Society.</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="phys1"></a><h2>STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The celebrated philosopher Bacon, the founder of
+the experimental method, claimed that we see better
+with one eye than with two, because the attention is
+more concentrated and becomes profounder. "On
+looking in a mirror," says he, "we may observe that,
+if we shut one eye, the pupil of the other dilates." To
+this question: "But why, then, have we two eyes?"
+he responds: "In order that one may remain if the
+other gets injured." Despite the reasoning of the
+learned philosopher, we may be permitted to believe
+that the reason that we have two eyes is for seeing
+better and especially for perceiving the effects of perspective
+and the relief of objects. We have no intention
+of setting forth here the theory of binocular
+vision; one simple experiment will permit any one to
+see that the real place of an object is poorly estimated
+with one eye. Seated before a desk, pen in hand,
+suddenly close one eye, and, at the same time, stretch
+out the arm in order to dip the pen in the inkstand;
+you will fail nine times out of ten. It is not in one
+day that the effects of binocular vision have been
+established, for the ancients made many observations
+on the subject. It was in 1593 that the celebrated
+Italian physicist Porta was the first to give an accurate
+figure of two images seen by each eye separately,
+but he desired no apparatus that permitted of reconstituting
+the relief on looking at them. Those
+savants who, after him, occupied themselves with the
+
+question, treated it no further than from a theoretical
+point of view. It was not till 1838 that the English
+physicist Wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic
+apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining
+simultaneously with each of the eyes two different
+images of an object, one having the perspective that
+the right eye perceives, and the other that the left eye
+perceives.</p>
+
+<p>This apparatus is described in almost all treatises on
+physics. We may merely recall the fact that it
+operated by reflection, that is to say, the two images
+were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors
+making an angle of 45 degrees. The instrument was
+very cumbersome and not very practical. Another
+English physicist, David Brewster, in 1844 devised
+the stereoscope that we all know; but, what is a
+curious thing, he could not succeed in having it constructed
+in England, where it was not at first appreciated.
+It was not till 1850 that he brought it to
+Paris, where it was constructed by Mr. Soleil and his
+son-in-law Duboscq. Abbot Moigno and the two
+celebrated opticians succeeded, not without some difficulty,
+in having it examined by the <i>official</i> savants;
+but, at the great exposition of 1851, it was remarked
+by the Queen of England, and from this moment
+Messrs. Soleil &amp; Duboscq succeeded with difficulty
+only in satisfying the numerous orders that came from
+all parts. As photography permitted of easily making
+identical images, but with different perspective, it
+contributed greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The stereoscope, such as we know it, presents the
+inconvenience of being incapable of being used by but
+one person at once. Several inventors have endeavored
+to render the stereoscopic images visible to
+several spectators at the same time. In 1858, Mr.
+Claudet conceived the idea of projecting the two
+stereoscopic images upon ground glass in superposing
+them. The relief was seen, it appears, but we cannot
+very well explain why; the idea, however, had no outcome,
+because the image, being quite small, could be
+observed by but three or four persons at once. It was
+Mr. D'Almeida, a French physicist, who toward the
+same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable
+manner, and we cannot explain why his process (that
+required no special apparatus) fell into the desuetude
+from which Mr. Molteni has just rescued it and obtained
+much success.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14-stereo.png">
+<img src="images/14-stereo.jpg" alt="STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS" title="">
+</a></p>
+
+<p>This is in what it consists: The impression of the
+relief appears when each eye sees that one of the two
+images which presents the perspective that it would
+perceive if it saw the real object. If we take two
+transparent stereoscopic images and place each of
+them in a projection lantern, in such a way that they
+can be superposed upon the screen, we shall obtain
+thereby a single image. It will always be a little light
+and soft, as the superposition cannot be effected accurately,
+the perspective not being the same for each
+of them. It is a question now to make each eye see
+the one of the two images proper to it. To this effect,
+Mr. D'Almeida conceived the very ingenious idea of
+placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image
+having the perspective of the right eye, and a red
+glass in front of the other image. As green and red
+are complementary colors, the result was not changed
+upon the screen; there was a little less light, that was
+all. But if, at this moment, the spectator places a
+green glass before his right eye and a red one before
+his left, he will find himself in the condition desired
+for realizing the effect sought.</p>
+
+<p>Each eye will then see only the image responding to
+the coloration chosen, and, as it is precisely the one
+which has the perspective proper to it, the relief appears
+immediately. The effect is striking. We perceive
+a diffused image upon the screen with the naked
+eye, but as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief
+appears with as much distinctness as in the best
+stereoscope. One must not, for example, reverse his eye-glass,
+for if (things being arranged as we have said) he
+looks through a red glass before his right eye, and
+through a green one before his left, it is the image carrying
+the perspective designed for the right eye that
+will be seen by the left eye, and reciprocally. There
+is then produced, especially with certain images, a very
+curious effect of reversed perspective, the background
+coming to the front.</p>
+
+<p>Now that photography is within every one's reach,
+and that many amateurs are making stereopticon
+
+views and own projection lanterns, we are persuaded
+that the experiment will be much more successful than
+it formerly was. An assemblage of persons all provided
+with colored eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate.
+Our engraving represents a stereopticon seance,
+and the draughtsman has well rendered the effect of
+the two luminous and differently colored fascicles superposed
+upon the screen.</p>
+
+<p>In a preceding note upon the same subject, Mr. Hospitalier
+remarked that upon combining these effects
+of perspective with those of the praxinoscope, which
+give the sensation of motion, we would obtain entirely
+new effects. It would be perhaps complicated as to
+the installation, and especially as to the making of the
+images, but, in certain special cases (for giving the
+effect of a machine in motion, for example), it might
+render genuine services.&mdash;<i>La Nature</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<a name="avi1"></a><h2>THE EFFECT ON FOWLS OF NITROGENOUS
+AND CARBONACEOUS RATIONS.<a name="FNa1_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNa1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<p>On July 2, 1889, ten Plymouth Rock hens, one year
+old, and as nearly as possible of uniform size, were
+selected from a flock of thirty-five. At the same time
+ten chickens, hatched from the same hens mated with
+a Plymouth Rock cock, were similarly chosen. The
+chickens were about six weeks old, healthy and vigorous
+and of nearly the same size. Up to the time of
+purchase both hens and chickens had full run of the
+farm. The hens foraged for themselves and were given
+no food; the chickens had been fed corn meal dough,
+sour milk and table scraps.</p>
+
+<p>A preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five
+days, during which time both hens and chickens
+were confined, all together, in a fairly well lighted and
+ventilated room, and fed a great variety of food, in
+order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly
+as possible in the same condition. During this preliminary
+feeding both hens and chickens increased in live
+weight. The ten hens from a total of 44 lb. 12 oz. to
+47 lb. 1.5 oz., or 3.75 oz. each, and laid 93 eggs. The
+chickens from a total of 9 lb. 15 oz. to 18 lb., or 12.9 oz.
+each.</p>
+
+<p>Food, shells and water were kept constantly before
+the fowls. Basins which contained the food and water
+were kept within a box constructed of lath, so arranged
+that the fowls could reach between the slats and procure
+food and drink without wasting or soiling.</p>
+
+<p>July 26th the hens and chickens were each separated
+into two lots of five each, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Hens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 23 lb. 8.5 oz.<br />
+Hens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 23 lb. 9 oz.<br />
+Chickens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 8 lb. 15 oz.<br />
+Chickens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 9 lb. 1 oz.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The four lots were placed in separate pens where they
+remained during the entire experiment, which lasted
+125 days. They were fed and watered once daily, and
+an account kept of the food eaten and water drank.
+At each feeding the food and water remaining were
+weighed back and deducted from the amount charged
+at the previous feeding.</p>
+
+<p>The hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration
+were given daily all they would eat of the following
+mixture: 1/3 part wheat bran, 1/3 part wheat shorts,
+1/3 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts skimmed milk, and
+will be designated Lot I.</p>
+
+<p>The hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration
+were given daily all they would eat of a ration of
+cracked maize and maize dough, and will be designated
+Lot II.</p>
+
+<p>Both groups were given a small amount of green
+clover as long as it lasted, and afterward cabbage.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience the experiment was divided into
+five periods of twenty five days.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FOOD CONSUMED AND INCREASE IN LIVE WEIGHT.</h3>
+
+
+<p>During the first period all the fowls seemed in good
+health except the carbonaceous fed chickens; they,
+during this as in all succeeding periods, were restless
+and peevish, always moping or hunting for something
+to eat, though their trough was filled. When fed they
+would greedily take a few mouthfuls and then, with
+their hunger still unappeased, would leave the dish.
+They always ate ravenously the green food which was
+
+given them, as did the hens and chickens of Lot I. The
+hens of Lot II., on the contrary, seemed quite willing
+to squat about the pen and subsist on the maize
+diet, and strangely enough cared little for green food.
+The clear maize diet was accompanied by such ill effects
+that the chickens of each lot, after the first period,
+were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat, and
+the hens each one ounce. The wheat was increased
+during the fourth and fifth periods in the case of the
+chickens to one ounce each. During the second
+period one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food, and
+during the third period another of the same lot were
+taken ill and removed from the experiment. Both
+seemed to be suffering from impacted crops, as the
+stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be
+empty.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous
+ration, and since the first period the amount of food
+eaten by the hens and chickens of Lot I had continually
+decreased, led to the belief that their food might
+be too nitrogenous, and as during the last days of
+the third period one of the hens in Lot I was also ill, it
+was decided to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal
+and to use linseed meal instead. The hen recovered
+soon after the change in food.</p>
+
+<p>The supply of skim milk running short in the last
+two periods, water was used instead in mixing the
+ration of the lots fed nitrogenous food.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the
+linseed meal in the ration of Lot I was removed, and
+cotton seed meal substituted. This combination
+seemed a happy one, for on this ration both hens and
+chickens made large gains.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the experiment little difference could
+be seen in the hens of the two groups; but the two lots
+of chickens were in striking contrast. While the
+chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large, plump,
+healthy, active, and well feathered, the chickens fed on
+a carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller,
+sickly, and in several cases almost destitute of feathers.
+Two of them had perfectly bare backs, and so ravenous
+were they for flesh and blood that they began eating
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>The inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous
+diet to throw out new feathers and the ability of the
+chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet to grow an enormous
+coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the
+effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain
+requirements of animal growth. It was plain to
+see that maize, even when assisted by a small amount
+of wheat and green clover, could not supply sufficient
+nitrogen for the growth of feathers.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost
+weight during the experiment, the loss was slightly
+greater with those fed nitrogenous food, but these produced
+by far the most eggs.</p>
+
+<p>The chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about
+doubled in weight, while those fed carbonaceous food
+only added about one-third to their weight.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRODUCTION OF EGGS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>During the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid
+three eggs while the others laid two. The two groups
+were, therefore, practically evenly divided at the start
+as to the condition of the laying stage. At the end of
+the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid forty-three
+eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid
+twenty. During the next twenty-five days the former
+laid thirty and the latter six; during the third period
+the former laid six and the latter not any. From this
+time on no eggs were received from either group. The
+decline in egg production was probably due in large
+part to the fact that the hens began to moult during
+the second period, and continued to do so during the
+rest of the experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of
+small size, having a disagreeable flavor and smell,
+watery albumen, an especially small, dark colored
+yolk, with a tender vitelline membrane, which turned
+black after being kept several weeks. While the eggs
+of the carbonaceous fed hens were large, of fine flavor,
+of natural smell, large normal albumen, an especially
+large, rich yellow yolk, with strong vitelline membrane,
+which was perfectly preserved after being kept for
+weeks in the same brine with the other eggs.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr">TOTAL FOOD CONSUMED DURING EXPERIMENT.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center">Lot. I.--Nitrogenous.</td><td colspan=3 align="center">Lot. II.--Carbonaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hens.</td><td>*Chicks</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hens.</td><td>Chicks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>lb.</td><td>lb.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>lb.</td><td>lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bran.</td><td>29.90</td><td>21.85</td><td>Maize.</td><td>82.15</td><td>51.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Shorts.</td><td>29.90</td><td>21.85</td><td>Green clover.</td><td>18.75</td><td>18.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cotton seed meal.</td><td>21.48</td><td>13.24</td><td>Cabbage.</td><td>16.00</td><td>16.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Linseed meal.</td><td>8.43</td><td>8.61</td><td>Wheat</td><td>15.63</td><td>11.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Skimmed milk.</td><td>105.49</td><td>61.33</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wheat.</td><td>15.63</td><td>11.71</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Green clover.</td><td>18.75</td><td>18.75</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cabbage.</td><td>16.00</td><td>16.00</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total.</td><td>245.58</td><td>173.34</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total.</td><td>132.53</td><td>92.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Nutritive ratio.</td><td>1:3.1</td><td>1:3</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Nutritive ratio.</td><td>1:7.8</td><td>1:8</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<br /><p>* Calculated for five chicks, based upon the amount eaten by the three
+after the two sick were removed.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="ctr"> EGGS LAID AND GAIN IN WEIGHT--HENS.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center">Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, July 26.</td><td>23.53</td><td>23.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, November 27.</td><td>21.31</td><td>22.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Loss.</td><td>2.22</td><td>1.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Number of eggs laid.</td><td>79.00</td><td>26.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of eggs laid lb.</td><td>8.25</td><td>2.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average weight of eggs, oz.</td><td>1.67</td><td>1.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gain in weight, including eggs, lb.</td><td>6.03</td><td>1.36</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="ctr">GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT--CHICKENS.<br /><br /></p>
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center">Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, July 26.</td><td> 8.94</td><td> 9.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, November 27.</td><td>17.89</td><td>12.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gain, lb.</td><td> 8.95</td><td> 3.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gain, per cent. </td><td>100.11</td><td>39.40</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately
+marked and sold to a boarding house where the
+cook did not know that the eggs were undergoing a
+test. On meeting the cook several days later the following
+words were heard: "Do you expect me to cook
+such eggs as these! About every other one is spoiled."
+On examination of the ovaries after slaughtering, it
+was found that in the case of one of the carbonaceous
+fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage, but
+on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much
+nearer the laying period. With this single exception,
+the clusters of ovules in the carbonaceous fed hens were
+uniformly small. Neither group would have laid under
+any probability for several weeks. It would seem from
+these facts, together with the fact that during the experiment
+the nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three
+times as many eggs, that a nitrogenous ration stimulates
+egg production.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING.</h3>
+
+
+<p>On November 27 the fowls were slaughtered. Each
+fowl was weighed, wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering,
+and killed by severing an artery in the roof of
+the mouth. The blood was caught in a glass jar. The
+fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed, after
+which the body was laid open longitudinally by cutting
+alongside the sternum and through the back bone.
+When all had been thus prepared, they were hung up
+in groups to be photographed, but the photographs
+were quite unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative
+proportions of fat and lean. The accompanying drawing
+made from the photograph shows the relative development
+of an average pair of chickens. Attention
+is particularly called to the thighs.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<img src="images/15-plucked.png" alt="" title="">
+</p>
+
+<p>One-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for
+flavor, succulence, and tenderness. The other half was
+carefully prepared for chemical analysis by separating
+the meat from the bones. The flesh was thoroughly
+mixed and run through a sausage cutter, mixed again,
+and the process repeated three times. From different
+parts of this mixture a large sample was taken, from
+which the chemist took his samples for analysis. The
+right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by
+placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a
+wire on its center, on which were placed small weights
+until the bone gave way.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">DRESSED WEIGHT, INTERNAL ORGANS, ETC.<br /><br/></p>
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Weight Summary">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=4 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Hens.</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Chickens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight</td><td>21.31</td><td>22.0</td><td>17.89</td><td>12.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dressed weight.</td><td>14.86</td><td>15.09</td><td>12.01</td><td>8.89</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dressed weight, per cent.</td><td>69.7</td><td>68.6</td><td>67.1</td><td>70.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of blood.</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of feathers.</td><td>1.41</td><td>1.25</td><td>1.28</td><td>0.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of intestinal fat.</td><td>0.59</td><td>1.98</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of offal.</td><td>3.70</td><td>3.02</td><td>3.62</td><td>2.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of bones.</td><td>3.47</td><td>3.63</td><td>3.18</td><td>2.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of flesh.</td><td>11.39</td><td>11.47</td><td>8.93</td><td>6.20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows
+for the hens and chickens of the various lots:</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Tibia strength">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Average hens,</td><td>nitrogenous. </td><td>48.16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td> carbonaceous. </td><td>51.74</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average chickens,</td><td>nitrogenous. </td><td>46.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td>carbonaceous. </td><td>31.18</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There was little difference in the strength of the
+bones of the hens, undoubtedly because the bones
+were mature before the feeding began, and were little
+affected by the feeding. We find, however, that the
+bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost
+fifty per cent. (49.6) stronger than those fed carbonaceous
+food.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in the composition of the flesh, as
+shown by the analysis of Mr. W.P. Cutter, is given
+below:</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Weight Summary">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=4 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Hens.</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Chickens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albuminoids. </td><td>43.81</td><td>25.13</td><td>52.00</td><td>30.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fat.</td><td>12.59</td><td>20.76</td><td>5.54</td><td>11.34</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The flesh of each group was submitted to a number
+of persons for a cooking test, and the almost unanimous
+verdict was that the flesh of the fowls fed a nitrogenous
+ration was darker colored, more succulent, more
+tender, and better flavored, though on this last there
+was some difference of opinion.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONCLUSIONS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>So far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions
+from a single experiment of this kind, it would seem
+that:</p>
+
+<p>Chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make
+a satisfactory development, particularly of feathers.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration
+are fifty per cent. stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous
+ration.</p>
+
+<p>Hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs
+but of smaller size and poorer quality than those fed
+exclusively on corn.</p>
+
+<p>Hens fed on corn, while not suffering in general
+health, become sluggish, deposit large masses of fat on
+the internal organs, and lay a few eggs of large size
+and excellent quality.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids
+and less fat than those fed on a carbonaceous
+ration, and is darker colored, juicier and
+tenderer.</p>
+<br />
+<p>I.P. ROBERTS, Director.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name="hort1"></a><h2>HERBACEOUS GRAFTING.</h2>
+
+
+<p>My attention has been called a number of times to
+the unsatisfactory records and directions concerning
+the grafting of herbaceous plants. There appears to
+have been very little attention given to the subject,
+and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from
+one author to another. A few years ago I made some
+attempts at herbaceous grafting, but it was not until
+last winter that experiments were seriously undertaken.
+The work was put in the hands of J.R. Lochary
+as a subject for a graduating thesis.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments were undertaken primarily for the
+purpose of learning the best methods of grafting herbs,
+but a secondary and more important object was the
+study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion,
+particularly in relation to variegation and coloration.
+This second feature of the work is still under way, in
+one form or another, and we hope for definite results
+in a few years. As a matter of immediate advantage,
+however, herbaceous grafting has its uses, particularly
+in securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon
+the same plant. There is no difficulty in growing a
+half dozen kinds or colors, on geraniums, chrysanthemums,
+or other plants from one stock of the respective
+species.</p>
+
+<p>Six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter.
+It was found that the wood must be somewhat
+hardened to secure best results. The very soft and
+flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation
+of grafting, and union does not take place readily.
+Vigorous coleus stocks, three months old, gave best
+results if cut to within two or three inches of the pot
+and all or nearly all the leaves removed from the
+stump. Geraniums, being harder in wood, made good
+unions at almost any place except on the soft growing
+points. The stock must not have ceased growth, however.
+Most of the leaves should be kept down on the
+stock. Cions an inch or two long were usually taken
+from firm growing tips, in essentially the same manner
+as in the making of cuttings. Sometimes an eye of the
+old wood was used, and in most cases union took place
+and a new shoot arose from the bud. The leaves were
+usually partly removed from the cion.</p>
+
+<p>Various styles of grafting were employed, of which
+the common cleft and the veneer or side graft were
+perhaps the most satisfactory. In most instances it
+was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly
+with bass or raffia. In some soft wooded plants, like
+coleus, a covering of common grafting wax over the
+bandage was an advantage, probably because it prevented
+the drying out of the parts. In some cases,
+however, wax injured the tissues where it overreached
+the bandage. Sphagnum moss was used in many cases
+tied in a small mass about the union, but unless the
+parts were well bandaged the cion sent roots into the
+moss and did not unite, and in no case did moss appear
+to possess decided advantages. Best results were obtained
+by placing the plants at once in a propagating
+frame, where a damp and confined atmosphere could
+be obtained. In some plants, successful unions were
+made in the open greenhouse, but they were placed in
+shade and kept sprinkled for a day after the grafts
+were made. The operation should always be performed
+quickly to prevent flagging of the cions. Or, if the
+cions cannot be used at once, they may be thrust into
+sand or moss in the same manner as cuttings, and kept
+for several days. In one series, tomato and potato
+cuttings, which had flagged in the cutting bed, revived
+when grafted. And cuttings which had been transported
+in the mail for three days grew readily, but
+they were in good condition when received. The
+mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these
+grafted plants, for they delighted to crawl under the
+bandages and suck the juices from the wounded
+surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is foreign to the purpose of this note, it
+may be worth while to mention a few of the plants upon
+which the experiments were made. Sections were
+taken of many of the grafts and microscopic examinations
+made to determine the extent of cell union.
+Coleuses of many kinds were used, with uniform success,
+and the cions of some of them were vigorous a
+year after being set. Even iresine (better known as
+<i>Achyranthes Verschaffeltii</i>) united with coleus and
+grew for a time. Zonale geraniums bloomed upon the
+common rose geranium. Tomatoes upon potatoes and
+potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were transplanted
+to the open ground, where they grew, flowered and
+fruited until killed by frost. The tomato-on-potato
+plants bore good tomatoes above and good potatoes
+beneath, even though no sprouts from the potato stock
+were allowed to grow. Peppers united with tomatoes
+and tomatoes united with peppers. Egg plants, tomatoes
+and peppers grew upon the European husk tomato
+or alkekengi (<i>Physalis Alkekengi</i>). Peppers and egg
+plants united with each other reciprocally. A coleus cion
+was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound
+with raffia. The cion remained green and healthy, and
+at the end of forty-eight days the bandage was removed,
+but it was found that no union had taken
+
+place. Ageratums united upon each other with difficulty.
+Chrysanthemums united readily. A bean plant,
+bearing two partially grown beans, chanced to grow in
+a chrysanthemum pot. The stem bearing the pods was
+inarched into the chrysanthemum. Union took place
+readily, but the beans turned yellow and died. Pumpkin
+vines united with squash vines, cucumbers with
+cucumbers, muskmelons with watermelons, and muskmelons,
+watermelons and cucumbers with the wild
+cucumber or balsam apple (<i>Echinocystis lobata</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting feature of the work was the
+grafting of one fruit upon another, as a tomato fruit
+upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon another
+cucumber. This work is still under progress and it
+promises some interesting results in a new and unexpected
+direction, reports of which may be expected
+later.&mdash;<i>Cornell Station Bulletin</i>.</p>
+
+<a name="FNa1_1"></a><a href="#FNa1_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>This article is condensed by permission from a thesis prepared for the
+degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, by James Edward Rice, a
+graduate of the class of 1890. The work was planned and wholly carried
+out in the most careful manner by Mr. Rice under the immediate supervision
+of the Director. The results have been thought worthy of publication
+in the <i>Cornell Station Bulletin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h2>A HUMOROUS HEALTH OFFICER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Michigan State Board of Health recently took
+Health Officer Davis, of Close Village, to task for failing
+to send in his weekly reports. His reply was
+unique. He says: "There has not been enough sickness
+here the last two or three years to do much good.
+The physicians find time to go to Milwaukee on excursions,
+serve as jurors in justice courts, sit around
+on drygoods boxes, and beg tobacco, chew gum, and
+swap lies. A few sporadic cases of measles have existed,
+but they were treated mostly by old women,
+and no deaths occurred. There was an undertaker in
+the village, but he is now in the State prison. It is
+hoped and expected when green truck gets around,
+melons plenty, and cucumbers in abundance, that
+something may revive business. If it does, I will let
+you know."</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h3>A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers</h3>
+
+
+<p>Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
+during the past ten years, sent <i>free of charge</i> to any
+address. MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3>
+
+<h3>Architects and Builders Edition.</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr">$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.</p>
+
+
+<p>This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
+issued monthly&mdash;on the first day of the month.
+Each number contains about forty large quarto pages,
+equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages,
+forming, practically, a large and splendid <b>Magazine
+of Architecture</b>, richly adorned with <i>elegant plates
+in colors</i> and with fine engravings, illustrating the
+most interesting examples of modern Architectural
+Construction and allied subjects.</p>
+
+<p>A special feature is the presentation in each number
+of a variety of the latest and best plans for private
+residences, city and country, including those of very
+moderate cost as well as the more expensive. Drawings
+in perspective and in color are given, together
+with full Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate,
+and Sheets of Details.</p>
+
+<p>No other building paper contains so many plans,
+details, and specifications regularly presented as the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Hundreds of dwellings have
+already been erected on the various plans we have
+issued during the past year, and many others are in
+process of construction.</p>
+
+<p>Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work
+valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions.
+All who contemplate building or improving homes, or
+erecting structures of any kind, have before them in
+this work an almost <i>endless series of the latest and best
+examples</i> from which to make selections, thus saving
+time and money.</p>
+
+<p>Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping,
+Lighting, Warming, Ventilating, Decorating, Laying
+out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated. An extensive
+Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also
+given, in which the most reliable and approved Building
+Materials, Goods, Machines, Tools, and Appliances
+are described and illustrated, with addresses of the
+makers, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of
+this work have won for it the <b>Largest Circulation</b>
+of any Architectural publication in the world.</p>
+
+<p>A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture,
+Building, Carpentry, Masonry, Heating, Warming,
+Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of industry
+pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN&amp; CO., Publishers,</b><br/>
+<b>361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h3>Building Plans and Specifications.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In connection with the publication of the BUILDING
+EDITION of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn
+&amp; Co. furnish plans and specifications for buildings
+of every kind, including Churches, Schools, Stores,
+Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In this work they are assisted by able and experienced
+architects. Full plans, details, and specifications
+for the various buildings illustrated in this paper
+can be supplied.</p>
+
+<p>Those who contemplate building, or who wish to
+alter, improve, extend, or add to existing buildings,
+whether wings, porches, bay windows, or attic rooms,
+are invited to communicate with the undersigned.
+Our work extends to all parts of the country. Estimates,
+plans, and drawings promptly prepared. Terms
+moderate. Address</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">MUNN &amp; CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. </p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>The</h3>
+
+<h3>Scientific American Supplement.</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.<br />
+Terms of Subscription, $5 a year</b>.</p>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any
+part of the United States or Canada. Six dollars a
+year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the
+commencement, January I, 1876, can be had. Price,
+10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise
+be supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly.
+Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in paper, or $3.50
+bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES.&mdash;One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+and one copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT,
+one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
+canvassers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers</b>,<br />
+<b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b>.</p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<h3>Useful Engineering Books</h3>
+
+
+<p>Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers,
+Mechanics, Builders, men of leisure, and professional
+men, of all classes, need good books in the line of their
+respective callings. Our post office department permits
+the transmission of books through the mails at very
+small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books
+by different authors, on more than fifty different subjects,
+has recently been published, for free circulation,
+at the office of this paper. Subjects classified with
+names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only
+to ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address,</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York</b>.</p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>,
+Messrs. MUNN &amp; Co. are solicitors of American and
+Foreign Patents, have had 42 years' experience, and
+now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b>
+of all inventions patented through this Agency,
+with the name and residence of the Patentee. By the
+immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention
+can ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent
+can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent
+Laws, Patents, Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs and
+how procured. Address</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO.,</b><br />
+<b>361 Broadway, New York.
+Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.</b></p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13443 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/13443-h/images/01-1.jpg b/13443-h/images/01-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fcce99f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/01-1.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/01-1.png b/13443-h/images/01-1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad72c6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/01-1.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/01-2.jpg b/13443-h/images/01-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1824678
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/01-2.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/01-2.png b/13443-h/images/01-2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74ae203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/01-2.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.jpg b/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..235e811
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.png b/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cbbf85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig4.jpg b/13443-h/images/04-fig4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6b1122
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig4.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig4.png b/13443-h/images/04-fig4.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3111a83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig4.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig5.jpg b/13443-h/images/04-fig5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da20776
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig5.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig5.png b/13443-h/images/04-fig5.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3d0236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig5.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig6.jpg b/13443-h/images/04-fig6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3b8b19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig6.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig6.png b/13443-h/images/04-fig6.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..659eb4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig6.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.jpg b/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34c32b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.png b/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e06bf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-elev.jpg b/13443-h/images/05-elev.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc19991
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-elev.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-elev.png b/13443-h/images/05-elev.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f91a70a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-elev.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-fig1.jpg b/13443-h/images/05-fig1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d12b1cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-fig1.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-fig1.png b/13443-h/images/05-fig1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45354cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-fig1.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-fig2.jpg b/13443-h/images/05-fig2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26a71df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-fig2.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-fig2.png b/13443-h/images/05-fig2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6e6ec7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-fig2.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-saw.jpg b/13443-h/images/05-saw.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a1e0f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-saw.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/05-saw.png b/13443-h/images/05-saw.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b7ebe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/05-saw.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/06-empress.jpg b/13443-h/images/06-empress.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..814f6f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/06-empress.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/06-empress.png b/13443-h/images/06-empress.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1d4a2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/06-empress.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/06-fig1.jpg b/13443-h/images/06-fig1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0ec97a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/06-fig1.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/06-fig1.png b/13443-h/images/06-fig1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2213694
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/06-fig1.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/06-fig2.jpg b/13443-h/images/06-fig2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c597903
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/06-fig2.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/06-fig2.png b/13443-h/images/06-fig2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79662a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/06-fig2.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/07-burnham.jpg b/13443-h/images/07-burnham.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..121aafd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/07-burnham.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/07-burnham.png b/13443-h/images/07-burnham.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6663ce3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/07-burnham.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/08-fig1.jpg b/13443-h/images/08-fig1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e41185
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/08-fig1.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/08-fig1.png b/13443-h/images/08-fig1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..897e380
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/08-fig1.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/08-map.jpg b/13443-h/images/08-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad37d74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/08-map.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/08-map.png b/13443-h/images/08-map.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ebaaac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/08-map.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/09-map.jpg b/13443-h/images/09-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a65ed42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/09-map.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/09-map.png b/13443-h/images/09-map.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8db22eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/09-map.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/10-fig12.png b/13443-h/images/10-fig12.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ccfecf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/10-fig12.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/10-fig13a.png b/13443-h/images/10-fig13a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37e9e84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/10-fig13a.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/10-fig13b.png b/13443-h/images/10-fig13b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b585465
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/10-fig13b.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/10-fig13c.png b/13443-h/images/10-fig13c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..690e2ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/10-fig13c.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/10-fig14.png b/13443-h/images/10-fig14.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a866b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/10-fig14.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig15.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig15.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d58a993
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig15.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig16.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig16.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a852039
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig16.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig17.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig17.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b35318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig17.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig18.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig18.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f3a400
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig18.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig19.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig19.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a813de0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig19.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig20.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig20.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f1f4f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig20.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig21.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig21.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5552699
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig21.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig22.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig22.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e98c875
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig22.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/11-fig23.png b/13443-h/images/11-fig23.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a12bdfe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/11-fig23.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/12-fig24.png b/13443-h/images/12-fig24.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e45434
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/12-fig24.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/12-fig25.png b/13443-h/images/12-fig25.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95c155c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/12-fig25.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/14-stereo.jpg b/13443-h/images/14-stereo.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0850b99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/14-stereo.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/14-stereo.png b/13443-h/images/14-stereo.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f27fc70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/14-stereo.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/15-plucked.png b/13443-h/images/15-plucked.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94ea7e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/15-plucked.png
diff --git a/13443-h/images/title.jpg b/13443-h/images/title.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e26500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/title.jpg
diff --git a/13443-h/images/title.png b/13443-h/images/title.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0b58b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/13443-h/images/title.png
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3fa565
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #13443 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13443)
diff --git a/old/13443-8.txt b/old/13443-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89cbf71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4472 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 795,
+March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 795, March 28, 1891
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2004 [EBook #13443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 795
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, March 28, 1891.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 795.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    AVICULTURE.--The Effect on Fowls of Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous
+      Rations.--A very valuable report upon the effects of different
+      diet on chickens, with tables of data.--1 illustration
+
+II.   BIOGRAPHY.--N.F. Burnham and his Life Work.--By W.H. BURNHAM.
+      --The life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers,
+      an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery.
+      --1 illustration
+
+III.  BOTANY.--The Source of Chinese Ginger.--An identification of
+      a long unknown plant
+
+IV.   CIVIL ENGINEERING.--A Railway through the Andes.--An
+      interesting enterprise now in progress in South America, with
+      maps.--2 illustrations
+
+      Chicago as a Seaport.--Proposed connection of Chicago with the
+      waters of the Mississippi River, thereby placing it in water
+      communication with the sea.--2 illustrations
+
+      Floating Elevator and Spoil Distributor.--A machine for removing
+      dredged material from barges, as employed on the Baltic Sea
+      Canal Works.--10 illustrations
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY.--Alternate Current Condensers.--A valuable review
+      of the difficulties of constructing these condensers.--An important
+      contribution to the subject.--1 illustration
+
+      Electricity in Transitu.--From Plenum to Vacuum.--By Prof.
+      WILLIAM CROOKES.--Continuation of this important lecture with
+      profuse illustrations of experiments.--14 illustrations
+
+      The Telegraphic Communication between Great Britain,
+      Europe, America, and the East.--By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.--
+      The engineering aspects of electricity.--The world's cables and
+      connections.--2 illustrations
+
+VI.   HORTICULTURE.--Herbaceous Grafting.--A hitherto little practiced
+      and successful method of treating herbs, with curious results
+
+VII.  MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Improved Cold Iron Saw.--The
+      "Demon" cold saw for cutting Iron.--Its capacity and general
+      principles.--1 illustration
+
+VIII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--How to Prevent Hay Fever.--By
+      ALEXANDER RIXA.--A systematic treatment of this very troublesome
+      complaint, with a special prescription and other treatment.
+
+IX.   MISCELLANEOUS.--The Business End of the American Newspaper.--By
+      A.H. SIEGFRIED.--A graphic presentation of the
+      technique of the newspaper office, circulation of the American
+      papers, methods of printing, etc.
+
+      The New Labor Exchange at Paris.--A new establishment, long
+      demanded by the laboring population of Paris.--Its scope and
+      prospects.--2 illustrations
+
+X.    NAVAL ENGINEERING.--The Empress of India.--The pioneer
+      of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the Canadian
+      Pacific Railway between Vancouver, China, and Japan.--1 illustration
+
+XI.   PHYSICS.--Stereoscopic Projections.--A most curious method
+      of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the
+      screen, involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators.
+      --1 illustration
+
+XII.  TECHNOLOGY.--Gaseous Illuminants.--By Prof. VIVIAN B.
+      LEWES.--The fifth and last of Prof. Lewes' Society of Arts lectures,
+      concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE NEW LABOR EXCHANGE AT PARIS.
+
+
+There will soon be inaugurated (probably about the 14th of July) a new
+establishment that has long been demanded by the laboring population,
+that is to say, a new labor exchange, the buildings of which, situated
+on Chateau d'Eau Street, are to succeed the provisional exchange
+installed in the vicinity of Le Louvre Street. The new structures have
+been erected from plans by Mr. Bouvard, and occupy an area of
+seventeen hundred meters.
+
+The main work is now entirely terminated, but the interior decorations
+are not yet completely finished. The distribution comprises a vast
+meeting room, committee rooms for the various syndicates, offices in
+which the workmen of the various bodies of trades will find
+information and advice, and will be enabled to be put in relation with
+employers without passing through the more or less recommendable
+agencies to which they have hitherto been obliged to have recourse.
+
+[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS.]
+
+Upon the whole, the institution, if wisely conducted, is capable of
+bearing fruit and ought to do so, and the laboring population of Paris
+should be grateful to the municipal council for the six million francs
+that our ediles have so generously voted for making this interesting
+work a success. On seeing the precautions, perhaps necessary, that the
+laborer now takes against the capitalist, we cannot help instituting a
+comparison with the antique and solid organization of labor that
+formerly governed the trades unions. Each corporation possessed a
+syndic charged with watching over the management of affairs, and over
+the receipts and the use of the common resources. These syndics were
+appointed for two years, and had to make annually, at least, four
+visits to all the masters, in order to learn how the laborers were
+treated and paid, and how loyally the regulations of the corporation
+were observed. They rendered an account of this to the first assembly
+of the community and cited all the masters in fault.
+
+Evidently, the new Labor Exchange will not cause a revival of these
+old ways of doing things (which perhaps may have had something of
+good in them), but we may hope that laborers will find in it
+protection against those who would require of them an excess of work,
+as well as against those who would preach idleness and revolt to
+them.--_Le Monde Illustré_.
+
+[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE--HALL FOR MEETINGS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BUSINESS END OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A recent address before the Outlook Club,
+of Montclair, N.J.]
+
+By A.H. SIEGFRIED.
+
+
+The controlling motive and direct purpose of the average newspaper are
+financial profit. One is now and then founded, and conducted even at a
+loss, to serve party, social, religious or other ends, but where the
+primary intent is unselfish there remains hope for monetary gain.
+
+The first newspapers never dreamed of teaching or influencing men, but
+were made to collect news and entertainment and deal in them as in any
+other commodity. But because this was the work of intelligence upon
+intelligence, and because of conditions inherent in this kind of
+business, it soon took higher form and service, and came into
+responsibilities of which, in its origin, it had taken no thought.
+Wingate's "Views and Interviews on Journalism" gives the opinions of
+the leading editors and publishers of fifteen years ago upon this
+point of newspaper motive and work. The first notable utterance was by
+Mr. Whitelaw Reid, who said the idea and object of the modern daily
+newspaper are to collect and give news, with the promptest and best
+elucidation and discussion thereof, that is, the selling of these in
+the open market; primarily a "merchant of news." Substantially and
+distinctly the same ideas were given by William Cullen Bryant, Henry
+Watterson, Samuel Bowles, Charles A. Dana, Henry J. Raymond, Horace
+White, David G. Croly, Murat Halstead, Frederick Hudson, George
+William Curtis, E.L. Godkin, Manton Marble, Parke Godwin, George W.
+Smalley, James Gordon Bennett and Horace Greeley. The book is fat with
+discussion by these and other eminent newspaper men, as to the
+motives, methods and ethics of their profession, disclosing high
+ideals and genuine seeking of good for all the world, but the whole of
+it at last rests upon primary motives and controlling principles in
+nowise different or better or worse than those of the Produce Exchange
+and the dry goods district, of Wall Street and Broadway, so that,
+taking publications in the lump, it is neither untrue nor ungenerous,
+nor, when fully considered, is it surprising, to say that the world's
+doing, fact and fancy are collected, reported, discussed, scandalized,
+condemned, commended, supported and turned back upon the world as the
+publisher's merchandise.
+
+The force and reach of this controlling motive elude the reckoning of
+the closest observation and ripest experience, but as somewhat
+measuring its strength and pervasiveness hear, and for a moment think,
+of these facts and figures.
+
+The American Newspaper Directory for 1890, accepted as the standard
+compiler and analyst of newspaper statistics, gives as the number of
+regularly issued publications in the United States and territories,
+17,760. Then when we know that these have an aggregate circulation for
+each separate issue--not for each week, or month, or for a year, but
+for each separate issue of each individual publication, a total of
+41,524,000 copies--many of them repeating themselves each day, some
+each alternate day, some each third day and the remainder each week,
+month or quarter, and that in a single year they produce 3,481,610,000
+copies, knowing, though dimly realizing, this tremendous output, we
+have some faint impression of the numerical strength of this mighty
+force which holds close relation to and bears strong influence upon
+life, thought and work, and which, measured by its units, is as the
+June leaves on the trees--in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable;
+a force expansive, aggressive, pervasive; going everywhere; stopping
+nowhere; ceasing never.
+
+I am to speak to you of "The Business End" of the American newspaper;
+that is of the work of the publisher's department--not the editor's.
+At the outset I am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the
+subject so many and so far reaching that right regard for time compels
+the merest generalization; but, as best I can, and as briefly as I
+can, I shall speak upon the topic under three general divisions:
+
+First.--The personal and material forces which make the newspaper.
+
+Second.--The sources of revenue from the joint working of these
+forces.
+
+Third.--The direct office, bearing and influence of these forces.
+
+It is but natural that the general public has limited idea of the
+personality and mechanism of the publication business, for much of its
+movement is at night, and there is separation and isolation of
+departments, as well as complicated relation of the several parts to
+the whole. Not many years ago a very few men and boys could edit,
+print and distribute the most important of newspapers, where now
+hundreds are necessary parts in a tremendous complexity. But even
+to-day, of the nearly 18,000 publications in the United States, more
+than 11,000 are of that class which, in all their departments, are
+operated by from two to four or five persons, and which furnish scant
+remuneration even for these. Among the thin populations and in the
+remote regions are thousands of weekly papers--and you may spell the
+weekly either with a double _e_ or an _ea_--where there are two men
+and a boy, one of whom does a little writing and much scissoring,
+loafing among the corner groceries and worse, begging for
+subscribers, button-holing for advertisements, and occasionally and
+indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the "esteemed
+contemporary" or the "outraged citizen;" the second of whom sets the
+type, reads the proofs, corrects them more or less, makes the rollers,
+works the old hand press, and curses the editor and the boy
+impartially; and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly, bi-weekly
+or monthly, inks the forms and sometimes pis them, carries the papers,
+and does generally the humble and diversified works of the "printer's
+devil," while between the three the whole thing periodically goes to
+the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now and then by papers of
+this class. Yet there are many of these country papers that Mr.
+Watterson once styled the "Rural Roosters" which are useful and
+honored, and which actively employ as editors and publishers men of
+fair culture and good common sense, with typographical and mechanical
+assistants who are worthy of their craft.
+
+But the personal workers upon the great magazines and the daily
+newspapers are for each a battalion or a regiment, and in the
+aggregate a vast army. The _Century Magazine_ regularly employs in its
+editorial department three editors and eight editorial assistants, of
+whom five are women; in the art department two artists in charge and
+four assistants, of whom three are women; in the business department
+fifty-eight persons, men and women--a total of seventy six persons
+employed on the magazine regularly and wholly, while the printers and
+binders engaged in preparing a monthly edition of 200,000 magazines
+are at least a duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial, art
+and business divisions.
+
+The actual working force upon the average large daily newspaper, as
+well as an outline idea of the work done in each department, and of
+its unified result in the printed sheet, as such newspapers are
+operated in New York, Chicago and Boston, may be realized from an
+exhibit of the exact current status in the establishment of a well
+known Chicago paper.
+
+In its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief, managing
+editors, city editors, telegraph editors, exchange editors, editorial
+writers, special writers and about thirty reporters--56 in all.
+Working in direct connection with this department, and as part of it,
+are three telegraph operators and nine artists, etchers, photographers
+and engravers; in the Washington office three staff correspondents,
+and in the Milwaukee office one such correspondent--making for what
+Mr. Bennett calls the intellectual end a force of 72 men, who are
+usually regarded by the business end as a necessary evil, to be fed
+and clothed, but on the whole as hardly worth the counting.
+
+In the business and mechanical departments the men and women and their
+work are these:
+
+The business office, for general clerical work, receiving and caring
+for advertisements, receiving and disbursing cash, and for the general
+bookkeeping, employs 24 men and women.
+
+On the city circulation, stimulating and managing it within the city
+and the immediate vicinity, 10 persons.
+
+On the country circulation, for handling all out-of-town subscriptions
+and orders of wholesale news agents, 30 persons.
+
+On mailing and delivery, for sending out by mail and express of the
+outside circulation, and for distribution to city agents and newsboys,
+31 persons.
+
+In the New York office, caring for the paper's business throughout the
+East, the Canadas, Great Britain and Europe, two persons.
+
+In the composing room, where the copy is put into type, and in the
+linotype room, where a part of the type-setting is done by machinery,
+95 persons.
+
+In the stereotype foundry, where the plates are cast (for the type
+itself never is put on the press), 11 persons.
+
+In the press room, where the printing, folding, cutting, pasting and
+counting of the papers is done, 30 persons.
+
+In the engine and dynamo room, 8 persons.
+
+In the care of the building, 3 persons.
+
+These numbers include only the minimum and always necessary force, and
+make an aggregate of 316 persons daily and nightly engaged for their
+entire working time, and borne on a pay roll of six thousand dollars a
+week for salaries and wages alone.
+
+But this takes no account of special correspondents subject to instant
+call in several hundred places throughout the country; of European
+correspondents; of 1,900 news agents throughout the West; of 200 city
+carriers; of 42 wholesale city dealers, with their horses and wagons;
+of 200 branch advertisement offices throughout the city, all connected
+with the main office by telephone; and of more than 3 000 news
+boys--all making their living, in whole or in part, from work upon or
+business relations with this one paper--a little army of 6,300 men,
+women, and children, producing and distributing but one of the 1,626
+daily newspapers in the United States.
+
+The leading material forces in newspaper production are type, paper,
+and presses.
+
+Printing types are cast from a composition which is made one-half of
+lead, one-fourth of tin, and one-fourth of antimony, though these
+proportions are slightly reduced, so as to admit what the chemist
+calls of copper "a trace," the sum of these parts aiming at a metal
+which "shall be hard, yet not brittle; ductile, yet tough; flowing
+freely, yet hardening quickly." Body type, that is, those classes ever
+seen in ordinary print, aside from display and fancy styles, is in
+thirteen classes, the smallest technically called brilliant and the
+largest great primer.
+
+In the reading columns of newspapers but four classes are ordinarily
+used--agate for the small advertisements; agate, nonpareil, and minion
+for news, miscellany, etc., and minion and brevier for editorials--the
+minion being used for what are called minor editorials, and the
+brevier for leading articles, as to which it may be said that young
+editorial writers consider life very real and very earnest until they
+are promoted from minion to brevier.
+
+A complete assortment of any one of these classes is called a font,
+the average weight of which is about 800 pounds. Whereas our alphabet
+has 26 letters, the compositor must really use of letters, spaces,
+accent marks, and other characters in an English font 152 distinct
+types, and in each font there are 195,000 individual pieces. The
+largest number of letters in a font belongs to small _e_--12,000; and
+the least number to the _z_--200. The letters, characters, spaces,
+etc., are distributed by the printer in a pair of cases, the upper one
+for capitals, small capitals, and various characters, having 98 boxes,
+and the lower one, for the small letters, punctuation marks, etc.,
+having 54 boxes.
+
+A few newspapers are using typesetting machines for all or part of
+their composition. The New York _Tribune_ is using the Linotype
+machine for all its typesetting except the displayed advertisements,
+and other papers are using it for a portion of their work, while still
+others are using the Rogers and various machines, of which there are
+already six or more. It seems probable that within the early future
+newspaper composition will very generally be done by machinery.
+
+It has been suggested to me that many of my hearers this evening know
+little or nothing of the processes of the printer's art, and that some
+exposition of it may interest a considerable portion of this audience.
+
+The vast number of these little "messengers of thought" which are
+required in a single modern daily newspaper is little known to
+newspaper readers. Set in the manner of ordinary reading, a column of
+the New York _Tribune_ contains 12,200 pieces, counting head lines,
+leads, and so on; while, if set solidly in its medium-sized type,
+there are 18,800 pieces in one column, or about 113,000 in a page, or
+about 1,354,000 in one of its ordinary 12-page issues. A 32-page
+Sunday issue of the New York _Herald_ contains nearly, if not quite,
+2,500,000 distinct types and other pieces of metal, each of which must
+be separately handled between thumb and finger twice--once put into
+the case and once taken out of it--each issue of the paper. No one
+inexperienced in this delicate work has the slightest conception of
+the intensity of attention, fixity of eye, deftness of touch,
+readiness of intelligence, exhaustion of vitality, and destruction of
+brain and nerve which enters into the daily newspaper from
+type-setters alone.
+
+Each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks, by sight and touch
+of which the compositor is guided in rapidly placing them right side
+up in the line. They are taken, one by one, between thumb and
+forefinger, while the mind not only spells out each word, but is
+always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead of the fingers, and
+each letter, syllable and word is set in its order in lines in the
+composing stick, each line being spaced out in the stick so as to
+exactly fit the column width, this process being repeated until the
+stick is full. Then the stickful is emptied upon a galley. Then, when
+the page or the paper is "up," as the printers phrase it, the galleys
+are collected, and the foreman makes up the pages, article by article,
+as they come to us in the printed paper--the preliminary processes of
+printing proofs from the galleys, reading them by the proof readers,
+who mark the errors, and making the corrections by the compositors
+(each one correcting his own work), having been quietly and swiftly
+going on all the while. The page is made up on a portable slab of
+iron, upon which it is sent to the stereotyping room. There wet
+stereotyping paper, several sheets in thickness, is laid over the
+page, and this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously beaten
+evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the soft paper is
+pressed down into all the interstices between the type; then this is
+covered with blankets and the whole is placed upon a steam chest,
+where it is subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes
+perfectly dry. Then, this dried and hardened paper, called a matrix,
+is placed in a circular mould, and melted stereotype metal is poured
+in and cooled, resulting in the circular plate, which is rapidly
+carried to the press room, clamped upon its cylinder, and when all the
+cylinders are filled, page by page in proper sequence, the pressman
+gives the signal, the burr and whirr begin, and men and scarcely less
+sentient machines enter upon their swift race for the early trains. As
+a matter of general interest it may be remarked that this whole
+process of stereotyping a page, from the time the type leaves the
+composing room until the plate is clamped upon the press, averages
+fifteen minutes, and that cases are upon record when the complex task
+has been accomplished in eleven minutes.
+
+The paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled upon wooden or iron
+cores. Some presses take paper the narrow way of the paper, rolls for
+which average between 600 and 700 pounds. Others work upon paper of
+double the width of two pages, that is, four pages wide, and then the
+rolls are sometimes as wide as six feet, and have an average weight of
+1,350 pounds. Each roll from which the New York _Tribune_ is printed
+contains an unbroken sheet 23,000 feet (4-1/3 miles) long. A few hours
+before the paper is to be printed, an iron shaft having journal ends
+is passed through the core, the roll is placed in a frame where it may
+revolve, the end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll
+is unwound at a speed of from 13 to 15 miles an hour, while a fan-like
+spray of water plays evenly across its width, so that the entire sheet
+is unrolled, dampened, for the better taking of the impression to be
+made upon it, and firmly rewound, all in twenty minutes. Each of these
+rolls will make about 7,600 copies of the _Tribune_.
+
+When all is ready, paper and stereotyped pages in place, and all
+adjustments carefully attended to, the almost thinking machine starts
+at the pressman's touch, and with well nigh incredible speed prints,
+places sheet within sheet, pastes the parts together, cuts, folds and
+counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and constancy beyond
+the power of human eye and hand.
+
+The printing press has held its own in the rapid advance of that
+wonderful evolution which, within the last half century, in every
+phase of thought and in every movement of material forces placed under
+the dominion of men, has almost made one of our years the equivalent
+of one of the old centuries. Within average recollection the single
+cylinder printing machine, run by hand or steam, and able under best
+conditions to print one side of a thousand sheets in one hour, was the
+marvel of mankind. In 1850, one such, that we started in an eastern
+Ohio town, drew such crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were
+obliged to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance which would
+allow the astonishing thing to work at all.
+
+To-day, in the United States alone, five millions of dollars are
+invested in the building of printing presses, many of which, by
+slightest violence to figure of speech, do think and speak.
+Inspiration was not wholly a thing of long-gone ages, for if ever men
+received into brain and worked out through hand the divine touch, then
+were Hoe, and Scott, and Campbell taught of God.
+
+Under existing conditions newspapers of any importance, in the smaller
+cities, use one and sometimes two presses, capable of producing from
+7,000 to 9,000 complete eight page papers each hour, each machine
+costing from $10,000 to $15,000. Papers of the second class in the
+large cities use treble or quadruple this press capacity, while the
+great papers, in the four or five leading cities, have machinery
+plants of from four to ten presses of greatest capacity, costing from
+$32,000 to $50,000 each, and able to produce papers of the different
+numbers of pages required, at a speed of from 24,000 to 90,000 four
+page sheets, or of from 24,000 to 48,000 eight, ten, or twelve page
+sheets per hour, each paper complete as you receive it at your
+breakfast table--printed, pasted, cut and folded, and the entire
+product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens, fifties,
+hundreds or thousands, as may be required for instantaneous delivery,
+while, as if to illustrate and emphasize the ever upward trend of
+public demand for the day's news, quick and inclusive, Hoe & Co. are
+now building machines capable of producing in all completeness 150,000
+four page papers each hour.
+
+All this tremendous combination of brain, nerve, muscle, material,
+machinery and capital depends for its movement and remuneration upon
+but two sources of income--circulation and advertisements--the unit
+measurements of which are infinitesimal--for the most part represented
+by wholesale prices; from one-half a cent to two cents per copy for
+the daily newspaper, and in like proportion for the weeklies and
+monthlies; and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line per
+thousand of circulation for advertising space. Verily, in a certain
+and large sense, the vast publishing interests rest upon drops of
+water and grains of sand. Under right conditions no kind of business
+or property is more valuable, and yet no basis of values is more
+intangible. Nothing in all trade or commerce is so difficult to
+establish or more environed by competitions, and yet, once
+established, almost nothing save interior dry rot can pull it down. It
+depends upon the judgment and favor of the million, yet instances are
+few where any external force has seriously and permanently impaired
+it.
+
+About two hundred years have gone since the publication of the first
+number of the first American newspaper. It was a monthly, called
+_Publick Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic_, first printed
+September 25, 1690, by Richard Pierce, and founded by Benjamin Harris.
+At that time public favor did seem to control newspaper interests, for
+that first paper aroused antagonism, and it was almost immediately
+suppressed by the authorities. Only one copy of it is now in
+existence, and that is in London. The first newspaper to live, in this
+country, was the Boston _News Letter_, first issued in 1704 and
+continued until 1776. New York's first newspaper, the New York
+_Gazette_, appeared October 16, 1725. At the outbreak of the
+revolution there were 37 newspapers, and in 1800 there were 200, of
+which several were dailies. In 1890 there were 17,760, of which there
+were 13,164 weeklies, 2,191 monthlies, 1,626 dailies, 280
+semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126 quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38
+bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies.
+
+The circulations belong largely to the weeklies, monthlies and
+dailies, the weeklies having 23,228,750, the monthlies 9,245,750, the
+dailies 6,653,250, leaving only 2,400,000 for all the others.
+
+The largest definitely ascertainable daily average circulation for one
+year, in this country, has been 222,745. Only one other daily paper in
+the world has had more--_Le Petit Journal_, in Paris, which really, as
+we understand it, is not a newspaper, but which regularly prints and
+sells for one sou more than 750,000 copies. The largest American
+weekly is the _Youth's Companion,_ Boston, 461,470. The largest
+monthly is the _Ladies' Home Journal_, Philadelphia, 542,000. The
+largest among the better known magazines is the _Century_, 200,000. Of
+the daily papers which directly interest us--those of the city of New
+York--the actual or approximate daily averages of the morning papers
+are given by "Dauchy's Newspaper Catalogue" for 1891, as follows:
+_Tribune_, daily, 80,000; Sunday, 85,000. _Times_, daily, 40,000;
+Sunday, 55,000. _Herald_, daily, 100,000; Sunday, 120,000. _Morning
+Journal_, 200,000. _Press_, daily, 85,000; Sunday, 45,000. _Sun_,
+daily, 90,000; Sunday, 120,000. _World_, daily, 182,000; Sunday,
+275,000. Of the afternoon papers, _Commercial Advertiser_, 15,000;
+_Evening Post_, 18,000; _Telegram_, 25,000; _Graphic_ (not the old,
+but a new one), 10,000; _Mail and Express_, 40,000; _News_, 173,000;
+_Evening Sun_, 50,000; _Evening World_, 168,000. The entire
+circulation of New York dailies, including with those named others of
+minor importance, and the German, French, Italian, Bohemian, Hebrew
+and Spanish daily newspapers, is 1,540,200 copies.
+
+Obviously, there is and must be ceaseless, incisive and merciless
+competition in securing and holding circulations, as well as in the
+outward statements made of individual circulations to those who
+purchase advertising space. In this, as in all other forms of
+enterprise, there are honest, clean-cut and business-like methods, and
+there are the methods of the time-server, the trickster and the liar.
+
+The vastly greater number of publications secure and hold their
+clientage by making the best possible goods, pushing them upon public
+patronage by aggressive and business-like means, and selling at the
+lowest price consistent with excellence of product and fairness alike
+to producer and consumer. But of the baser sort there are always
+enough to make rugged paths for those who walk uprightly, and to
+contribute to instability of values on the one hand, and on the other
+to flooding the country with publications which the home and the world
+would be better without. Every great city has more of the rightly made
+and rightly sold papers than of the other sort, and the business man,
+the working man, the professional man, the family, no matter of what
+taste, or political faith, or economic bias, or social status, or
+financial plenty or paucity, can have the daily visits of newspapers
+which are able, brilliant, comprehensive, clean and honest. But all
+the time, these men and families will have pressed upon their
+attention and patronage, by every device and artifice of the energetic
+and more or less unscrupulous publisher, other papers equally able and
+brilliant and comprehensive, but bringing also their burden of
+needless sensationalism and mendacity, undue expansion of all manner
+of scandal, amplification of every detail and kind of crime, and every
+phase of covert innuendo or open attack upon official doing and
+private character--the whole infernal mass procured, and stimulated
+and broadcast among the people by the "business end of it," with the
+one and only intent of securing and holding circulation.
+
+Take a representative and pertinent example. Eight years ago there
+were in New York ten or eleven standard newspapers, as ably and
+inclusively edited and as energetically and successfully conducted,
+business-wise, as they are now. Even at their worst they were decently
+mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and they throve by
+legitimate sale of the most and best news and the best possible
+elucidation and discussion thereof. The father could bring the paper
+of his choice to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral
+sense and self-respect might be outraged, or that the face of his wife
+might be crimsoned and the minds of his children befouled. But there
+came from out of the West new men and new forces, quick to see the
+larger opportunity opened in the very center of five millions of
+people, and almost in a night came the metamorphosis of the old World
+into the new. It was deftly given out that existing conditions were
+inadequate to the better deserts of the Knickerbocker, the Jersey-man,
+and the Yankee, and that a new purveyor of more highly seasoned news
+and a more doughty champion of their rights and interests was hither
+from the land of life and movement--at two cents per copy. There was a
+panic in New York newspaper counting rooms, and prices tumbled in two
+days from the three and four cents of fair profit to the two and three
+cents of bare cost or less. The new factors in demoralization cared
+nothing for competition in prices or legitimate goods, for they had
+other ideas of coddling the dear people. Ready to their purpose lay
+disintegrated Liberty, waiting for a rock upon which to plant her feet
+and raise her torch, and the new combination between the world, the
+flesh and the devil, waiting and ready for access to the pockets of
+the public, was only too ready to set up Liberty and itself at one
+stroke, if only the joint operation could be done without expense to
+itself. The people said, "What wonderful enterprise!" "What a generous
+spirit!" The combination, with tongue in cheek and finger laid
+alongside nose, said to itself as it saw its circulation spring in one
+bound from five figures into six, "Verily we've got there! for these
+on the Hudson are greater gudgeons than are they on the Mississippi."
+From then until now, with an outward semblance and constant pretense
+of serving the people; with blare of trumpet and rattle of drum; with
+finding Stanley, who never had been lost; with scurrying peripatetic
+petticoats around the globe; with all manner of unprofessional and
+illegitimate devices; with so-called "contests" and with all manner of
+"schemes" without limit in number, kind, or degree; with every
+cunningly devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity--from then
+until now that combination has been struggling to hold and has held an
+audience of the undiscriminating and the unthinking. But, further,
+and worse, a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation has led
+other papers to follow somewhat at a distance in this demoralizing
+race. None of them has gone to such lengths, but the tendency to
+literary, mental and moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown
+form of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods of
+every New York daily save only the _Tribune_, _Times_, _Commercial
+Advertiser_, and _Evening Post,_ while the converse side of securing
+business clientage is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it
+were not pathetic, by that abnormal and fantastic cross between news
+and pietetics which mails and expresses itself to the truly good.
+These are forms of competition which the business end of legitimately
+conducted newspapers is compelled to meet. In a certain way these
+methods do succeed, but how, and how long and how much shall they
+succeed except by unsettling the mental and moral poise of the people,
+and by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere whose
+thoughts take less account of means than of ends? Which shall we hold
+in higher esteem and in our business patronage--Manton Marble and
+Hurlbut, gentlemen, scholarly, wise leaders, conscientious teachers,
+with barely living financial income; or their successors, parvenus,
+superficial, meretricious, false guides, time-serving leaders, a
+thousand dollars a day of clear profit, housed in the tower of Babel?
+
+Considered in the large, the circulation side of the American
+newspaper has many indefensible aspects. As "nothing succeeds like
+success," or the appearance of success, the prestige of not a few
+newspapers is ministered unto by rotund and deceptive representations
+of circulation. Then, as few can live, much less profit, on their
+circulations alone, it becomes greatly important to make the
+advertiser see circulations through the large end of the telescope,
+and so the fine art of telling truth without lying is a live and
+perennial study in many counting rooms. Discussing the circulation
+question not long ago with the head of a leading religious paper, he
+told me that the number of copies he printed was a thing that he never
+stated definitely, because the publishers of the other religious
+newspapers lied so about their circulations that he would do himself
+injustice if he were to tell the truth about his own. The secular
+papers should set an example for their religious brethren, but they do
+not, for from many of them there is lying--systematic, persistent, and
+more or less colossal. Not long ago, within a few days of each other,
+three men who were simultaneously employed on a certain paper told me
+their _actual_ circulation, _confidentially_, too. One of them put it
+at 85,000, the second at 110,000, and the third at 130,000, and each
+of them lied, for their lying was so diversified and entertaining that
+I felt a real interest in securing the truth, and so I took some
+trouble to ask the pressman about it. He told me, _very_
+confidentially, that it was 120,000--and he lied.
+
+By this time my interest was so heightened that I told my personal
+friend, the publisher, about the inartistic and incoherent mendacity
+of his subordinates, whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation
+book, which clearly, and I have no doubt truthfully, exhibited an
+average of 88,000. The wicked partner is nearly always ready to show
+the actual record of the counting machines on the presses, and
+"figures never lie" but the truth-telling machines which record actual
+work of the impression cylinders make no mention of damaged copies
+thrown aside, of sample copies, files, exchanges, copies kept against
+possible future need, copies unsold, copies nominally sold but sooner
+or later returned and finally sold to the junk shop, and all that sort
+of thing. One prints a large extra issue on a certain day for some
+business corporation which has its own purpose to serve by publication
+of an article in its own interest, whereby many thousands of copies
+are added to that day's normal output, and he makes the exceptional
+number for that day serve as the exponent of his circulation until
+good fortune brings him a similar and possibly larger order, and his
+circulation is reported as "still increasing." Another struck a
+"high-water mark" of "190,500" the day after Mr. Cleveland was
+elected, and that has been the implied measure of circulation for the
+last six years. Another, during a heated political campaign, or a
+great financial crisis, or some other dominant factor in public
+interest, makes a large and genuine temporary increase, but the
+highest mark gained does enforced duty in the eyes of the marines
+until another flood tide sweeps him to a greater transient height.
+These are types of the competitions of the circulation liar. At this
+very hour there are four daily newspapers each of which has the
+largest circulation in the United States. Of the nearly 18,000
+American publications only 103 furnish detailed, open, and entirely
+trustworthy statements of circulation.
+
+As to the general public this is no great matter, but to the vast
+number of business men who buy the real or fancied publicity afforded
+by newspaper advertising it is of exceeding importance. That the large
+buyers of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled is
+because they understand the circulation extravaganza and buy space
+according to their understanding. The time is coming, and it should
+come soon, when newspaper circulations shall be open to the same
+inspection and publicity as is now the case with banks and insurance
+companies, and when the circulation liar and swindler shall be
+amenable to the same law and liable to the same penalty as stands
+against and is visited upon any other perjurer and thief.
+
+_(To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREVENT HAY FEVER.
+
+By ALEXANDER RIXA, M.D., New York.
+
+
+In the May (1890) number of the _Therapeutic Gazette_ I furnished some
+contribution to the "Treatment of Hay Fever." I reported therein a
+favorable result in the treatment of this mysterious disease in the
+experience of my last year's cases.
+
+My experience of this year is far more gratifying, and worthy of
+receiving a wide publicity.
+
+I treated six cases in all, four of which have been habitual for years
+to hay fever proper without complications, while the other two used to
+have the disease aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh.
+I succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease in every
+individual case. The treatment I applied was very simple, and
+consisted of the following:
+
+From the fact that I had known all my patients from previous years, I
+ordered them to my office two weeks before the usual onset of the
+disease. I advised them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of
+chloride of sodium four times a day--morning, noon, evening, and on
+retiring; and, a few minutes after the cleansing of the parts, had the
+nares thoroughly sprayed with peroxide of hydrogen and c.p. glycerin,
+half and half. Those subject to a conjunctivitis I prescribed a two
+per cent. solution of boric acid as a wash. At this period no internal
+medication was given, but three days previous to the usual onset of
+the disease I prescribed phenacetin and salol, five grains of each
+three times a day.
+
+On the respective expected days, to the great surprise of all the
+members concerned successively, who have been in the habit of getting
+the disease almost invariably at a certain date, no hay fever symptoms
+appeared, though everyone had been the victim of the disease for a
+great number of years, varying from five to nineteen years' standing.
+
+It is self-understood that this treatment was kept up all through the
+season, and, as no symptoms developed, the applications were reduced,
+toward the termination, to twice and once a day. The internal
+medication, however, was stopped after the expiration of the first
+week, and all the patients could attend to their various respective
+vocations, something they never have been able to do in previous
+years.
+
+In two cases, though no nasal symptoms developed, about two weeks
+after the calculated onset, slight symptoms of asthma made their
+appearance. However, I could easily suppress them at this time with
+the aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer, a very ingenious little
+apparatus, of which I gave a thorough description in my last year's
+article. I used the ozone inhalations every four hours, in connection
+with the internal administration of the following prescription:
+
+      Rx Iodide of ammonia, 8;
+         Fl. ex. quebracho, 30;
+         Fl. ex. grindelia robusta, 15;
+         Tr. lobelia, 12;
+         Tr. belladonna, 8;
+         Syr. pruni, virg., q.s., ad 120.
+
+  Sig.--Teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four hours.
+
+However, toward the end of the fourth week, especially in one case--a
+stout, heavy-set gentleman--very grave asthmatic symptoms developed,
+which compelled me to apply Chapman's spinal ice bag, as well as
+resort to the internal administration of large doses of codeine during
+the paroxysm, with the most beneficial result.
+
+I gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two cases. I find
+them to act very soothingly in the simple asthma, facilitating
+respiration after a few minutes; but during the paroxysmal stage they
+cannot be utilized, for the reason that respiration is short and
+rapid, and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the gas to
+be inhaled. Consequently, it is either of little use as a remedy; or,
+if too much is taken, a disagreeable headache will be the consequence.
+
+During the catarrhal stage, which, however, was very mild compared
+with last year, I derived great benefit from the administration of
+codeine, in combination with terpine hydrate, in the pill form. The
+codeine has the advantage over all other opium preparations that it
+does not affect the digestive organs, and still acts in a soothing
+manner. While during last year's sickness my patients lost from ten to
+twenty pounds of their bodily weight, this year but one lost eight
+pounds and the other five pounds.
+
+As the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped in
+obscurity, we may fairly conclude, by the success of my treatment, if
+it should meet with the confirmation of the profession, that the much
+pretended sensitive area, situated, according to Dr. Sajous, "at the
+posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and the corresponding
+portion of the septum," or, according to Dr. John Mackenzie, who
+locates this area "at the anterior extremity of the inferior
+turbinated bone," need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by
+cautery, in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever proper.
+
+I examined my patients twice a week, and the closest rhinoscopical
+exploration would not reveal the slightest pathological change in the
+mucous membrane of the nares.
+
+Now, what is the etiological factor of the disease? Is it a specific
+germ conveyed by the air to the parts and--_locus minoris
+resistencia_--deposited at the pretended area, or is the germinal
+matter present in the nasal mucous membrane with certain persons, and
+requires only at a certain time and under certain conditions
+physiological stimulation to manifest periodical pathological changes,
+which give rise to the train of symptoms called hay fever? Dropping
+all hypothetical reasoning, I think some outside vegetable germ is
+causing the disease in those predisposed, and peroxide of hydrogen
+acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles, _i.e._, drives them out
+when and wherever it finds them. I hope the profession will give this
+new measure a thorough trial and report their results.--_Therapeutic
+Gazette._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SOURCE OF CHINESE GINGER.
+
+
+In the Kew _Bulletin_ for January an interesting account is given of
+the identification of the plant yielding the rhizome employed to make
+the well-known Chinese preserved ginger. As long ago as 1878 Dr. E.
+Percival Wright, of Trinity College, Dublin, called the attention of
+Mr. Thiselton Dyer to the fact that the preserved ginger has very much
+larger rhizomes than _Zingiber officinale_, and that it was quite
+improbable that it was the product of that plant. The difficulty in
+identifying the plant arose from the fact that, like many others
+cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely flowers. The first
+flowering plant was sent to Kew from Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the
+superintendent of the Hope Garden there. During the past year the
+plant has flowered both at Dominica in the West Indies and in the
+Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong. Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic
+Garden at Hong-Kong, has identified the plant as _Alpinia Galanga_,
+the source of the greater or Java galangal root of commerce. Mr.
+Watson, of Kew, appears to have been the first to suggest that the
+Chinese ginger plant is probably a species of _Alpinia_, and possibly
+identical with the Siam ginger plant, which was described by Sir J.
+Hooker in the _Botanical Magazine_ (tab. 6,946) in 1887 as a new
+species under the name of _Alpinia zingiberina_. Mr. J.G. Baker, in
+working up the Scitamineæ for the "Flora of British India," arrived at
+the conclusion that it is not distinct from the _Alpinia Galanga_,
+Willd. The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical, and both
+are the produce of _Alpinia Galanga_, Willd.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.
+
+
+We illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor constructed by
+Mr. A.F. Smulders, Utrecht, Holland, for removing dredged material out
+of barges at the Baltic Sea Canal Works. We give a perspective view
+showing the apparatus at work, and on a page plate are given plans,
+longitudinal and cross sections, with details which are from
+_Engineering_. The dredged material is raised out of the launches or
+barges by means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of 10.5
+meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water line, from whence it is pushed
+to the place of deposition by a heavy stream of water supplied by
+centrifugal pumps.
+
+[Illustration: FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC
+SEA CANAL.]
+
+The necessary machinery and superstructure are supported on two
+vessels connected, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, with cross girders, a
+sufficient width being left between each vessel to form a well large
+enough for a barge to float into, and for the working of the bucket
+ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges. The girders
+are braced together and carry the framing for the bucket chains,
+gears, etc.
+
+The port vessel is provided with a compound engine of 150 indicated
+horse power, with injection condenser actuating two powerful
+centrifugal pumps, raising water which enters by a series of holes
+into the bottom of the shoots underneath the dredged material,
+carrying the material to the conduit (as indicated on Fig. 4 and in
+detail on Figs. 6 and 7).
+
+A steel boiler of 80 square meters (860 square feet) heating surface,
+and 6 atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam to the
+engine. Forward on the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical
+two-cylinder high pressure engine of 30 indicated horse power, which
+helps to bring the barge to the desired position between the parallel
+vessels. A horizontal two-cylinder engine of the same power, fitted
+with reversing gear, placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder,
+raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition of a strongly
+framed capstan, as shown on Fig. 5. The gearing throughout is of
+friction pulleys and worm and wormwheel. It is driven by belts.
+
+In the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of 100 indicated
+horse power, with injection condenser, working the bucket chain by
+means of belts and wheel gearing, as shown on Fig. 2. A marine boiler
+of 46 square meters (495 square feet) heating surface and 6
+atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam. In this vessel,
+it may be added, there is a cabin for the crew.
+
+The dimensions of the vessels are as follows; Extreme length, 25
+meters (82 ft.); breadth, 4.5 meters (14 ft. 9 in.); depth (moulded),
+2.7 meters (6 ft. 6¾ in.); average draught of water, 1.4 meters (4 ft.
+7 in.); space between the ships, 6.55 meters (21 ft. 6 in.) The iron
+structure connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form
+stanchions on both ships, connected at the top by two strong box
+girders with tie pieces supporting the main framing. This main
+framing, also of the "box girder" form, is strengthened with angle
+irons and braced together at the tops by a platform supporting the
+gearing of the bucket chains, as shown on Fig. 5. The buckets have a
+capacity of 160 liters (5.65 cubic feet) and the speed in travel is at
+the rate of 25 to 30 buckets per minute, so that with both ladders
+working, 50 to 60 buckets are discharged per minute. The top tumbler
+shaft is placed at a height of 13 meters (42 ft. 8 in.) above the
+water line (Fig. 4), and the dredge conduit has a length of 50 meters
+(164 ft.), Fig. 1. The shooting is done at a height of 8.5 meters (27
+ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the shoot catches the dredged
+products at a height of 10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water
+line, the sliding gradient being 4 to 100. The dredge conduit is
+carried by timberwork resting on two of the upright box form
+stanchions.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.]
+
+All cables are of galvanized steel and provided with open twin
+buckles. The main parts of the apparatus are of steel, and all pieces
+subject to wear and tear are fitted with bushes so formed that they
+can be easily replaced.
+
+The quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus amounts to
+350 cubic meters (12,360 square feet) per hour. Four plants of similar
+construction have been built for the new Baltic Sea Canal, besides a
+fixed elevator of the same power and disposition, with the exception
+that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at a height of 16.1 meters
+(51 ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the dredge conduit placed at
+a distance of 13 meters (43 ft.) from it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.
+
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.]
+
+The engraving given herewith shows a general view of the "Demon" cold
+saw, designed for cutting iron, mild steel, or other metals of fairly
+large sections, that is, up square or round, and any rectangular
+section up to 8 in. by 4 in. The maker, Mr. R.G. Fiege, of London,
+claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw, at once
+powerful, simple and effective. It is always in readiness for work,
+can be worked by inexperienced workmen. The bed plate has T slots, to
+receive a parallel vise, which can be fixed at any angle for angular
+cutting. The articulated lever carries a saw of 10 in. or 12 in.
+diameter, on the spindle of which a bronze pinion is fixed, gearing
+with the worm shown. The latter derives motion from a pair of bevel
+wheels, which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in the
+engraving. The lever and the saw connected with it can be raised and
+held up by a pawl while the work is being fixed. In small work the
+weight of the lever itself is found sufficient to feed the saw, but in
+heavier work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the end of
+the lever. The machine is fitted with fast and loose pulleys, strap
+fork and bar. We are informed that one of these machines is capable of
+making 400 cuts through bars of Bessemer steel 4 in. diameter, each
+cutting occupying six minutes on an average, without changing the
+saw.--_Industries_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.
+
+
+The railway system of the Argentine Republic is separated from the
+Chilian system by the chain of the Andes. The English contractors,
+Messrs. Clark & Co., have undertaken to connect them by a line which
+starts from Mendoza, the terminus of the Argentine system, and ends at
+Santa Rosa in Chili, with a total length of 144 miles. The distance
+from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso will thus be reduced to 816 miles. The
+Argentine lines are of 5.4 foot gauge, and those of Chili of 4.6 foot.
+
+The line in course of construction traverses an extremely hilly
+region. The starting and terminal points are at the levels of 2,338
+feet (Mendoza) and 2,706 feet (Santa Rosa) above the sea; the lowest
+neck of the chain is at the level of 11,287 feet.
+
+Study having shown that a direction line without tunnels, and even
+with the steepest gradients for traction by adhesion, would lead to a
+considerable lengthening of the line, and would expose it to
+avalanches and to obstructions by snow, there was adopted upon a
+certain length a rack track of the Abt system, with gradients of 8 per
+cent., and the neck is traversed by a tunnel 3 miles in length and
+1,968 feet beneath the surface. The number and length of the tunnels
+upon the two declivities, moreover, are considerable. They are all
+provided with rack tracks. The first 80 miles, starting from Mendoza,
+are exploited by adhesion, with maximum gradients of 2½ per cent. Upon
+the remaining 64 miles, traction can be effected either by adhesion or
+racks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--REGION TRAVERSED BY THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE
+ANDES.]
+
+The track is of 3.28 foot gauge, and this will necessitate
+trans-shipments upon the two systems. The rails weigh 19 pounds to the
+running foot in the parts where the exploitation can be effected
+either through adhesion or racks, and 17 pounds in those in which
+adhesion alone will be employed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE
+ANDES.]
+
+The special locomotives for use on the rack sections will weigh 45
+tons in service and will haul 70 ton trains over gradients of 8
+percent. Those that are to be employed upon the parts where traction
+will be by adhesion will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels,
+three of them coupled. The weight distributed over these latter will
+be 28 tons. These engines will haul 140 ton trains over gradients of 2
+per cent.
+
+The earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the length, and the
+track has been laid for a length of 58 miles from Mendoza. It is hoped
+that it will be possible to open the line to traffic as far as to the
+summit tunnels in 1891, and to finish the tunnels in 1893. These
+tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock. To this effect,
+it is intended to use drills actuated by electricity through dynamos
+driven by waterfalls. The Ferroux system seems preferable to the
+Brandt and other hydraulic systems, seeing the danger of the water
+being frozen in the conduits placed outside of the tunnels.--_Le Genie
+Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE EMPRESS OF INDIA.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA.]
+
+The Empress of India is intended to be the pioneer of three fast mail
+steamers, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company for service in
+connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway, between Vancouver and
+the ports of China and Japan, thus forming the last link in the new
+route to the East through British territory. Her sister ships, the
+Empress of China and Empress of Japan, are to be ready in April next.
+These three ships all fulfill the requirements of the Board of Trade
+and of the Admiralty and Lloyd's, and are classed as 100 A1. They will
+also be placed on the list of British armed cruisers for service as
+commerce protectors in time of war. For this service each vessel is to
+be thoroughly fitted. There are two platforms forward and two aft, for
+mounting 7 in. Armstrong guns. These weapons, in the case of the
+Empress of India, are already awaiting the vessel at Vancouver. The
+Empress of India is painted white all over, has three pole masts to
+carry fore and aft sails. She has two buff-colored funnels and a
+clipper stern, and in external build much resembles the City of Rome.
+Her length over all is 485 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth, 36 feet; and
+gross tonnage, 5,920 tons. The hull, of steel, is divided into fifteen
+compartments by bulkheads, and has a cellular double bottom 4 feet in
+depth and 7 feet below the engine room. There are four complete decks.
+The ship is designed to carry 200 saloon passengers, 60 second cabin,
+and 500 steerage--these last chiefly Chinese coolies, for whose
+special delectation an "opium room" has been provided on
+board.--_Daily Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHICAGO AS A SEAPORT.
+
+
+The prairie land in the southwest corner of Lake Michigan, which,
+seventy years ago, was half morass from the overflowing of the
+sluggish creek, whose waters, during flood, spread over the low-lying,
+level plain, or were supplemented in the dry season by the inflow from
+the lake, showed no sign of any future development and prosperity. The
+few streets of wooden houses that had been built by their handful of
+isolated inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect and
+desertion than to increase, and ultimately to be swept away by fire,
+to make room for the extravagant and gigantic buildings that to-day
+characterize American civilization and commercial prosperity. Nearly
+1,000 miles from the Atlantic, a greater distance from the Gulf of
+Mexico, and 2,000 miles from the Pacific, no wilder dream could have
+been imagined fifty years ago than that Chicago should become a
+seaport, the volume of whose business should be second only to that of
+New York; that forty miles of wharves and docks lining the branches of
+the river should be insufficient for the wants of her commerce, and
+that none of the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply
+the demand.
+
+Yet this is the situation to-day, the difficulties of which must
+increase many fold as years pass and business grows, unless some
+changes are made by which increased accommodation can be obtained. The
+nature of these changes has long engrossed the attention of the
+municipality and their engineers, and necessity is forcing them from
+discussion to action. As such action is likely to be taken soon, the
+subject is of sufficient interest to the English reader to devote some
+space to its consideration.
+
+The most important problem, however, which the works to be
+undertaken--and which must of necessity be soon commenced--will have
+to solve, is not one of wharf accommodation or of increased facilities
+of commerce. It is the better disposal of the sewage of the city, the
+system in use at present being inadequate, and growing more and more
+imperfect as the city and its population increase. During the early
+days of Chicago, and indeed long after, the sewage question was
+treated with primitive simplicity, and with a complete disregard of
+sanitary laws.
+
+The river and the lake in front of the city were close at hand and
+convenient to receive all the discharge from the drains that flowed
+into them. But this condition of things had to come to an end, for the
+lake supplied the population with water, and it became too
+contaminated for use. To obtain even this temporary relief involved
+much of the ground level of the city being raised to a height of 14
+ft. above low water, a great undertaking carried out a number of years
+ago. To obtain an adequate supply of pure water, Mr. E.S. Chesborough,
+the city engineer, adopted the ingenious plan of driving a long tunnel
+beneath the bed of the lake, connected at the outer end to an inlet
+tower built in the water, and on shore to pumping engines. This plan
+proved so successful that it is now being repeated on a larger scale,
+and with a much longer tunnel, to meet the increased demands of the
+large population.
+
+But to improve the sanitary condition of the city has been a much more
+difficult undertaking, as may be gathered from the following extract
+from an official report: "The present sanitary condition calls loudly
+for relief. The pollution of the Desplaines and the Illinois Rivers
+extends 81 miles, as far as the mouth of the Fox (see plan, Fig. 1) in
+summer low water, and occasionally to Peoria (158 miles) in winter.
+Outside of the direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable.
+The spewing of the harbor contents into the lake, the sewers
+constantly discharging therein, clouds the source of water supply (the
+lake) with contamination. Relief to Chicago and equity to her
+neighbors is a necessity of the early future." To make this quotation
+clear it is necessary to explain the actual condition of the Chicago
+sewage question.
+
+Long before the present metropolis had arrived at the title and
+dignity of a city, the advantage to be derived from a waterway between
+Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, and thence to the Mississippi,
+was well understood. The scheme was, in fact, considered of sufficient
+importance to call for legislation as early as 1822, in which year an
+act was passed authorizing the construction of a canal having this
+object. It was not commenced, however, till 1836, and was opened to
+navigation in the spring of 1848. This canal extended from Chicago to
+La Salle, a distance of 97¼ miles, and it had a fall of 146 ft. to low
+water in the Illinois River (see Fig. 1). It was only a small affair,
+6 ft. deep, and 60 ft. wide on the surface; the locks were 110 ft.
+long and 18 ft. wide. The summit level, which was only 8 ft. above the
+lake, was 21 miles in length. This limited waterway remained in use
+for a number of years, until, in fact, the growth of Chicago rendered
+it impossible to allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake. In
+1865 the State of Illinois sanctioned widening and lowering the canal
+so that it should flow by gravity from Lake Michigan. The enlargement
+was completed in 1871, by the city of Chicago, and the sewage was then
+discharged toward the Illinois River. But the flow was insufficient,
+and in 1881 the State called on the city to supplement the flow by
+pumping water into the canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+In 1884, engines delivering 60,000 gallons a minute were set to work
+and remedied the evil for a time, so far as the city of Chicago was
+concerned, but the large discharge of sewage through the sluggish
+current of the canal and into the Illinois River proved a serious and
+ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the adjoining
+districts. To enlarge the existing canal, increase the volume and
+speed of its discharge, and to alter the levels, so that there shall
+be a relatively rapid stream flowing at all times from Lake Michigan,
+appears the only practical means of affording relief to the city, and
+immunity to other towns and villages lying along the route of the
+stream.
+
+The physical nature of the country is well suited for carrying out
+such a project on a scale far larger than that required for sewage
+purposes, and works thus carried out would, to a small extent, restore
+the old water _regime_ in this part of the continent. Before the vast
+surface changes produced during the last glacial period, three of the
+great lakes--Michigan, Huron and Superior--discharged their waters
+southward into the Gulf of Mexico by a broad river. The accumulation
+of glacial debris changed all this; the southern outlet was cut off,
+and a new one to the north was opened near where Detroit stands,
+making a channel to Lake Erie, which then became the outlet for the
+whole chain by way of Niagara. A very slight change in levels would
+serve to restore the present _regime_. Around Lake Michigan the land
+has been slightly raised, the summit above mean water level being only
+about 8 ft. Thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is again
+reached at a point near Lockport (see Fig. 2); the fall then becomes
+more marked. At Lake Joliet, 10 miles further, the fall is 77 ft.; and
+at La Salle, 100 miles from Chicago, the total fall reaches 146 feet.
+At La Salle the Illinois River is met, and this stream, after a course
+of 225 miles, enters the Missouri. In the whole distance the Illinois
+River has a fall of 29 ft. "It has a sluggish current; an oozy bed and
+bars, formed chiefly by tributaries, with natural depths of 2 ft. to 4
+ft.; banks half way to high waters, and low bottoms, one to six miles
+wide, bounded by terraces, overflowed during high water from 4 ft. to
+12 ft. deep, and intersected in dry seasons by lake, bayou, lagoon,
+and marsh, the wreck of a mighty past."
+
+The rectification of the Illinois and the construction of a large
+canal from La Salle to Lake Michigan are, therefore, all that is
+necessary to open a waterway to the Gulf of Mexico, and to make
+Chicago doubly a port; on the one hand, for the enormous lake traffic
+now existing; on the other, for the trade that would be created in
+both directions, northward to Lake Michigan, and southward to the
+Gulf.
+
+As a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied the attention
+of the United States government. A bill in 1882 authorized surveys for
+"a canal from a point on the Illinois River, at or near the town of
+Hennepin, by the most practical route to the Mississippi River ... and
+a survey of the Illinois and Michigan Canal connecting the Illinois
+River with Chicago, and estimates from its enlargements." This scheme
+only contemplated navigation for boats up to 600 tons. In 1885 the
+Citizens' Association, of Chicago caused a report to be made for an
+extended plan. The name of Mr. L.E. Cooly, at that time municipal
+sanitary engineer, was closely associated with this report, as it is
+at the present time for the agitation for carrying out the works. This
+report recommended that "an ample channel be created from Chicago to
+the Illinois River, sufficient to carry away in a diluted state the
+sewage of a large population. That this channel may be enlarged by the
+State or national government to any requirement of navigation or water
+supply for the whole river, creating incidentally a great water power
+in the Desplaines valley." Following this report and that of a
+Drainage and Water Supply Commission, a bill was introduced into
+Congress supporting the recommendations that had been made, and
+providing the financial machinery for carrying it into execution.
+Since that date much discussion has taken place, and some little
+action; meanwhile the sanitary requirements of the city are growing
+more urgent, and the pressure created from this cause will enforce
+some decision before long. Whether the new waterway is to be
+practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains yet to be seen, but
+it is tolerably certain that its dimensions and volume of water must
+approximate to the latter, if the large populations of other towns are
+to be satisfied. In fact the actual necessities are so great as
+regards sectional area of canal and flow of water--at least 600,000
+ft. a minute--that comparatively small extra outlay would be needed
+to complete the ship canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+The attention of engineers in Chicago, as well as of the United States
+government, is consequently closely directed at the present time to
+such a solution of the problem as shall secure to Chicago such a
+waterway as will dispose of the sewage question for very many years to
+come; that shall relieve the inhabitants on the line of the canal from
+all nuisances arising from the sewage disposal, and shall provide a
+navigable channel for vessels of deep draught. The maps, Figs. 1 and
+2, give an idea of the most favored scheme--that of Mr. Cooley.
+
+As will be seen, the canal commencing near the mouth of the Chicago
+River passes through a cut in the low ridge forming the summit level;
+then it runs to Lake Joliet, and through the valleys of the Desplaines
+and Illinois Rivers, to the Mississippi at Grafton, a distance of 325
+miles. The elevations and distances of the principal points are as
+follows:
+
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+                              |            |           |           |
+                              |            | Low Water |           |
+                              | Miles from |Level below| High Water|
+                              |     Lake   | Chicago   | above Low |
+                              |  Michigan. |  Datum.   |   Water.  |
+                              |            |           |           |
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+                              |            |           |           |
+                              |            |    ft.    |    ft.    |
+Lake Michigan                 |            |           |    4.7    |
+Lake Joliet                   |     40     |    77     |   5 to 6  |
+Kankakee River                |    51.30   |    93.70  |  18 to 20 |
+Morris                        |     61     |   100.3   |    21     |
+Marseilles                    |     77     |   102.8   |  4 to 5   |
+Ottawa                        |    84.5    |   132.1   |    26     |
+La Salle                      |   100.3    |   146.6   |    28     |
+Hennepin                      |   115.8    |   148.7   |    25     |
+Peoria                        |   161.4    |   151.3   |    21     |
+Mouth of the Illinois         |    325     |   172.4   |    20     |
+                              |            |           |           |
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+The project in contemplation provides that the depth of the canal as
+far as Lake Joliet (which is about six miles long) shall be not less
+than 22 ft., and on to La Salle not less than 14 ft. at first, with
+facilities to increase it to 22 ft. Beyond La Salle to the mouth of
+the Illinois, dredging and flushing by the large volume of water
+pouring in from Lake Michigan would make and maintain ultimately a
+similar depth.
+
+As it appears recognized that the sewage channel of Chicago must be 15
+ft. deep, and as provision is now being made all over the great lake
+system for vessels drawing 20 ft. of water, a comparatively small
+additional outlay would provide for a channel available for the
+largest lake vessels. It is claimed that by the co-operation of the
+Chicago municipality and the general government--the latter to advance
+a sum of not less than $50,000,000--a ship (and sanitary) canal 22 ft.
+deep could be made from the lake to Joliet, extended thence to Utica,
+20 ft. deep, and from there to the Mississippi, 14 ft. deep.
+
+That such a work would vastly enhance the commerce, not only of
+Chicago, but of the whole section of the country through which the
+canal would pass, admits of but little doubt, and probably the outlay
+would be justified by results similar to those achieved with other
+great canal works and rectified rivers in the United States.
+
+The following figures, showing the tonnage carried in 1888-89, give
+some idea of the volumes of water-borne traffic in America:
+
+                                    Tons.
+   Detroit River                19,099,060
+   Erie Canal                    5,370,369
+   Sault Ste. Marie              7,516,022
+   Welland Canal                   828,271
+   St. Lawrence Canal            1,500,096
+   Mississippi to New Orleans    3,177,000
+        "      below St. Louis     845,000
+   Ohio                          2,236,917
+   Chicago Canal and lake       11,029,575
+
+Except on the Mississippi, it may be reckoned that navigation is
+closed by ice during five months a year. It may be mentioned, by way
+of comparison, that the traffic on the Suez Canal during the year
+1888-89 was 6,640,834 tons.
+
+One very interesting point in connection with this work is the effect
+that the diversion of so large a body of water from the lakes will
+have upon their _regime_. At least 10,000 cubic feet a second would be
+taken from Lake Michigan and find its way into the Mississippi; this
+is approximately 4½ per cent. of the total amount that now passes
+through the St. Clair River and thence over Niagara.
+
+The following table gives some particulars of the great lakes and the
+discharge from them:
+
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-----------------------
+               |          |       |        |Cubic Feet per Second.
+               |Elevation |Area of| Area of+-------+-------+-------
+               |  above   | Basin,|  Lake, |       |       |
+    Lake.      |Mean Tide.| Square|  Square| Rain- |Evapo- | Dis-
+               |  Feet.   | Miles.|  Miles.| fall. |ration.|charge.
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+Superior       |  601.78  | 90,505| 38,875 |187,386| 34,495| 80,870
+Huron and Mich.|  581.28  |121,941| 50,400 |262,964| 66,754|216,435
+Erie           |  572.86  | 40,298| 10,000 | 96,654| 13,870|235,578
+Ontario        |  246.61  | 31,558|  7,220 | 75,692| 10,568|272,095
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The average variation in level of the lakes is from 18 in. to 24 in.
+during the year, and the range in evaporation from year to year is
+also very considerable; thus the evaporation per second on Huron and
+Michigan, as given in the table above, is nearly 67,000 ft., but the
+figures for another year show nearly 89,000 ft. per second, which
+would represent a difference of 6½ in. in water level. As a discharge
+of 10,000 cubic feet a second into the new canal would lower the level
+of these two lakes by 2.87 in. in a year, it follows that the
+difference between a year of maximum and one of minimum evaporation is
+more than twice as great as would be required for the canal, and even
+under the most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from the whole
+chain of lakes would not lower them an inch.
+
+When the variations in level due to different causes--rain, wind, and
+evaporation being the chief--are taken into consideration, the effect
+of 10,000 cubic feet a second abstracted would probably not be
+noticeable. That this would be so is the opinion, after careful
+investigation, of many eminent American engineers. On the other hand
+there is a similar unanimity of opinion as to the advantages that
+would be obtained in the condition of the Mississippi by adding to it
+a tributary of such importance as the proposed canal.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+N.F. BURNHAM AND HIS LIFE WORK.
+
+By W.H. BURNHAM.
+
+
+The inventor and patentee of all water wheels known as the Burham
+turbine died from Bright's disease of the kidneys at his home, York,
+Pa., Dec. 22, 1890, aged 68 years 9 months and 9 days. He was born in
+the city of New York, March 13, 1822, and was of English-Irish and
+French descent. His father was a millwright and with him worked at the
+trade in Orange county, N.Y., until he was 16 years old. He then
+commenced learning the watchmakers' business, which he was obliged to
+relinquish, after three years, on account of his health. He then went
+to Laurel, Md., in 1844, and engaged with Patuxent & Co. as mercantile
+clerk and bookkeeper. In 1856 he commenced the manufacture of the
+French turbine water wheel. In 1879 he sold out his Laurel interests,
+went to New York and commenced manufacturing his own patents. On May
+22, 1883, he founded the Drovers' and Mechanics' National Bank of
+York, and was elected its first president, which position he held at
+the time of his death. In 1881, with others, he built the York opera
+house, at a cost of $40,000. He was a Knight Templar, and past master
+of the I.O.O.F., and past sachem of Red Men.
+
+[Illustration: N.F. BURNHAM.]
+
+He was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living, having been
+actually engaged in the manufacture of turbines since 1856. He first
+made and sold the French Jonval turbine, which was then the best
+turbine made, but being complicated in construction, it soon wore out
+and leaked. From the experience he had from this wheel he invented and
+patented Feb. 22, 1859, his improved Jonval turbine, which was very
+simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage of power than the
+French Jonval turbines. Hundreds of these improved wheels, which were
+put in operation between the years 1859 and 1868, are still in use.
+(We show no cut of this wheel, but it had four chutes instead of six,
+as shown in March 24, 1863, patent.)
+
+The first wheel (72 inch) made after the patent was granted was sold
+to Brightwell & Davis, Farmville, Va., and put into their flour mill
+under six feet head. In 1870, Brightwell & Davis sold their mill to
+Scott & Davis. Afterward G.W. Davis owned and operated the mill and
+put in one 1858 patent "New Turbine." In 1889 the Farmville Mill
+Company bought and remodeled the mill to roller process and required
+more power than the old 1856 Jonval turbine and 1868 "New Turbine"
+would yield, and on Aug. 30, 1889, sold the Farmville Mill Company two
+54 inch new improved Standard turbines to displace the two old wheels.
+In 1860 he commenced experimenting with different forms of buckets and
+chutes, and used six chutes instead of four as first made, and was
+granted patent March 24, 1863.
+
+This addition of chutes proved beneficial, as the wheel worked better
+with the gates partly opened than it did with four chutes. His next
+invention was granted him Dec. 24, 1867, which he called Burnham's
+improved central and vertical discharge turbine.
+
+This improvement consisted in making the guide blade straight on the
+outside (instead of rounding, as then made by all others), from inner
+point back to bolt or gudgeon, and thick enough at the latter point to
+let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt and the
+arrangement for shifting the water guides. Two 42-inch wheels of this
+pattern were built and put into operation, but they soon commenced
+leaking water and became troublesome on account of the many small
+pieces of castings and bolts, and were abandoned as worthless. There
+are several manufacturers of this style of wheel that advertise them
+as "simple and durable." Such a complicated case with twelve chutes
+cannot be made to operate unless by a large number of castings, bolts
+and studs. With these adjustable water guides, one of the objects was
+obtained. Admitting the water to the wheel through chutes
+corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets exposed, but not
+placing the water against the face of the buckets at right angles with
+the center of the wheel, except when the guide blades were full
+opened, for as the guides are changed so is the current of the water
+likewise changed.
+
+After making several differently constructed wheels and testing them a
+number of times, he selected the best one and obtained a patent for it
+March 3, 1868, and called it "new turbine," which he still further
+improved and patented May 9, 1871. This "new turbine" consisted of the
+former improved Jonval wheel, hub and buckets, with a new circular
+case and new form of chutes, having a register gate entirely
+surrounding the case and having apertures corresponding to those in
+the case for admitting water to the wheel. This register gate was
+moved by means of a segment and pinion.
+
+This "new turbine" soon gained for itself a reputation enjoyed by no
+other water wheel. It was selected by the United States Patent Office,
+and put at work in room 189, to run a pump which forces water to the
+top of the building. It was likewise selected by the Japan commission
+when they were in this country to select samples of our best machines.
+He continued making the 1868 patent and improved in 1871 "new turbine"
+but a few years, for as long as he could detect a defect in the wheel,
+case or gate, he continued improving and simplifying them, and in 1873
+he erected a very complete testing flume, also made a very sensitive
+dynamometer, it having a combination screw for tightening the friction
+band, which required 100 turns to make one inch, and commenced making
+and experimenting with different constructed turbines. He made five
+different wheels and made over a hundred tests before he was
+satisfied. Application was then made for a patent, which was granted
+March 31, 1874, for his "Standard turbine."
+
+This "Standard turbine" was a combination of his former improvements,
+with the cover extending over top of the gate to prevent it from
+tilting, and an eccentric wheel working in cam yoke to open and close
+the gate.
+
+Thousands of Standard turbines are to-day working and giving the best
+satisfaction, and we venture to say that not one of the Standard
+turbines has been displaced by any other make of turbine, which gave
+better results for the water used. In 1881 he again commenced
+experimenting to find out how much water could be put through a wheel
+of given diameter. After making and testing several wheels it was
+found that the amount of water with full gate drawn named in tables
+found in Burnham Bros.' latest catalogue for each size wheel yielded
+84 per cent. and that the water used with 7/8 gate drawn yielded the
+same percentage (84), or with 3/4 gate 82 per cent., 5/8 gate 79, and 1/2
+gate 75 per cent. A patent for the mechanism was applied for and
+granted March 27, 1883, and named Burnham's Improved Standard Turbine.
+
+It was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached, to prevent
+the gate from rising and tilting and rubbing the curb, soon wore and
+allowed the gate to rub against the curb, and he experimented with
+several devices of gate arms. While so engaged he found that the great
+weight of water on the top of the cover sprang it, causing the sleeve
+bearing on the under side of the cover to be thrown out of place, and
+the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was almost
+impossible to move it, and after thoroughly testing with the different
+devices of gate arms, application was made and patent granted for
+adjustable gate arms, also for the new worm gate gearing May 1, 1888,
+and named Burham's new improved standard turbine.
+
+This he improved and patented May 13, 1890, to run on horizontal
+shaft.
+
+In the year 1872 he had two patents granted him for improvement in
+water wheels, but never had any wheels built of that pattern. After
+completing and patents granted for his new improved Standard turbine,
+he was perfectly satisfied, and often remarked, "I cannot improve on
+my register gate turbine any more, as it is as near perfection as can
+be made," and he was fully convinced, for the past year he was
+experimenting with a cylinder gate turbine, and patent was granted
+Oct. 21, 1890. Previously he had made a 24-inch wheel, which was
+tested Aug. 14, 1890, at Holyoke testing flume, and gave fair results,
+and at the time of his demise he was having made a new runner for the
+cylinder gate turbine, which we will complete and have tested. His
+idea was to have us manufacture and sell register and cylinder gate
+turbines. His inventive powers were not confined to water wheels, for
+on Feb. 23, 1886, patents were granted him for automatic steam engine,
+governor and lubricating device. We also remember in the year 1873 or
+1874, when his mind was occupied with his "Standard turbine," he was
+hindered by some device used now on locomotives of the present
+construction (what it was we are unable to say), but when draughting
+at his water wheel, would conflict the two, and by his invitation we
+wrote to a prominent locomotive builder and had him examine the
+drawings, which he had not fully completed, and sold same to him. Of
+this we only have a faint recollection, but do recollect his saying:
+"Well, that is off my mind now, and I can devote it to the finishing
+of my new wheel."--_American Miller_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALTERNATE CURRENT CONDENSERS.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Physical Society, London, Mr. James
+Swinburne read a paper on alternate current condensers. It is, he
+said, generally assumed that there is no difficulty in making
+commercial condensers for high pressure alternating currents. The
+first difficulty is insulation, for the dielectric must be very thin,
+else the volume of the condenser is too great. Some dielectrics 0.2
+mm. thick can be made to stand up to 8,000 volts when in small pieces,
+but in complete condensers a much greater margin must be allowed.
+Another difficulty arises from absorption, and whenever this occurs,
+the apparent capacity is greater than the calculated. Supposing the
+fibers of paper in a paper condenser to be conductors embedded in
+insulating hydrocarbon, then every time the condenser is charged the
+fibers have their ends at different potentials, so a current passes to
+equalize them and energy is lost. This current increases the capacity.
+One condenser made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally
+large current and heated rapidly. At a high temperature it gave off
+water, and the power wasted and current taken gradually decreased.
+
+When a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils, it heats
+excessively; and the fall of potential over the air films separating
+the mica and foil is great enough to cause disruptive discharge to the
+surface of the mica. There appears to be a luminous layer of minute
+sparks under the foils, and there is a strong smell of ozone. In a
+dielectric which heats, there may be three kinds of conduction, viz.,
+metallic, when an ordinary conductor is embedded in an insulator;
+disruptive, as probably occurs in the case of mica; and electrolytic,
+which might occur in glass. In a transparent dielectric the conduction
+must be either electrolytic or disruptive, otherwise light vibrations
+would be damped. The dielectric loss in a cable may be serious.
+Calculating from the waste in a condenser made of paper soaked in hot
+ozokerite, the loss in one of the Deptford mains came out 7,000 watts.
+Another effect observed at Deptford is a rise of pressure in the
+mains. There is as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what
+happens, and it is generally assumed that the effect depends on the
+relation of capacity to self-induction, and is a sort of resonator
+action. This would need a large self-induction, and a small change of
+speed would stop the effect. The following explanation is suggested.
+When a condenser is put on a dynamo, the condenser current leads
+relatively to the electromotive force, and therefore strengthens the
+field magnets and increases the pressure.
+
+[Illustration: T_{1} and T_{2} are large transformers; t_{1} and t_{2}
+are small transformers or voltmeters V_{1} and V_{2}. The numbers 1,
+4, 1, 25, represent their conversion ratios.]
+
+In order to test this, the following experiment was made for the
+author by Mr. W.F. Bourne. A Gramme alternator was coupled to the low
+pressure coil of a transformer, and a hot wire voltmeter put across
+the primary circuit. On putting a condenser on the high pressure
+circuit, the voltmeter wire fused. The possibility of making an
+alternator excite itself like a series machine, by putting a condenser
+on it, was pointed out. Prof. Perry said it would seem possible to
+obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the magnets
+independently, the field being altogether due to the armature
+currents. Mr. Swinburne remarked that this could be done by making the
+rotating magnets a star-shaped mass of iron. Sir W. Thomson thought
+Mr. Swinburne's estimate of the loss in the Deptford mains was rather
+high. He himself had calculated the power spent in charging them, and
+found it to be about 16 horse power, and although a considerable
+fraction might be lost, it would not amount to nine-sixteenths. He was
+surprised to hear that glass condensers heated, and inquired whether
+this heating was due to flashes passing between the foil and the
+glass. Mr. A.P. Trotter said Mr. Ferranti informed him that the
+capacity of his mains was about 1/3 microfarad per mile, thus making
+2-1/3 microfarads for the seven miles. The heaping up of the potential
+only took place when transformers were used, and not when the dynamos
+were connected direct. In the former case the increase of volts was
+proportional to the length of main used, and 8,500 at Deptford gave
+10,000 at London.
+
+Mr. Blakesley described a simple method of determining the loss of
+power in a condenser by the use of three electrodynamometers, one of
+which has its coils separate. Of these coils, one is put in the
+condenser circuit, and the other in series with a non-inductive
+resistance r, shutting the condenser. If a_{2} be the reading of a
+dynamometer in the shunt circuit, and a_{3} that of the divided
+dynamometer, the power lost is given by r (Ca_{3} - Ba_{2}) where B and
+C are the constants of the instruments on which a_{2} and a_{3} are
+the respective readings. Prof. S.P. Thompson asked if Mr. Swinburne
+had found any dielectric which had no absorption. So far as he was
+aware, pure quartz crystal was the only substance. Prof. Forbes said
+Dr. Hopkinson had found a glass which showed none. Sir William
+Thomson, referring to the same subject, said that many years ago he
+made some tests on glass bottles, which showed no appreciable
+absorption. Sulphuric acid was used for the coatings, and he found
+them to be completely discharged by an instantaneous contact of two
+balls. The duration of contact would, according to some remarkable
+mathematical work done by Hertz in 1882, be about 0.0004 second, and
+even this short time sufficed to discharge them completely.
+
+On the other hand, Leyden jars with tinfoil coatings showed
+considerable absorption, and this he thought due to want of close
+contact between the foil and the glass. To test this he suggested that
+mercury coatings be tried. Mr. Kapp considered the loss of power in
+condensers due to two causes: first, that due to the charge soaking
+in; and second, to imperfect elasticity of the dielectric. Speaking of
+the extraordinary rise of pressure on the Deptford mains, he said he
+had observed similar effects with other cables. In his experiments the
+sparking distance of a 14,000 volt transformer was increased from 3/16
+of an inch to 1 inch by connecting the cables to its terminals. No
+difference was detected between the sparking distances at the two ends
+of the cable, nor was any rise of pressure observed when the cables
+were joined direct on the dynamo.
+
+In his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance, and would
+be a maximum for some particular frequency. Mr. Mordey mentioned a
+peculiar phenomenon observed in the manufacture of his alternators.
+Each coil, he said, was tested to double the pressure of the completed
+dynamo, but when they were all fitted together, their insulation broke
+down at the same volts. The difficulty had been overcome by making the
+separate coils to stand much higher pressures. Prof. Rucker called
+attention to the fact that dielectrics alter in volume under electric
+stress, and said that if the material was imperfectly elastic, some
+loss would result. The president said that, as some doubt existed as
+to what Mr. Ferranti had actually observed, he would illustrate the
+arrangements by a diagram. Speaking of condensers, he said he had
+recently tried lead plates in water to get large capacities, but so
+far had not been successful.
+
+Mr. Swinburne, in replying, said he had not made a perfect condenser
+yet, for, although he had some which did not heat much, they made a
+great noise. He did not see how the rise of pressure observed by Mr.
+Ferranti and Mr. Kapp could be due to resonance. Mr. Kapp's experiment
+was not conclusive, for the length of spark is not an accurate measure
+of electromotive force. As regards Mr. Mordey's observation, he
+thought the action explicable on the theory of the leading condenser
+current acting on the field magnets. The same explanation is also
+applicable to the Deptford case, for when the dynamo is direct on, the
+condenser current is about 10 amperes, and this exerts only a small
+influence on the strongly magnetized magnets. When transformers are
+used, the field magnets are weak, while the condenser current rises
+to 40 amperes. Mr. Blakesley's method of determining losses was, he
+said, inapplicable except where the currents were sine functions of
+the time; and consequently could not be used to determine loss due to
+hysteresis in iron, or in a transparent dielectric.--_Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, EUROPE, AMERICA,
+AND THE EAST.
+
+By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.
+
+
+There are at present twenty-six submarine cable companies, the
+combined capital of which is about forty million pounds sterling.
+Their revenue, including subsidies, amounts to 3,204,060£.; and their
+reserves and sinking funds to 3,610,000£.; and their dividends are
+from one to 14¾ per cent. The receipts from the Atlantic cables alone
+amount to about 800,000£. annually.
+
+The number of cables laid down throughout the world is 1,045, of which
+798 belong to governments and 247 to private companies. The total
+length of those cables is 120,070 nautical miles, of which 107,546 are
+owned by private telegraph companies, nearly all British; the
+remainder, or 12,524 miles, are owned by governments.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND
+THE CONTINENT.]
+
+The largest telegraphic organization in the world is that of the
+Eastern Telegraphic Company, with seventy cables, of a total length of
+21,859 nautical miles. The second largest is the Eastern Extension,
+Australasia and China Telegraph Company, with twenty-two cables, of a
+total length of 12,958 nautical miles. The Eastern Company work all
+the cables on the way to Bombay, and the Eastern Extension Company
+from Madras eastward. The cables landing in Japan, however, are owned
+by a Danish company, the Great Northern. The English station of the
+Eastern Company is at Porthcurno, Cornwall, and through it pass most
+of the messages for Spain, Portugal, Egypt, India, China, Japan, and
+Australia.
+
+The third largest cable company is the Anglo-American Telegraph
+Company, with thirteen cables, of a total length of 10,196 miles.
+
+The British government has one hundred and three cables around our
+shores, of a total length of 1,489 miles. If we include India and the
+colonies, the British empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen
+cables of a total length of 3,811 miles.
+
+The longest government cable in British waters is that from Sinclair
+Bay, Wick, to Sandwick Bay, Shetland, of the length of 122 miles, and
+laid in 1885. The shortest being four cables across the Gloucester and
+Sharpness Canal, at the latter place, and each less than 300 ft. in
+length.
+
+Of government cables the greatest number is owned by Norway, with two
+hundred and thirty-six, averaging, however, less than a mile each in
+length.
+
+The greatest mileage is owned by the government of France with 3,269
+miles, of the total length of fifty-one cables.
+
+The next being British India with 1,714 miles, and eighty-nine cables;
+and Germany third with 1,570 miles and forty-three cables.
+
+Britain being fourth with ninety miles less. The oldest cable still
+in use is the one that was first laid, that namely from Dover to
+Calais. It dates from 1851.
+
+The two next oldest cables in use being those respectively from
+Ramsgate to Ostend, and St. Petersburg to Cronstadt, and both laid
+down in 1853.
+
+Several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect England and Ireland
+by means of a cable between Holyhead and Howth; but communication
+between the two countries was finally effected in 1853, when a cable
+was successfully laid between Portpatrick and Donaghadee (31).
+
+As showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in comparatively
+shallow waters are exposed, we may relate the curious accident that
+befell the Portpatrick cable in 1873. During a severe storm in that
+year the Port Glasgow ship Marseilles capsized in the vicinity of
+Portpatrick, the anchor fell out and caught on to the telegraph cable,
+which, however, gave way. The ship was afterward captured and towed
+into Rothesay Bay, in an inverted position, by a Greenock tug, when
+part of the cable was found entangled about the anchor.
+
+The smallest private companies are the Indo-European Telegraph
+Company, with two cables in the Crimea, of a total length of fourteen
+and a half miles; and the River Plate Telegraph Company, with one
+cable from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, thirty-two miles long.
+
+The smallest government telegraph organization is that of New
+Caledonia, with its one solitary cable one mile long.
+
+We will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding the companies
+having cables from Europe to America.
+
+The most important company is the Anglo-American Telegraph Company,
+whose history is inseparably connected with that of the trials and
+struggles of the pioneers of cable laying.
+
+Its history begins in 1851 when Tebets, an American, and Gisborne, an
+English engineer, formed the Electric Telegraph Company of
+Newfoundland, and laid down twelve miles of cable between Cape Breton
+and Nova Scotia. This company was shortly afterward dissolved, and its
+property transferred to the Telegraphic Company of New York,
+Newfoundland and London, founded by Cyrus W. Field, and who in 1854
+obtained an extension of the monopoly from the government to lay
+cables.
+
+A cable, eighty-five miles long, was laid between Cape Breton and
+Newfoundland (22).
+
+Field then came to England and floated an English company, which
+amalgamated with the American one under the title of the Atlantic
+Telegraph Company.
+
+The story of the laying of the Atlantic cables of 1857 and 1865, their
+success and failures, has often been told, so we need not go into any
+details. It may be noted, however, that communication was first
+established between Valentia and Newfoundland on August 5. 1858, but
+the cable ceased to transmit signals on September 1, following.
+
+During that period, ninety-seven messages had been sent from Valentia,
+and two hundred and sixty-nine from Newfoundland. At the present time,
+the ten Atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages daily
+between the two continents. The losses attending the laying of the
+1865 cable resulted in the financial ruin of the Atlantic company and
+its amalgamation with the Anglo-American. In 1866 the Great Eastern
+successfully laid the first cable for the new company, and with the
+assistance of other vessels succeeded in picking up the broken end of
+the 1865 cable and completing its connection with Newfoundland.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES FROM EUROPE AND THEIR
+CONNECTIONS WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Reference to places--A, Heart's Content; B, Placentia; C, St. Peter
+Miquelon; D, North Sydney, Cape Breton Island; E, Louisbourg; F Canso,
+Nova Scotia; G, Halifax; H, Bird Rock; I, Madeline Isles; J,
+Anticosti; K, Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island; LLL, Banks of
+Newfoundland.]
+
+The three cables of this company presently in use and connecting
+Valentia in Ireland with Heart's Content in Newfoundland, were laid in
+1873, 1874, and 1880; and (1) are respectively 1886, 1846, and 1890
+nautical miles in length. This company also owns the longest cable in
+the world, that namely from Brest in France to St. Pierre Miquelon,
+one of a small group of islands off the south coast of Newfoundland
+and which, strange to say, still belongs to France (6).
+
+The length of this cable is 2,685 nautical miles, or 3,092 statute
+miles. It was laid in 1869. There are seven cables of a total length
+of 1773 miles, connecting Heart's Content, Placentia Bay and St.
+Pierre, with North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and Duxbury, near Boston,
+belonging to the American company. Communication is maintained with
+Germany and the rest of the Continent by means of a cable from
+Valentia to Emden 846 miles long (7); and a cable from Brest to
+Salcombe, Devon, connects the St. Pierre and Brest cable with the
+London office of the company (10).[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cables not fully described in the text, Map B. Eight
+cables at the Anglo-American Company: 7, Heart's Content to Placentia,
+two cables; 8, Placentia to St. Pierre; 9, St. Pierre to North Sydney;
+10, Placentia to North Sydney, two cables; 11, St. Pierre to Duxbury;
+18, Charlotte's Town to Nova Scotia; 19, Government Cable, North
+Sydney to Bird Rock, Madeline Isles, and Anticosti; 21, Halifax and
+Bermuda Cable Company's proposed cable to Bermuda.]
+
+The station of the Direct United States Cable Company is situated at
+Ballinskelligs Bay, Ireland (2). Its cable was laid in 1874-5, and is
+2,565 miles in length. The terminal point on the other side of the
+Atlantic is at Halifax, Nova Scotia, from whence the cable is
+continued to Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a distance of 536 miles, and
+thence by a land line of 500 miles to New York (17).
+
+The Commercial Cable Company's station in Ireland is at Waterville, a
+short distance from Ballinskelligs (3). It owns two cables laid in
+1885; the northern cable being 2,350, and the southern 2,388 miles
+long. They terminate in America at Canso, Nova Scotia. From Canso a
+cable is laid to Rockfort, about thirty miles south of Boston, Mass.,
+a distance of 518 miles (16), and another is laid to New York, 840
+miles in length (15). This company has direct communication with the
+Continent by means of a cable from Waterville to Havre of 510 miles
+(9), and with England by a cable to Weston-super-Mare, near Bristol,
+of 328 miles (8).
+
+The Western Union Telegraph Company (the lessees of the lines of the
+American Telegraph and Cable Company) has two cables from Sennen Cove,
+Land's End, to Canso, Nova Scotia (4). The cable of 1881 is 2,531 and
+that of 1882 is 2,576 miles in length. Two cables were laid November,
+1889, between Canso and New York (14).
+
+The Compagnie Française du Telegraphe de Paris à New York has a cable
+from Brest to St. Pierre Miquelon of 2,242 miles in length (5), from
+thence a cable is laid to Louisbourg, Cape Breton (12), and another
+to Cape Cod (13). It has also a cable from Brest to Porcella Cove,
+Cornwall (11).
+
+Those ten cables owned by the six companies named, of the total milage
+of 22,959, not counting connections, represent the entire direct
+communication between the continents of Europe and North America.
+
+A new company, not included in the preceding statistics, proposes to
+lay a cable from Westport, Ireland, to some point in the Straits of
+Belle Isle on the Labrador coast (Map A32, Map B20).
+
+The station of the Eastern Telegraph Company is at Porthcurno Cove,
+Penzance, from whence it has two cables to Lisbon, one laid in 1880,
+850 miles long, the other laid in 1887, 892 miles long (12), and one
+cable to Vigo, Spain, laid in 1873, 622 miles long (13). From Lisbon
+the cable is continued to Gibraltar and the East, whither we need not
+follow it, our intention being to confine ourselves entirely to a
+brief account of those cables communicating directly with Europe and
+America. As already stated, this company has altogether seventy
+cables, of a total length of nearly 22,000 miles.
+
+The Direct Spanish Telegraph Company has a cable, laid in 1884, from
+Kennach Cove, Cornwall, to Bilbao, Spain, 486 miles in length (14).
+
+Coming now to shorter cables connecting Britain with the Continent, we
+have those of the Great Northern Telegraph Company, namely, Peterhead
+to Ekersund, Norway, 267 miles (15). Newbiggin, near Newcastle, to
+Arendal, Norway, 424 miles, and thence to Marstrand, Sweden, 98 miles.
+
+Two cables from the same place in England to Denmark (Hirstals and
+Sondervig) of 420 and 337 miles respectively (17 and 18).
+
+The great Northern Company has altogether twenty-two cables, of a
+total length of 6,110 miles. The line from Newcastle, is worked direct
+to Nylstud, in Russia--a distance of 890 miles--by means of a "relay"
+or "repeater," at Gothenburg. The relay is the apparatus at which the
+Newcastle current terminates, but in ending there it itself starts a
+fresh current on to Russia.
+
+The other continental connections belong to the government, and are as
+follows: two cables to Germany, Lowestoft to Norderney, 232 miles, and
+to Emden, 226 miles (19 and 20).
+
+Two cables to Holland: Lowestoft to Zandvoort, laid in 1858 (21), and
+from Benacre, Kessingland, to Zandvoort (22).
+
+Two cables to Belgium: Ramsgate to Ostend (23), and Dover to Furness
+(24).
+
+Four cables to France: Dover to Calais, laid in 1851 (25), and to
+Boulogne (26), laid in 1859; Beachy Head to Dieppe (27), and to Havre
+(28).
+
+There is a cable from the Dorset coast to Alderney and Guernsey, and
+from the Devon coast to Guernsey, Jersey, and Coutances, France (29
+and 30).
+
+A word now as to the instruments used for the transmission of
+messages. Those for cables are of two kinds, the mirror galvanometer
+and the siphon recorder, both the product of Sir Wm. Thomson's great
+inventive genius.
+
+When the Calais-Dover and other short cables were first worked, it was
+found that the ordinary needle instrument in use on land lines was not
+sufficiently sensitive to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary
+current it was possible to send through a cable. Either the current
+must be increased in strength or the instruments used must be more
+sensitive. The latter alternative was chosen, and the mirror
+galvanometer was the result.
+
+The principle on which this instrument works may be briefly described
+thus: the transmitted current of electricity causes the deflection of
+a small magnet, to which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, a beam of light is reflected from a properly
+arranged lamp, by the mirror, on to a paper scale. The dots and dashes
+of the Morse code are indicated by the motions of the spot of light to
+the right and left respectively of the center of the scale.
+
+The mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely superseded by the
+siphon recorder. This is a somewhat complicated apparatus, with the
+details of which we need not trouble our readers. Suffice it for us to
+explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate its motions, by
+means of fine silk fibers, to a very fine glass siphon, one end of
+which dips into an insulated metallic vessel containing ink, while the
+other extremity rests, when no current is passing, just over the
+center of a paper ribbon. When the instrument is in use the ink is
+driven out of the siphon in small drops by means of an electrical
+arrangement, and the ribbon underneath is at the same time caused to
+pass underneath its point by means of clockwork.
+
+If a current be now sent through the line, the siphon will move above
+or below the central line, thus giving a permanent record of the
+message, which the mirror instrument does not. The waves written by
+the siphon above the central line corresponding to the dots of the
+Morse code, and the waves underneath corresponding to the dashes.
+
+The cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies from one shilling
+per word, the rate to New York and east of the Mississippi, to ten
+shillings and seven pence per word, the rate to New Zealand. In order
+to minimize that cost as much as possible, the use of codes, whereby
+one word is made to do duty for a lengthy phrase, is much resorted to.
+Of course those code messages form a series of words having no
+apparent relation to each other, but occasionally queer sentences
+result from the chance grouping of the code words. Thus a certain tea
+firm was once astonished to receive from its agent abroad the
+startling code message--"Unboiled babies detested"!
+
+Suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams in their
+travels over the world.
+
+A message to India from London by the cable route requires to be
+transmitted eight times at the following places: Porthcurno
+(Cornwall), Lisbon, Gibraltar, Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay.
+
+A message to Australia has thirteen stoppages; the route taken beyond
+Bombay being via Madras, Penang, Singapore, Banjoewangie and Port
+Darwin (North Australia); or from Banjoewangie to Roebuck Bay (Western
+Australia).
+
+To India by the Indo-European land lines, messages go through Emden,
+Warsaw, Odessa, Kertch, Tiflis, Teheran, Bushire (Persian Gulf), Jask
+and Kurrachee, but only stop twice between London and Teheran--namely,
+at Emden and Odessa.
+
+Messages from London to New York are transmitted only twice--at the
+Irish or Cornwall stations, and at the stations in Canada. Owing to
+the great competition for the American traffic, the service between
+London, Liverpool, and Glasgow and New York is said to be much
+superior to that between any two towns in Britain. The cables are
+extensively used by stock brokers, and it is a common occurrence for
+one to send a message and receive a reply within five minutes.
+
+During breakages in cables messages have sometimes to take very
+circuitous routes. For instance, during the two days, three years ago,
+that a tremendous storm committed such havoc among the telegraph wires
+around London, cutting off all communication with the lines connected
+with the Channel cables at Dover, Lowestoft, etc., it was of common
+occurrence for London merchants to communicate with Paris through New
+York. The cablegram leaving London going north to Holyhead and
+Ireland, across the Atlantic to New York and back _via_ St. Pierre to
+Brest and thence on to Paris, a total distance of about seven thousand
+miles.
+
+Three years ago, when the great blizzard cut off all communication
+between New York and Boston, messages were accepted in New York, sent
+to this country, and thence back to Boston.
+
+Some time ago the cables between Madeira and St. Vincent were out of
+order, cutting off communication by the direct route to Brazil, and a
+message to reach Rio Janeiro had to pass through Ireland, Canada,
+United States, to Galveston, thence to Vera Cruz, Guatemala,
+Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chili; from Valparaiso across the
+Andes, through the Argentine Republic to Buenos Ayres, and thence by
+East Coast cables to Rio Janeiro, the message having traversed a
+distance of about twelve thousand miles and having passed through
+twenty-four cables and some very long land lines, instead of passing,
+had it been possible to have sent it by the direct route, over one
+short land line and six cables, in all under six thousand miles.
+
+Perhaps some of our readers may remember having read in the newspapers
+of the result of last year's Derby having been sent from Epsom to New
+York in fifteen seconds, and may be interested to know how it was
+done. A wire was laid from near the winning post on the race course to
+the cable company's office in London, and an operator was at the
+instrument ready to signal the two or three letters previously
+arranged upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed the
+post. When the race began, the cable company suspended work on all the
+lines from London to New York and kept operators at the Irish and Nova
+Scotian stations ready to transmit the letters representing the
+winning horse immediately, and without having the message written out
+in the usual way. When the race was finished, the operator at Epsom at
+once sent the letters representing the winner, and before he had
+finished the third letter, the operator in London had started the
+first one to Ireland. The clerk in Ireland immediately on bearing the
+first signal from London passed it on to Nova Scotia, from whence it
+was again passed on to New York. The result being that the name of the
+winner was actually known in New York before the horses had pulled up
+after passing the judge. It seems almost incredible that such
+information could be transmitted such a great distance in fifteen
+seconds, but when we get behind the scenes and see exactly how it is
+accomplished, and see how the labor and time of signaling can be
+economized, we can easily realize the fact.
+
+The humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been described; we will
+conclude by giving only one example. A St. Louis merchant had gone to
+New York on business, and while there received a telegram from the
+family doctor, which ran: "Your wife has had a child, if we can keep
+her from having another to-night, all will be well." As the little
+stranger had not been expected, further inquiry was made and elicited
+the fact that his wife had simply had a "chill"! This important
+difference having been caused simply by the omission of a single dot.
+
+   -.-. .... .. .-.. .-..
+      c    h  i    l    l = chill
+   -.-. .... .. .-..  -..
+      c    h  i    l    d = child
+
+--_Hardwicke's Science-Gossip_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY IN TRANSITU--FROM PLENUM TO VACUUM.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Presidential address before the Institute of Electrical
+Engineers, London; continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 792, page 12656.]
+
+By Prof. WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.
+
+
+If an idle pole, C, C, Fig. 12 (P=0.0001 millimeter or 0.13 M),
+protected all but the point by a thick coating of glass, is brought
+into the center of the molecular stream in front of the negative pole,
+A, and the whole of the inside and outside of the tube walls are
+coated with metal, D, D, and "earthed" so as to carry away the
+positive electricity as rapidly as possible, then it is seen that the
+molecules leaving the negative pole and striking upon the idle pole,
+C, on their journey along the tube carry a negative charge and
+communicate negative electricity to the idle pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+This tube is of interest, since it is the one in which I was first
+able to perceive how, in my earlier results, I always obtained a
+positive charge from an idle pole placed in the direct stream from the
+negative pole. Having got so far, it was easy to devise a form of
+apparatus that completely verified the theory, and at the same time
+threw considerably more light upon the subject. Fig. 13, a, b, c, is
+such a tube, and in this model I have endeavored to show the
+electrical state of it at a high vacuum by marking a number of + and -
+signs. The exhaustion has been carried to 0.0001 millimeter, or 0.13
+M, and you see that in the neighborhood of the positive pole, and
+extending almost to the negative, the tube is strongly electrified
+with positive electricity, the negative atoms shooting out from the
+negative pole in a rapidly diminishing cone. If an idle pole is placed
+in the position shown at Fig. 13, a, the impacts of positive and
+negative molecules are about equal, and no decided current will pass
+from it, through the galvanometer, to earth. This is the _neutral_
+point. But if we imagine the idle pole to be as at Fig. 13, b, then
+the positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate over the
+negative molecules, and positive electricity is shown. If the idle
+pole is now shifted, as shown at Fig. 13, c, the negative molecules
+preponderate, and the pole will give negative electricity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 A.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 B.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 C.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+As the exhaustion proceeds, the positive charge in the tube increases
+and the neutral point approaches closer to the negative pole, and at a
+point just short of non-conduction so greatly does the positive
+electrification preponderate that it is almost impossible to get
+negative electricity from the idle pole, unless it actually touches
+the negative pole. This tube is before you, and I will now proceed to
+show the change in direction of current by moving the idle pole.
+
+I have not succeeded in getting the "Edison" current incandescent
+lamps to change in direction at even the highest degree of exhaustion
+which my pump will produce. The subject requires further
+investigation, and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies
+promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the experimental
+philosopher, just as the waste products of the chemist have often
+proved the source of new and valuable bodies.
+
+
+PROPERTIES OF RADIANT MATTER.
+
+One of the most characteristic attributes of radiant matter--whence
+its name--is that it moves in approximately straight lines and in a
+direction almost normal to the surface of the electrode. If we keep
+the induction current passing continuously through a vacuum tube in
+the same direction, we can imagine two ways in which the action
+proceeds: either the supply of gaseous molecules at the surface of the
+negative pole must run short and the phenomena come to an end, or the
+molecules must find some means of getting back. I will show you an
+experiment which reveals the molecules in the very act of returning.
+Here is a tube (Fig. 14) exhausted to a pressure of 0.001 millimeter
+or 1.3 M. In the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm, C,
+pierced with two holes, D and E. At one part of the tube a concave
+pole, A', is focused on the upper hole, D, in the diaphragm. Behind
+the upper hole and in front of the lower one are movable vanes, F and
+G, capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas through the
+holes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.]
+
+On passing the current with the concave pole negative, the small veins
+rotate in such a manner as to prove that at this high exhaustion a
+stream of molecules issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm, while
+at the same time a stream of freshly charged molecules is forced by
+the negative pole through the upper hole. The experiment speaks for
+itself, showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that so far the
+theory is right.
+
+This view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced merely as a
+working hypothesis, which, in the present state of our knowledge, may
+be regarded as a necessary help to be retained only so long as it
+proves useful. In experimental research early hypotheses have
+necessarily to be modified, or adjusted, or perhaps entirely
+abandoned, in deference to more accurate observations. Dumas said,
+truly, that hypotheses were like crutches, which we throw away when we
+are able to walk without them.
+
+
+RADIANT MATTER AND "RADIANT ELECTRODE MATTER."
+
+In recording my investigations on the subject of radiant matter and
+the state of gaseous residues in high vacua under electrical strain, I
+must refer to certain attacks on the views I have propounded. The most
+important of these questionings are contained in a volume of "Physical
+Memoirs," selected and translated from foreign sources under the
+direction of the Physical Society (vol. i., part 2). This volume
+contains two memoirs, one by Hittorff on the "Conduction of
+Electricity in Gases," and the other by Puluj on "Radiant Electrode
+Matter and the So-called Fourth State." Dr. Puluj's paper concerns me
+most, as the author has set himself vigorously to the task of opposing
+my conclusions. Apart from my desire to keep controversial matter out
+of an address of this sort, time would not permit me to discuss the
+points raised by my critic; I will, therefore, only observe in passing
+that Dr. Puluj has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth
+state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine of four
+dimensional space.
+
+Reference has already been made to the mistaken supposition that I
+have pronounced the thickness of the dark space in a highly exhausted
+tube through which an induction spark is passed to be identical with
+the natural mean free path of the molecules of gas at that exhaustion.
+I could quote numerous passages from my writings to show that what I
+meant and said was the mean free path as amplified and modified by the
+electrification.[2] In this view I am supported by Prof. Schuster,[3]
+who, in a passage quoted below, distinctly admits that the mean free
+path of an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in its
+ordinary state.
+
+[Footnote 2: "The thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative
+pole is the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous
+molecules between successive collisions. The electrified molecules are
+projected from the negative pole with enormous velocity, varying,
+however, with the degree of exhaustion and intensity of the induction
+current."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 530.
+
+"The extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited
+negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are
+advancing toward the pole. The conflict occurs at the boundary of the
+dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of
+the discharge."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 507.
+
+"Here, then, we see the induction spark actually illuminating the
+lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative
+pole."--_R.I. Lecture_, Friday, April 4, 1879.
+
+"The electrically excited negative pole supplies the _force majeure_,
+which entirely, or partially, changes into a rectilinear action the
+irregular vibration in all directions."--_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1880. page
+472.
+
+"It is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules
+is increased so as to make the mean velocity with which they
+leave the negative pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous
+molecules."--_Phil. Trans._, part ii., 1881, par. 719.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "It has been suggested that the extent of the dark space
+represents the mean free path of the molecules.... It has been pointed
+out by others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably
+greater than the mean free path of the molecules, calculated according
+to the ordinary way. My measurements make it nearly twenty times as
+great. This, however, is not in itself a fatal objection; for, as we
+have seen, the mean free path of an ion may be different from that of
+a molecule moving among others."--Schuster, _Proc. Roy. Soc_., xlvii.,
+pp. 556-7.]
+
+The great difference between Puluj and me lies in his statement
+that[4] "the matter which fills the dark space consists of mechanical
+detached particles of the electrodes which are charged with statically
+negative electricity, and move progressively in a straight direction."
+
+[Footnote 4: "Physical Memoirs," part ii., vol. i., p. 244. The
+paragraph is italicized in the original.]
+
+To these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes, "of
+different sizes, often large lumps,"[5] Puluj attributes all the
+phenomena of heat, force and phosphorescence that I from time to time
+have described in my several papers.
+
+[Footnote 5: _Loc. cit._, p. 242.]
+
+Puluj objects energetically to my definition "Radiant Matter," and
+then proposes in its stead the misleading term "Radiant Electrode
+Matter." I say "misleading," for while both his and my definitions
+equally admit the existence of "Radiant Matter," he drags in the
+hypothesis that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated
+material of the poles.
+
+Puluj declares that the phenomena I have described in high vacua are
+produced by his irregularly shaped lumps of radiant electrode matter.
+My contention is that they are produced by radiant matter of the
+residual molecules of gas.
+
+Were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental evidence, I
+would not mention the subject to you. On such an occasion as this
+controversial matter must have no place; therefore I content myself at
+present by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively prove
+my case.
+
+Let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis. Some metals,
+it is well known, such as silver, gold or platinum, when used for the
+negative electrode in a vacuum tube, volatilize more or less rapidly,
+coating any object in their neighborhood with a very even film. On
+this depends the well known method of electrically preparing small
+mirrors, etc. Aluminum, however, seems exempt from this volatility.
+Hence, and for other reasons, it is generally used for electrodes.
+
+If, then, the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to the "electrode
+matter," the more volatile the metal used, the greater should be the
+effect.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society,
+November 20, 1890, by Professors Liveing and Dewar, on finely divided
+metallic dust thrown off the surface of various electrodes, in vacuum
+tubes, they find not only that dust, however fine, suspended in a gas
+will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its
+characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge, but that it is
+driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course of the
+discharge.]
+
+Here is a tube (Fig. 15, P=0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M), with two
+negative electrodes, AA', so placed as to protect two luminous spots
+on the phosphorescent glass of the tube. One electrode, A', is of pure
+silver, a volatile metal; the other, A, is of aluminum, practically
+non-volatile. A quantity of "electrode matter" will be shot off from
+the silver pole, and practically none from the aluminum pole; but you
+see that in each case the phosphorescence, CC', is identical. Had the
+radiant electrode matter been the active agent, the more intense
+phosphorescence would proceed from the more volatile pole.
+
+A drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus is shown in Fig.
+16. A pear-shaped bulb of German glass has near the small end an inner
+concave negative pole, A, of pure silver, so mounted that its
+inverted image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube. In front
+of this pole is a screen of mica, C, having a small hole in the
+center, so that only a narrow pencil of rays from the silver pole can
+pass through, forming a bright spot, D, at the far end of the bulb.
+The exhaustion is about the same as in the previous tube, and the
+current has been allowed to pass continuously for many hours so as to
+drive off a certain portion of the silver electrode; and upon
+examination it is found that the silver has all been deposited in the
+immediate neighborhood of the pole; while the spot, D, at the far end
+of the tube, that has been continuously glowing with phosphorescent
+light, is practically free from silver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+The experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it here, so I shall not
+attempt it; but I have on the table the results for examination.
+
+The identity of action of silver and aluminum in the first case, and
+the non-projection of silver in this second instance, are in
+themselves sufficient to condemn Dr. Puluj's hypotheses, since they
+prove that phosphorescence is independent of the material of the
+negative electrode. In front of me is a set of tubes that to my mind
+puts the matter wholly beyond doubt. The tubes contain no inside
+electrodes with the residual gaseous molecules; and with them I will
+proceed to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments
+without any inner metallic poles at all.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+In all these tubes the electrodes, which are of silver, are on the
+outside, the current acting through the body of the glass. The first
+tube contains gas only slightly rarefied and at the stratification
+stage. It is simply a closed glass cylinder, with a coat of silver
+deposited outside at each end, and exhausted to a pressure of 2
+millimeters. The outline of the tube is shown in Fig. 17. I pass a
+current, and, as you see, the stratifications, though faint, are
+perfectly formed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PRESSURE = 2 MM.]
+
+The next tube, seen in outline in Fig. 18, shows the dark space. Like
+the first it is a closed cylinder of glass, with a central indentation
+forming a kind of hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two
+compartments. This pocket, silvered on the air side, forms a hollow
+glass diaphragm that can be connected electrically from the outside,
+forming the negative pole, A; the two ends of the tube, also outwardly
+silvered, form the positive poles, B B. I pass the current, and you
+will see the dark space distinctly visible. The pressure here is 0.076
+millimeter, or 100 M. The next stage, dealing with more rarefied
+matter, is that of phosphorescence. Here is an egg-shaped bulb, shown
+in Fig 19, containing some pure yttria and a few rough rubies. The
+positive electrode, B, is on the bottom of the tube under the
+phosphorescent material; the negative, A, is on the upper part of the
+tube. See how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows under
+molecular bombardment, at an internal pressure of 0.00068 millimeter,
+or 0.9 M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--PRESSURE = 0.076 MM. = 100 M.]
+
+A shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected on to the
+opposite wall of the bulb by means of an outside pole. A mica cross is
+supported in the middle of the bulb (Fig. 20), and on connecting a
+small silvered patch, A, on one side of the bulb with the negative
+pole of the induction coil, and putting the positive pole to another
+patch of silver, B, at the top, the opposite side of the bulb glows
+with a phosphorescent light, on which the black shadow of the cross
+seems sharply cut out. Here the internal pressure is 0.00068
+millimeter, or 0.9 M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.]
+
+Passing to the next phenomenon, I proceed to show the production of
+mechanical energy in a tube without internal poles. It is shown in
+Fig. 21 (P = 0.001 millimeter, or 1.3 M). It contains a light wheel of
+aluminum, carrying vanes of transparent mica, the poles, A B, being in
+such a position outside that the molecular focus falls upon the vanes
+on one side only. The bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is
+projected on the screen; if I now pass the current, you see the wheels
+rotate rapidly, reversing in direction as I reverse the current.
+
+Here is an apparatus (Fig. 22) which shows that the residual gaseous
+molecules when brought to a focus produce heat. It consists of a glass
+tube with a bulb blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool,
+C, fixed in the center, and exhausted to a pressure of 0.000076
+millimeter, or 0.1 M. The negative electrode, A, is formed by coating
+part of the outside of the bulb with silver, and it is in such a
+position that the focus of rays falls upon the carbon wool. The
+positive electrode, B, is an outer coating at the other end of the
+tube. I pass the current, and those who are close may see the bright
+sparks of carbon raised to incandescence by the impact of the
+molecular stream.
+
+You thus have seen that all the old "radiant matter" effects can be
+produced in tubes containing no metallic electrodes to volatilize. It
+may be suggested that the sides of the tube in contact with the
+outside poles become electrodes in this case, and that particles of
+the glass itself may be torn off and projected across, and so produce
+the effects. This is a strong argument, which fortunately can be
+tested by experiment. In the case of this tube (Fig. 23, P = 0.00068
+millimeter, or 0.9 M), the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing
+blue under molecular bombardment. Inside the bulb, completely covering
+the part that would form the negative pole, A, I have placed a
+substantial coat of yttria, so as to interpose a layer of this earth
+between the glass and the inside of the tube. The negative and
+positive poles are silver disks on the outside of the bulb, A being
+the negative and B the positive poles. If, therefore, particles are
+torn off and projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence, these
+particles will not be particles of glass, but of yttria; and the spot
+of phosphorescent light, C, on the opposite side of the bulb will not
+be the dull blue of lead glass, but the golden yellow of yttria. You
+see there is no such indication; the glass phosphoresces with its
+usual blue glow, and there is no evidence that a single particle of
+yttria is striking it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pressure = 0.000076 MM. = 0.1 M.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pressure = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+Witnessing these effects I think you will agree I am justified in
+adhering to my original theory, that the phenomena are caused by the
+radiant matter of the residual gaseous molecules, and certainly not by
+the torn-off particles of the negative electrode.
+
+
+PHOSPHORESCENCE IN HIGH VACUA.
+
+I have already pointed out that the molecular motions rendered visible
+in a vacuum tube are not the motions of molecules under ordinary
+conditions, but are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions
+and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus.
+
+Experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules may traverse more
+than a hundred times the _mean_ free path, with a correspondingly
+increased velocity, until they are arrested by collisions. Indeed, the
+molecular free path may vary in one and the same tube, and at one and
+the same degree of exhaustion.
+
+Very many bodies, such as ruby, diamond, emerald, alumina, yttria,
+samaria, and a large class of earthy oxides and sulphides,
+phosphoresce in vacuum tubes when placed in the path of the stream of
+electrified molecules proceeding from the negative pole. The
+composition of the gaseous residue present does not affect
+phosphorescence; thus, the earth yttria phosphoresces well in the
+residual vacua of atmospherical air, of oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic
+anhydride, hydrogen, iodine, sulphur and mercury.
+
+With yttria in a vacuum tube, the point of maximum phosphorescence, as
+I have already pointed out, lies on the margin of the dark space. The
+diagram (Fig. 24) shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence in
+different parts of a tube at an internal pressure of 0.25 millimeter,
+or 330 M. On the top you see the positive and negative poles, A and B,
+the latter having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted
+line, C. The curve, D E F, shows the relative intensities of the
+phosphorescence at different distances from the negative pole, and the
+position inside the dark space at which phosphorescence does not
+occur. The height of the curve represents the degree of
+phosphorescence. The most decisive effects of phosphorescence are
+reached by making the tube so large that the walls are outside the
+dark space, while the material submitted to experiment is placed just
+at the edge of the dark space.
+
+Hitherto I have spoken only of the phosphorescence of substances
+placed under the negative pole. But from numerous experiments I find
+that bodies will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative
+pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M.]
+
+This is only a temporary phenomenon, and ceases entirely when the
+exhaustion is pushed to a very high point. The experiment is one
+scarcely possible to exhibit to an audience, so I must content myself
+with describing it. A U-tube, shown in Fig. 25, has a flat aluminum
+pole, in the form of a disk, at each end, both coated with a paint of
+phosphorescent yttria. As the rarefaction approaches about 0.5
+millimeter the surface of the negative pole, A, becomes faintly
+phosphorescent. On continuing the exhaustion this luminosity rapidly
+diminishes, not only in intensity but in extent, contracting more and
+more from the edge of the disk, until ultimately it is visible only as
+a bright spot in the center. This fact does not prop a recent theory,
+that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge leaves the center of
+the pole and takes place only between the edge and the walls of the
+tube.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+If the exhaustion is further pushed, then, at the point where the
+surface of the negative pole ceases to be luminous, the material on
+the positive pole, B, commences to phosphoresce, increasing in
+intensity until the tube refuses to conduct, its greatest brilliancy
+being just short of this degree of exhaustion. The probable
+explanation is that the vagrant molecules I introduce in the next
+experiment, happening to come within the sphere of influence of the
+positive pole, rush violently to it, and excite phosphorescence in the
+yttria, while losing their negative charge.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 794, page 12690.]
+
+
+
+
+GASEOUS ILLUMINANTS.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts,
+London. From the _Journal_ of the Society.]
+
+By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES.
+
+
+V.
+
+Having now brought before you the various methods by which ordinary
+coal gas can be enriched, so as to give an increased luminosity to the
+flame, I wish now to discuss the methods by which the gas can be
+burnt, in order to yield the greatest amount of light, and also the
+compounds which are produced during combustion.
+
+In the first lecture, while discussing the theory of luminous flames,
+I pointed out that, in an atmospheric burner, it was not the oxygen of
+the air introduced combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons, and
+so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon, which gave the
+non-luminous flame, but the diluting action of the nitrogen, which
+acted by increasing the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are
+broken up, and carbon liberated, a fact which was proved by
+observation that heating the mixture of gas and air again restored the
+luminosity of the flame. This experiment clearly shows that
+temperature is a most important factor in the illuminating value of a
+flame, and this is still further shown by a study of the action of the
+diluents present in coal gas, the non-combustible ones being far more
+deleterious than the combustible, as they not only dilute, but
+withdraw heat.
+
+Anything which will increase the temperature of the flame will also
+increase the illuminating power, provided, of course, that the
+increase in temperature is not obtained at the expense of the too
+rapid combustion of the hydrocarbons.
+
+As has been shown in the experiments relating to the action of
+diluents on flame, already quoted, oxygen, when added to coal gas,
+increases its illuminating value to a marked and increasing degree,
+until a certain percentage has been added, after which the
+illuminating power is rapidly decreased, until the point is reached
+when the mixture becomes explosive. This is due to the fact that the
+added oxygen increases the temperature of the flame by doing the work
+of the air, but without the cooling and diluting action of the
+nitrogen; when, however, a certain proportion is added, it begins to
+burn up the heavy hydrocarbons, and although the temperature goes on
+increasing, the light-giving power is rapidly diminished by the
+diminution of the amount of free carbon in the flame.
+
+It has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor coal gas by
+admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made under Tatham's patents, in
+which crude oils are cracked at a comparatively low temperature, and
+are there mixed with from 12 to 24 per cent. of oxygen gas. Oil gas
+made at low temperatures, _per se_, is of little use as an illuminant,
+as it burns with a smoky flame, and does not travel well, but when
+mixed with a certain amount of oxygen, it gives a very brilliant white
+light, and no smoke, while as far as experiments have at present gone,
+its traveling powers are much improved.
+
+At first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix a heavy
+hydrocarbon gas with oxygen, but it must be remembered that although
+hydrogen and carbon monoxide only need to be mixed with half their own
+volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture, yet as the number
+of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the combustible gas increase, so does
+the amount of oxygen needed to give explosion. Thus coal gas needs
+rather more than its own volume, and ethylene three times its volume,
+to give the maximum explosive results, while these mixtures begin to
+be explosive when 10 per cent. of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or
+water gas, 30 per cent. with coal gas, and over 50 per cent. of oil
+gas of the character used. It is claimed that if this gas was used as
+an enricher of coal gas, 5 per cent. of it would increase the
+luminosity of 16-candle gas by about 40 per cent.
+
+Oxygen has been obtained for some time past from the air on a
+commercial scale by the Brin process, and at the present time there
+seems every prospect of our being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of
+about 3s. 6d. per 1,000 cubic feet. Another process by which this
+important result can also be obtained was first introduced by Tessie
+du Mothay, and has now just been revived. It consists of passing
+alternate currents of steam and air over sodic manganate heated to
+dull redness in an iron tube; the process has never been commercially
+successful, for the reason that the contents of the tube fused, and
+flowing over the surface of the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or
+retorts, and also as soon as fusion took place, the mass became so
+dense that it had little or no action on the air passing over it. Now,
+however, this difficulty has been partly overcome by so preparing the
+manganate as to prevent fusion, and to keep it in a spongy state,
+which gives very high results, and the substance being practically
+everlasting, the cost of production is extremely low.
+
+It is proposed to feed this by a separate system of pipes to small gas
+jets, and by converting them into practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes,
+to raise solid masses of refractory material to incandescence, and
+also by supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular
+construction, to obtain a very great increase in illuminating power.
+
+Whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen would be successful or
+not, I do not wish to discuss at the present time, but there is no
+doubt but that cheap oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas
+manager, as by mixing 0.8 per cent. of oxygen with his coal gas before
+purification, he could not only utilize the method so successfully
+introduced by Mr. Valon at Ramsgate, but could also increase the
+illuminating value of his gas.
+
+In speaking of the structure of flame, I pointed out that close to the
+burner from which the gas giving the flame is issuing, a space exists
+in which no combustion is going on--in other words, a flame is never
+in contact with the rim of the burner. This is best seen when the gas
+is turned low--with a batswing burner, for instance--turned so low
+that only a small non-luminous flame is left, the space between burner
+and flame will appear as great as the flame itself, while, if the gas
+is mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide, the space can be
+very much increased.
+
+Several theories have been brought forward to explain this phenomenon,
+but the true one is that the burner abstracts so much heat from the
+flame at that point that it is unable to burn there, and this can be
+proved by the fact that where a cold object touches the flame, a
+dividing space, similar to that noticed between flame and burner, will
+always be observed, and the colder the object and the more diluted the
+gas the greater is the observed space. If a cold metal wire or rod is
+held in a non-luminous flame, it causes an extinction of the gas for
+some considerable space around itself; but as the temperature of the
+rod rises, this space becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is
+heated to redness, and then the flame comes in contact with the rod.
+
+In the same way, if the burner from which the gas is issuing be heated
+to redness, the space between burner and flame disappears. It has
+already been shown that cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces
+the illuminating value, and finally renders it more luminous; and we
+are now in a position to discuss the points which should be aimed at
+in the construction of a good gas burner.
+
+In the first place, a sensible diminution in light takes place when a
+metal burner is employed, and the larger the surface and thickness of
+the metal the worse will be its action on the illuminating power of
+the flame; but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom of
+the flame, so that with a small flame the total effect is very great,
+and with a very large flame almost _nil_.
+
+The first point, therefore, to attend to is that the burner shall be
+made of a good non-conductor. In the next place, the flow of the gas
+must be regulated to the burner, as, if you have a pressure higher
+than that for which the burner is constructed, you at once obtain a
+roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power, as the too rapid rush
+of gas from the burner causes a mingling of gas and air and a
+consequent cooling of the flame. The tap also which regulates the
+flame is better at a distance from the burner than close to it, as any
+constriction near the burner causes eddies, which give an unsteady
+flame.
+
+These general principles govern all burners, and we will now take the
+ordinary forms in detail. In the ordinary flat flame burner, given a
+good non-conducting material, and a well regulated gas supply, little
+more can be done, while burning it in the ordinary way, to increase
+its luminosity; and it is the large surface of flame exposed to the
+cooling action of the air which causes this form of burner to give the
+lowest service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed. Much is done,
+moreover, by faulty fittings and shades, to reduce the already poor
+light given out, because the light-yielding power of the flame largely
+depends upon its having a well rounded base and broad, luminous zone;
+and when a globe with a narrow opening is used with such a flame--as
+is done in 99 out of 100 cases--the updraught drags the flame out of
+shape, and seriously impairs its light-giving powers, a trouble which
+can be got over by having the globe with an opening at the bottom not
+less than 4 inches in diameter, and having small shoulders fixed to
+the burner, which draw out the flame and protect the base from the
+disturbing influence of draughts.
+
+The Argand burner differs from the flat flame burners in that a
+circular flame is employed. The air supply is regulated by a
+cylindrical glass, and this form of burner gives a better service than
+the flat flame burner, as not only can the supply of gas and air be
+better adjusted, but the air being slightly warmed by the hot glass
+adds to the temperature of the flame, which is also increased by
+radiation from the opposite side of the flame itself.
+
+The chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon the fact that,
+being circular, the light from the inner surface has to pass through
+the wall of flame, and careful photometric experiments show that the
+solid particles present in the flame so reduce its transparency that a
+loss amounting to about 25 per cent. of light takes place during its
+transmission.
+
+The height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted to the size of
+the flame, as too long a chimney, by increasing the air supply unduly,
+cools, and so lowers the illuminating power of the flame. Experiments
+with carbureted water gas gave the following results, with a
+consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour:
+
+-----------------------------------------------------
+ Size of Chimney. | Height of Flame. | Candle Power. |
+------------------+------------------+---------------|
+    6 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/2       |     21        |
+    7 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/4       |     21.3      |
+    8 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/8       |     20.8      |
+    9 X 1-7/8     |      1-7/8       |     18.2      |
+------------------+------------------+---------------+
+
+For many years no advance was made upon these forms of burner, but
+when, ten years ago, it was recognized that anything which cools the
+flame reduces its value, while anything which increases its
+temperature raises its illuminating power, then a change took place in
+the forms of burner in use, and the regenerative burners, introduced
+by such men as Siemens, Grimston, and Bower, commenced what was really
+a revolution in gas lighting.
+
+By utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products of combustion
+to raise the temperature of the gas and air which are to enter into
+combination in the flame, an enormous increase in the temperature of
+the solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained, and a far
+greater and whiter light is the result.
+
+The Bower lamp, in which (at any rate in the later forms) the flame
+burns between a downward and an upward current of air, was one of the
+first produced, and so well has it been kept up to date that it still
+holds its own; while as types of the "inverted cone" regenerative
+burner, we may also take the Cromarty and Wenham lights, which have
+been followed by a host of imitators, and so closely are the original
+types adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what the use of
+the Patent Office really is.
+
+The Schulke, and the last form of Siemens regenerative burner,
+however, stand apart from all the others by dealing with flat and not
+conical flames, and in both regeneration is carried on to a high
+degree. The only drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by
+far the best form of gas stove as well as burner, and that the amount
+of heat thrown out by the radiant solid matter in the flame is, under
+some circumstances, an annoyance. But, on the other hand, we must not
+forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead burners, and
+that nearly every form of regenerative lamp can be adapted as a
+ventilating agent, and that with the withdrawal of the products of
+combustion from the air of the room, the great and only serious
+objection to gas as an illuminant disappears.
+
+When coal gas is burned, the hydrogen is supposed to be entirely
+converted into water vapor, and the carbon to finally escape into the
+air as carbon dioxide; and if this were so, every cubic foot of gas
+consumed would produce approximately 0.52 cubic foot of carbon dioxide
+and 1.34 cubic feet of water vapor, while the illuminating power
+yielded by the cubic foot of gas will, of course, vary with the kind
+of burner used.
+
+Roughly speaking, the ordinary types of burner give the following
+results:
+
+   ------------------------------------------------------------
+                    | Illuminating    | Products of Combustion
+                    |  Power in       |           per
+    Name of Burner. | Candles per     |      Candle Power.
+                    |  c.f. of gas    |------------------------
+                    |  Consumed.      |   Carbon   |  Water
+                    |                 |  Dioxide.  |  Vapor.
+   -----------------+-----------------+------------+-----------
+    Batswing.       |      2.9        | 0.18 c.f.  | 0.46 c.f.
+    Argand.         |      3.3        | 0.16 c.f.  | 0.40 c.f.
+    Regenerative.   |     10.0        | 0.05 c.f.  | 0.13 c.f.
+   -----------------+-----------------+------------+------------
+
+So that the regenerative forms of burner, by giving the greatest
+illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, yield a smaller
+amount of vitiation to the air per candle of light emitted.
+
+An ordinary room, say 16' X 12' X 10', would not be considered
+properly illuminated unless the light were at least equal to 32 candle
+power; and in the table below the amount of the oxygen used up and the
+products of combustion formed by each class of illuminant and burner
+in attaining this result are given, the number of adults who would
+exhale the same amount during respiration being also stated.
+
+From these data it appears, according to rules by which the degree of
+vitiation of the air in any confined space is measured by the amount
+of oxygen used up and carbon dioxide formed, that candles are the
+worst offenders against health and comfort. Oil lamps come next, and
+gas least. This, however, is an assumption which practical experience
+does not bear out. Discomfort and oppression in a room lighted by
+candles or oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older
+forms of gas burner; and the partial explanation of this is to be
+found in the fact that, when a room is illuminated with candles or
+oil, people are contented with a feebler and more local light than
+when using gas. In a room of the size described, the inmates would be
+more likely to use two candles placed near their books, or on a table,
+than thirty-two scattered about the room.
+
+Moreover, the amount of water vapor given off during the combustion of
+gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants. Water vapor
+having a great power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas
+becomes heated, and diffusing itself about the room, causes great
+feeling of oppression; the air also being highly charged with
+moisture, is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapor which is
+always evaporating from the surface of our skin, whereby the functions
+of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of
+_malaise_.
+
+Added to these, however, is a far more serious factor which has, up to
+the present, been overlooked, and that is that an ordinary gas flame,
+in burning, yields distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and
+acetylene, the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest traces
+produces headache and general physical discomfort, while its effect
+upon plant life is equally marked.
+
+
+AMOUNT OF OXYGEN REMOVED FROM THE AIR, AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER
+VAPOR GENERATED TO GIVE AN ILLUMINATION EQUAL TO 32 CANDLE POWER.
+
+(The amount of light required in a room 16' X 12' x 10'.)
+
+              |Quantity of |          | Products of Combustion|      |
+              |  Materials | Oxygen   |           |  Carbon   |      |
+Illuminant    |    Used    | Removed  |Water Vapor|  Dioxide  |Adults|
+--------------+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------+
+Sperm Candles |3,840 grains|19.27 c.f.|13.12 c.f. |13.12 c.f. | 21.8 |
+Paraffin Oil  |1,984   "   |12.48 c.f.| 7.04 c.f. | 8.96 c.f. | 14.9 |
+Gas (London)--|            |          |           |           |      |
+ Burners:     |            |          |           |           |      |
+  Batswing    |  11  c.f.  |13.06 c.f.|14.72 c.f. | 5.76 c.f. |  9.6 |
+  Argand      |   9.7 c.f. |11.52 c.f.|12.80 c.f. | 5.12 c.f. |  8.5 |
+  Regenerative|   3.2 c.f. | 3.68 c.f.| 4.16 c.f. | 1.60 c.f. |  2.6 |
+
+Ever since the structure of flame has been noted and discussed, it has
+been accepted as a fact beyond dispute that the outer almost invisible
+zone which is interposed between the air and the luminous zone of the
+flame is the area of complete combustion, and that here the unburnt
+remnants of the flame gases, meeting the air, freely take up oxygen
+and are converted into the comparatively harmless products of
+combustion, carbon dioxide and water vapor, which only need partial
+removal by any haphazard process of ventilation to keep the air of the
+room fit to support animal life. I have, however, long doubted this
+fact, and at length, by a delicate process of analysis have been able
+to confirm my suspicions. The outer zone of a luminous flame is not
+the zone of complete combustion; it is a zone in which luminosity is
+destroyed in exactly the same way that it is destroyed in the Bunsen
+burner; that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools
+down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered
+non-luminous, while some of the gas sinks below the point at which it
+is capable of burning, with the result that considerable quantities of
+the products of incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene
+escape into the air, and render it actively injurious.
+
+I have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe, with a circular
+loop on the end, the interior of the loop being pierced with minute
+holes, and by making a circular flame burn within the loop so that the
+non-luminous zone of the flame just touched the inside of the loop,
+and then by aspiration so gentle as not to distort the shape of the
+flame, withdrawing the gases escaping from the outer zone. On
+analyzing these by a delicate process, which will be described
+elsewhere, I arrived at the following results:
+
+    GASES ESCAPING FROM THE OUTER ZONE OF FLAME.
+
+                             Luminous.   Bunsen.
+
+    Nitrogen.                76.612      80.242
+    Water vapor.             14.702      13.345
+    Carbon dioxide.           2.201       4.966
+    Carbon monoxide.          1.189       0.006
+    Oxygen.                   2.300       1.430
+    Marsh gas.                0.072       0.003
+    Hydrogen.                 2.888       0.008
+    Acetylene.                0.036        Nil.
+                            -------     -------
+                            100.000     100.000
+
+The gases leaving the luminous flame show that the diluting action of
+the nitrogen is so great that considerable quantities even of the
+highly inflammable and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion,
+while the products of incomplete combustion are present in sufficient
+quantity to account perfectly for the deleterious effects of gas
+burners in ill-ventilated rooms. The analyses also bring out very
+clearly the fact that, although the dilution of coal gas by air in
+atmospheric burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of the
+heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon, and so destroy
+luminosity, yet the presence of the extra supply of oxygen does make
+the combustion far more perfect, so that the products of incomplete
+combustion are hardly to be found in the escaping gases.
+
+These experiments are of the gravest import, as they show more clearly
+than has ever been done before the absolute necessity for special and
+perfect ventilation where coal gas is employed for the illumination of
+our dwelling rooms.
+
+When coal gas was first employed during the early part of this century
+as an illuminating agent, the low pitch of the old fashioned rooms,
+and the excess of impurities in the gas, rendered it imperative that
+the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas should be
+conducted from the apartment, and for this purpose arrangements of
+tubes with funnel shaped openings were suspended over the burners. The
+noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or open air; but
+this type of ventilator was unsightly in the extreme, and some few
+attempts were made to replace it by a more elegant arrangement, as in
+the ventilating lamp invented by Faraday, and in the adaptation of the
+same principle by Mr. I.O.N. Rutter, who strove for many years to
+direct attention to the necessity of removing the products of
+combustion from the room. But with the increase of the gas industry,
+the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually more and more
+perfect, while the rooms in the modern houses were made more lofty;
+and the products of combustion being mixed with a larger volume of
+air, and not containing so many deleterious constituents, became, if
+not much less noxious, at all events less perceptible to the nose. As
+soon as this point was reached, the ventilating tubes were discarded,
+and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms has been
+contaminated by illuminants, with hardly an effort to alleviate the
+effect produced upon health. I say "hardly an effort," for the Messrs.
+Boyle tried, by their concentric tube ventilators, to meet the
+difficulty, while Mr. De la Garde and Mr. Hammond have each
+constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the Rutter lamp;
+but either from their being somewhat unsightly, or from their
+diminishing the amount of light given out, none of them have met with
+any degree of success. In places of public entertainment, where large
+quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating purposes, the
+absolute necessity for special ventilation gave rise to the "sun
+burner," with its ventilating shaft. This, however, gives but a very
+poor illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, due partly to
+the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced, and partly to
+its distance from the objects to be illuminated.
+
+The great difficulty which in the whole history of ventilation has
+opposed itself to the adoption of proper arrangements for removing the
+products of combustion has been the necessity of bringing the tube to
+carry off the gases low down into the room, and of incasing the burner
+in such a way that none of the products should escape; but with the
+present revolution in gas burners this necessity is entirely done away
+with, and the regenerative burner offers the means not only of
+removing all the products of combustion but also of effecting thorough
+ventilation of the room itself, as experiments made some few years ago
+showed me that a ventilating regenerative burner, burning 20 cubic
+feet of gas per hour and properly fitted, will not only remove all its
+own products of combustion, but also over 5,000 cubic feet per hour of
+the vitiated air from the upper part of the room. I am quite aware
+that many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections to fitting
+ventilating lamps, these being chiefly due to the fact that it
+requires considerable trouble to fit them properly; but I think I have
+said enough to show the absolute necessity of some such system, and
+when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps, engineering
+skill will soon find means to overcome any slight difficulties which
+exist.
+
+Having disposed in a few words of a subject which, if fully treated,
+would occupy a long course of lectures by itself, I will pass on to
+the consideration of gas as at present used as a fuel.
+
+There is no doubt that gas is the most convenient and in many ways one
+of the best forms of fuel for heating and cooking purposes, and the
+efforts which all large gas companies are now making to popularize and
+increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly bear fruit
+in the future. But before the day can come for gas to be used in this
+way on a large scale, there is one fact which the gas manager and gas
+stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to, and that is
+that no gas stove or gas water heater, of any construction, should be
+sent out or fitted without just as great care being taken to provide
+for the carrying away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary
+fuel range was being fitted. Do not for one moment allow yourself to
+be persuaded that, because a gas stove or geyser does not send out a
+mass of black smoke, the products of combustion can be neglected and
+with safety allowed to mingle with the atmosphere we are to breathe.
+
+Scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are recorded from the
+products of combustion given off from various forms of water heaters
+used in bath rooms; scarcely a cookery class is given, with gas
+stoves, that one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from an
+intense headache, and often in an almost fainting condition. And the
+same cause which brings about these extreme cases, on a smaller scale
+causes such physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons
+that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely decline to have
+gas as an illuminant or fuel in any of their living rooms; and if the
+use of gas, more especially as fuel, is to be extended, and if gas is
+to hold its own in the future against such rivals as the electric
+light, then those interested in gas and gas stoves must face the
+problem, and by improving the methods of burning and using gas do away
+with the present serious drawbacks which exist to its use.
+
+The feeling has gradually been gaining ground in the public mind that,
+when atmospheric burners and other devices for burning coal gas are
+employed for heating purposes, certain deleterious products of
+incomplete combustion find their way into the air, and that this takes
+place to a considerable extent is shown by the facts brought forward
+in a paper read by Mr. William Thomson before the last meeting of the
+British Association.
+
+Mr. Thomson attempted to separate and determine the quantity of carbon
+monoxide and hydrocarbons present in the flue gases from various forms
+of gas stoves and burners, but, like every other observer who has
+attempted to solve this most difficult problem, he found it so beset
+with difficulties that he had to abandon it, and contented himself
+with determining the total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in
+an unburned condition, experiments which showed that the combustion of
+gas in stoves for heating purposes is much more incomplete than one
+had been in the habit of supposing, but his experiments give no clew
+as to whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of such
+deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene, or comparatively
+harmless gases, such as marsh gas and hydrogen. After considerable
+work upon the subject, I have succeeded in doing this by a very
+delicate process of analysis, and I now wish to lay some of my results
+before you.
+
+If a cold substance, metal or non-metal, be placed in a flame, whether
+it be luminous or non-luminous, it will be observed that there is a
+clear space, in which no combustion is taking place, formed round the
+cool surface, and that as the body gets heated so this space gets less
+and less until, when the substance is at the same temperature as the
+flame itself, there is contact between the two. Moreover, when a
+luminous flame is employed in this experiment the space still exists
+between the cool body and the flame, but you also notice that the
+luminosity is decreased over a still larger area although the flame
+exists.
+
+This meaning that, in immediate contact with the cold body, the
+temperature is so reduced that the flame cannot exist, and so is
+extinguished over a small area; while over a still larger space the
+temperature is so reduced that it is not hot enough to bring about
+decomposition of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon to
+the same extent as in hotter portions of the flame. Now, inasmuch as
+when water is heated or boiled in an open vessel, the temperature
+cannot rise above 100°C., and as the temperature of an ordinary flame
+is over 1,000°C., it is evident that the burning gas can never be in
+contact with the bottom of the vessel, or, in other words, the gas is
+put out before combustion is completed, and the unburned gas and
+products of incomplete combustion find their way into the air and
+render it perfectly unfit for respiration.
+
+The portion of the flame which is supposed to be the hottest is about
+half an inch above the tip of the inner zone of the flame, and it is
+at this point that most vessels containing water to be heated are made
+to impinge on the flame; and it is this portion of the flame, also,
+which is utilized for raising various solids to a temperature at which
+they radiate heat.
+
+In order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination which the
+air undergoes when a geyser or cooking stove is at work, I have
+determined the composition of the products of combustion, and the
+unburned gases escaping when a vessel containing water at the ordinary
+temperatures is heated up to the boiling point by a gas flame, the
+vessel being placed, in the first case, half an inch above the inner
+cone of the flame, and in the second, at the extreme outer tip of the
+flame.
+
+         GASES ESCAPING DURING CHECKED COMBUSTION.
+
+                    |    Bunsen flame.      |     Luminous flame.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+                    |   Inner.  |   Outer.  |     Inner.  |  Outer.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+Nitrogen            |   75.75   |    79.17  |     77.52   |   69.41
+Water vapor         |   13.47   |    14.29  |     11.80   |   19.24
+Carbon dioxide      |    2.99   |     5.13  |      4.93   |    8.38
+Carbon monoxide     |    3.69   |     Nil.  |      2.45   |    2.58
+Marsh gas           |    0.51   |     0.31  |      0.95   |    0.39
+Acetylene           |    0.04   |     Nil.  |      0.27   |    Nil.
+Hydrogen            |    3.55   |     0.47  |      2.08   |    Nil.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+                    |  100.00   |   100.00  |    100.00   |  100.00
+
+These figures are of the greatest interest, as they show conclusively
+that the extreme top of the Bunsen flame is the only portion of the
+flame which can be used for heating a solid substance without
+liberating deleterious gases; and this corroborates the previous
+experiment on the gases in the outer zone of a flame, which showed
+that the outer zone of a Bunsen flame is the only place where complete
+combustion is approached.
+
+Moreover, this sets at rest a question which has been over and over
+again under discussion, and that is whether it is better to use a
+luminous or a non-luminous flame for heating purposes. Using a
+luminous flame, it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon, which
+is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer surface, and the
+carbon dioxide formed by the complete combustion of the carbon already
+burned up in flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide, so that
+even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it is impossible to heat a
+cool body without giving rise to carbon monoxide, although acetylene
+being absent, gas stoves, in which small flat flame burners are used,
+have not that subtile and penetrating odor which marks the ordinary
+atmospheric burner stove, with the combustion checked just at the
+right spot for the formation of the greatest volume of noxious
+products.
+
+It is the contact of the body to be heated with the flame before
+combustion is complete which gives rise to the greatest mischief; any
+cooling of the flame extinguishes a portion of the flame, and the
+gases present in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along the
+cooled surface and escape combustion.
+
+Dr. Blochmann has shown the composition of the gases in various parts
+of the Bunsen flame to be as follows:
+
+  Height above tube. |In tube. |1 inch. |2 inch. |3 inch. |Complete
+                     |         |        |        |        |combustion
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Air with 100 vols. |         |        |        |        |
+    gas              | 253.9   | 284.7  | 284.5  | 484.3  | 608.8
+  Hydrogen           |  48.6   |  36.4  |  17.7  |  16.1  |  Nil.
+  Marsh gas          |  39.0   |  40.1  |  28.0  |   5.7  |  Nil.
+  Carbon monoxide    |   2.9   |   2.2  |  19.9  |  12.7  |  Nil.
+  Olefiant gas       |   4.0   |   3.4  |   2.2  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Buteylene          |   3.0   |   2.5  |   1.6  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Oxygen             |  52.7   |  52.0  |  21.7  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Nitrogen           | 199.1   | 223.8  | 225.9  | 382.4  | 482.3
+  Carbon dioxide     |   0.8   |   3.5  |  13.0  |  41.7  |  62.4
+  Water vapor        |   3.1   |  11.8  |  45.8  | 116.1  | 141.2
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Which results show that it would be impossible to check the flame
+anywhere short of the extreme tip (where complete combustion is
+approximately taking place), without liberating deleterious products.
+I think I have said enough to show that no gas stove, geyser or gas
+cooking stove should be used without ample and thorough means of
+ventilation being provided, and no trace of the products of combustion
+should be allowed to escape into the air; until this is done, the use
+of improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious injury on
+the health of the people using them, and this will gradually result in
+the abandonment of gas as a fuel, instead of, as should be the case,
+its coming into general use. The English householder is far too prone
+to accept what is offered to him, without using his own common sense,
+and will buy the article which tickles his eye the most and his pocket
+the least, on the bare assurance of the shopkeeper, who is only
+anxious to sell; but when he finds that health and comfort are in
+jeopardy, and has discarded the gas stove, it will take years of labor
+to convince him that it was the misuse of gas which caused the
+trouble. Already signs are not wanting that the employers of gas
+stoves are beginning to fight shy of them, and I earnestly hope that
+the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to bear upon the
+stove manufacturers to give proper attention to this all important
+question.
+
+So strongly do I feel the importance of this question to the gas world
+and the public, that I freely offer to analyze the products of
+combustion given off by any gas stove or water heater sent to me at
+Greenwich during the next six months, on one condition, and that is
+that the results, good, bad, or indifferent, will be published in a
+paper before this Society, which has always been in the front when
+matters of great sanitary importance to the public had to be taken up.
+And if after that the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have
+not been certified, it is their own fault; but I do think that the
+maker of any stove or geyser which causes a death should be put upon
+his trial for manslaughter.
+
+In conclusion, let us consider for a moment what is likely to be the
+future of gas during the next half century. The labor troubles, bad as
+they are and have been, will not cease for many a weary year. The
+victims of imperfect education (more dangerous than none at all, as,
+while destroying natural instinct, it leaves nothing in its place)
+will still listen and be led by the baneful influence of irresponsible
+demagogues, who care for naught so long as they can read their own
+inflammatory utterances in the local press, and gain a temporary
+notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause they profess to
+serve. The natural tendency of this will be that every labor-saving
+contrivance that can will be pressed into the gas manager's service;
+and that, although coal (of a poorer class than at present used) will
+still be employed as a source of gas, the present retort setting will
+quickly give way to inclined retorts on the Coze principle; while,
+instead of the present wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke,
+it will be shot direct into the generator of the water gas plant, and
+the water gas carbureted with the benzene hydrocarbons derived from
+the smoke of the blast furnace and coke oven, or from the creosote oil
+of the tar distiller, by the process foreshadowed in the concluding
+sentences of my last lecture. It will then be mixed with the gas from
+the retorts, and will supply a far higher illuminant than we at
+present possess. In parts of the United Kingdom, such as South Wales,
+where gas coal is dear, and anthracite and bastard coals are cheap,
+water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant coal gas, with a
+saving of fifty per cent. on the prices now existing in those
+districts. While these changes have been going on, and while improved
+methods of manufacture have been tending to the cheapening of gas, it
+will have been steadily growing in public favor as a fuel; and if in
+years to come the generation of electricity should have been so
+cheapened as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an
+illuminant, the gas works will still be found as busy as of yore, the
+holder of gas shares as contented as to-day; for with a desire for a
+purer atmosphere and a white mist instead of a yellow fog, gas will
+have largely supplanted coal as a fuel, and gas stoves, properly
+ventilated and free from the reproaches I have hurled at them
+to-night, will burn a gas far higher in its heating power, far better
+in its power of bearing illuminating hydrocarbons, and free from
+poisonous constituents.
+
+When the demand for it arises, hydrogen gas can be made as cheaply as
+water gas itself, and when time is ripe for a fuel gas for use in the
+house, it is hydrogen and not water gas which will form its basis.
+With carbureted water gas and 20 per cent. of carbon monoxide we are
+still below the limit of danger, but a pure water gas with over 40 per
+cent. of the same insidious element of danger will never be tolerated
+in our households. Already a patent has been taken by Messrs. Crookes
+and Ricarde-Seaver for purifying water gas from carbon monoxide, and
+converting it mainly into hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature
+through a mixture of lime and soda lime, a process which is chemically
+perfect, as the most expensive portion of the material used could be
+recovered; but in the present state of the labor market it is not
+practical, as for the making of every 100,000 cubic feet of gas,
+fifteen tons of material would have to be handled, the cost of labor
+alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted; moreover,
+hydrogen can be made far cheaper directly.
+
+From the earliest days of gas making, the manufacture of hydrogen by
+the passage of steam over red-hot iron has been over and over again
+mooted, and attempted on a large scale, but several factors have
+combined to render it futile.
+
+In the first place, for every 478.5 cubic feet of hydrogen made under
+perfect theoretical conditions never likely to be obtained in
+practice, 56 lb. of iron were converted into the magnetic oxide, and
+as there was no ready sale for this article, this alone would prevent
+its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen; the next point was that
+when steam was passed over the red-hot iron, the temperature was so
+rapidly lowered that the generation of gas could only go on for a very
+short period, while, finally, the swelling of the mass in the retort
+and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into the side renders the
+removal of the spent material almost an impossibility. These
+difficulties can, however, be got over. Take a fire clay retort, six
+feet long and a foot in diameter, and cap it with a casting bearing
+two outlet tubes closed by screw valves, while a similar tube leads
+from the bottom of the retort. Inclose this retort by a furnace
+chamber of iron lined with fire brick, leaving a space of two feet six
+inches round the retort, and connect the top of the furnace chamber
+with one opening at the top of the upright retort, while air blasts
+lead into the bottom of the furnace chamber, below rocking fire bars,
+which start at bottom of the retort, and slope upward, to leave room
+for ash holes closed by gas tight covers. The retort is filled with
+iron or steel borings, alone if pure hydrogen is required, or cast
+into balls with pitch if a little carbon monoxide is not a drawback,
+as in foundry work. The furnace chamber is now filled with coke, fed
+in through manholes, or hoppers, in the top, and the fuel being
+ignited, the blast is turned on, and the mixture of nitrogen and
+carbon monoxide passes over the iron, heating it to a red heat, while
+the fuel in contact with the retort does the same thing.
+
+When the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red heat, the
+air blast is cut off, and the pipe connecting the furnace and retort,
+together with the pipe in connection with the bottom of the retort,
+are closed, and steam, superheated by passing through a pipe led round
+the retort or interior wall of the furnace, is injected at the bottom
+of the red-hot mass of iron, which decomposes it, forming magnetic
+oxide of iron and hydrogen, which escapes by the second tube at the
+top of the retort, and is led away either to a carbureting chamber if
+required for illumination, or direct to the gasholder if wanted as a
+fuel. The mass of incandescent fuel in the furnace chamber,
+surrounding the retort, keeping up the temperature of retort and iron
+sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed.
+
+The hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and the air blast turned
+on. The hot carbon monoxide passing over the hot magnetic oxide
+quickly reduces it down to metallic iron, which, being in a spongy
+condition, acts more freely on the steam during later makes than it
+did at first, and being infusible at the temperature employed, may be
+used for a practically unlimited period.
+
+What more simple method than this could be desired? Here we have the
+formation of the most valuable of all fuel gases at the cost of the
+coke and steam used, a gas also which has double the carrying power
+for hydrocarbon vapors possessed by coal gas, while its combustion
+gives rise to nothing but water vapor.
+
+In this course of lectures I have left much unsaid and undone which I
+should have liked to have had time to accomplish, and if I have been
+obliged to leave out of consideration many important points, it is the
+time at my disposal and not my will which is to blame. And now, in
+conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to my assistants, Messrs. J.A.
+Foster and J.B. Warden, who have heartily co-operated with me in much
+of the work embodied in these lectures.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS.
+
+
+The celebrated philosopher Bacon, the founder of the experimental
+method, claimed that we see better with one eye than with two, because
+the attention is more concentrated and becomes profounder. "On looking
+in a mirror," says he, "we may observe that, if we shut one eye, the
+pupil of the other dilates." To this question: "But why, then, have we
+two eyes?" he responds: "In order that one may remain if the other
+gets injured." Despite the reasoning of the learned philosopher, we
+may be permitted to believe that the reason that we have two eyes is
+for seeing better and especially for perceiving the effects of
+perspective and the relief of objects. We have no intention of setting
+forth here the theory of binocular vision; one simple experiment will
+permit any one to see that the real place of an object is poorly
+estimated with one eye. Seated before a desk, pen in hand, suddenly
+close one eye, and, at the same time, stretch out the arm in order to
+dip the pen in the inkstand; you will fail nine times out of ten. It
+is not in one day that the effects of binocular vision have been
+established, for the ancients made many observations on the subject.
+It was in 1593 that the celebrated Italian physicist Porta was the
+first to give an accurate figure of two images seen by each eye
+separately, but he desired no apparatus that permitted of
+reconstituting the relief on looking at them. Those savants who, after
+him, occupied themselves with the question, treated it no further
+than from a theoretical point of view. It was not till 1838 that the
+English physicist Wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic
+apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining simultaneously
+with each of the eyes two different images of an object, one having
+the perspective that the right eye perceives, and the other that the
+left eye perceives.
+
+This apparatus is described in almost all treatises on physics. We may
+merely recall the fact that it operated by reflection, that is to say,
+the two images were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors making
+an angle of 45 degrees. The instrument was very cumbersome and not
+very practical. Another English physicist, David Brewster, in 1844
+devised the stereoscope that we all know; but, what is a curious
+thing, he could not succeed in having it constructed in England, where
+it was not at first appreciated. It was not till 1850 that he brought
+it to Paris, where it was constructed by Mr. Soleil and his son-in-law
+Duboscq. Abbot Moigno and the two celebrated opticians succeeded, not
+without some difficulty, in having it examined by the _official_
+savants; but, at the great exposition of 1851, it was remarked by the
+Queen of England, and from this moment Messrs. Soleil & Duboscq
+succeeded with difficulty only in satisfying the numerous orders that
+came from all parts. As photography permitted of easily making
+identical images, but with different perspective, it contributed
+greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus.
+
+The stereoscope, such as we know it, presents the inconvenience of
+being incapable of being used by but one person at once. Several
+inventors have endeavored to render the stereoscopic images visible to
+several spectators at the same time. In 1858, Mr. Claudet conceived
+the idea of projecting the two stereoscopic images upon ground glass
+in superposing them. The relief was seen, it appears, but we cannot
+very well explain why; the idea, however, had no outcome, because the
+image, being quite small, could be observed by but three or four
+persons at once. It was Mr. D'Almeida, a French physicist, who toward
+the same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable manner, and we
+cannot explain why his process (that required no special apparatus)
+fell into the desuetude from which Mr. Molteni has just rescued it and
+obtained much success.
+
+[Illustration: STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS]
+
+This is in what it consists: The impression of the relief appears when
+each eye sees that one of the two images which presents the
+perspective that it would perceive if it saw the real object. If we
+take two transparent stereoscopic images and place each of them in a
+projection lantern, in such a way that they can be superposed upon the
+screen, we shall obtain thereby a single image. It will always be a
+little light and soft, as the superposition cannot be effected
+accurately, the perspective not being the same for each of them. It is
+a question now to make each eye see the one of the two images proper
+to it. To this effect, Mr. D'Almeida conceived the very ingenious idea
+of placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image having the
+perspective of the right eye, and a red glass in front of the other
+image. As green and red are complementary colors, the result was not
+changed upon the screen; there was a little less light, that was all.
+But if, at this moment, the spectator places a green glass before his
+right eye and a red one before his left, he will find himself in the
+condition desired for realizing the effect sought.
+
+Each eye will then see only the image responding to the coloration
+chosen, and, as it is precisely the one which has the perspective
+proper to it, the relief appears immediately. The effect is striking.
+We perceive a diffused image upon the screen with the naked eye, but
+as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief appears with as
+much distinctness as in the best stereoscope. One must not, for
+example, reverse his eye-glass, for if (things being arranged as we
+have said) he looks through a red glass before his right eye, and
+through a green one before his left, it is the image carrying the
+perspective designed for the right eye that will be seen by the left
+eye, and reciprocally. There is then produced, especially with certain
+images, a very curious effect of reversed perspective, the background
+coming to the front.
+
+Now that photography is within every one's reach, and that many
+amateurs are making stereopticon views and own projection lanterns,
+we are persuaded that the experiment will be much more successful than
+it formerly was. An assemblage of persons all provided with colored
+eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate. Our engraving represents
+a stereopticon seance, and the draughtsman has well rendered the
+effect of the two luminous and differently colored fascicles
+superposed upon the screen.
+
+In a preceding note upon the same subject, Mr. Hospitalier remarked
+that upon combining these effects of perspective with those of the
+praxinoscope, which give the sensation of motion, we would obtain
+entirely new effects. It would be perhaps complicated as to the
+installation, and especially as to the making of the images, but, in
+certain special cases (for giving the effect of a machine in motion,
+for example), it might render genuine services.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE EFFECT ON FOWLS OF NITROGENOUS AND CARBONACEOUS RATIONS.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This article is condensed by permission from a thesis
+prepared for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, by
+James Edward Rice, a graduate of the class of 1890. The work was
+planned and wholly carried out in the most careful manner by Mr. Rice
+under the immediate supervision of the Director. The results have been
+thought worthy of publication in the _Cornell Station Bulletin_.]
+
+
+On July 2, 1889, ten Plymouth Rock hens, one year old, and as nearly
+as possible of uniform size, were selected from a flock of
+thirty-five. At the same time ten chickens, hatched from the same hens
+mated with a Plymouth Rock cock, were similarly chosen. The chickens
+were about six weeks old, healthy and vigorous and of nearly the same
+size. Up to the time of purchase both hens and chickens had full run
+of the farm. The hens foraged for themselves and were given no food;
+the chickens had been fed corn meal dough, sour milk and table scraps.
+
+A preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five days, during
+which time both hens and chickens were confined, all together, in a
+fairly well lighted and ventilated room, and fed a great variety of
+food, in order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly as
+possible in the same condition. During this preliminary feeding both
+hens and chickens increased in live weight. The ten hens from a total
+of 44 lb. 12 oz. to 47 lb. 1.5 oz., or 3.75 oz. each, and laid 93
+eggs. The chickens from a total of 9 lb. 15 oz. to 18 lb., or 12.9 oz.
+each.
+
+Food, shells and water were kept constantly before the fowls. Basins
+which contained the food and water were kept within a box constructed
+of lath, so arranged that the fowls could reach between the slats and
+procure food and drink without wasting or soiling.
+
+July 26th the hens and chickens were each separated into two lots of
+five each, as follows:
+
+      Hens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 23 lb. 8.5 oz.
+      Hens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 23 lb. 9 oz.
+      Chickens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 8 lb. 15 oz.
+      Chickens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 9 lb. 1 oz.
+
+The four lots were placed in separate pens where they remained during
+the entire experiment, which lasted 125 days. They were fed and
+watered once daily, and an account kept of the food eaten and water
+drank. At each feeding the food and water remaining were weighed back
+and deducted from the amount charged at the previous feeding.
+
+The hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration were given daily all
+they would eat of the following mixture: 1/3 part wheat bran, 1/3 part
+wheat shorts, 1/3 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts skimmed milk, and
+will be designated Lot I.
+
+The hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration were given daily all
+they would eat of a ration of cracked maize and maize dough, and will
+be designated Lot II.
+
+Both groups were given a small amount of green clover as long as it
+lasted, and afterward cabbage.
+
+For convenience the experiment was divided into five periods of twenty
+five days.
+
+
+FOOD CONSUMED AND INCREASE IN LIVE WEIGHT.
+
+During the first period all the fowls seemed in good health except the
+carbonaceous fed chickens; they, during this as in all succeeding
+periods, were restless and peevish, always moping or hunting for
+something to eat, though their trough was filled. When fed they would
+greedily take a few mouthfuls and then, with their hunger still
+unappeased, would leave the dish. They always ate ravenously the green
+food which was given them, as did the hens and chickens of Lot I. The
+hens of Lot II., on the contrary, seemed quite willing to squat about
+the pen and subsist on the maize diet, and strangely enough cared
+little for green food. The clear maize diet was accompanied by such
+ill effects that the chickens of each lot, after the first period,
+were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat, and the hens each one
+ounce. The wheat was increased during the fourth and fifth periods in
+the case of the chickens to one ounce each. During the second period
+one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food, and during the third period
+another of the same lot were taken ill and removed from the
+experiment. Both seemed to be suffering from impacted crops, as the
+stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be empty.
+
+The fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous ration, and
+since the first period the amount of food eaten by the hens and
+chickens of Lot I had continually decreased, led to the belief that
+their food might be too nitrogenous, and as during the last days of
+the third period one of the hens in Lot I was also ill, it was decided
+to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal and to use linseed meal
+instead. The hen recovered soon after the change in food.
+
+The supply of skim milk running short in the last two periods, water
+was used instead in mixing the ration of the lots fed nitrogenous
+food.
+
+At the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the linseed meal in
+the ration of Lot I was removed, and cotton seed meal substituted.
+This combination seemed a happy one, for on this ration both hens and
+chickens made large gains.
+
+At the end of the experiment little difference could be seen in the
+hens of the two groups; but the two lots of chickens were in striking
+contrast. While the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large,
+plump, healthy, active, and well feathered, the chickens fed on a
+carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller, sickly, and in
+several cases almost destitute of feathers. Two of them had perfectly
+bare backs, and so ravenous were they for flesh and blood that they
+began eating one another.
+
+The inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous diet to throw out
+new feathers and the ability of the chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet
+to grow an enormous coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the
+effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain
+requirements of animal growth. It was plain to see that maize, even
+when assisted by a small amount of wheat and green clover, could not
+supply sufficient nitrogen for the growth of feathers.
+
+It will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost weight during
+the experiment, the loss was slightly greater with those fed
+nitrogenous food, but these produced by far the most eggs.
+
+The chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about doubled in weight,
+while those fed carbonaceous food only added about one-third to their
+weight.
+
+
+PRODUCTION OF EGGS.
+
+During the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid three eggs while
+the others laid two. The two groups were, therefore, practically
+evenly divided at the start as to the condition of the laying stage.
+At the end of the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid
+forty-three eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid twenty. During
+the next twenty-five days the former laid thirty and the latter six;
+during the third period the former laid six and the latter not any.
+From this time on no eggs were received from either group. The decline
+in egg production was probably due in large part to the fact that the
+hens began to moult during the second period, and continued to do so
+during the rest of the experiment.
+
+The eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of small size, having a
+disagreeable flavor and smell, watery albumen, an especially small,
+dark colored yolk, with a tender vitelline membrane, which turned
+black after being kept several weeks. While the eggs of the
+carbonaceous fed hens were large, of fine flavor, of natural smell,
+large normal albumen, an especially large, rich yellow yolk, with
+strong vitelline membrane, which was perfectly preserved after being
+kept for weeks in the same brine with the other eggs.
+
+          TOTAL FOOD CONSUMED DURING EXPERIMENT.
+ _____________________________________________________________________
+ Lot. I.--Nitrogenous.            | Lot. II.--Carbonaceous.
+ _________________________________|___________________________________
+                  |       |       |                  |       |
+                  | Hens. |*Chicks|                  | Hens. |Chicks.
+                  |_______|_______|                  |_______|________
+                  |  lb.  |  lb.  |                  |  lb.  |  lb.
+ Bran.            | 29.90 | 21.85 | Maize.           | 82.15 | 51.30
+ Shorts.          | 29.90 | 21.85 | Green clover.    | 18.75 | 18.75
+ Cotton seed meal.| 21.48 | 13.24 | Cabbage.         | 16.00 | 16.00
+ Linseed meal.    |  8.43 |  8.61 | Wheat            | 15.63 | 11.71
+ Skimmed milk.    |105.49 | 61.33 |                  |       |
+ Wheat.           | 15.63 | 11.71 |                  |       |
+ Green clover.    | 18.75 | 18.75 |                  |       |
+ Cabbage.         | 16.00 | 16.00 |                  |       |
+ _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________
+  Total.          |245.58 |173.34 | Total.           |132.53 | 92.76
+  Nutritive ratio.| 1:3.1 |  1:3  | Nutritive ratio. | 1:7.8 |  1:8
+ _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________
+
+* Calculated for five chicks, based upon the amount eaten by the three
+after the two sick were removed.
+
+                 EGGS LAID AND GAIN IN WEIGHT--HENS.
+  ____________________________________________________________________
+                                      |              |
+                                      |    Lot I.    |    Lot II.
+                                      | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous.
+                                      |______________|________________
+                                      |              |
+  Live weight, July 26.               |     23.53    |     23.56
+   "     "     November 27.           |     21.31    |     22.00
+  Loss.                               |      2.22    |      1.56
+  Number of eggs laid.                |     79.00    |     26.00
+  Weight "   "    "   lb.             |      8.25    |      2.92
+  Average weight of eggs, oz.         |      1.67    |      1.80
+  Gain in weight, including eggs, lb. |      6.03    |      1.36
+  ____________________________________|______________|________________
+
+
+                     GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT--CHICKENS.
+  ____________________________________________________________________
+                                      |              |
+                                      |    Lot I.    |    Lot II.
+                                      | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous.
+                                      |______________|________________
+                                      |              |
+  Live weight, July 26.               |      8.94    |      9.06
+   "     "     November 27.           |     17.89    |     12.63
+  Gain, lb.                           |      8.95    |      3.57
+   "    per cent.                     |    100.11    |     39.40
+  ____________________________________|______________|________________
+
+Samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately marked and
+sold to a boarding house where the cook did not know that the eggs
+were undergoing a test. On meeting the cook several days later the
+following words were heard: "Do you expect me to cook such eggs as
+these! About every other one is spoiled." On examination of the
+ovaries after slaughtering, it was found that in the case of one of
+the carbonaceous fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage,
+but on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much nearer the laying
+period. With this single exception, the clusters of ovules in the
+carbonaceous fed hens were uniformly small. Neither group would have
+laid under any probability for several weeks. It would seem from these
+facts, together with the fact that during the experiment the
+nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three times as many eggs, that a
+nitrogenous ration stimulates egg production.
+
+
+THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING.
+
+On November 27 the fowls were slaughtered. Each fowl was weighed,
+wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering, and killed by severing an
+artery in the roof of the mouth. The blood was caught in a glass jar.
+The fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed, after which the
+body was laid open longitudinally by cutting alongside the sternum and
+through the back bone. When all had been thus prepared, they were hung
+up in groups to be photographed, but the photographs were quite
+unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative proportions of fat and
+lean. The accompanying drawing made from the photograph shows the
+relative development of an average pair of chickens. Attention is
+particularly called to the thighs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+One-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for flavor, succulence,
+and tenderness. The other half was carefully prepared for chemical
+analysis by separating the meat from the bones. The flesh was
+thoroughly mixed and run through a sausage cutter, mixed again, and
+the process repeated three times. From different parts of this mixture
+a large sample was taken, from which the chemist took his samples for
+analysis. The right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by
+placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a wire on its
+center, on which were placed small weights until the bone gave way.
+
+               DRESSED WEIGHT, INTERNAL ORGANS, ETC.
+ ____________________________________________________________________
+                            |                   |
+                            |       Hens.       |     Chickens.
+                            |___________________|____________________
+                            |         |         |         |
+                            | Lot I.  | Lot II. | Lot I.  | Lot II.
+                            | Nitro-  | Carbon- | Nitro-  | Carbon-
+                            | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous.
+                            |_________|_________|_________|__________
+                            |   lb.   |   lb.   |   lb.   |   lb.
+ Live weight.               |  21.31  |  22.0   |  17.89  |  12.63
+ Dressed weight.            |  14.86  |  15.09  |  12.01  |   8.89
+    "      "     per cent.  |  69.7   |  68.6   |  67.1   |  70.5
+ Weight of blood.           |   0.75  |   0.66  |   0.55  |   0.34
+   "    "  feathers.        |   1.41  |   1.25  |   1.28  |   0.66
+   "    "  intestinal fat.  |   0.59  |   1.98  |   0.34  |   0.66
+   "    "  offal.           |   3.70  |   3.02  |   3.62  |   2.08
+   "    "  bones.           |   3.47  |   3.63  |   3.18  |   2.69
+   "    "  flesh.           |  11.39  |  11.47  |   8.93  |   6.20
+ ___________________________|_________________________________________
+
+The breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows for the hens and
+chickens of the various lots:
+
+  Average hens, nitrogenous.                         48.16
+     "     "    carbonaceous.                        51.74
+     "    chickens, nitrogenous.                     46.64
+     "       "      carbonaceous.                    31.18
+
+There was little difference in the strength of the bones of the hens,
+undoubtedly because the bones were mature before the feeding began,
+and were little affected by the feeding. We find, however, that the
+bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost fifty per
+cent. (49.6) stronger than those fed carbonaceous food.
+
+The difference in the composition of the flesh, as shown by the
+analysis of Mr. W.P. Cutter, is given below:
+
+  __________________________________________________________________
+                           |                   |
+                           |       Hens.       |     Chickens.
+                           |___________________|____________________
+                           |         |         |         |
+                           | Lot I.  | Lot II. | Lot I.  | Lot II.
+                           | Nitro-  | Carbon- | Nitro-  | Carbon-
+                           | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous.
+                           |_________|_________|_________|__________
+  Albuminoids.             |  43.81  |  25.13  |  52.00  |  30.06
+  Fat.                     |  12.59  |  20.76  |   5.54  |  11.34
+  _________________________________________________________________
+
+The flesh of each group was submitted to a number of persons for a
+cooking test, and the almost unanimous verdict was that the flesh of
+the fowls fed a nitrogenous ration was darker colored, more succulent,
+more tender, and better flavored, though on this last there was some
+difference of opinion.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+So far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions from a single
+experiment of this kind, it would seem that:
+
+Chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make a satisfactory
+development, particularly of feathers.
+
+The bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration are fifty per
+cent. stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous ration.
+
+Hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs but of smaller
+size and poorer quality than those fed exclusively on corn.
+
+Hens fed on corn, while not suffering in general health, become
+sluggish, deposit large masses of fat on the internal organs, and lay
+a few eggs of large size and excellent quality.
+
+The flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids and less
+fat than those fed on a carbonaceous ration, and is darker colored,
+juicier and tenderer.
+
+I.P. ROBERTS, Director.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HERBACEOUS GRAFTING.
+
+
+My attention has been called a number of times to the unsatisfactory
+records and directions concerning the grafting of herbaceous plants.
+There appears to have been very little attention given to the subject,
+and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from one author to
+another. A few years ago I made some attempts at herbaceous grafting,
+but it was not until last winter that experiments were seriously
+undertaken. The work was put in the hands of J.R. Lochary as a subject
+for a graduating thesis.
+
+The experiments were undertaken primarily for the purpose of learning
+the best methods of grafting herbs, but a secondary and more important
+object was the study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion,
+particularly in relation to variegation and coloration. This second
+feature of the work is still under way, in one form or another, and we
+hope for definite results in a few years. As a matter of immediate
+advantage, however, herbaceous grafting has its uses, particularly in
+securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon the same plant.
+There is no difficulty in growing a half dozen kinds or colors, on
+geraniums, chrysanthemums, or other plants from one stock of the
+respective species.
+
+Six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter. It was found
+that the wood must be somewhat hardened to secure best results. The
+very soft and flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation
+of grafting, and union does not take place readily. Vigorous coleus
+stocks, three months old, gave best results if cut to within two or
+three inches of the pot and all or nearly all the leaves removed from
+the stump. Geraniums, being harder in wood, made good unions at almost
+any place except on the soft growing points. The stock must not have
+ceased growth, however. Most of the leaves should be kept down on the
+stock. Cions an inch or two long were usually taken from firm growing
+tips, in essentially the same manner as in the making of cuttings.
+Sometimes an eye of the old wood was used, and in most cases union
+took place and a new shoot arose from the bud. The leaves were usually
+partly removed from the cion.
+
+Various styles of grafting were employed, of which the common cleft
+and the veneer or side graft were perhaps the most satisfactory. In
+most instances it was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly
+with bass or raffia. In some soft wooded plants, like coleus, a
+covering of common grafting wax over the bandage was an advantage,
+probably because it prevented the drying out of the parts. In some
+cases, however, wax injured the tissues where it overreached the
+bandage. Sphagnum moss was used in many cases tied in a small mass
+about the union, but unless the parts were well bandaged the cion sent
+roots into the moss and did not unite, and in no case did moss appear
+to possess decided advantages. Best results were obtained by placing
+the plants at once in a propagating frame, where a damp and confined
+atmosphere could be obtained. In some plants, successful unions were
+made in the open greenhouse, but they were placed in shade and kept
+sprinkled for a day after the grafts were made. The operation should
+always be performed quickly to prevent flagging of the cions. Or, if
+the cions cannot be used at once, they may be thrust into sand or moss
+in the same manner as cuttings, and kept for several days. In one
+series, tomato and potato cuttings, which had flagged in the cutting
+bed, revived when grafted. And cuttings which had been transported in
+the mail for three days grew readily, but they were in good condition
+when received. The mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these
+grafted plants, for they delighted to crawl under the bandages and
+suck the juices from the wounded surfaces.
+
+Although it is foreign to the purpose of this note, it may be worth
+while to mention a few of the plants upon which the experiments were
+made. Sections were taken of many of the grafts and microscopic
+examinations made to determine the extent of cell union. Coleuses of
+many kinds were used, with uniform success, and the cions of some of
+them were vigorous a year after being set. Even iresine (better known
+as _Achyranthes Verschaffeltii_) united with coleus and grew for a
+time. Zonale geraniums bloomed upon the common rose geranium. Tomatoes
+upon potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were
+transplanted to the open ground, where they grew, flowered and fruited
+until killed by frost. The tomato-on-potato plants bore good tomatoes
+above and good potatoes beneath, even though no sprouts from the
+potato stock were allowed to grow. Peppers united with tomatoes and
+tomatoes united with peppers. Egg plants, tomatoes and peppers grew
+upon the European husk tomato or alkekengi (_Physalis Alkekengi_).
+Peppers and egg plants united with each other reciprocally. A coleus
+cion was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound with raffia.
+The cion remained green and healthy, and at the end of forty-eight
+days the bandage was removed, but it was found that no union had taken
+place. Ageratums united upon each other with difficulty.
+Chrysanthemums united readily. A bean plant, bearing two partially
+grown beans, chanced to grow in a chrysanthemum pot. The stem bearing
+the pods was inarched into the chrysanthemum. Union took place
+readily, but the beans turned yellow and died. Pumpkin vines united
+with squash vines, cucumbers with cucumbers, muskmelons with
+watermelons, and muskmelons, watermelons and cucumbers with the wild
+cucumber or balsam apple (_Echinocystis lobata_).
+
+Another interesting feature of the work was the grafting of one fruit
+upon another, as a tomato fruit upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon
+another cucumber. This work is still under progress and it promises
+some interesting results in a new and unexpected direction, reports of
+which may be expected later.--_Cornell Station Bulletin_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A HUMOROUS HEALTH OFFICER.
+
+
+The Michigan State Board of Health recently took Health Officer Davis,
+of Close Village, to task for failing to send in his weekly reports.
+His reply was unique. He says: "There has not been enough sickness
+here the last two or three years to do much good. The physicians find
+time to go to Milwaukee on excursions, serve as jurors in justice
+courts, sit around on drygoods boxes, and beg tobacco, chew gum, and
+swap lies. A few sporadic cases of measles have existed, but they were
+treated mostly by old women, and no deaths occurred. There was an
+undertaker in the village, but he is now in the State prison. It is
+hoped and expected when green truck gets around, melons plenty, and
+cucumbers in abundance, that something may revive business. If it
+does, I will let you know."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS
+
+
+Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years,
+sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New
+York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION.
+
+$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.
+
+
+This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued
+monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about
+forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book
+pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF
+ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with
+fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern
+Architectural Construction and allied subjects.
+
+A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of
+the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country,
+including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive.
+Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full
+Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of
+Details.
+
+No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and
+specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans
+we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of
+construction.
+
+Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
+furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building
+or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before
+them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best
+examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.
+
+Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
+Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated.
+An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given,
+in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods,
+Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with
+addresses of the makers, etc.
+
+The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have
+won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication in
+the world.
+
+A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry,
+Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of
+industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.
+
+MUNN& CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUILDING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
+
+
+In connection with the publication of the BUILDING EDITION of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn & Co. furnish plans and
+specifications for buildings of every kind, including Churches,
+Schools, Stores, Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.
+
+In this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects.
+Full plans, details, and specifications for the various buildings
+illustrated in this paper can be supplied.
+
+Those who contemplate building, or who wish to alter, improve, extend,
+or add to existing buildings, whether wings, porches, bay windows, or
+attic rooms, are invited to communicate with the undersigned. Our work
+extends to all parts of the country. Estimates, plans, and drawings
+promptly prepared. Terms moderate. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. The
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR.
+
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January
+I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in
+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+USEFUL ENGINEERING BOOKS
+
+
+Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers, Mechanics,
+Builders, men of leisure, and professional men, of all classes, need
+good books in the line of their respective callings. Our post office
+department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very
+small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different
+authors, on more than fifty different subjects, has recently been
+published, for free circulation, at the office of this paper. Subjects
+classified with names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only to
+ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address,
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+
+In connection with the Scientific American, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 42 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the Scientific American of all inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the
+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & Co.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs and how procured. Address
+
+MUNN & CO.,
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+BRANCH OFFICE, 622 AND 624 F ST., WASHINGTON, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+795, March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 13443-8.txt or 13443-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/4/4/13443/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/13443-8.zip b/old/13443-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40b2c33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-8.zip
diff --git a/old/13443-h.zip b/old/13443-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac36160
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h.zip
diff --git a/old/13443-h/13443-h.htm b/old/13443-h/13443-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..178a7fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/13443-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,5482 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, 795</title>
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white}
+img {border: 0;}
+h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;}
+.note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+.ctr {text-align: center;}
+-->
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 795,
+March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 795, March 28, 1891
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2004 [EBook #13443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 795</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, March 28, 1891</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 795.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#avi1">
+AVICULTURE.&mdash;The Effect on Fowls of Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations.&mdash;
+A very valuable report upon the effects of different diet on chickens, with tables of
+data.&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#bio1">
+BIOGRAPHY.&mdash;N.F. Burnham and his Life Work.&mdash;By W.H. BURNHAM.&mdash;The
+life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers,
+an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery.
+&mdash;1 illustration</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#bot1">
+BOTANY.&mdash;The Source of Chinese Ginger.&mdash;An identification of
+a long unknown plant</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#civ1">
+CIVIL ENGINEERING.&mdash;A Railway through the Andes.&mdash;An
+interesting enterprise now in progress in South America, with
+maps.&mdash;2 illustrations</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#civ2">
+Chicago as a Seaport.&mdash;Proposed connection of Chicago with the
+waters of the Mississippi River, thereby placing it in water
+communication with the sea.&mdash;2 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#civ3">
+Floating Elevator and Spoil Distributor.&mdash;A machine for removing
+dredged material from barges, as employed on the Baltic Sea
+Canal Works.&mdash;10 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#elec1">
+ELECTRICITY.&mdash;Alternate Current Condensers.&mdash;A valuable review
+of the difficulties of constructing these condensers.&mdash;An important
+contribution to the subject.&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#elec2">
+Electricity in Transitu.&mdash;From Plenum to Vacuum.&mdash;By Prof.
+WILLIAM CROOKES.&mdash;Continuation of this important lecture with
+profuse illustrations of experiments.&mdash;14 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#elec3">
+The Telegraphic Communication between Great Britain,
+Europe, America, and the East.&mdash;By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.&mdash;
+The engineering aspects of electricity.&mdash;The world's cables and
+connections.&mdash;2 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#hort1">
+HORTICULTURE.&mdash;Herbaceous Grafting.&mdash;A hitherto little practiced
+ and successful method of treating herbs, with curious results
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#mech1">
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;Improved Cold Iron Saw.&mdash;The
+"Demon" cold saw for cutting Iron.&mdash;Its capacity and general
+principles.&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#med1">
+MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.&mdash;How to Prevent Hay Fever.&mdash;By
+ALEXANDER RIXA.&mdash;A systematic treatment of this very troublesome
+complaint, with a special prescription and other treatment.
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IX.</td>
+<td><a href="#misc1">
+MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;The Business End of the American Newspaper.&mdash;By
+A.H. SIEGFRIED.&mdash;A graphic presentation of the
+technique of the newspaper office, circulation of the American
+papers, methods of printing, etc.
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#misc2">
+The New Labor Exchange at Paris.&mdash;A new establishment, long
+demanded by the laboring population of Paris.&mdash;Its scope and
+prospects.&mdash;2 illustrations
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">X.</td>
+<td><a href="#nav1">
+NAVAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;The Empress of India.&mdash;The pioneer
+of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the Canadian
+Pacific Railway between Vancouver, China, and Japan.&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XI.</td>
+<td><a href="#phys1">
+PHYSICS.&mdash;Stereoscopic Projections.&mdash;A most curious method
+of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the
+screen, involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators.
+&mdash;1 illustration
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">XII.</td>
+<td><a href="#tech1">
+TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Gaseous Illuminants.&mdash;By Prof. VIVIAN B.
+LEWES.&mdash;The fifth and last of Prof. Lewes' Society of Arts lectures,
+concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture
+</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr>
+
+<a name="misc2"></a><h2>THE NEW LABOR EXCHANGE
+AT PARIS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a href="./images/01-1.png"><img src="images/01-1.jpg" alt="NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p>There will soon be inaugurated
+(probably about the 14th of July) a new
+establishment that has long been demanded
+by the laboring population,
+that is to say, a new labor exchange,
+the buildings of which, situated on
+Chateau d'Eau Street, are to succeed
+the provisional exchange installed in
+the vicinity of Le Louvre Street. The
+new structures have been erected from
+plans by Mr. Bouvard, and occupy an
+area of seventeen hundred meters.</p>
+
+<p>The main work is now entirely terminated,
+but the interior decorations
+are not yet completely finished. The
+distribution comprises a vast meeting
+room, committee rooms for the various
+syndicates, offices in which the
+workmen of the various bodies of
+trades will find information and advice,
+and will be enabled to be put in relation
+with employers without passing
+through the more or less recommendable
+agencies to which they have hitherto
+been obliged to have recourse.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, the institution, if
+wisely conducted, is capable of bearing
+fruit and ought to do so, and the
+laboring population of Paris should be
+grateful to the municipal council for the
+six million francs that our ediles have
+so generously voted for making this interesting
+work a success. On seeing the
+precautions, perhaps necessary, that
+the laborer now takes against the capitalist,
+we cannot help instituting a
+comparison with the antique and solid
+organization of labor that formerly
+governed the trades unions. Each corporation
+possessed a syndic charged
+with watching over the management
+of affairs, and over the receipts and
+the use of the common resources.
+These syndics were appointed for two
+years, and had to make annually, at
+least, four visits to all the masters, in
+order to learn how the laborers were
+treated and paid, and how loyally the
+regulations of the corporation were
+observed. They rendered an account
+of this to the first assembly of the community
+and cited all the masters in
+fault.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently, the new Labor Exchange
+will not cause a revival of these old
+ways of doing things (which perhaps
+
+may have had something of good in
+them), but we may hope that laborers
+will find in it protection against those
+who would require of them an excess
+of work, as well as against those who
+would preach idleness and revolt to
+them.&mdash;<i>Le Monde Illustré</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a href="./images/01-2.png"><img src="images/01-2.jpg" alt="NEW LABOR EXCHANGE&mdash;HALL FOR MEETINGS." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />NEW LABOR EXCHANGE&mdash;HALL FOR MEETINGS.</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="misc1"></a><h2>THE BUSINESS END OF THE
+AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.<a name="FNm1_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNm1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+<h3>By A.H. SIEGFRIED.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The controlling motive and direct
+purpose of the average newspaper are
+financial profit. One is now and then
+founded, and conducted even at a loss,
+to serve party, social, religious or other
+ends, but where the primary intent
+is unselfish there remains hope for
+monetary gain.</p>
+
+<p>The first newspapers never dreamed
+of teaching or influencing men, but
+were made to collect news and entertainment
+and deal in them as in any
+other commodity. But because this
+was the work of intelligence upon intelligence,
+and because of conditions
+inherent in this kind of business, it
+soon took higher form and service,
+and came into responsibilities of which,
+in its origin, it had taken no thought.
+Wingate's "Views and Interviews on
+Journalism" gives the opinions of the
+leading editors and publishers of fifteen
+years ago upon this point of newspaper
+motive and work. The first
+notable utterance was by Mr. Whitelaw
+Reid, who said the idea and object
+of the modern daily newspaper are to
+collect and give news, with the promptest
+and best elucidation and discussion
+thereof, that is, the selling of
+these in the open market; primarily
+a "merchant of news." Substantially
+and distinctly the same ideas
+were given by William Cullen Bryant,
+Henry Watterson, Samuel Bowles,
+Charles A. Dana, Henry J. Raymond,
+Horace White, David G. Croly, Murat
+Halstead, Frederick Hudson, George
+William Curtis, E.L. Godkin, Manton
+Marble, Parke Godwin, George
+W. Smalley, James Gordon Bennett
+and Horace Greeley. The book is fat
+with discussion by these and other
+eminent newspaper men, as to the
+
+motives, methods and ethics of their profession, disclosing
+high ideals and genuine seeking of good for all
+the world, but the whole of it at last rests upon primary
+motives and controlling principles in nowise
+different or better or worse than those of the Produce
+Exchange and the dry goods district, of Wall Street and
+Broadway, so that, taking publications in the lump, it
+is neither untrue nor ungenerous, nor, when fully considered,
+is it surprising, to say that the world's doing, fact
+and fancy are collected, reported, discussed, scandalized,
+condemned, commended, supported and turned
+back upon the world as the publisher's merchandise.</p>
+
+<p>The force and reach of this controlling motive elude
+the reckoning of the closest observation and ripest
+experience, but as somewhat measuring its strength
+and pervasiveness hear, and for a moment think, of
+these facts and figures.</p>
+
+<p>The American Newspaper Directory for 1890, accepted
+as the standard compiler and analyst of newspaper
+statistics, gives as the number of regularly issued publications
+in the United States and territories, 17,760.
+Then when we know that these have an aggregate
+circulation for each separate issue&mdash;not for each week,
+or month, or for a year, but for each separate issue of
+each individual publication, a total of 41,524,000 copies&mdash;many of them repeating themselves each day, some
+each alternate day, some each third day and the remainder
+each week, month or quarter, and that in a
+single year they produce 3,481,610,000 copies, knowing,
+though dimly realizing, this tremendous output, we
+have some faint impression of the numerical strength
+of this mighty force which holds close relation to and
+bears strong influence upon life, thought and work,
+and which, measured by its units, is as the June leaves
+on the trees&mdash;in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable;
+a force expansive, aggressive, pervasive; going
+everywhere; stopping nowhere; ceasing never.</p>
+
+<p>I am to speak to you of "The Business End" of the
+American newspaper; that is of the work of the publisher's
+department&mdash;not the editor's. At the outset I
+am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the
+subject so many and so far reaching that right regard
+for time compels the merest generalization; but, as
+best I can, and as briefly as I can, I shall speak upon
+the topic under three general divisions:</p>
+
+<p>First.&mdash;The personal and material forces which make
+the newspaper.</p>
+
+<p>Second.&mdash;The sources of revenue from the joint working
+of these forces.</p>
+
+<p>Third.&mdash;The direct office, bearing and influence of
+these forces.</p>
+
+<p>It is but natural that the general public has limited
+idea of the personality and mechanism of the publication
+business, for much of its movement is at night,
+and there is separation and isolation of departments,
+as well as complicated relation of the several parts to
+the whole. Not many years ago a very few men and
+boys could edit, print and distribute the most important
+of newspapers, where now hundreds are necessary
+parts in a tremendous complexity. But even to-day,
+of the nearly 18,000 publications in the United States,
+more than 11,000 are of that class which, in all their
+departments, are operated by from two to four or five
+persons, and which furnish scant remuneration even
+for these. Among the thin populations and in the remote
+regions are thousands of weekly papers&mdash;and you
+may spell the weekly either with a double <i>e</i> or an <i>ea</i>&mdash;
+where there are two men and a boy, one of whom does
+a little writing and much scissoring, loafing among the
+corner groceries and worse, begging for subscribers,
+button-holing for advertisements, and occasionally and
+indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the
+"esteemed contemporary" or the "outraged citizen;"
+the second of whom sets the type, reads the proofs, corrects
+them more or less, makes the rollers, works the
+old hand press, and curses the editor and the boy impartially;
+and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly,
+bi-weekly or monthly, inks the forms and sometimes
+pis them, carries the papers, and does generally
+the humble and diversified works of the "printer's
+devil," while between the three the whole thing periodically
+goes to the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now
+and then by papers of this class. Yet there are many of
+these country papers that Mr. Watterson once styled
+the "Rural Roosters" which are useful and honored,
+and which actively employ as editors and publishers
+men of fair culture and good common sense, with typographical
+and mechanical assistants who are worthy
+of their craft.</p>
+
+<p>But the personal workers upon the great magazines
+and the daily newspapers are for each a battalion or a
+regiment, and in the aggregate a vast army. The
+<i>Century Magazine</i> regularly employs in its editorial
+department three editors and eight editorial assistants,
+of whom five are women; in the art department two
+artists in charge and four assistants, of whom three
+are women; in the business department fifty-eight
+persons, men and women&mdash;a total of seventy six persons
+employed on the magazine regularly and wholly,
+while the printers and binders engaged in preparing
+a monthly edition of 200,000 magazines are at least a
+duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial, art
+and business divisions.</p>
+
+<p>The actual working force upon the average large
+daily newspaper, as well as an outline idea of the
+work done in each department, and of its unified result
+in the printed sheet, as such newspapers are operated
+in New York, Chicago and Boston, may be realized
+from an exhibit of the exact current status in the
+establishment of a well known Chicago paper.</p>
+
+<p>In its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief,
+managing editors, city editors, telegraph editors,
+exchange editors, editorial writers, special writers
+and about thirty reporters&mdash;56 in all. Working in
+direct connection with this department, and as part of
+it, are three telegraph operators and nine artists,
+etchers, photographers and engravers; in the Washington
+office three staff correspondents, and in the
+Milwaukee office one such correspondent&mdash;making for
+what Mr. Bennett calls the intellectual end a force of
+72 men, who are usually regarded by the business end
+as a necessary evil, to be fed and clothed, but on the
+whole as hardly worth the counting.</p>
+
+<p>In the business and mechanical departments the
+men and women and their work are these:</p>
+
+<p>The business office, for general clerical work, receiving
+and caring for advertisements, receiving and disbursing
+cash, and for the general bookkeeping, employs
+24 men and women.</p>
+
+<p>On the city circulation, stimulating and managing
+
+it within the city and the immediate vicinity, 10 persons.</p>
+
+<p>On the country circulation, for handling all out-of-town
+subscriptions and orders of wholesale news
+agents, 30 persons.</p>
+
+<p>On mailing and delivery, for sending out by mail
+and express of the outside circulation, and for distribution
+to city agents and newsboys, 31 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the New York office, caring for the paper's business
+throughout the East, the Canadas, Great Britain
+and Europe, two persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the composing room, where the copy is put into
+type, and in the linotype room, where a part of the
+type-setting is done by machinery, 95 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the stereotype foundry, where the plates are cast
+(for the type itself never is put on the press), 11 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the press room, where the printing, folding, cutting,
+pasting and counting of the papers is done, 30
+persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the engine and dynamo room, 8 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the care of the building, 3 persons.</p>
+
+<p>These numbers include only the minimum and always
+necessary force, and make an aggregate of 316
+persons daily and nightly engaged for their entire
+working time, and borne on a pay roll of six thousand
+dollars a week for salaries and wages alone.</p>
+
+<p>But this takes no account of special correspondents
+subject to instant call in several hundred places
+throughout the country; of European correspondents;
+of 1,900 news agents throughout the West; of 200
+city carriers; of 42 wholesale city dealers, with their
+horses and wagons; of 200 branch advertisement
+offices throughout the city, all connected with the
+main office by telephone; and of more than 3 000 news
+boy&mdash;ash;all making their living, in whole or in part, from
+work upon or business relations with this one paper&mdash;a
+little army of 6,300 men, women, and children, producing
+and distributing but one of the 1,626 daily
+newspapers in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The leading material forces in newspaper production
+are type, paper, and presses.</p>
+
+<p>Printing types are cast from a composition which is
+made one-half of lead, one-fourth of tin, and one-fourth
+of antimony, though these proportions are
+slightly reduced, so as to admit what the chemist calls
+of copper "a trace," the sum of these parts aiming at
+a metal which "shall be hard, yet not brittle; ductile,
+yet tough; flowing freely, yet hardening quickly."
+Body type, that is, those classes ever seen in ordinary
+print, aside from display and fancy styles, is in thirteen
+classes, the smallest technically called brilliant and
+the largest great primer.</p>
+
+<p>In the reading columns of newspapers but four
+classes are ordinarily used&mdash;agate for the small advertisements;
+agate, nonpareil, and minion for news,
+miscellany, etc., and minion and brevier for editorials&mdash;the minion being used for what are called minor editorials,
+and the brevier for leading articles, as to which
+it may be said that young editorial writers consider
+life very real and very earnest until they are promoted
+from minion to brevier.</p>
+
+<p>A complete assortment of any one of these classes is
+called a font, the average weight of which is about
+800 pounds. Whereas our alphabet has 26 letters, the
+compositor must really use of letters, spaces, accent
+marks, and other characters in an English font 152 distinct
+types, and in each font there are 195,000 individual
+pieces. The largest number of letters in a font
+belongs to small <i>e</i>&mdash;12,000; and the least number to
+the <i>z</i>&mdash;200. The letters, characters, spaces, etc., are
+distributed by the printer in a pair of cases, the upper
+one for capitals, small capitals, and various characters,
+having 98 boxes, and the lower one, for the small letters,
+punctuation marks, etc., having 54 boxes.</p>
+
+<p>A few newspapers are using typesetting machines
+for all or part of their composition. The New York
+<i>Tribune</i> is using the Linotype machine for all its typesetting
+except the displayed advertisements, and other
+papers are using it for a portion of their work, while
+still others are using the Rogers and various machines,
+of which there are already six or more. It seems
+probable that within the early future newspaper composition
+will very generally be done by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested to me that many of my hearers
+this evening know little or nothing of the processes of
+the printer's art, and that some exposition of it may
+interest a considerable portion of this audience.</p>
+
+<p>The vast number of these little "messengers of
+thought" which are required in a single modern daily
+newspaper is little known to newspaper readers. Set
+in the manner of ordinary reading, a column of the
+New York <i>Tribune</i> contains 12,200 pieces, counting head
+lines, leads, and so on; while, if set solidly in its medium-sized
+type, there are 18,800 pieces in one column,
+or about 113,000 in a page, or about 1,354,000 in one of
+its ordinary 12-page issues. A 32-page Sunday issue of
+the New York <i>Herald</i> contains nearly, if not quite,
+2,500,000 distinct types and other pieces of metal, each
+of which must be separately handled between thumb
+and finger twice&mdash;once put into the case and once
+taken out of it&mdash;each issue of the paper. No one inexperienced
+in this delicate work has the slightest conception
+of the intensity of attention, fixity of eye,
+deftness of touch, readiness of intelligence, exhaustion
+of vitality, and destruction of brain and nerve which
+enters into the daily newspaper from type-setters alone.</p>
+
+<p>Each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks,
+by sight and touch of which the compositor is guided
+in rapidly placing them right side up in the line. They
+are taken, one by one, between thumb and forefinger,
+while the mind not only spells out each word, but is
+always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead
+of the fingers, and each letter, syllable and word
+is set in its order in lines in the composing stick, each
+line being spaced out in the stick so as to exactly fit
+the column width, this process being repeated until the
+stick is full. Then the stickful is emptied upon a galley.
+Then, when the page or the paper is "up," as the
+printers phrase it, the galleys are collected, and the
+foreman makes up the pages, article by article, as they
+come to us in the printed paper&mdash;the preliminary processes
+of printing proofs from the galleys, reading them
+by the proof readers, who mark the errors, and making
+the corrections by the compositors (each one correcting
+his own work), having been quietly and swiftly
+going on all the while. The page is made up on a
+portable slab of iron, upon which it is sent to the
+stereotyping room. There wet stereotyping paper,
+several sheets in thickness, is laid over the page, and
+
+this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously
+beaten evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the
+soft paper is pressed down into all the interstices between
+the type; then this is covered with blankets
+and the whole is placed upon a steam chest, where it is
+subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes
+perfectly dry. Then, this dried and hardened
+paper, called a matrix, is placed in a circular mould,
+and melted stereotype metal is poured in and cooled,
+resulting in the circular plate, which is rapidly carried
+to the press room, clamped upon its cylinder, and
+when all the cylinders are filled, page by page in proper
+sequence, the pressman gives the signal, the burr
+and whirr begin, and men and scarcely less sentient
+machines enter upon their swift race for the early
+trains. As a matter of general interest it may be remarked
+that this whole process of stereotyping a page,
+from the time the type leaves the composing room until
+the plate is clamped upon the press, averages fifteen
+minutes, and that cases are upon record when the complex
+task has been accomplished in eleven minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled
+upon wooden or iron cores. Some presses take paper
+the narrow way of the paper, rolls for which average
+between 600 and 700 pounds. Others work upon
+paper of double the width of two pages, that is, four
+pages wide, and then the rolls are sometimes as wide
+as six feet, and have an average weight of 1,350 pounds.
+Each roll from which the New York <i>Tribune</i> is printed
+contains an unbroken sheet 23,000 feet (4-1/3 miles) long.
+A few hours before the paper is to be printed, an iron
+shaft having journal ends is passed through the core,
+the roll is placed in a frame where it may revolve, the
+end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll
+is unwound at a speed of from 13 to 15 miles an hour,
+while a fan-like spray of water plays evenly across its
+width, so that the entire sheet is unrolled, dampened,
+for the better taking of the impression to be made upon
+it, and firmly rewound, all in twenty minutes. Each
+of these rolls will make about 7,600 copies of the <i>Tribune</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When all is ready, paper and stereotyped pages in
+place, and all adjustments carefully attended to, the
+almost thinking machine starts at the pressman's touch,
+and with well nigh incredible speed prints, places sheet
+within sheet, pastes the parts together, cuts, folds and
+counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and
+constancy beyond the power of human eye and hand.</p>
+
+<p>The printing press has held its own in the rapid advance
+of that wonderful evolution which, within the
+last half century, in every phase of thought and in
+every movement of material forces placed under the
+dominion of men, has almost made one of our years
+the equivalent of one of the old centuries. Within
+average recollection the single cylinder printing machine,
+run by hand or steam, and able under best conditions
+to print one side of a thousand sheets in one
+hour, was the marvel of mankind. In 1850, one such,
+that we started in an eastern Ohio town, drew such
+crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were obliged
+to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance
+which would allow the astonishing thing to work at
+all.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, in the United States alone, five millions of
+dollars are invested in the building of printing presses,
+many of which, by slightest violence to figure of speech,
+do think and speak. Inspiration was not wholly a
+thing of long-gone ages, for if ever men received into
+brain and worked out through hand the divine touch,
+then were Hoe, and Scott, and Campbell taught of
+God.</p>
+
+<p>Under existing conditions newspapers of any importance,
+in the smaller cities, use one and sometimes two
+presses, capable of producing from 7,000 to 9,000 complete
+eight page papers each hour, each machine costing
+from $10,000 to $15,000. Papers of the second class
+in the large cities use treble or quadruple this press
+capacity, while the great papers, in the four or five
+leading cities, have machinery plants of from four to
+ten presses of greatest capacity, costing from $32,000 to
+$50,000 each, and able to produce papers of the different
+numbers of pages required, at a speed of from
+24,000 to 90,000 four page sheets, or of from 24,000 to
+48,000 eight, ten, or twelve page sheets per hour, each
+paper complete as you receive it at your breakfast
+table&mdash;printed, pasted, cut and folded, and the entire
+product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens,
+fifties, hundreds or thousands, as may be required for
+instantaneous delivery, while, as if to illustrate and
+emphasize the ever upward trend of public demand
+for the day's news, quick and inclusive, Hoe &amp; Co. are
+now building machines capable of producing in all
+completeness 150,000 four page papers each hour.</p>
+
+<p>All this tremendous combination of brain, nerve,
+muscle, material, machinery and capital depends for
+its movement and remuneration upon but two sources
+of income&mdash;circulation and advertisements&mdash;the unit
+measurements of which are infinitesimal&mdash;for the most
+part represented by wholesale prices; from one-half
+a cent to two cents per copy for the daily newspaper,
+and in like proportion for the weeklies and monthlies;
+and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line
+per thousand of circulation for advertising space.
+Verily, in a certain and large sense, the vast publishing
+interests rest upon drops of water and grains of
+sand. Under right conditions no kind of business or
+property is more valuable, and yet no basis of values is
+more intangible. Nothing in all trade or commerce is
+so difficult to establish or more environed by competitions,
+and yet, once established, almost nothing save
+interior dry rot can pull it down. It depends upon the
+judgment and favor of the million, yet instances are
+few where any external force has seriously and permanently
+impaired it.</p>
+
+<p>About two hundred years have gone since the publication
+of the first number of the first American newspaper.
+It was a monthly, called <i>Publick Occurrences,
+both Foreign and Domestic</i>, first printed September
+25, 1690, by Richard Pierce, and founded by Benjamin
+Harris. At that time public favor did seem to control
+newspaper interests, for that first paper aroused antagonism,
+and it was almost immediately suppressed
+by the authorities. Only one copy of it is now in existence,
+and that is in London. The first newspaper to
+live, in this country, was the Boston <i>News Letter</i>, first
+issued in 1704 and continued until 1776. New York's
+first newspaper, the New York <i>Gazette</i>, appeared October
+16, 1725. At the outbreak of the revolution there
+were 37 newspapers, and in 1800 there were 200, of
+which several were dailies. In 1890 there were 17,760,
+
+of which there were 13,164 weeklies, 2,191 monthlies,
+1,626 dailies, 280 semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126
+quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38 bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies.</p>
+
+<p>The circulations belong largely to the weeklies,
+monthlies and dailies, the weeklies having 23,228,750,
+the monthlies 9,245,750, the dailies 6,653,250, leaving
+only 2,400,000 for all the others.</p>
+
+<p>The largest definitely ascertainable daily average
+circulation for one year, in this country, has been
+222,745. Only one other daily paper in the world has
+had more&mdash;<i>Le Petit Journal</i>, in Paris, which really,
+as we understand it, is not a newspaper, but which regularly
+prints and sells for one sou more than 750,000
+copies. The largest American weekly is the <i>Youth's
+Companion,</i> Boston, 461,470. The largest monthly is
+the <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, Philadelphia, 542,000. The
+largest among the better known magazines is the
+<i>Century</i>, 200,000. Of the daily papers which directly
+interest us&mdash;those of the city of New York&mdash;the actual
+or approximate daily averages of the morning papers
+are given by "Dauchy's Newspaper Catalogue" for
+1891, as follows: <i>Tribune</i>, daily, 80,000; Sunday,
+85,000. <i>Times</i>, daily, 40,000; Sunday, 55,000. <i>Herald</i>,
+daily, 100,000; Sunday, 120,000. <i>Morning Journal</i>,
+200,000. <i>Press</i>, daily, 85,000; Sunday, 45,000. <i>Sun</i>, daily,
+90,000; Sunday, 120,000. <i>World</i>, daily, 182,000; Sunday,
+275,000. Of the afternoon papers, <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>,
+15,000; <i>Evening Post</i>, 18,000; <i>Telegram</i>, 25,000;
+<i>Graphic</i> (not the old, but a new one), 10,000; <i>Mail and
+Express</i>, 40,000; <i>News</i>, 173,000; <i>Evening Sun</i>, 50,000;
+<i>Evening World</i>, 168,000. The entire circulation of New
+York dailies, including with those named others of
+minor importance, and the German, French, Italian,
+Bohemian, Hebrew and Spanish daily newspapers, is
+1,540,200 copies.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, there is and must be ceaseless, incisive
+and merciless competition in securing and holding circulations,
+as well as in the outward statements made of
+individual circulations to those who purchase advertising
+space. In this, as in all other forms of enterprise,
+there are honest, clean-cut and business-like
+methods, and there are the methods of the time-server,
+the trickster and the liar.</p>
+
+<p>The vastly greater number of publications secure
+and hold their clientage by making the best possible
+goods, pushing them upon public patronage by aggressive
+and business-like means, and selling at the lowest
+price consistent with excellence of product and fairness
+alike to producer and consumer. But of the baser
+sort there are always enough to make rugged paths
+for those who walk uprightly, and to contribute to instability
+of values on the one hand, and on the other
+to flooding the country with publications which the
+home and the world would be better without. Every
+great city has more of the rightly made and rightly
+sold papers than of the other sort, and the business
+man, the working man, the professional man, the family,
+no matter of what taste, or political faith, or economic
+bias, or social status, or financial plenty or paucity,
+can have the daily visits of newspapers which are able,
+brilliant, comprehensive, clean and honest. But all
+the time, these men and families will have pressed upon
+their attention and patronage, by every device and
+artifice of the energetic and more or less unscrupulous
+publisher, other papers equally able and brilliant and
+comprehensive, but bringing also their burden of needless
+sensationalism and mendacity, undue expansion of
+all manner of scandal, amplification of every detail
+and kind of crime, and every phase of covert innuendo
+or open attack upon official doing and private character&mdash;the
+whole infernal mass procured, and stimulated
+and broadcast among the people by the "business end
+of it," with the one and only intent of securing and
+holding circulation.</p>
+
+<p>Take a representative and pertinent example. Eight
+years ago there were in New York ten or eleven standard
+newspapers, as ably and inclusively edited and as
+energetically and successfully conducted, business-wise,
+as they are now. Even at their worst they were decently
+mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and
+they throve by legitimate sale of the most and best
+news and the best possible elucidation and discussion
+thereof. The father could bring the paper of his choice
+to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral
+sense and self-respect might be outraged, or that the
+face of his wife might be crimsoned and the minds of
+his children befouled. But there came from out of the
+West new men and new forces, quick to see the larger
+opportunity opened in the very center of five millions
+of people, and almost in a night came the metamorphosis
+of the old World into the new. It was deftly
+given out that existing conditions were inadequate to
+the better deserts of the Knickerbocker, the Jersey-man,
+and the Yankee, and that a new purveyor of
+more highly seasoned news and a more doughty champion
+of their rights and interests was hither from
+the land of life and movement&mdash;at two cents per
+copy. There was a panic in New York newspaper
+counting rooms, and prices tumbled in two days from
+the three and four cents of fair profit to the two
+and three cents of bare cost or less. The new factors
+in demoralization cared nothing for competition in
+prices or legitimate goods, for they had other ideas of
+coddling the dear people. Ready to their purpose lay
+disintegrated Liberty, waiting for a rock upon which
+to plant her feet and raise her torch, and the new combination
+between the world, the flesh and the devil,
+waiting and ready for access to the pockets of the public,
+was only too ready to set up Liberty and itself at
+one stroke, if only the joint operation could be done
+without expense to itself. The people said, "What
+wonderful enterprise!" "What a generous spirit!"
+The combination, with tongue in cheek and finger laid
+alongside nose, said to itself as it saw its circulation
+spring in one bound from five figures into six, "Verily
+we've got there! for these on the Hudson are greater
+gudgeons than are they on the Mississippi." From
+then until now, with an outward semblance and constant
+pretense of serving the people; with blare of
+trumpet and rattle of drum; with finding Stanley, who
+never had been lost; with scurrying peripatetic petticoats
+around the globe; with all manner of unprofessional
+and illegitimate devices; with so-called "contests"
+and with all manner of "schemes" without
+limit in number, kind, or degree; with every cunningly
+devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity
+&mdash;from then until now that combination has been
+struggling to hold and has held an audience of the
+undiscriminating and the unthinking. But, further,
+
+and worse, a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation
+has led other papers to follow somewhat at a distance
+in this demoralizing race. None of them has gone to
+such lengths, but the tendency to literary, mental and
+moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown form
+of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods
+of every New York daily save only the <i>Tribune,
+Times, Commercial Advertiser</i>, and <i>Evening Post,</i>
+while the converse side of securing business clientage
+is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it
+were not pathetic, by that abnormal and fantastic
+cross between news and pietetics which mails and expresses
+itself to the truly good. These are forms of
+competition which the business end of legitimately
+conducted newspapers is compelled to meet. In a certain
+way these methods do succeed, but how, and how
+long and how much shall they succeed except by unsettling
+the mental and moral poise of the people, and
+by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere
+whose thoughts take less account of means than
+of ends? Which shall we hold in higher esteem and in
+our business patronage&mdash;Manton Marble and Hurlbut,
+gentlemen, scholarly, wise leaders, conscientious teachers,
+with barely living financial income; or their
+successors, parvenus, superficial, meretricious, false
+guides, time-serving leaders, a thousand dollars a day
+of clear profit, housed in the tower of Babel?</p>
+
+<p>Considered in the large, the circulation side of the
+American newspaper has many indefensible aspects.
+As "nothing succeeds like success," or the appearance
+of success, the prestige of not a few newspapers is ministered
+unto by rotund and deceptive representations
+of circulation. Then, as few can live, much less profit,
+on their circulations alone, it becomes greatly important
+to make the advertiser see circulations through
+the large end of the telescope, and so the fine art of telling
+truth without lying is a live and perennial study in
+many counting rooms. Discussing the circulation question
+not long ago with the head of a leading religious
+paper, he told me that the number of copies he printed
+was a thing that he never stated definitely, because
+the publishers of the other religious newspapers lied so
+about their circulations that he would do himself injustice
+if he were to tell the truth about his own. The
+secular papers should set an example for their religious
+brethren, but they do not, for from many of them
+there is lying&mdash;systematic, persistent, and more or less
+colossal. Not long ago, within a few days of each
+other, three men who were simultaneously employed
+on a certain paper told me their <i>actual</i> circulation,
+<i>confidentially</i>, too. One of them put it at 85,000, the
+second at 110,000, and the third at 130,000, and each of
+them lied, for their lying was so diversified and entertaining
+that I felt a real interest in securing the truth,
+and so I took some trouble to ask the pressman about
+it. He told me, <i>very</i> confidentially, that it was 120,000&mdash;and he lied.</p>
+
+<p>By this time my interest was so heightened that I
+told my personal friend, the publisher, about the inartistic
+and incoherent mendacity of his subordinates,
+whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation
+book, which clearly, and I have no doubt truthfully,
+exhibited an average of 88,000. The wicked partner is
+nearly always ready to show the actual record of the
+counting machines on the presses, and "figures never
+lie" but the truth-telling machines which record actual
+work of the impression cylinders make no mention of
+damaged copies thrown aside, of sample copies, files,
+exchanges, copies kept against possible future need,
+copies unsold, copies nominally sold but sooner or later
+returned and finally sold to the junk shop, and all
+that sort of thing. One prints a large extra issue on a
+certain day for some business corporation which has
+its own purpose to serve by publication of an article in
+its own interest, whereby many thousands of copies
+are added to that day's normal output, and he makes
+the exceptional number for that day serve as the exponent
+of his circulation until good fortune brings him
+a similar and possibly larger order, and his circulation
+is reported as "still increasing." Another struck a
+"high-water mark" of "190,500" the day after Mr.
+Cleveland was elected, and that has been the implied
+measure of circulation for the last six years. Another,
+during a heated political campaign, or a great financial
+crisis, or some other dominant factor in public interest,
+makes a large and genuine temporary increase,
+but the highest mark gained does enforced duty in the
+eyes of the marines until another flood tide sweeps him
+to a greater transient height. These are types of the
+competitions of the circulation liar. At this very hour
+there are four daily newspapers each of which has the
+largest circulation in the United States. Of the nearly
+18,000 American publications only 103 furnish detailed,
+open, and entirely trustworthy statements of circulation.</p>
+
+<p>As to the general public this is no great matter, but
+to the vast number of business men who buy the real
+or fancied publicity afforded by newspaper advertising
+it is of exceeding importance. That the large buyers
+of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled
+is because they understand the circulation extravaganza
+and buy space according to their understanding.
+The time is coming, and it should come soon, when
+newspaper circulations shall be open to the same inspection
+and publicity as is now the case with banks
+and insurance companies, and when the circulation
+liar and swindler shall be amenable to the same law
+and liable to the same penalty as stands against and is
+visited upon any other perjurer and thief.</p>
+
+<p><i>(To be continued</i>.)</p>
+
+<a name="FNm1_1"></a><a href="#FNm1_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note">A recent address before the Outlook Club, of Montclair, N.J.</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="med1"></a><h2>HOW TO PREVENT HAY FEVER.</h2>
+
+<h3>By ALEXANDER RIXA, M.D., New York.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the May (1890) number of the <i>Therapeutic Gazette</i>
+I furnished some contribution to the "Treatment of
+Hay Fever." I reported therein a favorable result in
+the treatment of this mysterious disease in the experience
+of my last year's cases.</p>
+
+<p>My experience of this year is far more gratifying, and
+worthy of receiving a wide publicity.</p>
+
+<p>I treated six cases in all, four of which have been
+habitual for years to hay fever proper without complications,
+while the other two used to have the disease
+aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh.
+I succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease
+in every individual case. The treatment I applied
+was very simple, and consisted of the following:</p>
+
+<p>From the fact that I had known all my patients
+
+from previous years, I ordered them to my office two
+weeks before the usual onset of the disease. I advised
+them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of
+chloride of sodium four times a day&mdash;morning, noon,
+evening, and on retiring; and, a few minutes after the
+cleansing of the parts, had the nares thoroughly sprayed
+with peroxide of hydrogen and c.p. glycerin, half and
+half. Those subject to a conjunctivitis I prescribed a
+two per cent. solution of boric acid as a wash. At this
+period no internal medication was given, but three
+days previous to the usual onset of the disease I prescribed
+phenacetin and salol, five grains of each three
+times a day.</p>
+
+<p>On the respective expected days, to the great surprise
+of all the members concerned successively, who
+have been in the habit of getting the disease almost
+invariably at a certain date, no hay fever symptoms
+appeared, though everyone had been the victim of the
+disease for a great number of years, varying from five
+to nineteen years' standing.</p>
+
+<p>It is self-understood that this treatment was kept
+up all through the season, and, as no symptoms developed,
+the applications were reduced, toward the
+termination, to twice and once a day. The internal
+medication, however, was stopped after the expiration
+of the first week, and all the patients could attend to
+their various respective vocations, something they
+never have been able to do in previous years.</p>
+
+<p>In two cases, though no nasal symptoms developed,
+about two weeks after the calculated onset, slight
+symptoms of asthma made their appearance. However,
+I could easily suppress them at this time with the
+aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer, a very ingenious
+little apparatus, of which I gave a thorough description
+in my last year's article. I used the ozone
+inhalations every four hours, in connection with the
+internal administration of the following prescription:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Rx Iodide of ammonia, 8;
+     Fl. ex. quebracho, 30;
+     Fl. ex. grindelia robusta, 15;
+     Tr. lobelia, 12;
+     Tr. belladonna, 8;
+     Syr. pruni, virg., q.s., ad 120.
+
+Sig.&mdash;Teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four
+hours.
+</pre>
+
+<p>However, toward the end of the fourth week, especially
+in one case&mdash;a stout, heavy-set gentleman&mdash;very
+grave asthmatic symptoms developed, which compelled
+me to apply Chapman's spinal ice bag, as well as resort
+to the internal administration of large doses of codeine
+during the paroxysm, with the most beneficial result.</p>
+
+<p>I gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two
+cases. I find them to act very soothingly in the simple
+asthma, facilitating respiration after a few minutes;
+but during the paroxysmal stage they cannot be utilized,
+for the reason that respiration is short and rapid,
+and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the
+gas to be inhaled. Consequently, it is either of little
+use as a remedy; or, if too much is taken, a disagreeable
+headache will be the consequence.</p>
+
+<p>During the catarrhal stage, which, however, was very
+mild compared with last year, I derived great benefit
+from the administration of codeine, in combination
+with terpine hydrate, in the pill form. The codeine
+has the advantage over all other opium preparations
+that it does not affect the digestive organs, and still
+acts in a soothing manner. While during last year's
+sickness my patients lost from ten to twenty pounds of
+their bodily weight, this year but one lost eight pounds
+and the other five pounds.</p>
+
+<p>As the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped
+in obscurity, we may fairly conclude, by the
+success of my treatment, if it should meet with the
+confirmation of the profession, that the much pretended
+sensitive area, situated, according to Dr. Sajous, "at
+the posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and
+the corresponding portion of the septum," or, according
+to Dr. John Mackenzie, who locates this area "at
+the anterior extremity of the inferior turbinated bone,"
+need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by cautery,
+in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever
+proper.</p>
+
+<p>I examined my patients twice a week, and the closest
+rhinoscopical exploration would not reveal the slightest
+pathological change in the mucous membrane of
+the nares.</p>
+
+<p>Now, what is the etiological factor of the disease?
+Is it a specific germ conveyed by the air to the parts
+and&mdash;<i>locus minoris resistencia</i>&mdash;deposited at the pretended
+area, or is the germinal matter present in the
+nasal mucous membrane with certain persons, and requires
+only at a certain time and under certain conditions
+physiological stimulation to manifest periodical
+pathological changes, which give rise to the train of
+symptoms called hay fever? Dropping all hypothetical
+reasoning, I think some outside vegetable germ is
+causing the disease in those predisposed, and peroxide
+of hydrogen acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles,
+<i>i.e.</i>, drives them out when and wherever it finds
+them. I hope the profession will give this new measure
+a thorough trial and report their results.&mdash;<i>Therapeutic
+Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="bot1"></a><h2>THE SOURCE OF CHINESE GINGER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the Kew <i>Bulletin</i> for January an interesting
+account is given of the identification of the plant yielding
+the rhizome employed to make the well-known
+Chinese preserved ginger. As long ago as 1878 Dr. E.
+Percival Wright, of Trinity College, Dublin, called the
+attention of Mr. Thiselton Dyer to the fact that the
+preserved ginger has very much larger rhizomes than
+<i>Zingiber officinale</i>, and that it was quite improbable
+that it was the product of that plant. The difficulty
+in identifying the plant arose from the fact that, like
+many others cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely
+flowers. The first flowering plant was sent to Kew from
+Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the superintendent of the Hope
+Garden there. During the past year the plant has
+flowered both at Dominica in the West Indies and in
+the Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong. Mr. C. Ford, the
+director of the Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong, has
+identified the plant as <i>Alpinia Galanga</i>, the source of
+the greater or Java galangal root of commerce. Mr.
+Watson, of Kew, appears to have been the first to
+suggest that the Chinese ginger plant is probably a
+species of <i>Alpinia</i>, and possibly identical with the
+
+Siam ginger plant, which was described by Sir J.
+Hooker in the <i>Botanical Magazine</i> (tab. 6,946) in 1887
+as a new species under the name of <i>Alpinia zingiberina</i>.
+Mr. J.G. Baker, in working up the Scitamineæ for the
+"Flora of British India," arrived at the conclusion that
+it is not distinct from the <i>Alpinia Galanga</i>, Willd.
+The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical,
+and both are the produce of <i>Alpinia Galanga</i>, Willd.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="civ3"></a><h2>FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.</h2>
+
+
+<p>We illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor
+constructed by Mr. A.F. Smulders, Utrecht, Holland,
+for removing dredged material out of barges at
+the Baltic Sea Canal Works. We give a perspective
+view showing the apparatus at work, and on a page
+plate are given plans, longitudinal and cross sections,
+with details which are from <i>Engineering</i>. The dredged
+material is raised out of the launches or barges by
+means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of
+10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water line, from
+whence it is pushed to the place of deposition by a
+heavy stream of water supplied by centrifugal pumps.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig2-3.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig2-3.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 2, 3" title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 2, 3</p>
+
+<p>The necessary machinery and superstructure are
+supported on two vessels connected, as shown in Figs.
+4 and 5, with cross girders, a sufficient width being left
+between each vessel to form a well large enough for a
+barge to float into, and for the working of the bucket
+ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges.
+The girders are braced together and carry the framing
+for the bucket chains, gears, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The port vessel is provided with a compound engine
+of 150 indicated horse power, with injection condenser
+actuating two powerful centrifugal pumps, raising water
+which enters by a series of holes into the bottom of
+the shoots underneath the dredged material, carrying
+the material to the conduit (as indicated on Fig. 4 and
+in detail on Figs. 6 and 7).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig4.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig4.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 4." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 4.</p>
+
+<p>A steel boiler of 80 square meters (860 square feet)
+heating surface, and 6 atmospheres (90 lb.) working
+pressure, supplies steam to the engine. Forward on
+the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical two-cylinder
+high pressure engine of 30 indicated horse power,
+which helps to bring the barge to the desired position
+between the parallel vessels. A horizontal two-cylinder
+engine of the same power, fitted with reversing
+gear, placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder,
+raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition
+of a strongly framed capstan, as shown on Fig. 5.
+The gearing throughout is of friction pulleys and worm
+and wormwheel. It is driven by belts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig5.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig5.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 5." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p>In the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of
+100 indicated horse power, with injection condenser,
+working the bucket chain by means of belts and wheel
+gearing, as shown on Fig. 2. A marine boiler of 46
+square meters (495 square feet) heating surface and 6
+atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam.
+In this vessel, it may be added, there is a cabin for the
+crew.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig6.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig6.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 6." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIG. 6.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the vessels are as follows; Extreme
+length, 25 meters (82 ft.); breadth, 4.5 meters (14 ft. 9
+in.); depth (moulded), 2.7 meters (6 ft. 6¾ in.); average
+draught of water, 1.4 meters (4 ft. 7 in.); space between
+the ships, 6.55 meters (21 ft. 6 in.) The iron structure
+connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form
+stanchions on both ships, connected at the top by
+two strong box girders with tie pieces supporting the
+main framing. This main framing, also of the "box
+girder" form, is strengthened with angle irons and
+braced together at the tops by a platform supporting
+the gearing of the bucket chains, as shown on Fig. 5.
+The buckets have a capacity of 160 liters (5.65 cubic
+feet) and the speed in travel is at the rate of 25 to 30
+buckets per minute, so that with both ladders working,
+50 to 60 buckets are discharged per minute. The
+top tumbler shaft is placed at a height of 13 meters
+(42 ft. 8 in.) above the water line (Fig. 4), and the
+dredge conduit has a length of 50 meters (164 ft.), Fig.
+1. The shooting is done at a height of 8.5 meters (27 ft.
+10 in.) above the water line, and the shoot catches the
+dredged products at a height of 10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.)
+above the water line, the sliding gradient being 4 to
+100. The dredge conduit is carried by timberwork
+resting on two of the upright box form stanchions.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-fig7-9.png">
+<img src="images/04-fig7-9.jpg" alt="FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 7,8,9." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC SEA CANAL.--FIGS. 7,8,9.</p>
+
+<p>All cables are of galvanized steel and provided with
+open twin buckles. The main parts of the apparatus
+are of steel, and all pieces subject to wear and tear
+are fitted with bushes so formed that they can be easily
+replaced.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-elev.png">
+<img src="images/05-elev.jpg" alt="IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus
+amounts to 350 cubic meters (12,360 square feet)
+per hour. Four plants of similar construction have
+been built for the new Baltic Sea Canal, besides a fixed
+elevator of the same power and disposition, with the
+exception that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at
+a height of 16.1 meters (51 ft. 10 in.) above the water
+line, and the dredge conduit placed at a distance of 13
+meters (43 ft.) from it.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="mech1"></a><h2>IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.</h2>
+
+<p><a href="./images/05-saw.png">
+<img src="images/05-saw.jpg" align="right" alt="IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW." title="">
+</a>The engraving given herewith shows a general view
+of the "Demon" cold saw, designed for cutting iron,
+mild steel, or other metals of fairly large sections, that
+is, up square or round, and any rectangular section up
+to 8 in. by 4 in. The maker, Mr. R.G. Fiege, of London,
+claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw,
+at once powerful, simple and effective. It is always in
+readiness for work, can be worked by inexperienced
+workmen. The bed plate has T slots, to receive a parallel
+vise, which can be fixed at any angle for angular
+cutting. The articulated lever carries a saw of 10 in.
+or 12 in. diameter, on the spindle of which a bronze
+pinion is fixed, gearing with the worm shown. The
+latter derives motion from a pair of bevel wheels,
+which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in
+the engraving. The lever and the saw connected with
+it can be raised and held up by a pawl while the work
+is being fixed. In small work the weight of the lever
+itself is found sufficient to feed the saw, but in heavier
+work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the
+end of the lever. The machine is fitted with fast and
+loose pulleys, strap fork and bar. We are informed
+that one of these machines is capable of making 400
+cuts through bars of Bessemer steel 4 in. diameter,
+each cutting occupying six minutes on an average,
+without changing the saw.&mdash;<i>Industries</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="civ1"></a><h2>A RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The railway system of the Argentine Republic is
+separated from the Chilian system by the chain of the
+Andes. The English contractors, Messrs. Clark &amp; Co.,
+have undertaken to connect them by a line which
+starts from Mendoza, the terminus of the Argentine
+system, and ends at Santa Rosa in Chili, with a total
+length of 144 miles. The distance from Buenos Ayres
+to Valparaiso will thus be reduced to 816 miles. The
+Argentine lines are of 5.4 foot gauge, and those of Chili
+of 4.6 foot.</p>
+
+<p>The line in course of construction traverses an extremely
+hilly region. The starting and terminal points
+are at the levels of 2,338 feet (Mendoza) and 2,706 feet
+(Santa Rosa) above the sea; the lowest neck of the
+chain is at the level of 11,287 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Study having shown that a direction line without
+tunnels, and even with the steepest gradients for traction
+by adhesion, would lead to a considerable lengthening
+of the line, and would expose it to avalanches
+and to obstructions by snow, there was adopted upon
+a certain length a rack track of the Abt system, with
+gradients of 8 per cent., and the neck is traversed by a
+tunnel 3 miles in length and 1,968 feet beneath the surface.
+The number and length of the tunnels upon the
+two declivities, moreover, are considerable. They are
+all provided with rack tracks. The first 80 miles, starting
+from Mendoza, are exploited by adhesion, with
+maximum gradients of 2½ per cent. Upon the remaining
+64 miles, traction can be effected either by adhesion
+or racks.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-fig1.png"><img src="images/05-fig1.jpg" alt="FIG. 1.&mdash;REGION TRAVERSED BY THE
+RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES." title=""></a><br clear="all" />FIG. 1.&mdash;REGION TRAVERSED BY THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.</p>
+
+<p>The track is of 3.28 foot gauge, and this will necessitate
+trans-shipments upon the two systems. The rails
+weigh 19 pounds to the running foot in the parts where
+the exploitation can be effected either through adhesion
+or racks, and 17 pounds in those in which adhesion
+alone will be employed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-fig2.png"><img src="images/05-fig2.jpg" alt="FIG. 2.&mdash;DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY
+THROUGH THE ANDES." title=""></a><br clear="all" />FIG. 2.&mdash;DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.
+</p>
+
+<p>The special locomotives for use on the rack sections
+will weigh 45 tons in service and will haul 70 ton trains
+over gradients of 8 percent. Those that are to be employed
+upon the parts where traction will be by adhesion
+will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels, three
+of them coupled. The weight distributed over these
+latter will be 28 tons. These engines will haul 140 ton
+trains over gradients of 2 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>The earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the
+length, and the track has been laid for a length of 58
+miles from Mendoza. It is hoped that it will be possible
+to open the line to traffic as far as to the summit
+tunnels in 1891, and to finish the tunnels in 1893. These
+tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock.
+To this effect, it is intended to use drills actuated by
+electricity through dynamos driven by waterfalls.
+The Ferroux system seems preferable to the Brandt
+and other hydraulic systems, seeing the danger of the
+water being frozen in the conduits placed outside of
+the tunnels.&mdash;<i>Le Genie Civil</i>.
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="nav1"></a><h2>THE EMPRESS OF INDIA.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/06-empress.png">
+<img src="images/06-empress.jpg" alt="THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA." title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA.</p>
+
+<p>The Empress of India is intended to be the pioneer
+of three fast mail steamers, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding
+Company for service in connection with the
+Canadian Pacific Railway, between Vancouver and the
+ports of China and Japan, thus forming the last link
+in the new route to the East through British territory.
+Her sister ships, the Empress of China and Empress of
+Japan, are to be ready in April next. These three
+ships all fulfill the requirements of the Board of Trade
+and of the Admiralty and Lloyd's, and are classed as
+100 A1. They will also be placed on the list of British
+armed cruisers for service as commerce protectors in
+time of war. For this service each vessel is to be thoroughly
+fitted. There are two platforms forward and
+two aft, for mounting 7 in. Armstrong guns. These
+weapons, in the case of the Empress of India, are
+already awaiting the vessel at Vancouver. The Empress
+of India is painted white all over, has three pole
+masts to carry fore and aft sails. She has two buff-colored
+funnels and a clipper stern, and in external
+build much resembles the City of Rome. Her length
+over all is 485 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth, 36 feet; and
+gross tonnage, 5,920 tons. The hull, of steel, is divided
+into fifteen compartments by bulkheads, and has a cellular
+double bottom 4 feet in depth and 7 feet below
+the engine room. There are four complete decks. The
+ship is designed to carry 200 saloon passengers, 60 second
+cabin, and 500 steerage&mdash;these last chiefly Chinese
+coolies, for whose special delectation an "opium room"
+has been provided on board.&mdash;<i>Daily Graphic</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="civ2"></a><h2>CHICAGO AS A SEAPORT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The prairie land in the southwest corner of Lake
+Michigan, which, seventy years ago, was half morass
+from the overflowing of the sluggish creek, whose waters,
+during flood, spread over the low-lying, level
+plain, or were supplemented in the dry season by the
+inflow from the lake, showed no sign of any future
+development and prosperity. The few streets of wooden
+houses that had been built by their handful of isolated
+inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect
+and desertion than to increase, and ultimately to
+be swept away by fire, to make room for the extravagant
+and gigantic buildings that to-day characterize
+American civilization and commercial prosperity.
+Nearly 1,000 miles from the Atlantic, a greater distance
+from the Gulf of Mexico, and 2,000 miles from the Pacific,
+no wilder dream could have been imagined fifty
+years ago than that Chicago should become a seaport,
+the volume of whose business should be second only to
+that of New York; that forty miles of wharves and
+docks lining the branches of the river should be insufficient
+for the wants of her commerce, and that none of
+the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply
+the demand.</p>
+
+<p>Yet this is the situation to-day, the difficulties of
+which must increase many fold as years pass and business
+grows, unless some changes are made by which
+increased accommodation can be obtained. The nature
+of these changes has long engrossed the attention of
+the municipality and their engineers, and necessity is
+forcing them from discussion to action. As such action
+is likely to be taken soon, the subject is of sufficient
+interest to the English reader to devote some space to
+its consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The most important problem, however, which the
+works to be undertaken&mdash;and which must of necessity
+be soon commenced&mdash;will have to solve, is not one of
+wharf accommodation or of increased facilities of commerce.
+It is the better disposal of the sewage of the
+city, the system in use at present being inadequate,
+and growing more and more imperfect as the city and
+its population increase. During the early days of
+Chicago, and indeed long after, the sewage question
+was treated with primitive simplicity, and with a complete
+disregard of sanitary laws.</p>
+
+<p>The river and the lake in front of the city were close
+at hand and convenient to receive all the discharge
+from the drains that flowed into them. But this condition
+of things had to come to an end, for the lake
+supplied the population with water, and it became too
+contaminated for use. To obtain even this temporary
+relief involved much of the ground level of the city
+being raised to a height of 14 ft. above low water, a
+great undertaking carried out a number of years ago.
+To obtain an adequate supply of pure water, Mr. E.S.
+Chesborough, the city engineer, adopted the ingenious
+plan of driving a long tunnel beneath the bed of the
+lake, connected at the outer end to an inlet tower built
+in the water, and on shore to pumping engines. This
+
+plan proved so successful that it is now being repeated
+on a larger scale, and with a much longer tunnel, to
+meet the increased demands of the large population.</p>
+
+<p>But to improve the sanitary condition of the city has
+been a much more difficult undertaking, as may be
+gathered from the following extract from an official
+report: "The present sanitary condition calls loudly
+for relief. The pollution of the Desplaines and the Illinois
+Rivers extends 81 miles, as far as the mouth of the
+Fox (see plan, Fig. 1) in summer low water, and occasionally
+to Peoria (158 miles) in winter. Outside of the
+direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable.
+The spewing of the harbor contents into the lake, the
+sewers constantly discharging therein, clouds the source
+of water supply (the lake) with contamination. Relief
+to Chicago and equity to her neighbors is a necessity
+of the early future." To make this quotation clear it
+is necessary to explain the actual condition of the
+Chicago sewage question.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the present metropolis had arrived at
+the title and dignity of a city, the advantage to be derived
+from a waterway between Lake Michigan and the
+Illinois River, and thence to the Mississippi, was well
+understood. The scheme was, in fact, considered of
+sufficient importance to call for legislation as early as
+1822, in which year an act was passed authorizing the
+construction of a canal having this object. It was not
+commenced, however, till 1836, and was opened to navigation
+in the spring of 1848. This canal extended from
+Chicago to La Salle, a distance of 97¼ miles, and it had
+a fall of 146 ft. to low water in the Illinois River (see
+Fig. 1). It was only a small affair, 6 ft. deep, and 60 ft.
+wide on the surface; the locks were 110 ft. long and 18
+ft. wide. The summit level, which was only 8 ft. above
+the lake, was 21 miles in length. This limited waterway
+remained in use for a number of years, until, in
+fact, the growth of Chicago rendered it impossible to
+allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake. In
+1865 the State of Illinois sanctioned widening and lowering
+the canal so that it should flow by gravity from
+Lake Michigan. The enlargement was completed in
+1871, by the city of Chicago, and the sewage was then
+discharged toward the Illinois River. But the flow
+was insufficient, and in 1881 the State called on the city
+to supplement the flow by pumping water into the
+canal.</p>
+
+<p><a href="./images/06-fig1.png">
+<img src="images/06-fig1.jpg" align="right" alt="FIG. 1" title="">
+</a>
+In 1884, engines delivering 60,000 gallons a minute
+were set to work and remedied the evil for a time, so
+far as the city of Chicago was concerned, but the large
+discharge of sewage through the sluggish current of
+the canal and into the Illinois River proved a serious
+and ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the
+adjoining districts. To enlarge the existing canal, increase
+the volume and speed of its discharge, and to
+alter the levels, so that there shall be a relatively rapid
+stream flowing at all times from Lake Michigan, appears
+the only practical means of affording relief to
+the city, and immunity to other towns and villages lying
+along the route of the stream.</p>
+
+<p>The physical nature of the country is well suited for
+carrying out such a project on a scale far larger than
+that required for sewage purposes, and works thus carried
+out would, to a small extent, restore the old water
+<i>regime</i> in this part of the continent. Before the vast
+surface changes produced during the last glacial period,
+three of the great lakes&mdash;Michigan, Huron and
+Superior&mdash;discharged their waters southward into the
+Gulf of Mexico by a broad river. The accumulation of
+glacial debris changed all this; the southern outlet
+was cut off, and a new one to the north was opened
+near where Detroit stands, making a channel to Lake
+Erie, which then became the outlet for the whole chain
+by way of Niagara. A very slight change in levels
+would serve to restore the present <i>regime</i>. Around
+Lake Michigan the land has been slightly raised, the
+summit above mean water level being only about 8 ft.
+Thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is
+again reached at a point near Lockport (see Fig. 2);
+the fall then becomes more marked. At Lake Joliet, 10
+miles further, the fall is 77 ft.; and at La Salle, 100
+miles from Chicago, the total fall reaches 146 feet. At
+La Salle the Illinois River is met, and this stream, after
+a course of 225 miles, enters the Missouri. In the whole
+distance the Illinois River has a fall of 29 ft. "It has
+a sluggish current; an oozy bed and bars, formed
+chiefly by tributaries, with natural depths of 2 ft.
+to 4 ft.; banks half way to high waters, and low bottoms,
+one to six miles wide, bounded by terraces, overflowed
+during high water from 4 ft. to 12 ft. deep, and
+intersected in dry seasons by lake, bayou, lagoon, and
+marsh, the wreck of a mighty past."</p>
+
+<p>The rectification of the Illinois and the construction
+of a large canal from La Salle to Lake Michigan are,
+therefore, all that is necessary to open a waterway
+to the Gulf of Mexico, and to make Chicago doubly a
+port; on the one hand, for the enormous lake traffic
+now existing; on the other, for the trade that would
+be created in both directions, northward to Lake
+Michigan, and southward to the Gulf.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied
+the attention of the United States government.
+A bill in 1882 authorized surveys for "a canal from a
+point on the Illinois River, at or near the town of Hennepin,
+by the most practical route to the Mississippi
+River ... and a survey of the Illinois and Michigan
+Canal connecting the Illinois River with Chicago,
+and estimates from its enlargements." This scheme
+only contemplated navigation for boats up to 600
+tons. In 1885 the Citizens' Association, of Chicago
+caused a report to be made for an extended plan. The
+name of Mr. L.E. Cooly, at that time municipal sanitary
+engineer, was closely associated with this report,
+as it is at the present time for the agitation for carrying
+out the works. This report recommended that
+"an ample channel be created from Chicago to the
+Illinois River, sufficient to carry away in a diluted
+state the sewage of a large population. That this
+channel may be enlarged by the State or national
+government to any requirement of navigation or water
+supply for the whole river, creating incidentally a
+great water power in the Desplaines valley." Following
+this report and that of a Drainage and Water Supply
+Commission, a bill was introduced into Congress supporting
+the recommendations that had been made, and
+providing the financial machinery for carrying it into
+execution. Since that date much discussion has taken
+place, and some little action; meanwhile the sanitary
+requirements of the city are growing more urgent, and
+the pressure created from this cause will enforce some
+decision before long. Whether the new waterway is to
+be practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains
+yet to be seen, but it is tolerably certain that its dimensions
+and volume of water must approximate to
+the latter, if the large populations of other towns are
+to be satisfied. In fact the actual necessities are so
+great as regards sectional area of canal and flow of
+water&mdash;at least 600,000 ft. a minute&mdash;that comparatively
+small extra outlay would be needed to complete the
+ship canal.</p>
+
+<p><a href="./images/06-fig2.png"><img src="images/06-fig2.jpg" align="left" alt="FIG. 2" title="">
+</a>The attention of engineers in Chicago, as well as of
+the United States government, is consequently closely
+directed at the present time to such a solution of the
+problem as shall secure to Chicago such a waterway
+as will dispose of the sewage question for very many
+years to come; that shall relieve the inhabitants on
+the line of the canal from all nuisances arising from
+the sewage disposal, and shall provide a navigable
+channel for vessels of deep draught. The maps, Figs.
+1 and 2, give an idea of the most favored scheme&mdash;that
+of Mr. Cooley.</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen, the canal commencing near the
+mouth of the Chicago River passes through a cut in
+the low ridge forming the summit level; then it
+runs to Lake Joliet, and through the valleys of
+the Desplaines and Illinois Rivers, to the Mississippi
+at Grafton, a distance of 325 miles. The elevations
+and distances of the principal points are as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Elevations">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" >Miles from Lake Michigan.</td><td align="center" >Low Water Level below Chicago Datum.</td><td align="center" >High Water above Low Water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">ft.</td><td align="center">ft.</td>
+<tr><td align="left">Lake Michigan</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">4.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lake Joliet</td><td align="right">40</td><td align="right">77</td><td align="right">5 to 6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kankakee River</td><td align="right">51.30</td><td align="right">93.70</td><td align="right">18 to 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morris</td><td align="right">61</td><td align="right">100.3</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Marseilles</td><td align="right">77</td><td align="right">102.8</td><td align="right">4 to 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ottawa</td><td align="right">84.5</td><td align="right">132.1</td><td align="right">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">La Salle</td><td align="right">100.3</td><td align="right">146.6</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hennepin</td><td align="right">115.8</td><td align="right">148.7</td><td align="right">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peoria</td><td align="right">161.4</td><td align="right">151.3</td><td align="right">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mouth of the Illinois</td><td align="right">325</td><td align="right">172.4</td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The project in contemplation provides that the depth
+of the canal as far as Lake Joliet (which is about six
+miles long) shall be not less than 22 ft., and on to La
+Salle not less than 14 ft. at first, with facilities to increase
+it to 22 ft. Beyond La Salle to the mouth of
+the Illinois, dredging and flushing by the large
+volume of water pouring in from Lake Michigan
+would make and maintain ultimately a similar depth.</p>
+
+<p>As it appears recognized that the sewage channel
+of Chicago must be 15 ft. deep, and as provision is
+now being made all over the great lake system for
+vessels drawing 20 ft. of water, a comparatively small
+additional outlay would provide for a channel available
+for the largest lake vessels. It is claimed that
+by the co-operation of the Chicago municipality and
+the general government&mdash;the latter to advance a sum
+of not less than $50,000,000&mdash;a ship (and sanitary) canal
+22 ft. deep could be made from the lake to Joliet, extended
+thence to Utica, 20 ft. deep, and from there to
+the Mississippi, 14 ft. deep.</p>
+
+<p>That such a work would vastly enhance the commerce,
+not only of Chicago, but of the whole section
+of the country through which the canal would pass,
+admits of but little doubt, and probably the outlay
+would be justified by results similar to those
+achieved with other great canal works and rectified
+rivers in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The following figures, showing the tonnage carried
+in 1888-89, give some idea of the volumes of water-borne
+traffic in America:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" summary="Water Traffic">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">Tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Detroit River</td><td align='right'>19,099,060</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Erie Canal</td><td align='right'>5,370,369</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sault Ste. Marie</td><td align='right'>7,516,022</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Welland Canal</td><td align='right'>828,271</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">St. Lawrence Canal</td><td align='right'>1,500,096</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mississippi to New Orleans</td><td align='right'>3,177,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mississippi below St. Louis</td><td align='right'>845,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ohio</td><td align='right'>2,236,917</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicago Canal and lake</td><td align='right'>11,029,575</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Except on the Mississippi, it may be reckoned that
+navigation is closed by ice during five months a year.
+It may be mentioned, by way of comparison, that the
+traffic on the Suez Canal during the year 1888-89 was
+6,640,834 tons.</p>
+
+<p>One very interesting point in connection with this
+work is the effect that the diversion of so large a body
+of water from the lakes will have upon their <i>regime</i>.
+At least 10,000 cubic feet a second would be taken from
+Lake Michigan and find its way into the Mississippi;
+this is approximately 4½ per cent. of the total amount
+that now passes through the St. Clair River and thence
+over Niagara.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives some particulars of the
+great lakes and the discharge from them:</p>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Great Lakes">
+<tr><td colspan=4> </td><td align="center" colspan=3>Cubic Feet per Second</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Lake.</td><td align="center">Elevation above Mean Tide.</td><td align="center">Area of Basin, Square Miles.</td>
+<td align="center">Area of Lake, Square Miles.</td><td align="center">Rainfall.</td><td>Evaporation</td><td>Discharge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Superior</td><td align='right'>601.78</td><td align='right'>90,505</td><td align='right'>38,875</td><td align='right'>187,386</td><td align='right'>34,495</td><td align='right'>80,870</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Huron and Mich.</td><td align='right'>581.28</td><td align='right'>121,941</td><td align='right'>50,400</td><td align='right'>262,964</td><td align='right'>66,754</td><td align="right">216,435</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Erie</td><td align='right'>572.86</td><td align='right'>40,298</td><td align='right'>10,000</td><td align='right'>96,654</td><td align='right'>13,870</td><td align="right">235,578</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ontario</td><td align='right'>246.61</td><td align='right'>31,558</td><td align='right'>7,220</td><td align='right'>75,692</td><td align='right'>10,568</td><td align="right">272,095</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The average variation in level of the lakes is from 18
+in. to 24 in. during the year, and the range in evaporation
+from year to year is also very considerable; thus
+the evaporation per second on Huron and Michigan,
+as given in the table above, is nearly 67,000 ft.,
+but the figures for another year show nearly 89,000
+ft. per second, which would represent a difference of
+6½ in. in water level. As a discharge of 10,000 cubic
+feet a second into the new canal would lower the level
+of these two lakes by 2.87 in. in a year, it follows that
+the difference between a year of maximum and one of
+minimum evaporation is more than twice as great as
+would be required for the canal, and even under the
+most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from
+the whole chain of lakes would not lower them an
+inch.</p>
+
+<p>When the variations in level due to different causes&mdash;rain,
+wind, and evaporation being the chief&mdash;are
+taken into consideration, the effect of 10,000 cubic feet
+a second abstracted would probably not be noticeable.
+
+That this would be so is the opinion, after careful investigation,
+of many eminent American engineers. On
+the other hand there is a similar unanimity of opinion
+as to the advantages that would be obtained in the condition
+of the Mississippi by adding to it a tributary of
+such importance as the proposed canal.&mdash;<i>Engineering</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="bio1"></a><h2>N.F. BURNHAM AND HIS LIFE WORK.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W.H. BURNHAM.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The inventor and patentee of all water wheels
+known as the Burham turbine died from Bright's disease
+of the kidneys at his home, York, Pa., Dec. 22,
+1890, aged 68 years 9 months and 9 days. He was born
+in the city of New York, March 13, 1822, and was of
+English-Irish and French descent. His father was a
+millwright and with him worked at the trade in
+Orange county, N.Y., until he was 16 years old. He
+then commenced learning the watchmakers' business,
+which he was obliged to relinquish, after three years,
+on account of his health. He then went to Laurel,
+Md., in 1844, and engaged with Patuxent &amp; Co. as mercantile
+clerk and bookkeeper. In 1856 he commenced
+the manufacture of the French turbine water wheel.
+In 1879 he sold out his Laurel interests, went to New
+York and commenced manufacturing his own patents.
+On May 22, 1883, he founded the Drovers' and
+Mechanics' National Bank of York, and was elected its
+first president, which position he held at the time of
+his death. In 1881, with others, he built the York
+opera house, at a cost of $40,000. He was a Knight
+Templar, and past master of the I.O.O.F., and past
+sachem of Red Men.</p>
+
+<a href="./images/07-burnham.png"><img src="images/07-burnham.jpg" align="right" alt="N.F. BURNHAM." title="">
+</a>
+
+<p>He was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living,
+having been actually engaged in the manufacture
+of turbines since 1856. He first made and sold the
+French Jonval turbine, which was then the best
+turbine made, but being complicated in construction,
+it soon wore out and leaked. From the experience he
+had from this wheel he invented and patented Feb. 22,
+1859, his improved Jonval turbine, which was very
+simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage
+of power than the French Jonval turbines. Hundreds
+of these improved wheels, which were put in operation
+between the years 1859 and 1868, are still in
+use. (We show no cut of this wheel, but it had
+four chutes instead of six, as shown in March 24, 1863,
+patent.)</p>
+
+<p>The first wheel (72 inch) made after the patent was
+granted was sold to Brightwell &amp; Davis, Farmville,
+Va., and put into their flour mill under six feet head.
+In 1870, Brightwell &amp; Davis sold their mill to Scott &amp;
+Davis. Afterward G.W. Davis owned and operated the
+mill and put in one 1858 patent "New Turbine." In
+1889 the Farmville Mill Company bought and remodeled
+the mill to roller process and required more power
+than the old 1856 Jonval turbine and 1868 "New
+Turbine" would yield, and on Aug. 30, 1889, sold the
+Farmville Mill Company two 54 inch new improved
+Standard turbines to displace the two old wheels. In
+1860 he commenced experimenting with different
+forms of buckets and chutes, and used six chutes instead
+of four as first made, and was granted patent
+March 24, 1863.</p>
+
+<p>This addition of chutes proved beneficial, as the
+wheel worked better with the gates partly opened
+than it did with four chutes. His next invention was
+granted him Dec. 24, 1867, which he called Burnham's
+improved central and vertical discharge turbine.</p>
+
+<p>This improvement consisted in making the guide
+blade straight on the outside (instead of rounding, as
+then made by all others), from inner point back to
+bolt or gudgeon, and thick enough at the latter point
+to let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt
+and the arrangement for shifting the water guides.
+Two 42-inch wheels of this pattern were built and put
+into operation, but they soon commenced leaking
+water and became troublesome on account of the
+many small pieces of castings and bolts, and were
+abandoned as worthless. There are several manufacturers
+of this style of wheel that advertise them as
+"simple and durable." Such a complicated case with
+twelve chutes cannot be made to operate unless by a
+large number of castings, bolts and studs. With these
+adjustable water guides, one of the objects was obtained.
+
+Admitting the water to the wheel through chutes
+corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets
+exposed, but not placing the water against the face of
+the buckets at right angles with the center of the
+wheel, except when the guide blades were full opened,
+for as the guides are changed so is the current of the
+water likewise changed.</p>
+
+<p>After making several differently constructed wheels
+and testing them a number of times, he selected the
+best one and obtained a patent for it March 3, 1868,
+and called it "new turbine," which he still further improved
+and patented May 9, 1871. This "new turbine"
+consisted of the former improved Jonval wheel, hub
+and buckets, with a new circular case and new form of
+chutes, having a register gate entirely surrounding
+the case and having apertures corresponding to those
+in the case for admitting water to the wheel. This
+register gate was moved by means of a segment and
+pinion.</p>
+
+<p>This "new turbine" soon gained for itself a reputation
+enjoyed by no other water wheel. It was selected
+by the United States Patent Office, and put at work
+in room 189, to run a pump which forces water to the
+top of the building. It was likewise selected by the
+Japan commission when they were in this country to
+select samples of our best machines. He continued
+making the 1868 patent and improved in 1871 "new
+turbine" but a few years, for as long as he could detect
+a defect in the wheel, case or gate, he continued
+improving and simplifying them, and in 1873 he erected
+a very complete testing flume, also made a very
+sensitive dynamometer, it having a combination screw
+for tightening the friction band, which required 100
+turns to make one inch, and commenced making and
+experimenting with different constructed turbines. He
+made five different wheels and made over a hundred
+tests before he was satisfied. Application was then
+made for a patent, which was granted March 31, 1874,
+for his "Standard turbine."</p>
+
+<p>This "Standard turbine" was a combination of his
+former improvements, with the cover extending over
+top of the gate to prevent it from tilting, and an eccentric
+wheel working in cam yoke to open and close
+the gate.</p>
+
+<p>Thousands of Standard turbines are to-day working
+and giving the best satisfaction, and we venture to
+say that not one of the Standard turbines has been
+displaced by any other make of turbine, which gave
+better results for the water used. In 1881 he again
+commenced experimenting to find out how much water
+could be put through a wheel of given diameter. After
+making and testing several wheels it was found that
+the amount of water with full gate drawn named in
+tables found in Burnham Bros.' latest catalogue for
+each size wheel yielded 84 per cent. and that the water
+used with 7/8 gate drawn yielded the same percentage
+(84), or with ¾ gate 82 per cent., 5/8 gate 79, and ½ gate
+75 per cent. A patent for the mechanism was applied
+for and granted March 27, 1883, and named Burnham's
+Improved Standard Turbine.</p>
+
+<p>It was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached,
+to prevent the gate from rising and tilting and
+rubbing the curb, soon wore and allowed the gate to
+rub against the curb, and he experimented with
+several devices of gate arms. While so engaged he
+found that the great weight of water on the top of the
+cover sprang it, causing the sleeve bearing on the
+under side of the cover to be thrown out of place, and
+the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was
+almost impossible to move it, and after thoroughly
+testing with the different devices of gate arms, application
+was made and patent granted for adjustable gate
+arms, also for the new worm gate gearing May 1,
+1888, and named Burham's new improved standard
+turbine.</p>
+
+<p>This he improved and patented May 13, 1890, to run
+on horizontal shaft.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1872 he had two patents granted him for
+improvement in water wheels, but never had any
+wheels built of that pattern. After completing and
+patents granted for his new improved Standard turbine,
+he was perfectly satisfied, and often remarked, "I
+cannot improve on my register gate turbine any more,
+as it is as near perfection as can be made," and he was
+fully convinced, for the past year he was experimenting
+with a cylinder gate turbine, and patent was
+
+granted Oct. 21, 1890. Previously he had made a 24-inch
+wheel, which was tested Aug. 14, 1890, at Holyoke
+testing flume, and gave fair results, and at the time of
+his demise he was having made a new runner for the
+cylinder gate turbine, which we will complete and
+have tested. His idea was to have us manufacture and
+sell register and cylinder gate turbines. His inventive
+powers were not confined to water wheels, for on Feb.
+23, 1886, patents were granted him for automatic
+steam engine, governor and lubricating device. We
+also remember in the year 1873 or 1874, when his mind
+was occupied with his "Standard turbine," he was hindered
+by some device used now on locomotives of the
+present construction (what it was we are unable to say),
+but when draughting at his water wheel, would conflict
+the two, and by his invitation we wrote to a prominent
+locomotive builder and had him examine the
+drawings, which he had not fully completed, and sold
+same to him. Of this we only have a faint recollection,
+but do recollect his saying: "Well, that is off my
+mind now, and I can devote it to the finishing of my
+new wheel."&mdash;<i>American Miller</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="elec1"></a><h2>ALTERNATE CURRENT CONDENSERS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the Physical Society, London,
+Mr. James Swinburne read a paper on alternate current
+condensers. It is, he said, generally assumed that
+there is no difficulty in making commercial condensers
+for high pressure alternating currents. The first
+difficulty is insulation, for the dielectric must be very
+thin, else the volume of the condenser is too great.
+Some dielectrics 0.2 mm. thick can be made to stand
+up to 8,000 volts when in small pieces, but in complete
+condensers a much greater margin must be allowed.
+Another difficulty arises from absorption, and whenever
+this occurs, the apparent capacity is greater than the
+calculated. Supposing the fibers of paper in a paper
+condenser to be conductors embedded in insulating
+hydrocarbon, then every time the condenser is charged
+the fibers have their ends at different potentials, so a
+current passes to equalize them and energy is lost.
+This current increases the capacity. One condenser
+made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally
+large current and heated rapidly. At a high temperature
+it gave off water, and the power wasted and current
+taken gradually decreased.</p>
+
+<p>When a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils, it
+heats excessively; and the fall of potential over the
+air films separating the mica and foil is great enough
+to cause disruptive discharge to the surface of the
+mica. There appears to be a luminous layer of minute
+sparks under the foils, and there is a strong smell of
+ozone. In a dielectric which heats, there may be three
+kinds of conduction, viz., metallic, when an ordinary
+conductor is embedded in an insulator; disruptive, as
+probably occurs in the case of mica; and electrolytic,
+which might occur in glass. In a transparent dielectric
+the conduction must be either electrolytic or disruptive,
+otherwise light vibrations would be damped.
+The dielectric loss in a cable may be serious. Calculating
+from the waste in a condenser made of paper
+soaked in hot ozokerite, the loss in one of the Deptford
+mains came out 7,000 watts. Another effect observed
+at Deptford is a rise of pressure in the mains. There is
+as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what
+happens, and it is generally assumed that the effect
+depends on the relation of capacity to self-induction,
+and is a sort of resonator action. This would need a
+large self-induction, and a small change of speed would
+stop the effect. The following explanation is suggested.
+When a condenser is put on a dynamo, the condenser
+current leads relatively to the electromotive force, and
+therefore strengthens the field magnets and increases
+the pressure.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/08-fig1.png">
+<img src="images/08-fig1.jpg" alt="Condensor and dynamo" title=""></a>
+<br clear="all" />T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub> are large transformers; t<sub>1</sub> and t<sub>2</sub> are small
+transformers or voltmeters V<sub>1</sub> and V<sub>2</sub>. The numbers
+1, 4, 1, 25, represent their conversion ratios.
+</p>
+
+<p>In order to test this, the following experiment was
+made for the author by Mr. W.F. Bourne. A Gramme
+alternator was coupled to the low pressure coil of a
+transformer, and a hot wire voltmeter put across
+the primary circuit. On putting a condenser on the
+high pressure circuit, the voltmeter wire fused. The
+possibility of making an alternator excite itself like a
+series machine, by putting a condenser on it, was
+pointed out. Prof. Perry said it would seem possible to
+obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the
+magnets independently, the field being altogether due
+to the armature currents. Mr. Swinburne remarked
+that this could be done by making the rotating magnets
+a star-shaped mass of iron. Sir W. Thomson
+thought Mr. Swinburne's estimate of the loss in the
+Deptford mains was rather high. He himself had
+calculated the power spent in charging them, and
+found it to be about 16 horse power, and although a
+considerable fraction might be lost, it would not
+amount to nine-sixteenths. He was surprised to hear
+that glass condensers heated, and inquired whether
+this heating was due to flashes passing between the
+foil and the glass. Mr. A.P. Trotter said Mr. Ferranti
+informed him that the capacity of his mains was about
+1/3 microfarad per mile, thus making 2-1/3 microfarads for
+the seven miles. The heaping up of the potential
+only took place when transformers were used, and not
+when the dynamos were connected direct. In the
+former case the increase of volts was proportional to
+the length of main used, and 8,500 at Deptford gave
+10,000 at London.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Blakesley described a simple method of determining
+the loss of power in a condenser by the use of three
+electrodynamometers, one of which has its coils separate.
+Of these coils, one is put in the condenser circuit,
+and the other in series with a non-inductive resistance r,
+shutting the condenser. If a<sub>2</sub> be the reading of a dynamometer
+in the shunt circuit, and a<sub>3</sub> that of the divided
+dynamometer, the power lost is given by r (Ca<sub>3</sub>
+-Ba<sub>2</sub>) where B and C are the constants of the instruments
+on which a<sub>2</sub> and a<sub>3</sub> are the respective readings.
+
+Prof. S.P. Thompson asked if Mr. Swinburne had found
+any dielectric which had no absorption. So far as he
+was aware, pure quartz crystal was the only substance.
+Prof. Forbes said Dr. Hopkinson had found a glass
+which showed none. Sir William Thomson, referring
+to the same subject, said that many years ago he made
+some tests on glass bottles, which showed no appreciable
+absorption. Sulphuric acid was used for the coatings,
+and he found them to be completely discharged by an
+instantaneous contact of two balls. The duration of
+contact would, according to some remarkable mathematical
+work done by Hertz in 1882, be about 0.0004
+second, and even this short time sufficed to discharge
+them completely.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Leyden jars with tinfoil coatings
+showed considerable absorption, and this he thought
+due to want of close contact between the foil and the
+glass. To test this he suggested that mercury coatings
+be tried. Mr. Kapp considered the loss of power in
+condensers due to two causes: first, that due to the
+charge soaking in; and second, to imperfect elasticity
+of the dielectric. Speaking of the extraordinary rise
+of pressure on the Deptford mains, he said he had observed
+similar effects with other cables. In his experiments
+the sparking distance of a 14,000 volt transformer
+was increased from 3/16 of an inch to 1 inch by connecting
+the cables to its terminals. No difference was detected
+between the sparking distances at the two ends
+of the cable, nor was any rise of pressure observed when
+the cables were joined direct on the dynamo.</p>
+
+<p>In his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance,
+and would be a maximum for some particular
+frequency. Mr. Mordey mentioned a peculiar phenomenon
+observed in the manufacture of his alternators.
+Each coil, he said, was tested to double the pressure
+of the completed dynamo, but when they were
+all fitted together, their insulation broke down at the
+same volts. The difficulty had been overcome by making
+the separate coils to stand much higher pressures.
+Prof. Rucker called attention to the fact that dielectrics
+alter in volume under electric stress, and said that
+if the material was imperfectly elastic, some loss would
+result. The president said that, as some doubt existed
+as to what Mr. Ferranti had actually observed, he
+would illustrate the arrangements by a diagram.
+Speaking of condensers, he said he had recently tried
+lead plates in water to get large capacities, but so far
+had not been successful.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Swinburne, in replying, said he had not made a
+perfect condenser yet, for, although he had some which
+did not heat much, they made a great noise. He did
+not see how the rise of pressure observed by Mr. Ferranti
+and Mr. Kapp could be due to resonance.
+Mr. Kapp's experiment was not conclusive, for the
+length of spark is not an accurate measure of electromotive
+force. As regards Mr. Mordey's observation,
+he thought the action explicable on the theory
+of the leading condenser current acting on the field
+magnets. The same explanation is also applicable to
+the Deptford case, for when the dynamo is direct on,
+the condenser current is about 10 amperes, and this
+exerts only a small influence on the strongly magnetized
+magnets. When transformers are used, the field
+magnets are weak, while the condenser current rises to
+
+40 amperes. Mr. Blakesley's method of determining
+losses was, he said, inapplicable except where the currents
+were sine functions of the time; and consequently
+could not be used to determine loss due to hysteresis in
+iron, or in a transparent dielectric.&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="elec3"></a><h2>THE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION BETWEEN
+GREAT BRITAIN, EUROPE, AMERICA, AND THE EAST.</h2>
+
+<h3>By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.</h3>
+
+
+<p>There are at present twenty-six submarine cable
+companies, the combined capital of which is about
+forty million pounds sterling. Their revenue, including
+subsidies, amounts to 3,204,060£.; and their reserves
+and sinking funds to 3,610,000£.; and their dividends are
+from one to 14¾ per cent. The receipts from the Atlantic
+cables alone amount to about 800,000£. annually.</p>
+
+<p>The number of cables laid down throughout the
+world is 1,045, of which 798 belong to governments and
+247 to private companies. The total length of those
+cables is 120,070 nautical miles, of which 107,546 are
+owned by private telegraph companies, nearly all
+British; the remainder, or 12,524 miles, are owned by
+governments.</p>
+
+<p><a href="./images/08-map.png">
+<img src="images/08-map.jpg" align="right" alt="MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND THE CONTINENT." title="">
+</a>The largest telegraphic organization in the world is
+that of the Eastern Telegraphic Company, with seventy
+cables, of a total length of 21,859 nautical miles. The
+second largest is the Eastern Extension, Australasia
+and China Telegraph Company, with twenty-two
+cables, of a total length of 12,958 nautical miles. The
+Eastern Company work all the cables on the way to
+Bombay, and the Eastern Extension Company from
+Madras eastward. The cables landing in Japan, however,
+are owned by a Danish company, the Great
+Northern. The English station of the Eastern Company
+is at Porthcurno, Cornwall, and through it pass
+most of the messages for Spain, Portugal, Egypt,
+India, China, Japan, and Australia.</p>
+<br clear="right" /><div style="margin-left: 50%">
+MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND THE CONTINENT.</div>
+
+<p>The third largest cable company is the Anglo-American
+Telegraph Company, with thirteen cables, of a
+total length of 10,196 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The British government has one hundred and three
+cables around our shores, of a total length of 1,489
+miles. If we include India and the colonies, the
+British empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen
+cables of a total length of 3,811 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The longest government cable in British waters is
+that from Sinclair Bay, Wick, to Sandwick Bay, Shetland,
+of the length of 122 miles, and laid in 1885. The
+shortest being four cables across the Gloucester and
+Sharpness Canal, at the latter place, and each less than
+300 ft. in length.</p>
+
+<p>Of government cables the greatest number is owned
+by Norway, with two hundred and thirty-six, averaging,
+however, less than a mile each in length.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest mileage is owned by the government of
+France with 3,269 miles, of the total length of fifty-one
+cables.</p>
+
+<p>The next being British India with 1,714 miles, and
+eighty-nine cables; and Germany third with 1,570 miles
+and forty-three cables.</p>
+
+<p>Britain being fourth with ninety miles less.
+
+The oldest cable still in use is the one that was first
+laid, that namely from Dover to Calais. It dates from
+1851.</p>
+
+<p>The two next oldest cables in use being those respectively
+from Ramsgate to Ostend, and St. Petersburg to
+Cronstadt, and both laid down in 1853.</p>
+
+<p>Several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect
+England and Ireland by means of a cable between
+Holyhead and Howth; but communication between
+the two countries was finally effected in 1853, when a
+cable was successfully laid between Portpatrick and
+Donaghadee (31).</p>
+
+<p>As showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in
+comparatively shallow waters are exposed, we may relate
+the curious accident that befell the Portpatrick
+cable in 1873. During a severe storm in that year the
+Port Glasgow ship Marseilles capsized in the vicinity of
+Portpatrick, the anchor fell out and caught on to the
+telegraph cable, which, however, gave way. The ship
+was afterward captured and towed into Rothesay Bay,
+in an inverted position, by a Greenock tug, when part
+of the cable was found entangled about the anchor.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest private companies are the Indo-European
+Telegraph Company, with two cables in the
+Crimea, of a total length of fourteen and a half miles;
+and the River Plate Telegraph Company, with one
+cable from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, thirty-two
+miles long.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest government telegraph organization is
+that of New Caledonia, with its one solitary cable one
+mile long.</p>
+
+<p>We will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding
+the companies having cables from Europe to
+America.</p>
+
+<p>The most important company is the Anglo-American
+Telegraph Company, whose history is inseparably connected
+with that of the trials and struggles of the
+pioneers of cable laying.</p>
+
+<p>Its history begins in 1851 when Tebets, an American,
+and Gisborne, an English engineer, formed the Electric
+Telegraph Company of Newfoundland, and laid down
+twelve miles of cable between Cape Breton and Nova
+Scotia. This company was shortly afterward dissolved,
+and its property transferred to the Telegraphic Company
+of New York, Newfoundland and London,
+founded by Cyrus W. Field, and who in 1854 obtained
+an extension of the monopoly from the government to
+lay cables.</p>
+
+<p>A cable, eighty-five miles long, was laid between
+Cape Breton and Newfoundland (22).</p>
+
+<p>Field then came to England and floated an English
+company, which amalgamated with the American one
+under the title of the Atlantic Telegraph Company.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the laying of the Atlantic cables of 1857
+and 1865, their success and failures, has often been told,
+so we need not go into any details. It may be noted,
+however, that communication was first established
+between Valentia and Newfoundland on August 5.
+1858, but the cable ceased to transmit signals on September
+1, following.</p>
+
+<p>During that period, ninety-seven messages had been
+sent from Valentia, and two hundred and sixty-nine
+from Newfoundland. At the present time, the ten
+Atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages
+daily between the two continents. The losses attending
+
+the laying of the 1865 cable resulted in the
+financial ruin of the Atlantic company and its amalgamation
+with the Anglo-American. In 1866 the Great
+Eastern successfully laid the first cable for the new
+company, and with the assistance of other vessels succeeded
+in picking up the broken end of the 1865 cable
+and completing its connection with Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/09-map.png">
+<img src="images/09-map.jpg" alt="MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES" title="">
+</a><br clear="all" />MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES FROM EUROPE AND THEIR CONNECTIONS WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.<br/>
+Reference to places&mdash;A, Heart's Content; B, Placentia; C, St. Peter Miquelon; D, North
+Sydney, Cape Breton Island; E, Louisbourg; F Canso, Nova Scotia; G, Halifax; H,
+Bird Rock; I, Madeline Isles; J, Anticosti; K, Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island;
+LLL, Banks of Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p>The three cables of this company presently in use
+and connecting Valentia in Ireland with Heart's Content
+in Newfoundland, were laid in 1873, 1874, and 1880;
+and (1) are respectively 1886, 1846, and 1890 nautical
+miles in length. This company also owns the longest
+cable in the world, that namely from Brest in France
+to St. Pierre Miquelon, one of a small group of islands
+off the south coast of Newfoundland and which, strange
+to say, still belongs to France (6).</p>
+
+<p>The length of this cable is 2,685 nautical miles, or
+3,092 statute miles. It was laid in 1869. There are
+seven cables of a total length of 1773 miles, connecting
+Heart's Content, Placentia Bay and St. Pierre, with
+North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and Duxbury, near Boston,
+belonging to the American company. Communication
+is maintained with Germany and the rest of the Continent
+by means of a cable from Valentia to Emden 846
+miles long (7); and a cable from Brest to Salcombe,
+Devon, connects the St. Pierre and Brest cable with
+the London office of the company (10).<a name="FNe3_anch_1"></a><a href="#FNe3_1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The station of the Direct United States Cable Company
+is situated at Ballinskelligs Bay, Ireland (2).
+Its cable was laid in 1874-5, and is 2,565 miles in length.
+The terminal point on the other side of the Atlantic
+is at Halifax, Nova Scotia, from whence the cable
+is continued to Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a distance
+of 536 miles, and thence by a land line of 500 miles to
+New York (17).</p>
+
+<p>The Commercial Cable Company's station in Ireland
+is at Waterville, a short distance from Ballinskelligs
+(3). It owns two cables laid in 1885; the northern
+cable being 2,350, and the southern 2,388 miles
+long. They terminate in America at Canso, Nova
+Scotia. From Canso a cable is laid to Rockfort,
+about thirty miles south of Boston, Mass., a distance
+of 518 miles (16), and another is laid to New York, 840
+miles in length (15). This company has direct communication
+with the Continent by means of a cable from
+Waterville to Havre of 510 miles (9), and with England
+by a cable to Weston-super-Mare, near Bristol, of 328
+miles (8).</p>
+
+<p>The Western Union Telegraph Company (the lessees
+of the lines of the American Telegraph and Cable Company)
+has two cables from Sennen Cove, Land's End,
+to Canso, Nova Scotia (4). The cable of 1881 is 2,531
+and that of 1882 is 2,576 miles in length. Two cables
+were laid November, 1889, between Canso and New
+York (14).</p>
+
+<p>The Compagnie Française du Telegraphe de Paris à
+New York has a cable from Brest to St. Pierre Miquelon
+of 2,242 miles in length (5), from thence a cable is
+laid to Louisbourg, Cape Breton (12), and another to
+
+Cape Cod (13). It has also a cable from Brest to Porcella
+Cove, Cornwall (11).</p>
+
+<p>Those ten cables owned by the six companies named,
+of the total milage of 22,959, not counting connections,
+represent the entire direct communication between the
+continents of Europe and North America.</p>
+
+<p>A new company, not included in the preceding statistics,
+proposes to lay a cable from Westport, Ireland,
+to some point in the Straits of Belle Isle on the Labrador
+coast (Map A32, Map B20).</p>
+
+<p>The station of the Eastern Telegraph Company is at
+Porthcurno Cove, Penzance, from whence it has two
+cables to Lisbon, one laid in 1880, 850 miles long, the
+other laid in 1887, 892 miles long (12), and one cable to
+Vigo, Spain, laid in 1873, 622 miles long (13). From Lisbon
+the cable is continued to Gibraltar and the East,
+whither we need not follow it, our intention being to
+confine ourselves entirely to a brief account of those
+cables communicating directly with Europe and
+America. As already stated, this company has altogether
+seventy cables, of a total length of nearly 22,000
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Direct Spanish Telegraph Company has a cable,
+laid in 1884, from Kennach Cove, Cornwall, to Bilbao,
+Spain, 486 miles in length (14).</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to shorter cables connecting Britain
+with the Continent, we have those of the Great Northern
+Telegraph Company, namely, Peterhead to Ekersund,
+Norway, 267 miles (15). Newbiggin, near Newcastle,
+to Arendal, Norway, 424 miles, and thence to Marstrand,
+Sweden, 98 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Two cables from the same place in England to Denmark
+(Hirstals and Sondervig) of 420 and 337 miles respectively
+(17 and 18).</p>
+
+<p>The great Northern Company has altogether twenty-two
+cables, of a total length of 6,110 miles. The line
+from Newcastle, is worked direct to Nylstud, in Russia&mdash;a
+distance of 890 miles&mdash;by means of a "relay" or
+"repeater," at Gothenburg. The relay is the apparatus
+at which the Newcastle current terminates,
+but in ending there it itself starts a fresh current on
+to Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The other continental connections belong to the
+government, and are as follows: two cables to Germany,
+Lowestoft to Norderney, 232 miles, and to
+Emden, 226 miles (19 and 20).</p>
+
+<p>Two cables to Holland: Lowestoft to Zandvoort,
+laid in 1858 (21), and from Benacre, Kessingland, to
+Zandvoort (22).</p>
+
+<p>Two cables to Belgium: Ramsgate to Ostend (23),
+and Dover to Furness (24).</p>
+
+<p>Four cables to France: Dover to Calais, laid in 1851
+(25), and to Boulogne (26), laid in 1859; Beachy Head to
+Dieppe (27), and to Havre (28).</p>
+
+<p>There is a cable from the Dorset coast to Alderney
+and Guernsey, and from the Devon coast to Guernsey,
+Jersey, and Coutances, France (29 and 30).</p>
+
+<p>A word now as to the instruments used for the transmission
+of messages. Those for cables are of two kinds,
+the mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder,
+both the product of Sir Wm. Thomson's great inventive
+genius.</p>
+
+<p>When the Calais-Dover and other short cables were
+first worked, it was found that the ordinary needle instrument
+in use on land lines was not sufficiently sensitive
+to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary current
+it was possible to send through a cable. Either
+the current must be increased in strength or the instruments
+used must be more sensitive. The latter
+alternative was chosen, and the mirror galvanometer
+was the result.</p>
+
+<p>The principle on which this instrument works may
+be briefly described thus: the transmitted current of
+electricity causes the deflection of a small magnet, to
+which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, a beam of light is reflected from
+a properly arranged lamp, by the mirror, on to a paper
+scale. The dots and dashes of the Morse code are indicated
+by the motions of the spot of light to the right
+and left respectively of the center of the scale.</p>
+
+<p>The mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely
+superseded by the siphon recorder. This is a somewhat
+complicated apparatus, with the details of which
+we need not trouble our readers. Suffice it for us to
+explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate
+its motions, by means of fine silk fibers, to a very fine
+glass siphon, one end of which dips into an insulated
+metallic vessel containing ink, while the other extremity
+rests, when no current is passing, just over the center
+of a paper ribbon. When the instrument is in use
+the ink is driven out of the siphon in small drops by
+means of an electrical arrangement, and the ribbon underneath
+is at the same time caused to pass underneath
+its point by means of clockwork.</p>
+
+<p>If a current be now sent through the line, the siphon
+will move above or below the central line, thus giving
+a permanent record of the message, which the mirror
+instrument does not. The waves written by the siphon
+above the central line corresponding to the dots of the
+Morse code, and the waves underneath corresponding
+to the dashes.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies
+from one shilling per word, the rate to New York and
+east of the Mississippi, to ten shillings and seven pence
+per word, the rate to New Zealand. In order to minimize
+that cost as much as possible, the use of codes,
+whereby one word is made to do duty for a lengthy
+phrase, is much resorted to. Of course those code
+messages form a series of words having no apparent
+relation to each other, but occasionally queer sentences
+result from the chance grouping of the code words.
+Thus a certain tea firm was once astonished to receive
+from its agent abroad the startling code message&mdash;"Unboiled
+babies detested"!</p>
+
+<p>Suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams
+in their travels over the world.</p>
+
+<p>A message to India from London by the cable route
+requires to be transmitted eight times at the following
+places: Porthcurno (Cornwall), Lisbon, Gibraltar,
+Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay.</p>
+
+<p>A message to Australia has thirteen stoppages; the
+route taken beyond Bombay being via Madras, Penang,
+Singapore, Banjoewangie and Port Darwin (North
+Australia); or from Banjoewangie to Roebuck Bay
+(Western Australia).</p>
+
+<p>To India by the Indo-European land lines, messages
+go through Emden, Warsaw, Odessa, Kertch, Tiflis,
+Teheran, Bushire (Persian Gulf), Jask and Kurrachee,
+but only stop twice between London and Teheran&mdash;namely,
+at Emden and Odessa.
+
+Messages from London to New York are transmitted
+only twice&mdash;at the Irish or Cornwall stations, and at
+the stations in Canada. Owing to the great competition
+for the American traffic, the service between London,
+Liverpool, and Glasgow and New York is said to
+be much superior to that between any two towns in
+Britain. The cables are extensively used by stock
+brokers, and it is a common occurrence for one to send
+a message and receive a reply within five minutes.</p>
+
+<p>During breakages in cables messages have sometimes
+to take very circuitous routes. For instance, during
+the two days, three years ago, that a tremendous storm
+committed such havoc among the telegraph wires
+around London, cutting off all communication with
+the lines connected with the Channel cables at Dover,
+Lowestoft, etc., it was of common occurrence for London
+merchants to communicate with Paris through
+New York. The cablegram leaving London going
+north to Holyhead and Ireland, across the Atlantic to
+New York and back <i>via</i> St. Pierre to Brest and thence
+on to Paris, a total distance of about seven thousand
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>Three years ago, when the great blizzard cut off all
+communication between New York and Boston, messages
+were accepted in New York, sent to this country,
+and thence back to Boston.</p>
+
+<p>Some time ago the cables between Madeira and St.
+Vincent were out of order, cutting off communication
+by the direct route to Brazil, and a message to reach
+Rio Janeiro had to pass through Ireland, Canada,
+United States, to Galveston, thence to Vera Cruz,
+Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chili;
+from Valparaiso across the Andes, through the Argentine
+Republic to Buenos Ayres, and thence by East
+Coast cables to Rio Janeiro, the message having traversed
+a distance of about twelve thousand miles and
+having passed through twenty-four cables and some
+very long land lines, instead of passing, had it been
+possible to have sent it by the direct route, over one
+short land line and six cables, in all under six thousand
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps some of our readers may remember having
+read in the newspapers of the result of last year's Derby
+having been sent from Epsom to New York in fifteen
+seconds, and may be interested to know how it was
+done. A wire was laid from near the winning post on
+the race course to the cable company's office in London,
+and an operator was at the instrument ready to
+signal the two or three letters previously arranged
+upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed
+the post. When the race began, the cable company
+suspended work on all the lines from London to New
+York and kept operators at the Irish and Nova Scotian
+stations ready to transmit the letters representing the
+winning horse immediately, and without having the
+message written out in the usual way. When the race
+was finished, the operator at Epsom at once sent the
+letters representing the winner, and before he had finished
+the third letter, the operator in London had
+started the first one to Ireland. The clerk in Ireland
+immediately on bearing the first signal from London
+passed it on to Nova Scotia, from whence it was again
+passed on to New York. The result being that the
+name of the winner was actually known in New York
+before the horses had pulled up after passing the
+judge. It seems almost incredible that such information
+could be transmitted such a great distance in
+fifteen seconds, but when we get behind the scenes and
+see exactly how it is accomplished, and see how the
+labor and time of signaling can be economized, we can
+easily realize the fact.</p>
+
+<p>The humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been
+described; we will conclude by giving only one example.
+A St. Louis merchant had gone to New York on
+business, and while there received a telegram from
+the family doctor, which ran: "Your wife has had a
+child, if we can keep her from having another to-night,
+all will be well." As the little stranger had not been
+expected, further inquiry was made and elicited the
+fact that his wife had simply had a "chill"! This important
+difference having been caused simply by the
+omission of a single dot.</p>
+
+<pre>
+     -.-. .... .. .-.. .-..
+      c    h  i    l    l = chill
+     -.-. .... .. .-..  -..
+      c    h  i    l    d = child
+</pre>
+
+<p>&mdash;<i>Hardwicke's Science-Gossip</i>.</p>
+
+
+<a name="FNe3_1"></a><a href="#FNe3_anch_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>Cables not fully described in the text, Map B. Eight cables at the
+Anglo-American Company: 7, Heart's Content to Placentia, two cables;
+8, Placentia to St. Pierre; 9, St. Pierre to North Sydney; 10, Placentia to
+North Sydney, two cables; 11, St. Pierre to Duxbury; 18, Charlotte's Town
+to Nova Scotia; 19, Government Cable, North Sydney to Bird Rock,
+Madeline Isles, and Anticosti; 21, Halifax and Bermuda Cable Company's
+proposed cable to Bermuda.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<a name="elec2"></a><h2>ELECTRICITY IN TRANSITU&mdash;FROM PLENUM
+TO VACUUM.<a name="FNe2_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNe2_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Prof. WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.</h3>
+
+
+<p>If an idle pole, C, C, Fig. 12 (P=0.0001 millimeter
+or 0.13 M), protected all but the point by a thick coating
+of glass, is brought into the center of the molecular
+stream in front of the negative pole, A, and the whole
+of the inside and outside of the tube walls are coated
+with metal, D, D, and "earthed" so as to carry away
+the positive electricity as rapidly as possible, then it is
+seen that the molecules leaving the negative pole and
+striking upon the idle pole, C, on their journey along
+the tube carry a negative charge and communicate
+negative electricity to the idle pole.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10-fig12.png" alt="FIG. 12.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 12.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.</p>
+
+<p>This tube is of interest, since it is the one in which I
+was first able to perceive how, in my earlier results, I
+always obtained a positive charge from an idle pole
+placed in the direct stream from the negative pole.
+Having got so far, it was easy to devise a form of apparatus
+that completely verified the theory, and at the
+same time threw considerably more light upon the subject.
+Fig. 13, a, b, c, is such a tube, and in this model
+I have endeavored to show the electrical state of it at
+a high vacuum by marking a number of + and - signs.
+The exhaustion has been carried to 0.0001 millimeter,
+or 0.13 M, and you see that in the neighborhood of the
+positive pole, and extending almost to the negative, the
+tube is strongly electrified with positive electricity, the
+negative atoms shooting out from the negative pole in
+a rapidly diminishing cone. If an idle pole is placed
+in the position shown at Fig. 13, a, the impacts of positive
+and negative molecules are about equal, and no
+decided current will pass from it, through the galvanometer,
+to earth. This is the <i>neutral</i> point. But if we
+imagine the idle pole to be as at Fig. 13, b, then the
+positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate
+over the negative molecules, and positive electricity is
+shown. If the idle pole is now shifted, as shown at Fig.
+13, c, the negative molecules preponderate, and the
+pole will give negative electricity.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10-fig13a.png" alt="FIG. 13 A.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 13 A.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M<br clear="all" />
+
+<img src="images/10-fig13b.png" alt="FIG. 13 B.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 13 B.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.<br clear="all" />
+
+<img src="images/10-fig13c.png" alt="FIG. 13 C.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 13 C.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.</p>
+
+<p>As the exhaustion proceeds, the positive charge in
+the tube increases and the neutral point approaches
+closer to the negative pole, and at a point just short of
+non-conduction so greatly does the positive electrification
+preponderate that it is almost impossible to get
+negative electricity from the idle pole, unless it actually
+touches the negative pole. This tube is before you,
+and I will now proceed to show the change in direction
+of current by moving the idle pole.
+
+<p>I have not succeeded in getting the "Edison" current
+incandescent lamps to change in direction at even
+the highest degree of exhaustion which my pump will
+produce. The subject requires further investigation,
+and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies
+promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the
+experimental philosopher, just as the waste products of
+the chemist have often proved the source of new and
+valuable bodies.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROPERTIES OF RADIANT MATTER.</h3>
+
+
+<p>One of the most characteristic attributes of radiant
+matter&mdash;whence its name&mdash;is that it moves in approximately
+straight lines and in a direction almost normal to
+the surface of the electrode. If we keep the induction
+current passing continuously through a vacuum tube
+in the same direction, we can imagine two ways in
+which the action proceeds: either the supply of gaseous
+molecules at the surface of the negative pole must
+run short and the phenomena come to an end, or the
+molecules must find some means of getting back. I
+will show you an experiment which reveals the molecules
+in the very act of returning. Here is a tube (Fig.
+14) exhausted to a pressure of 0.001 millimeter or 1.3 M.
+In the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm,
+C, pierced with two holes, D and E. At one part of
+the tube a concave pole, A', is focused on the upper
+hole, D, in the diaphragm. Behind the upper hole and
+in front of the lower one are movable vanes, F and G,
+capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas
+through the holes.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10-fig14.png" alt="FIG. 14&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 14&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.</p>
+
+<p>On passing the current with the concave pole negative,
+the small veins rotate in such a manner as to
+prove that at this high exhaustion a stream of molecules
+issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm,
+while at the same time a stream of freshly charged
+molecules is forced by the negative pole through
+the upper hole. The experiment speaks for itself,
+showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that
+so far the theory is right.</p>
+
+<p>This view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced
+merely as a working hypothesis, which, in the
+present state of our knowledge, may be regarded as a
+
+necessary help to be retained only so long as it proves
+useful. In experimental research early hypotheses
+have necessarily to be modified, or adjusted, or perhaps
+entirely abandoned, in deference to more accurate
+observations. Dumas said, truly, that hypotheses were
+like crutches, which we throw away when we are able
+to walk without them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RADIANT MATTER AND "RADIANT ELECTRODE
+MATTER."</h3>
+
+
+<p>In recording my investigations on the subject of radiant
+matter and the state of gaseous residues in high
+vacua under electrical strain, I must refer to certain
+attacks on the views I have propounded. The most
+important of these questionings are contained in a
+volume of "Physical Memoirs," selected and translated
+from foreign sources under the direction of the Physical
+Society (vol. i., part 2). This volume contains two
+memoirs, one by Hittorff on the "Conduction of Electricity
+in Gases," and the other by Puluj on "Radiant
+Electrode Matter and the So-called Fourth State." Dr.
+Puluj's paper concerns me most, as the author has set
+himself vigorously to the task of opposing my conclusions.
+Apart from my desire to keep controversial
+matter out of an address of this sort, time would not
+permit me to discuss the points raised by my critic; I
+will, therefore, only observe in passing that Dr. Puluj
+has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth
+state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine
+of four dimensional space.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has already been made to the mistaken
+supposition that I have pronounced the thickness of
+the dark space in a highly exhausted tube through
+which an induction spark is passed to be identical
+with the natural mean free path of the molecules of
+gas at that exhaustion. I could quote numerous passages
+from my writings to show that what I meant
+and said was the mean free path as amplified and
+modified by the electrification.<a name="FNe2_anc_2"></a><a href="#FNe2_2"><sup>2</sup></a> In this view I am
+supported by Prof. Schuster,<a name="FNe2_anc_3"></a><a href="#FNe2_3"><sup>3</sup></a> who, in a passage quoted
+below, distinctly admits that the mean free path of
+an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in
+its ordinary state.</p>
+
+<p>The great difference between Puluj and me lies in his
+statement that<a name="FNe2_anc_4"></a><a href="#FNe2_4"><sup>4</sup></a> "the matter which fills the dark space
+consists of mechanical detached particles of the electrodes
+which are charged with statically negative electricity,
+and move progressively in a straight direction."</p>
+
+<p>To these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes,
+"of different sizes, often large lumps,"<a name="FNe2_anc_5"></a><a href="#FNe2_5"><sup>5</sup></a> Puluj
+attributes all the phenomena of heat, force and phosphorescence
+that I from time to time have described in
+my several papers.</p>
+
+<p>Puluj objects energetically to my definition "Radiant
+Matter," and then proposes in its stead the misleading
+term "Radiant Electrode Matter." I say "misleading,"
+for while both his and my definitions equally admit
+the existence of "Radiant Matter," he drags in the hypothesis
+that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated
+material of the poles.</p>
+
+<p>Puluj declares that the phenomena I have described
+in high vacua are produced by his irregularly shaped
+lumps of radiant electrode matter. My contention is
+that they are produced by radiant matter of the residual
+molecules of gas.</p>
+
+<p>Were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental
+evidence, I would not mention the subject to
+you. On such an occasion as this controversial matter
+must have no place; therefore I content myself at present
+by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively
+prove my case.</p>
+
+<p>Let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis.
+Some metals, it is well known, such as silver,
+gold or platinum, when used for the negative electrode
+in a vacuum tube, volatilize more or less rapidly, coating
+any object in their neighborhood with a very even
+film. On this depends the well known method of electrically
+preparing small mirrors, etc. Aluminum, however,
+seems exempt from this volatility. Hence, and
+for other reasons, it is generally used for electrodes.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to
+the "electrode matter," the more volatile the metal
+used, the greater should be the effect.<a name="FNe2_anc_6"></a><a href="#FNe2_6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig15.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 15.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+Here is a tube (Fig. 15, P=0.00068 millimeter, or
+0.9 M), with two negative electrodes, AA', so placed as
+to protect two luminous spots on the phosphorescent
+glass of the tube. One electrode, A', is of pure silver,
+a volatile metal; the other, A, is of aluminum, practically
+non-volatile. A quantity of "electrode matter"
+will be shot off from the silver pole, and practically
+none from the aluminum pole; but you see that in
+each case the phosphorescence, CC', is identical. Had
+the radiant electrode matter been the active agent, the
+more intense phosphorescence would proceed from the
+more volatile pole.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig16.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 16" title="">
+A drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus
+is shown in Fig. 16. A pear-shaped bulb of German
+glass has near the small end an inner concave negative
+pole, A, of pure silver, so mounted that its inverted
+image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube.
+In front of this pole is a screen of mica, C, having a
+small hole in the center, so that only a narrow pencil
+of rays from the silver pole can pass through, forming
+a bright spot, D, at the far end of the bulb. The exhaustion
+is about the same as in the previous tube, and
+the current has been allowed to pass continuously for
+many hours so as to drive off a certain portion of the
+silver electrode; and upon examination it is found that
+the silver has all been deposited in the immediate
+neighborhood of the pole; while the spot, D, at the far
+end of the tube, that has been continuously glowing
+with phosphorescent light, is practically free from
+silver.
+</p>
+
+<p>The experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it
+here, so I shall not attempt it; but I have on the table
+the results for examination.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig17.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 17" title="">
+The identity of action of silver and aluminum in the
+first case, and the non-projection of silver in this second
+instance, are in themselves sufficient to condemn
+Dr. Puluj's hypotheses, since they prove that phosphorescence
+is independent of the material of the negative
+electrode. In front of me is a set of tubes that
+to my mind puts the matter wholly beyond doubt.
+The tubes contain no inside electrodes with the residual
+gaseous molecules; and with them I will proceed
+to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments
+without any inner metallic poles at all.
+</p>
+
+<p>In all these tubes the electrodes, which are of silver,
+are on the outside, the current acting through the body
+of the glass. The first tube contains gas only slightly
+rarefied and at the stratification stage. It is simply a
+closed glass cylinder, with a coat of silver deposited
+outside at each end, and exhausted to a pressure of 2
+millimeters. The outline of the tube is shown in Fig.
+17. I pass a current, and, as you see, the stratifications,
+though faint, are perfectly formed.
+<img src="images/11-fig18.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 18.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.076 MM. = 100 M." title="">
+</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig19.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 19.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+The next tube, seen in outline in Fig. 18, shows the
+dark space. Like the first it is a closed cylinder of
+glass, with a central indentation forming a kind of
+hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two
+compartments. This pocket, silvered on the air side,
+forms a hollow glass diaphragm that can be connected
+electrically from the outside, forming the negative
+pole, A; the two ends of the tube, also outwardly
+silvered, form the positive poles, B B. I pass the current,
+and you will see the dark space distinctly visible.
+The pressure here is 0.076 millimeter, or 100 M. The
+next stage, dealing with more rarefied matter, is that
+of phosphorescence. Here is an egg-shaped bulb,
+shown in Fig 19, containing some pure yttria and a
+few rough rubies. The positive electrode, B, is on the
+bottom of the tube under the phosphorescent material;
+the negative, A, is on the upper part of the tube. See
+how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows
+under molecular bombardment, at an internal pressure
+of 0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M.
+</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig20.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 20.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+A shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected
+on to the opposite wall of the bulb by means of
+an outside pole. A mica cross is supported in the middle
+of the bulb (Fig. 20), and on connecting a small
+silvered patch, A, on one side of the bulb with the
+negative pole of the induction coil, and putting the
+positive pole to another patch of silver, B, at the top,
+the opposite side of the bulb glows with a phosphorescent
+light, on which the black shadow of the cross
+seems sharply cut out. Here the internal pressure is
+0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M.</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig21.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 21.&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M." title="">
+Passing to the next phenomenon, I proceed to show
+the production of mechanical energy in a tube without
+internal poles. It is shown in Fig. 21 (P = 0.001
+millimeter, or 1.3 M). It contains a light wheel of
+aluminum, carrying vanes of transparent mica, the
+poles, A B, being in such a position outside that the
+molecular focus falls upon the vanes on one side only.
+The bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is projected
+on the screen; if I now pass the current, you
+see the wheels rotate rapidly, reversing in direction as
+I reverse the current.
+</p><br clear="all" />
+
+<p><img src="images/11-fig22.png" align="left" alt="Fig. 22.&mdash;Pressure = 0.000076 MM. = 0.1 M." title="">
+Here is an apparatus (Fig. 22) which shows that the
+residual gaseous molecules when brought to a focus
+produce heat. It consists of a glass tube with a bulb
+blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool,
+C, fixed in the center, and exhausted to a pressure of
+0.000076 millimeter, or 0.1 M. The negative electrode,
+A, is formed by coating part of the outside of the bulb
+with silver, and it is in such a position that the focus
+of rays falls upon the carbon wool. The positive electrode,
+B, is an outer coating at the other end of the
+tube. I pass the current, and those who are close may
+see the bright sparks of carbon raised to incandescence
+by the impact of the molecular stream.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>You thus have seen that all the old "radiant matter"
+effects can be produced in tubes containing no metallic
+electrodes to volatilize. It may be suggested that the
+sides of the tube in contact with the outside poles become
+electrodes in this case, and that particles of the
+glass itself may be torn off and projected across, and
+so produce the effects. This is a strong argument,
+which fortunately can be tested by experiment. In
+the case of this tube (Fig. 23, P = 0.00068 millimeter,
+or 0.9 M), the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing
+blue under molecular bombardment. Inside
+the bulb, completely covering the part that would
+form the negative pole, A, I have placed a substantial
+coat of yttria, so as to interpose a layer of this earth
+between the glass and the inside of the tube. The
+negative and positive poles are silver disks on the outside
+of the bulb, A being the negative and B the positive
+poles. If, therefore, particles are torn off and
+projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence,
+these particles will not be particles of glass, but of
+yttria; and the spot of phosphorescent light, C, on
+the opposite side of the bulb will not be the dull blue
+of lead glass, but the golden yellow of yttria. You see
+there is no such indication; the glass phosphoresces
+with its usual blue glow, and there is no evidence that
+a single particle of yttria is striking it.
+<img src="images/11-fig23.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 23.&mdash;Pressure = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M." title="">
+</p>
+
+<p>Witnessing these effects I think you will agree I am
+justified in adhering to my original theory, that the
+phenomena are caused by the radiant matter of the
+residual gaseous molecules, and certainly not by the
+torn-off particles of the negative electrode.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHOSPHORESCENCE IN HIGH VACUA.</h3>
+
+
+<p>I have already pointed out that the molecular motions
+rendered visible in a vacuum tube are not the
+motions of molecules under ordinary conditions, but
+are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions
+and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules
+may traverse more than a hundred times the <i>mean</i>
+free path, with a correspondingly increased velocity,
+until they are arrested by collisions. Indeed, the molecular
+free path may vary in one and the same tube,
+and at one and the same degree of exhaustion.</p>
+
+<p>Very many bodies, such as ruby, diamond, emerald,
+alumina, yttria, samaria, and a large class of earthy
+oxides and sulphides, phosphoresce in vacuum tubes
+when placed in the path of the stream of electrified
+molecules proceeding from the negative pole. The
+composition of the gaseous residue present does not
+affect phosphorescence; thus, the earth yttria phosphoresces
+well in the residual vacua of atmospherical
+air, of oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic anhydride, hydrogen,
+iodine, sulphur and mercury.</p>
+
+<p>With yttria in a vacuum tube, the point of maximum
+phosphorescence, as I have already pointed out,
+lies on the margin of the dark space. The diagram
+(Fig. 24) shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence
+in different parts of a tube at an internal pressure
+of 0.25 millimeter, or 330 M. On the top you see
+the positive and negative poles, A and B, the latter
+having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted
+line, C. The curve, D E F, shows the relative intensities
+of the phosphorescence at different distances from
+the negative pole, and the position inside the dark
+space at which phosphorescence does not occur. The
+height of the curve represents the degree of phosphorescence.
+The most decisive effects of phosphorescence
+are reached by making the tube so large that the
+walls are outside the dark space, while the material
+submitted to experiment is placed just at the edge of
+the dark space.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/12-fig24.png" alt="FIG. 24&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M." title="">
+<br />FIG. 24&mdash;PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto I have spoken only of the phosphorescence
+of substances placed under the negative pole.
+But from numerous experiments I find that bodies
+will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative
+pole.</p>
+
+<p>This is only a temporary phenomenon, and ceases
+entirely when the exhaustion is pushed to a very high
+point. The experiment is one scarcely possible to exhibit
+to an audience, so I must content myself with describing
+it. A U-tube, shown in Fig. 25, has a flat aluminum
+pole, in the form of a disk, at each end, both
+coated with a paint of phosphorescent yttria. As the
+rarefaction approaches about 0.5 millimeter the surface
+of the negative pole, A, becomes faintly phosphorescent.
+On continuing the exhaustion this luminosity
+rapidly diminishes, not only in intensity but in
+extent, contracting more and more from the edge of
+the disk, until ultimately it is visible only as a bright
+spot in the center. This fact does not prop a recent
+theory, that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge
+leaves the center of the pole and takes place
+only between the edge and the walls of the tube.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<img src="images/12-fig25.png" alt="FIG. 25." title="">
+<br /> FIG. 25</p>
+
+<p>If the exhaustion is further pushed, then, at the
+point where the surface of the negative pole ceases to
+be luminous, the material on the positive pole, B, commences
+to phosphoresce, increasing in intensity until
+the tube refuses to conduct, its greatest brilliancy being
+just short of this degree of exhaustion. The probable
+explanation is that the vagrant molecules I introduce
+in the next experiment, happening to come within
+the sphere of influence of the positive pole, rush violently
+to it, and excite phosphorescence in the yttria,
+while losing their negative charge.</p>
+
+
+
+<a name="FNe2_1"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>Presidential address before the Institute of Electrical Engineers,
+London; continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 792, page 12656.</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_2"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_2">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>"The thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative pole is
+the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous molecules between
+successive collisions. The electrified molecules are projected from
+the negative pole with enormous velocity, varying, however, with the degree
+of exhaustion and intensity of the induction current."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans</i>.,
+part i., 1879, par. 530.</p>
+
+
+<p>"The extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited
+negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are
+advancing toward the pole. The conflict occurs at the boundary of the
+dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of the
+discharge."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans</i>., part i., 1879, par. 507.</p>
+
+<p>"Here, then, we see the induction spark actually illuminating the lines
+of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative pole."&mdash;<i>R.I.
+Lecture</i>, Friday, April 4, 1879.</p>
+
+<p>"The electrically excited negative pole supplies the <i>force majeure</i>,
+which entirely, or partially, changes into a rectilinear action the irregular
+vibration in all directions."&mdash;<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1880. page 472.</p>
+
+<p>"It is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules is increased
+so as to make the mean velocity with which they leave the negative
+pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous molecules."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans</i>.,
+part ii., 1881, par. 719.]</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_3"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_3">[3]</a><div class="note"><p>"It has been suggested that the extent of the dark space represents
+the mean free path of the molecules.... It has been pointed out by
+others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably greater
+than the mean free path of the molecules, calculated according to the
+ordinary way. My measurements make it nearly twenty times as great.
+This, however, is not in itself a fatal objection; for, as we have seen, the
+mean free path of an ion may be different from that of a molecule moving
+among others."&mdash;Schuster, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc</i>., xlvii., pp. 556-7.</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_4"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_4">[4]</a><div class="note"><p>"Physical Memoirs," part ii., vol. i., p. 244. The paragraph is italicized
+in the original.</p></div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_5"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_5">[5]</a><div class="note"><i>Loc. cit</i>., p. 242.</div>
+
+<a name="FNe2_6"></a><a href="#FNe2_anc_6">[6]</a><div class="note"><p>In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society, November 20, 1890,
+by Professors Liveing and Dewar, on finely divided metallic dust thrown
+off the surface of various electrodes, in vacuum tubes, they find not only
+that dust, however fine, suspended in a gas will not act like gaseous matter
+in becoming luminous with its characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge,
+but that it is driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course
+of the discharge.</p></div>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 794, page 12690.]</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="tech1"></a><h2>GASEOUS ILLUMINANTS.<a name="FNt1_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNt1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES.</h3>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>Having now brought before you the various methods
+by which ordinary coal gas can be enriched, so as to
+give an increased luminosity to the flame, I wish now
+to discuss the methods by which the gas can be burnt,
+in order to yield the greatest amount of light, and also
+the compounds which are produced during combustion.</p>
+
+<p>In the first lecture, while discussing the theory of
+luminous flames, I pointed out that, in an atmospheric
+burner, it was not the oxygen of the air introduced
+combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons,
+and so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon,
+which gave the non-luminous flame, but the diluting
+action of the nitrogen, which acted by increasing
+the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are broken
+up, and carbon liberated, a fact which was proved
+by observation that heating the mixture of gas and air
+again restored the luminosity of the flame. This experiment
+clearly shows that temperature is a most important
+factor in the illuminating value of a flame, and
+this is still further shown by a study of the action of
+the diluents present in coal gas, the non-combustible
+ones being far more deleterious than the combustible,
+as they not only dilute, but withdraw heat.</p>
+
+<p>Anything which will increase the temperature of the
+flame will also increase the illuminating power, provided,
+of course, that the increase in temperature is not,
+obtained at the expense of the too rapid combustion of
+the hydrocarbons.</p>
+
+<p>As has been shown in the experiments relating to the
+action of diluents on flame, already quoted, oxygen,
+when added to coal gas, increases its illuminating value
+to a marked and increasing degree, until a certain percentage
+has been added, after which the illuminating
+power is rapidly decreased, until the point is reached
+when the mixture becomes explosive. This is due to
+the fact that the added oxygen increases the temperature
+of the flame by doing the work of the air, but
+without the cooling and diluting action of the nitrogen;
+when, however, a certain proportion is added, it
+begins to burn up the heavy hydrocarbons, and although
+the temperature goes on increasing, the light-giving
+power is rapidly diminished by the diminution
+of the amount of free carbon in the flame.</p>
+
+<p>It has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor
+coal gas by admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made
+under Tatham's patents, in which crude oils are cracked
+at a comparatively low temperature, and are there
+mixed with from 12 to 24 per cent. of oxygen gas. Oil
+gas made at low temperatures, <i>per se</i>, is of little
+use as an illuminant, as it burns with a smoky flame,
+and does not travel well, but when mixed with a certain
+amount of oxygen, it gives a very brilliant white
+light, and no smoke, while as far as experiments have
+at present gone, its traveling powers are much improved.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix
+a heavy hydrocarbon gas with oxygen, but it must be
+remembered that although hydrogen and carbon monoxide
+only need to be mixed with half their own
+volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture,
+yet as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in
+the combustible gas increase, so does the amount of
+oxygen needed to give explosion. Thus coal gas needs
+rather more than its own volume, and ethylene three
+times its volume, to give the maximum explosive results,
+while these mixtures begin to be explosive when
+10 per cent. of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or water
+gas, 30 per cent. with coal gas, and over 50 per cent. of
+oil gas of the character used. It is claimed that if this
+gas was used as an enricher of coal gas, 5 per cent. of
+it would increase the luminosity of 16-candle gas by
+about 40 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen has been obtained for some time past from
+the air on a commercial scale by the Brin process, and
+at the present time there seems every prospect of our
+being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of about 3s. 6d.
+per 1,000 cubic feet. Another process by which this
+important result can also be obtained was first introduced
+by Tessie du Mothay, and has now just been
+revived. It consists of passing alternate currents of
+steam and air over sodic manganate heated to dull
+redness in an iron tube; the process has never been
+commercially successful, for the reason that the contents
+of the tube fused, and flowing over the surface of
+the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or retorts, and
+also as soon as fusion took place, the mass became so
+dense that it had little or no action on the air passing
+over it. Now, however, this difficulty has been partly
+overcome by so preparing the manganate as to prevent
+fusion, and to keep it in a spongy state, which gives
+very high results, and the substance being practically
+everlasting, the cost of production is extremely low.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed to feed this by a separate system of
+pipes to small gas jets, and by converting them into
+practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes, to raise solid masses
+of refractory material to incandescence, and also by
+supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular
+construction, to obtain a very great increase in
+illuminating power.</p>
+
+<p>Whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen
+would be successful or not, I do not wish to discuss at
+the present time, but there is no doubt but that cheap
+oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas manager,
+as by mixing 0.8 per cent. of oxygen with his coal
+gas before purification, he could not only utilize the
+method so successfully introduced by Mr. Valon at
+Ramsgate, but could also increase the illuminating
+value of his gas.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the structure of flame, I pointed out
+that close to the burner from which the gas giving the
+flame is issuing, a space exists in which no combustion
+is going on&mdash;in other words, a flame is never in contact
+with the rim of the burner. This is best seen when
+the gas is turned low&mdash;with a batswing burner, for instance&mdash;turned
+so low that only a small non-luminous
+flame is left, the space between burner and flame will
+appear as great as the flame itself, while, if the gas is
+mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide, the
+space can be very much increased.</p>
+
+<p>Several theories have been brought forward to explain
+this phenomenon, but the true one is that the
+burner abstracts so much heat from the flame at that
+point that it is unable to burn there, and this can be
+proved by the fact that where a cold object touches
+the flame, a dividing space, similar to that noticed between
+flame and burner, will always be observed, and
+the colder the object and the more diluted the gas the
+greater is the observed space. If a cold metal wire or
+rod is held in a non-luminous flame, it causes an extinction
+of the gas for some considerable space around itself;
+but as the temperature of the rod rises, this space
+becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is heated to
+redness, and then the flame comes in contact with the
+rod.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way, if the burner from which the gas is
+issuing be heated to redness, the space between burner
+and flame disappears. It has already been shown that
+cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces the illuminating
+value, and finally renders it more luminous;
+and we are now in a position to discuss the points
+which should be aimed at in the construction of a good
+gas burner.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, a sensible diminution in light takes
+place when a metal burner is employed, and the larger
+the surface and thickness of the metal the worse will
+be its action on the illuminating power of the flame;
+but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom
+of the flame, so that with a small flame the total effect
+is very great, and with a very large flame almost <i>nil</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first point, therefore, to attend to is that the
+burner shall be made of a good non-conductor. In the
+next place, the flow of the gas must be regulated to
+the burner, as, if you have a pressure higher than that
+for which the burner is constructed, you at once obtain
+a roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power,
+as the too rapid rush of gas from the burner causes a
+mingling of gas and air and a consequent cooling of
+the flame. The tap also which regulates the flame
+is better at a distance from the burner than close to it,
+as any constriction near the burner causes eddies,
+which give an unsteady flame.</p>
+
+<p>These general principles govern all burners, and we
+will now take the ordinary forms in detail. In the
+ordinary flat flame burner, given a good non-conducting
+material, and a well regulated gas supply, little
+more can be done, while burning it in the ordinary
+way, to increase its luminosity; and it is the large surface
+of flame exposed to the cooling action of the air
+which causes this form of burner to give the lowest
+service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed. Much
+is done, moreover, by faulty fittings and shades, to reduce
+the already poor light given out, because the
+light-yielding power of the flame largely depends upon
+its having a well rounded base and broad, luminous
+zone; and when a globe with a narrow opening is used
+with such a flame&mdash;as is done in 99 out of 100 cases&mdash;the
+updraught drags the flame out of shape, and seriously
+impairs its light-giving powers, a trouble which can be
+got over by having the globe with an opening at the
+bottom not less than 4 inches in diameter, and having
+small shoulders fixed to the burner, which draw out
+the flame and protect the base from the disturbing influence
+of draughts.</p>
+
+<p>The Argand burner differs from the flat flame burners
+in that a circular flame is employed. The air supply
+is regulated by a cylindrical glass, and this form of
+burner gives a better service than the flat flame burner,
+as not only can the supply of gas and air be better adjusted,
+but the air being slightly warmed by the hot
+glass adds to the temperature of the flame, which is
+also increased by radiation from the opposite side of
+the flame itself.</p>
+
+<p>The chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon
+the fact that, being circular, the light from the inner
+surface has to pass through the wall of flame, and careful
+photometric experiments show that the solid particles
+present in the flame so reduce its transparency
+that a loss amounting to about 25 per cent. of light
+takes place during its transmission.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted
+to the size of the flame, as too long a chimney,
+by increasing the air supply unduly, cools, and so
+lowers the illuminating power of the flame. Experiments
+with carbureted water gas gave the following
+results, with a consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour:</p>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup span=3 align="center"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Size of Chimney.</td><td>Height of Flame.</td><td>Candle Power.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>6 X 1-7/8</td><td>2-1/2</td><td>21</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>7 X 1-7/8</td><td>2-1/4</td><td>21.3</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>8 X 1-7/8</td><td>2-1/8</td><td>20.8</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>9 X 1-7/8</td><td>1-7/8</td><td>18.2</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>For many years no advance was made upon these
+forms of burner, but when, ten years ago, it was recognized
+that anything which cools the flame reduces its
+value, while anything which increases its temperature
+raises its illuminating power, then a change took place
+in the forms of burner in use, and the regenerative
+burners, introduced by such men as Siemens, Grimston,
+and Bower, commenced what was really a revolution
+in gas lighting.</p>
+
+<p>By utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products
+of combustion to raise the temperature of the
+gas and air which are to enter into combination in the
+flame, an enormous increase in the temperature of the
+solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained, and
+a far greater and whiter light is the result.</p>
+
+<p>The Bower lamp, in which (at any rate in the later
+forms) the flame burns between a downward and an
+upward current of air, was one of the first produced,
+and so well has it been kept up to date that it still
+holds its own; while as types of the "inverted cone"
+regenerative burner, we may also take the Cromarty
+and Wenham lights, which have been followed by a
+host of imitators, and so closely are the original types
+adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what
+the use of the Patent Office really is.</p>
+
+<p>The Schulke, and the last form of Siemens regenerative
+burner, however, stand apart from all the others
+by dealing with flat and not conical flames, and in both
+regeneration is carried on to a high degree. The only
+drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by
+far the best form of gas stove as well as burner, and
+that the amount of heat thrown out by the radiant
+solid matter in the flame is, under some circumstances,
+an annoyance. But, on the other hand, we must not
+forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead
+burners, and that nearly every form of regenerative
+lamp can be adapted as a ventilating agent, and that
+with the withdrawal of the products of combustion from
+the air of the room, the great and only serious objection
+to gas as an illuminant disappears.</p>
+
+<p>When coal gas is burned, the hydrogen is supposed
+to be entirely converted into water vapor, and the
+carbon to finally escape into the air as carbon dioxide;
+and if this were so, every cubic foot of gas consumed
+would produce approximately 0.52 cubic foot of carbon
+dioxide and 1.34 cubic feet of water vapor, while
+the illuminating power yielded by the cubic foot
+of gas will, of course, vary with the kind of burner
+used.</p>
+
+<p>Roughly speaking, the ordinary types of burner give
+the following results:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan=2></td><td colspan=2 align="center">Products of Combustion per Candle Power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Name of Burner.</td><td align="center">Illuminating Power in Candles per c.f. of gas Consumed.</td><td align="center">Carbon Dioxide.</td><td align="center">Water Vapor.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Batswing.</td><td align="center">2.9</td><td align="center">0.18 c.f.</td><td align="center">0.46 c.f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Argand.</td><td align="center">3.3</td><td align="center">0.16 c.f.</td><td align="center">0.40 c.f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Regenerative.</td><td align="center">10.0</td><td align="center">0.05 c.f.</td><td align="center">0.13 c.f.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>So that the regenerative forms of burner, by giving
+the greatest illuminating power per cubic foot of gas
+consumed, yield a smaller amount of vitiation to the
+air per candle of light emitted.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary room, say 16' X 12' X 10', would not be
+considered properly illuminated unless the light were
+at least equal to 32 candle power; and in the table below
+the amount of the oxygen used up and the products
+of combustion formed by each class of illuminant
+and burner in attaining this result are given, the number
+of adults who would exhale the same amount during
+respiration being also stated.</p>
+
+<p>From these data it appears, according to rules by
+which the degree of vitiation of the air in any confined
+space is measured by the amount of oxygen used up
+and carbon dioxide formed, that candles are the worst
+offenders against health and comfort. Oil lamps come
+next, and gas least. This, however, is an assumption
+which practical experience does not bear out. Discomfort
+and oppression in a room lighted by candles or
+
+oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older
+forms of gas burner; and the partial explanation of
+this is to be found in the fact that, when a room is
+illuminated with candles or oil, people are contented
+with a feebler and more local light than when using
+gas. In a room of the size described, the inmates
+would be more likely to use two candles placed near
+their books, or on a table, than thirty-two scattered
+about the room.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the amount of water vapor given off during
+the combustion of gas is greater than in the case of
+the other illuminants. Water vapor having a great
+power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas
+becomes heated, and diffusing itself about the room,
+causes great feeling of oppression; the air also being
+highly charged with moisture, is unable to take up so
+rapidly the water vapor which is always evaporating
+from the surface of our skin, whereby the functions of
+the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling
+of <i>malaise</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Added to these, however, is a far more serious factor
+which has, up to the present, been overlooked, and
+that is that an ordinary gas flame, in burning, yields
+distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and acetylene,
+the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest
+traces produces headache and general physical discomfort,
+while its effect upon plant life is equally marked.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">AMOUNT OF OXYGEN REMOVED FROM THE AIR, AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER VAPOR GENERATED
+TO GIVE AN ILLUMINATION EQUAL TO 32 CANDLE POWER.<br /><br /></p>
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Oxygen Removed">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span="5" align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan=6>(The amount of light required in a room 16' X 12' x 10'.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=3></td><td colspan=2>Products of Combustion</td>
+<tr><td>Illuminant</td><td align="center"> Quantity of Materials Used</td><td align="center">Oxygen Removed</td><td>Water Vapor</td><td> Carbon Dioxide</td><td> Adults </td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sperm Candles</td><td align="right">3,840 grains</td><td>19.27 c.f.</td><td>13.12 c.f.</td><td>13.12 c.f.</td><td>21.8</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Paraffin Oil</td><td align="right">1,984 grains</td><td>12.48 c.f.</td><td>7.04 c.f.</td><td>8.96 c.f.</td><td>14.9</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gas (London)--</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;Burners:</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp; Batswing</td><td align="right">11 c.f.</td><td>13.06 c.f.</td><td>14.72 c.f.</td><td>5.76 c.f.</td><td>9.6</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp; Argand</td><td align="right">9.7 c.f.</td><td>11.52 c.f.</td><td>12.80 c.f.</td><td>5.12 c.f.</td><td>8.5</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp; Regenerative</td><td>3.2 c.f.</td><td>3.68 c.f.</td><td>4.16 c.f.</td><td>1.60 c.f.</td><td>2.6</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Ever since the structure of flame has been noted and
+discussed, it has been accepted as a fact beyond dispute
+that the outer almost invisible zone which is interposed
+between the air and the luminous zone of the
+flame is the area of complete combustion, and that here
+the unburnt remnants of the flame gases, meeting the
+air, freely take up oxygen and are converted into the
+comparatively harmless products of combustion, carbon
+dioxide and water vapor, which only need partial
+removal by any haphazard process of ventilation
+to keep the air of the room fit to support animal life.
+I have, however, long doubted this fact, and at length,
+by a delicate process of analysis have been able to confirm
+my suspicions. The outer zone of a luminous
+flame is not the zone of complete combustion; it is a
+zone in which luminosity is destroyed in exactly the
+same way that it is destroyed in the Bunsen burner;
+that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools
+down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered
+non-luminous, while some of the gas sinks below
+the point at which it is capable of burning, with the
+result that considerable quantities of the products of
+incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene
+escape into the air, and render it actively injurious.</p>
+
+<p>I have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe,
+with a circular loop on the end, the interior of the loop
+being pierced with minute holes, and by making a
+circular flame burn within the loop so that the non-luminous
+zone of the flame just touched the inside of
+the loop, and then by aspiration so gentle as not to
+distort the shape of the flame, withdrawing the gases
+escaping from the outer zone. On analyzing these by
+a delicate process, which will be described elsewhere, I
+arrived at the following results:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GASES ESCAPING FROM THE OUTER ZONE OF FLAME.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >Luminous.</td><td >Bunsen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Nitrogen.</td><td >76.612</td><td >80.242</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Water vapor.</td><td >14.702</td><td >13.345</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon dioxide.</td><td >2.201</td><td >4.966</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon monoxide.</td><td >1.189</td><td >0.006</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Oxygen.</td><td >2.300</td><td >1.430</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Marsh gas.</td><td >0.072</td><td >0.003</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Hydrogen.</td><td >2.888</td><td >0.008</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Acetylene.</td><td >0.036</td><td >Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >100.000</td><td >100.000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The gases leaving the luminous flame show that the
+diluting action of the nitrogen is so great that considerable
+quantities even of the highly inflammable
+and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion,
+while the products of incomplete combustion are present
+in sufficient quantity to account perfectly for the
+deleterious effects of gas burners in ill-ventilated rooms.
+The analyses also bring out very clearly the fact that,
+although the dilution of coal gas by air in atmospheric
+burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of
+the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon, and
+so destroy luminosity, yet the presence of the extra
+supply of oxygen does make the combustion far more
+perfect, so that the products of incomplete combustion
+are hardly to be found in the escaping gases.</p>
+
+<p>These experiments are of the gravest import, as they
+show more clearly than has ever been done before the
+absolute necessity for special and perfect ventilation
+where coal gas is employed for the illumination of our
+dwelling rooms.</p>
+
+<p>When coal gas was first employed during the early
+part of this century as an illuminating agent, the low
+pitch of the old fashioned rooms, and the excess
+of impurities in the gas, rendered it imperative that
+the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas
+should be conducted from the apartment, and for this
+purpose arrangements of tubes with funnel shaped
+openings were suspended over the burners. The
+noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or
+open air; but this type of ventilator was unsightly in
+the extreme, and some few attempts were made to replace
+it by a more elegant arrangement, as in the ventilating
+lamp invented by Faraday, and in the adaptation
+of the same principle by Mr. I.O.N. Rutter,
+who strove for many years to direct attention to the
+
+necessity of removing the products of combustion from
+the room. But with the increase of the gas industry,
+the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually
+more and more perfect, while the rooms in the
+modern houses were made more lofty; and the products
+of combustion being mixed with a larger volume
+of air, and not containing so many deleterious constituents,
+became, if not much less noxious, at all
+events less perceptible to the nose. As soon as this
+point was reached, the ventilating tubes were discarded,
+and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms
+has been contaminated by illuminants, with hardly an
+effort to alleviate the effect produced upon health. I
+say "hardly an effort," for the Messrs. Boyle tried, by
+their concentric tube ventilators, to meet the difficulty,
+while Mr. De la Garde and Mr. Hammond have each
+constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the
+Rutter lamp; but either from their being somewhat unsightly,
+or from their diminishing the amount of light
+given out, none of them have met with any degree of
+success. In places of public entertainment, where large
+quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating
+purposes, the absolute necessity for special ventilation
+gave rise to the "sun burner," with its ventilating
+shaft. This, however, gives but a very poor illuminating
+power per cubic foot of gas consumed, due partly
+to the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced,
+and partly to its distance from the objects to
+be illuminated.</p>
+
+<p>The great difficulty which in the whole history of
+ventilation has opposed itself to the adoption of proper
+arrangements for removing the products of combustion
+has been the necessity of bringing the tube to carry off
+the gases low down into the room, and of incasing the
+burner in such a way that none of the products should
+escape; but with the present revolution in gas burners
+this necessity is entirely done away with, and the regenerative
+burner offers the means not only of removing
+all the products of combustion but also of effecting
+thorough ventilation of the room itself, as experiments
+made some few years ago showed me that a
+ventilating regenerative burner, burning 20 cubic
+feet of gas per hour and properly fitted, will not only
+remove all its own products of combustion, but also
+over 5,000 cubic feet per hour of the vitiated air from
+the upper part of the room. I am quite aware that
+many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections
+to fitting ventilating lamps, these being chiefly
+due to the fact that it requires considerable trouble to
+fit them properly; but I think I have said enough to
+show the absolute necessity of some such system, and
+when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps,
+engineering skill will soon find means to overcome any
+slight difficulties which exist.</p>
+
+<p>Having disposed in a few words of a subject which,
+if fully treated, would occupy a long course of lectures
+by itself, I will pass on to the consideration of gas as at
+present used as a fuel.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that gas is the most convenient
+and in many ways one of the best forms of fuel for
+heating and cooking purposes, and the efforts which
+all large gas companies are now making to popularize
+and increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly
+bear fruit in the future. But before the
+day can come for gas to be used in this way on a large
+scale, there is one fact which the gas manager and gas
+stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to,
+and that is that no gas stove or gas water heater, of any
+construction, should be sent out or fitted without just
+as great care being taken to provide for the carrying
+away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary
+fuel range was being fitted. Do not for one moment
+allow yourself to be persuaded that, because a gas
+stove or geyser does not send out a mass of black
+smoke, the products of combustion can be neglected
+and with safety allowed to mingle with the
+atmosphere we are to breathe.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are
+recorded from the products of combustion given off
+from various forms of water heaters used in bath rooms;
+scarcely a cookery class is given, with gas stoves, that
+one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from
+an intense headache, and often in an almost fainting
+condition. And the same cause which brings about
+these extreme cases, on a smaller scale causes such
+physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons
+that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely
+decline to have gas as an illuminant or fuel in
+any of their living rooms; and if the use of gas, more
+especially as fuel, is to be extended, and if gas is to hold
+its own in the future against such rivals as the electric
+light, then those interested in gas and gas stoves must
+face the problem, and by improving the methods of
+burning and using gas do away with the present serious
+drawbacks which exist to its use.</p>
+
+<p>The feeling has gradually been gaining ground in
+the public mind that, when atmospheric burners and
+other devices for burning coal gas are employed for
+heating purposes, certain deleterious products of incomplete
+combustion find their way into the air, and
+that this takes place to a considerable extent is shown
+by the facts brought forward in a paper read by Mr.
+William Thomson before the last meeting of the British
+Association.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomson attempted to separate and determine
+the quantity of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
+present in the flue gases from various forms of gas
+stoves and burners, but, like every other observer who
+has attempted to solve this most difficult problem, he
+found it so beset with difficulties that he had to abandon
+
+it, and contented himself with determining the
+total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in an
+unburned condition, experiments which showed that
+the combustion of gas in stoves for heating purposes is
+much more incomplete than one had been in the habit
+of supposing, but his experiments give no clew as to
+whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of
+such deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene,
+or comparatively harmless gases, such as marsh
+gas and hydrogen. After considerable work upon the
+subject, I have succeeded in doing this by a very delicate
+process of analysis, and I now wish to lay some of
+my results before you.</p>
+
+<p>If a cold substance, metal or non-metal, be placed
+in a flame, whether it be luminous or non-luminous,
+it will be observed that there is a clear space, in which
+no combustion is taking place, formed round the cool
+surface, and that as the body gets heated so this space
+gets less and less until, when the substance is at the
+same temperature as the flame itself, there is contact
+between the two. Moreover, when a luminous flame
+is employed in this experiment the space still exists between
+the cool body and the flame, but you also notice
+that the luminosity is decreased over a still larger area
+although the flame exists.</p>
+
+<p>This meaning that, in immediate contact with the
+cold body, the temperature is so reduced that the flame
+cannot exist, and so is extinguished over a small area;
+while over a still larger space the temperature is so reduced
+that it is not hot enough to bring about decomposition
+of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of
+carbon to the same extent as in hotter portions of the
+flame. Now, inasmuch as when water is heated or boiled
+in an open vessel, the temperature cannot rise above
+100°C., and as the temperature of an ordinary flame
+is over 1,000°C., it is evident that the burning gas can
+never be in contact with the bottom of the vessel, or,
+in other words, the gas is put out before combustion is
+completed, and the unburned gas and products of incomplete
+combustion find their way into the air and
+render it perfectly unfit for respiration.</p>
+
+<p>The portion of the flame which is supposed to be the
+hottest is about half an inch above the tip of the inner
+zone of the flame, and it is at this point that most
+vessels containing water to be heated are made to impinge
+on the flame; and it is this portion of the flame,
+also, which is utilized for raising various solids to a
+temperature at which they radiate heat.</p>
+
+<p>In order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination
+which the air undergoes when a geyser or
+cooking stove is at work, I have determined the composition
+of the products of combustion, and the unburned
+gases escaping when a vessel containing water
+at the ordinary temperatures is heated up to the boiling
+point by a gas flame, the vessel being placed, in the
+first case, half an inch above the inner cone of the
+flame, and in the second, at the extreme outer tip of
+the flame.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GASES ESCAPING DURING CHECKED COMBUSTION.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Gases Escaping">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=4 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan=2 align="center">Bunsen flame.</td><td colspan=2 align="center">Luminous flame.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >Inner.</td><td >Outer.</td><td >Inner.</td><td >Outer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Nitrogen</td><td >75.75</td><td >79.17</td><td >77.52</td><td >69.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Water vapor</td><td >13.47</td><td >14.29</td><td >11.80</td><td >19.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon dioxide</td><td >2.99</td><td >5.13</td><td >4.93</td><td >8.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Carbon monoxide</td><td >3.69</td><td >Nil.</td><td >2.45</td><td >2.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Marsh gas</td><td >0.51</td><td >0.31</td><td >0.95</td><td >0.39</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Acetylene</td><td >0.04</td><td >Nil.</td><td >0.27</td><td >Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >Hydrogen</td><td >3.55</td><td >0.47</td><td >2.08</td><td >Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td >&nbsp;</td><td >100.00</td><td >100.00</td><td >100.00</td><td >100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These figures are of the greatest interest, as they
+show conclusively that the extreme top of the Bunsen
+flame is the only portion of the flame which can be used
+for heating a solid substance without liberating deleterious
+gases; and this corroborates the previous experiment
+on the gases in the outer zone of a flame,
+which showed that the outer zone of a Bunsen
+flame is the only place where complete combustion is
+approached.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, this sets at rest a question which has been
+over and over again under discussion, and that is
+whether it is better to use a luminous or a non-luminous
+flame for heating purposes. Using a luminous
+flame, it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon,
+which is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer
+surface, and the carbon dioxide formed by the complete
+combustion of the carbon already burned up in
+flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide, so
+that even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it
+is impossible to heat a cool body without giving rise
+to carbon monoxide, although acetylene being absent,
+gas stoves, in which small flat flame burners are used,
+have not that subtile and penetrating odor which
+marks the ordinary atmospheric burner stove, with
+the combustion checked just at the right spot for the
+formation of the greatest volume of noxious products.</p>
+
+<p>It is the contact of the body to be heated with the
+flame before combustion is complete which gives rise
+to the greatest mischief; any cooling of the flame extinguishes
+a portion of the flame, and the gases present
+in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along
+the cooled surface and escape combustion.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Blochmann has shown the composition of the
+gases in various parts of the Bunsen flame to be as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Gas composition">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=5 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Height above tube.</td><td>In tube.</td><td>1 inch.</td><td>2 inch.</td><td>3 inch.</td><td>Complete</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Air with 100 vols. gas</td><td>253.9</td><td>284.7</td><td>284.5</td><td>484.3</td><td>608.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hydrogen</td><td>48.6</td><td>36.4</td><td>17.7</td><td>16.1</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Marsh gas</td><td>39.0</td><td>40.1</td><td>28.0</td><td>5.7</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carbon monoxide</td><td>2.9</td><td>2.2</td><td>19.9</td><td>12.7</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Olefiant gas</td><td>4.0</td><td>3.4</td><td>2.2</td><td>Nil.</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Buteylene</td><td>3.0</td><td>2.5</td><td>1.6</td><td>Nil.</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oxygen</td><td>52.7</td><td>52.0</td><td>21.7</td><td>Nil.</td><td>Nil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nitrogen</td><td>199.1</td><td>223.8</td><td>225.9</td><td>382.4</td><td>482.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carbon dioxide</td><td>0.8</td><td>3.5</td><td>13.0</td><td>41.7</td><td>62.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water vapor</td><td>3.1</td><td>11.8</td><td>45.8</td><td>116.1</td><td>141.2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Which results show that it would be impossible to
+check the flame anywhere short of the extreme tip
+(where complete combustion is approximately taking
+place), without liberating deleterious products. I think
+I have said enough to show that no gas stove, geyser
+or gas cooking stove should be used without ample
+and thorough means of ventilation being provided, and
+no trace of the products of combustion should be allowed
+to escape into the air; until this is done, the use of
+improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious
+injury on the health of the people using them, and
+this will gradually result in the abandonment of gas
+as a fuel, instead of, as should be the case, its coming
+into general use. The English householder is far too
+prone to accept what is offered to him, without using
+his own common sense, and will buy the article which
+tickles his eye the most and his pocket the least, on the
+bare assurance of the shopkeeper, who is only anxious
+to sell; but when he finds that health and comfort are in
+jeopardy, and has discarded the gas stove, it will take
+years of labor to convince him that it was the misuse
+of gas which caused the trouble. Already signs are
+not wanting that the employers of gas stoves are beginning
+to fight shy of them, and I earnestly hope that
+the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to
+bear upon the stove manufacturers to give proper attention
+to this all important question.</p>
+
+<p>So strongly do I feel the importance of this question
+to the gas world and the public, that I freely offer to analyze
+the products of combustion given off by any gas
+stove or water heater sent to me at Greenwich during
+the next six months, on one condition, and that is that
+the results, good, bad, or indifferent, will be published
+in a paper before this Society, which has always been
+in the front when matters of great sanitary importance
+to the public had to be taken up. And if after that
+the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have
+not been certified, it is their own fault; but I do
+think that the maker of any stove or geyser which
+causes a death should be put upon his trial for manslaughter.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, let us consider for a moment what is
+likely to be the future of gas during the next half century.
+The labor troubles, bad as they are and have
+been, will not cease for many a weary year. The victims
+of imperfect education (more dangerous than none
+at all, as, while destroying natural instinct, it leaves
+nothing in its place) will still listen and be led by the
+baneful influence of irresponsible demagogues, who care
+for naught so long as they can read their own inflammatory
+utterances in the local press, and gain a temporary
+notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause
+they profess to serve. The natural tendency of this will
+be that every labor-saving contrivance that can will
+be pressed into the gas manager's service; and that,
+although coal (of a poorer class than at present used)
+will still be employed as a source of gas, the present
+retort setting will quickly give way to inclined retorts
+on the Coze principle; while, instead of the present
+wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke, it will
+be shot direct into the generator of the water gas
+plant, and the water gas carbureted with the benzene
+hydrocarbons derived from the smoke of the blast furnace
+and coke oven, or from the creosote oil of the tar
+distiller, by the process foreshadowed in the concluding
+sentences of my last lecture. It will then be mixed
+with the gas from the retorts, and will supply a far
+higher illuminant than we at present possess. In parts
+of the United Kingdom, such as South Wales, where
+gas coal is dear, and anthracite and bastard coals are
+cheap, water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant
+coal gas, with a saving of fifty per cent. on the
+prices now existing in those districts. While these
+changes have been going on, and while improved
+methods of manufacture have been tending to the
+cheapening of gas, it will have been steadily growing
+in public favor as a fuel; and if in years to come the
+generation of electricity should have been so cheapened
+as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an
+illuminant, the gas works will still be found as busy as
+of yore, the holder of gas shares as contented as to-day;
+for with a desire for a purer atmosphere and a
+white mist instead of a yellow fog, gas will have largely
+supplanted coal as a fuel, and gas stoves, properly
+ventilated and free from the reproaches I have hurled
+at them to-night, will burn a gas far higher in its heating
+power, far better in its power of bearing illuminating
+hydrocarbons, and free from poisonous constituents.</p>
+
+<p>When the demand for it arises, hydrogen gas can be
+made as cheaply as water gas itself, and when time is
+ripe for a fuel gas for use in the house, it is hydrogen
+and not water gas which will form its basis. With
+carbureted water gas and 20 per cent. of carbon monoxide
+we are still below the limit of danger, but a pure
+water gas with over 40 per cent. of the same insidious
+element of danger will never be tolerated in our households.
+Already a patent has been taken by Messrs.
+Crookes and Ricarde-Seaver for purifying water gas
+from carbon monoxide, and converting it mainly into
+hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature through
+a mixture of lime and soda lime, a process which is
+chemically perfect, as the most expensive portion of
+the material used could be recovered; but in the present
+state of the labor market it is not practical, as for
+the making of every 100,000 cubic feet of gas, fifteen
+tons of material would have to be handled, the cost of
+labor alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted;
+moreover, hydrogen can be made far cheaper
+directly.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest days of gas making, the manufacture
+of hydrogen by the passage of steam over red-hot
+iron has been over and over again mooted, and attempted
+on a large scale, but several factors have combined
+to render it futile.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, for every 478.5 cubic feet of hydrogen
+made under perfect theoretical conditions never
+likely to be obtained in practice, 56 lb. of iron were
+converted into the magnetic oxide, and as there was
+no ready sale for this article, this alone would prevent
+its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen; the next
+point was that when steam was passed over the red-hot
+iron, the temperature was so rapidly lowered that
+the generation of gas could only go on for a very short
+period, while, finally, the swelling of the mass in the
+retort and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into
+the side renders the removal of the spent material almost
+an impossibility. These difficulties can, however,
+be got over. Take a fire clay retort, six feet long
+and a foot in diameter, and cap it with a casting bearing
+two outlet tubes closed by screw valves, while a
+
+similar tube leads from the bottom of the retort. Inclose
+this retort by a furnace chamber of iron lined
+with fire brick, leaving a space of two feet six inches
+round the retort, and connect the top of the furnace
+chamber with one opening at the top of the upright
+retort, while air blasts lead into the bottom of the furnace
+chamber, below rocking fire bars, which start at
+bottom of the retort, and slope upward, to leave room
+for ash holes closed by gas tight covers. The retort is
+filled with iron or steel borings, alone if pure hydrogen
+is required, or cast into balls with pitch if a little carbon
+monoxide is not a drawback, as in foundry work.
+The furnace chamber is now filled with coke, fed in
+through manholes, or hoppers, in the top, and the fuel
+being ignited, the blast is turned on, and the mixture
+of nitrogen and carbon monoxide passes over the iron,
+heating it to a red heat, while the fuel in contact with
+the retort does the same thing.</p>
+
+<p>When the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red
+heat, the air blast is cut off, and the pipe connecting
+the furnace and retort, together with the pipe in
+connection with the bottom of the retort, are closed,
+and steam, superheated by passing through a pipe led
+round the retort or interior wall of the furnace, is injected
+at the bottom of the red-hot mass of iron, which
+decomposes it, forming magnetic oxide of iron and hydrogen,
+which escapes by the second tube at the top
+of the retort, and is led away either to a carbureting
+chamber if required for illumination, or direct to the
+gasholder if wanted as a fuel. The mass of incandescent
+fuel in the furnace chamber, surrounding the retort,
+keeping up the temperature of retort and iron
+sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed.</p>
+
+<p>The hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and
+the air blast turned on. The hot carbon monoxide
+passing over the hot magnetic oxide quickly reduces
+it down to metallic iron, which, being in a spongy condition,
+acts more freely on the steam during later makes
+than it did at first, and being infusible at the temperature
+employed, may be used for a practically unlimited
+period.</p>
+
+<p>What more simple method than this could be desired?
+Here we have the formation of the most valuable of all
+fuel gases at the cost of the coke and steam used, a gas
+also which has double the carrying power for hydrocarbon
+vapors possessed by coal gas, while its combustion
+gives rise to nothing but water vapor.</p>
+
+<p>In this course of lectures I have left much unsaid and
+undone which I should have liked to have had time to
+accomplish, and if I have been obliged to leave out of
+consideration many important points, it is the time at
+my disposal and not my will which is to blame. And
+now, in conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to my
+assistants, Messrs. J.A. Foster and J.B. Warden, who
+have heartily co-operated with me in much of the work
+embodied in these lectures.</p>
+
+
+<a name="FNt1_1"></a><a href="#FNt1_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note">Lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts, London. From the <i>Journal</i> of the Society.</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<a name="phys1"></a><h2>STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The celebrated philosopher Bacon, the founder of
+the experimental method, claimed that we see better
+with one eye than with two, because the attention is
+more concentrated and becomes profounder. "On
+looking in a mirror," says he, "we may observe that,
+if we shut one eye, the pupil of the other dilates." To
+this question: "But why, then, have we two eyes?"
+he responds: "In order that one may remain if the
+other gets injured." Despite the reasoning of the
+learned philosopher, we may be permitted to believe
+that the reason that we have two eyes is for seeing
+better and especially for perceiving the effects of perspective
+and the relief of objects. We have no intention
+of setting forth here the theory of binocular
+vision; one simple experiment will permit any one to
+see that the real place of an object is poorly estimated
+with one eye. Seated before a desk, pen in hand,
+suddenly close one eye, and, at the same time, stretch
+out the arm in order to dip the pen in the inkstand;
+you will fail nine times out of ten. It is not in one
+day that the effects of binocular vision have been
+established, for the ancients made many observations
+on the subject. It was in 1593 that the celebrated
+Italian physicist Porta was the first to give an accurate
+figure of two images seen by each eye separately,
+but he desired no apparatus that permitted of reconstituting
+the relief on looking at them. Those
+savants who, after him, occupied themselves with the
+
+question, treated it no further than from a theoretical
+point of view. It was not till 1838 that the English
+physicist Wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic
+apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining
+simultaneously with each of the eyes two different
+images of an object, one having the perspective that
+the right eye perceives, and the other that the left eye
+perceives.</p>
+
+<p>This apparatus is described in almost all treatises on
+physics. We may merely recall the fact that it
+operated by reflection, that is to say, the two images
+were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors
+making an angle of 45 degrees. The instrument was
+very cumbersome and not very practical. Another
+English physicist, David Brewster, in 1844 devised
+the stereoscope that we all know; but, what is a
+curious thing, he could not succeed in having it constructed
+in England, where it was not at first appreciated.
+It was not till 1850 that he brought it to
+Paris, where it was constructed by Mr. Soleil and his
+son-in-law Duboscq. Abbot Moigno and the two
+celebrated opticians succeeded, not without some difficulty,
+in having it examined by the <i>official</i> savants;
+but, at the great exposition of 1851, it was remarked
+by the Queen of England, and from this moment
+Messrs. Soleil &amp; Duboscq succeeded with difficulty
+only in satisfying the numerous orders that came from
+all parts. As photography permitted of easily making
+identical images, but with different perspective, it
+contributed greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The stereoscope, such as we know it, presents the
+inconvenience of being incapable of being used by but
+one person at once. Several inventors have endeavored
+to render the stereoscopic images visible to
+several spectators at the same time. In 1858, Mr.
+Claudet conceived the idea of projecting the two
+stereoscopic images upon ground glass in superposing
+them. The relief was seen, it appears, but we cannot
+very well explain why; the idea, however, had no outcome,
+because the image, being quite small, could be
+observed by but three or four persons at once. It was
+Mr. D'Almeida, a French physicist, who toward the
+same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable
+manner, and we cannot explain why his process (that
+required no special apparatus) fell into the desuetude
+from which Mr. Molteni has just rescued it and obtained
+much success.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14-stereo.png">
+<img src="images/14-stereo.jpg" alt="STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS" title="">
+</a></p>
+
+<p>This is in what it consists: The impression of the
+relief appears when each eye sees that one of the two
+images which presents the perspective that it would
+perceive if it saw the real object. If we take two
+transparent stereoscopic images and place each of
+them in a projection lantern, in such a way that they
+can be superposed upon the screen, we shall obtain
+thereby a single image. It will always be a little light
+and soft, as the superposition cannot be effected accurately,
+the perspective not being the same for each
+of them. It is a question now to make each eye see
+the one of the two images proper to it. To this effect,
+Mr. D'Almeida conceived the very ingenious idea of
+placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image
+having the perspective of the right eye, and a red
+glass in front of the other image. As green and red
+are complementary colors, the result was not changed
+upon the screen; there was a little less light, that was
+all. But if, at this moment, the spectator places a
+green glass before his right eye and a red one before
+his left, he will find himself in the condition desired
+for realizing the effect sought.</p>
+
+<p>Each eye will then see only the image responding to
+the coloration chosen, and, as it is precisely the one
+which has the perspective proper to it, the relief appears
+immediately. The effect is striking. We perceive
+a diffused image upon the screen with the naked
+eye, but as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief
+appears with as much distinctness as in the best
+stereoscope. One must not, for example, reverse his eye-glass,
+for if (things being arranged as we have said) he
+looks through a red glass before his right eye, and
+through a green one before his left, it is the image carrying
+the perspective designed for the right eye that
+will be seen by the left eye, and reciprocally. There
+is then produced, especially with certain images, a very
+curious effect of reversed perspective, the background
+coming to the front.</p>
+
+<p>Now that photography is within every one's reach,
+and that many amateurs are making stereopticon
+
+views and own projection lanterns, we are persuaded
+that the experiment will be much more successful than
+it formerly was. An assemblage of persons all provided
+with colored eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate.
+Our engraving represents a stereopticon seance,
+and the draughtsman has well rendered the effect of
+the two luminous and differently colored fascicles superposed
+upon the screen.</p>
+
+<p>In a preceding note upon the same subject, Mr. Hospitalier
+remarked that upon combining these effects
+of perspective with those of the praxinoscope, which
+give the sensation of motion, we would obtain entirely
+new effects. It would be perhaps complicated as to
+the installation, and especially as to the making of the
+images, but, in certain special cases (for giving the
+effect of a machine in motion, for example), it might
+render genuine services.&mdash;<i>La Nature</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<a name="avi1"></a><h2>THE EFFECT ON FOWLS OF NITROGENOUS
+AND CARBONACEOUS RATIONS.<a name="FNa1_anc_1"></a><a href="#FNa1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<p>On July 2, 1889, ten Plymouth Rock hens, one year
+old, and as nearly as possible of uniform size, were
+selected from a flock of thirty-five. At the same time
+ten chickens, hatched from the same hens mated with
+a Plymouth Rock cock, were similarly chosen. The
+chickens were about six weeks old, healthy and vigorous
+and of nearly the same size. Up to the time of
+purchase both hens and chickens had full run of the
+farm. The hens foraged for themselves and were given
+no food; the chickens had been fed corn meal dough,
+sour milk and table scraps.</p>
+
+<p>A preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five
+days, during which time both hens and chickens
+were confined, all together, in a fairly well lighted and
+ventilated room, and fed a great variety of food, in
+order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly
+as possible in the same condition. During this preliminary
+feeding both hens and chickens increased in live
+weight. The ten hens from a total of 44 lb. 12 oz. to
+47 lb. 1.5 oz., or 3.75 oz. each, and laid 93 eggs. The
+chickens from a total of 9 lb. 15 oz. to 18 lb., or 12.9 oz.
+each.</p>
+
+<p>Food, shells and water were kept constantly before
+the fowls. Basins which contained the food and water
+were kept within a box constructed of lath, so arranged
+that the fowls could reach between the slats and procure
+food and drink without wasting or soiling.</p>
+
+<p>July 26th the hens and chickens were each separated
+into two lots of five each, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Hens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 23 lb. 8.5 oz.<br />
+Hens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 23 lb. 9 oz.<br />
+Chickens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 8 lb. 15 oz.<br />
+Chickens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 9 lb. 1 oz.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The four lots were placed in separate pens where they
+remained during the entire experiment, which lasted
+125 days. They were fed and watered once daily, and
+an account kept of the food eaten and water drank.
+At each feeding the food and water remaining were
+weighed back and deducted from the amount charged
+at the previous feeding.</p>
+
+<p>The hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration
+were given daily all they would eat of the following
+mixture: 1/3 part wheat bran, 1/3 part wheat shorts,
+1/3 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts skimmed milk, and
+will be designated Lot I.</p>
+
+<p>The hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration
+were given daily all they would eat of a ration of
+cracked maize and maize dough, and will be designated
+Lot II.</p>
+
+<p>Both groups were given a small amount of green
+clover as long as it lasted, and afterward cabbage.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience the experiment was divided into
+five periods of twenty five days.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FOOD CONSUMED AND INCREASE IN LIVE WEIGHT.</h3>
+
+
+<p>During the first period all the fowls seemed in good
+health except the carbonaceous fed chickens; they,
+during this as in all succeeding periods, were restless
+and peevish, always moping or hunting for something
+to eat, though their trough was filled. When fed they
+would greedily take a few mouthfuls and then, with
+their hunger still unappeased, would leave the dish.
+They always ate ravenously the green food which was
+
+given them, as did the hens and chickens of Lot I. The
+hens of Lot II., on the contrary, seemed quite willing
+to squat about the pen and subsist on the maize
+diet, and strangely enough cared little for green food.
+The clear maize diet was accompanied by such ill effects
+that the chickens of each lot, after the first period,
+were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat, and
+the hens each one ounce. The wheat was increased
+during the fourth and fifth periods in the case of the
+chickens to one ounce each. During the second
+period one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food, and
+during the third period another of the same lot were
+taken ill and removed from the experiment. Both
+seemed to be suffering from impacted crops, as the
+stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be
+empty.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous
+ration, and since the first period the amount of food
+eaten by the hens and chickens of Lot I had continually
+decreased, led to the belief that their food might
+be too nitrogenous, and as during the last days of
+the third period one of the hens in Lot I was also ill, it
+was decided to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal
+and to use linseed meal instead. The hen recovered
+soon after the change in food.</p>
+
+<p>The supply of skim milk running short in the last
+two periods, water was used instead in mixing the
+ration of the lots fed nitrogenous food.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the
+linseed meal in the ration of Lot I was removed, and
+cotton seed meal substituted. This combination
+seemed a happy one, for on this ration both hens and
+chickens made large gains.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the experiment little difference could
+be seen in the hens of the two groups; but the two lots
+of chickens were in striking contrast. While the
+chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large, plump,
+healthy, active, and well feathered, the chickens fed on
+a carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller,
+sickly, and in several cases almost destitute of feathers.
+Two of them had perfectly bare backs, and so ravenous
+were they for flesh and blood that they began eating
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>The inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous
+diet to throw out new feathers and the ability of the
+chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet to grow an enormous
+coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the
+effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain
+requirements of animal growth. It was plain to
+see that maize, even when assisted by a small amount
+of wheat and green clover, could not supply sufficient
+nitrogen for the growth of feathers.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost
+weight during the experiment, the loss was slightly
+greater with those fed nitrogenous food, but these produced
+by far the most eggs.</p>
+
+<p>The chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about
+doubled in weight, while those fed carbonaceous food
+only added about one-third to their weight.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRODUCTION OF EGGS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>During the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid
+three eggs while the others laid two. The two groups
+were, therefore, practically evenly divided at the start
+as to the condition of the laying stage. At the end of
+the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid forty-three
+eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid
+twenty. During the next twenty-five days the former
+laid thirty and the latter six; during the third period
+the former laid six and the latter not any. From this
+time on no eggs were received from either group. The
+decline in egg production was probably due in large
+part to the fact that the hens began to moult during
+the second period, and continued to do so during the
+rest of the experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of
+small size, having a disagreeable flavor and smell,
+watery albumen, an especially small, dark colored
+yolk, with a tender vitelline membrane, which turned
+black after being kept several weeks. While the eggs
+of the carbonaceous fed hens were large, of fine flavor,
+of natural smell, large normal albumen, an especially
+large, rich yellow yolk, with strong vitelline membrane,
+which was perfectly preserved after being kept for
+weeks in the same brine with the other eggs.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr">TOTAL FOOD CONSUMED DURING EXPERIMENT.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center">Lot. I.--Nitrogenous.</td><td colspan=3 align="center">Lot. II.--Carbonaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hens.</td><td>*Chicks</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hens.</td><td>Chicks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>lb.</td><td>lb.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>lb.</td><td>lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bran.</td><td>29.90</td><td>21.85</td><td>Maize.</td><td>82.15</td><td>51.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Shorts.</td><td>29.90</td><td>21.85</td><td>Green clover.</td><td>18.75</td><td>18.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cotton seed meal.</td><td>21.48</td><td>13.24</td><td>Cabbage.</td><td>16.00</td><td>16.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Linseed meal.</td><td>8.43</td><td>8.61</td><td>Wheat</td><td>15.63</td><td>11.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Skimmed milk.</td><td>105.49</td><td>61.33</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wheat.</td><td>15.63</td><td>11.71</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Green clover.</td><td>18.75</td><td>18.75</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cabbage.</td><td>16.00</td><td>16.00</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total.</td><td>245.58</td><td>173.34</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total.</td><td>132.53</td><td>92.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Nutritive ratio.</td><td>1:3.1</td><td>1:3</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Nutritive ratio.</td><td>1:7.8</td><td>1:8</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<br /><p>* Calculated for five chicks, based upon the amount eaten by the three
+after the two sick were removed.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="ctr"> EGGS LAID AND GAIN IN WEIGHT--HENS.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center">Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, July 26.</td><td>23.53</td><td>23.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, November 27.</td><td>21.31</td><td>22.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Loss.</td><td>2.22</td><td>1.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Number of eggs laid.</td><td>79.00</td><td>26.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of eggs laid lb.</td><td>8.25</td><td>2.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average weight of eggs, oz.</td><td>1.67</td><td>1.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gain in weight, including eggs, lb.</td><td>6.03</td><td>1.36</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="ctr">GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT--CHICKENS.<br /><br /></p>
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=2 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center">Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, July 26.</td><td> 8.94</td><td> 9.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight, November 27.</td><td>17.89</td><td>12.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gain, lb.</td><td> 8.95</td><td> 3.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gain, per cent. </td><td>100.11</td><td>39.40</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately
+marked and sold to a boarding house where the
+cook did not know that the eggs were undergoing a
+test. On meeting the cook several days later the following
+words were heard: "Do you expect me to cook
+such eggs as these! About every other one is spoiled."
+On examination of the ovaries after slaughtering, it
+was found that in the case of one of the carbonaceous
+fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage, but
+on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much
+nearer the laying period. With this single exception,
+the clusters of ovules in the carbonaceous fed hens were
+uniformly small. Neither group would have laid under
+any probability for several weeks. It would seem from
+these facts, together with the fact that during the experiment
+the nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three
+times as many eggs, that a nitrogenous ration stimulates
+egg production.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING.</h3>
+
+
+<p>On November 27 the fowls were slaughtered. Each
+fowl was weighed, wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering,
+and killed by severing an artery in the roof of
+the mouth. The blood was caught in a glass jar. The
+fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed, after
+which the body was laid open longitudinally by cutting
+alongside the sternum and through the back bone.
+When all had been thus prepared, they were hung up
+in groups to be photographed, but the photographs
+were quite unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative
+proportions of fat and lean. The accompanying drawing
+made from the photograph shows the relative development
+of an average pair of chickens. Attention
+is particularly called to the thighs.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<img src="images/15-plucked.png" alt="" title="">
+</p>
+
+<p>One-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for
+flavor, succulence, and tenderness. The other half was
+carefully prepared for chemical analysis by separating
+the meat from the bones. The flesh was thoroughly
+mixed and run through a sausage cutter, mixed again,
+and the process repeated three times. From different
+parts of this mixture a large sample was taken, from
+which the chemist took his samples for analysis. The
+right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by
+placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a
+wire on its center, on which were placed small weights
+until the bone gave way.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">DRESSED WEIGHT, INTERNAL ORGANS, ETC.<br /><br/></p>
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Weight Summary">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=4 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Hens.</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Chickens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Live weight</td><td>21.31</td><td>22.0</td><td>17.89</td><td>12.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dressed weight.</td><td>14.86</td><td>15.09</td><td>12.01</td><td>8.89</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dressed weight, per cent.</td><td>69.7</td><td>68.6</td><td>67.1</td><td>70.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of blood.</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of feathers.</td><td>1.41</td><td>1.25</td><td>1.28</td><td>0.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of intestinal fat.</td><td>0.59</td><td>1.98</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of offal.</td><td>3.70</td><td>3.02</td><td>3.62</td><td>2.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of bones.</td><td>3.47</td><td>3.63</td><td>3.18</td><td>2.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of flesh.</td><td>11.39</td><td>11.47</td><td>8.93</td><td>6.20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows
+for the hens and chickens of the various lots:</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Tibia strength">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Average hens,</td><td>nitrogenous. </td><td>48.16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td> carbonaceous. </td><td>51.74</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average chickens,</td><td>nitrogenous. </td><td>46.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td>carbonaceous. </td><td>31.18</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There was little difference in the strength of the
+bones of the hens, undoubtedly because the bones
+were mature before the feeding began, and were little
+affected by the feeding. We find, however, that the
+bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost
+fifty per cent. (49.6) stronger than those fed carbonaceous
+food.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in the composition of the flesh, as
+shown by the analysis of Mr. W.P. Cutter, is given
+below:</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Weight Summary">
+<colgroup><col align="left"><col span=4 align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Hens.</td><td align="center" colspan=2>Chickens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td><td align="center">Lot I.</td><td align="center"> Lot II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td><td align="center">Nitrogenous.</td><td align="center">Carbonaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td><td align="center">lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albuminoids. </td><td>43.81</td><td>25.13</td><td>52.00</td><td>30.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fat.</td><td>12.59</td><td>20.76</td><td>5.54</td><td>11.34</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The flesh of each group was submitted to a number
+of persons for a cooking test, and the almost unanimous
+verdict was that the flesh of the fowls fed a nitrogenous
+ration was darker colored, more succulent, more
+tender, and better flavored, though on this last there
+was some difference of opinion.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONCLUSIONS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>So far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions
+from a single experiment of this kind, it would seem
+that:</p>
+
+<p>Chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make
+a satisfactory development, particularly of feathers.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration
+are fifty per cent. stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous
+ration.</p>
+
+<p>Hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs
+but of smaller size and poorer quality than those fed
+exclusively on corn.</p>
+
+<p>Hens fed on corn, while not suffering in general
+health, become sluggish, deposit large masses of fat on
+the internal organs, and lay a few eggs of large size
+and excellent quality.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids
+and less fat than those fed on a carbonaceous
+ration, and is darker colored, juicier and
+tenderer.</p>
+<br />
+<p>I.P. ROBERTS, Director.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name="hort1"></a><h2>HERBACEOUS GRAFTING.</h2>
+
+
+<p>My attention has been called a number of times to
+the unsatisfactory records and directions concerning
+the grafting of herbaceous plants. There appears to
+have been very little attention given to the subject,
+and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from
+one author to another. A few years ago I made some
+attempts at herbaceous grafting, but it was not until
+last winter that experiments were seriously undertaken.
+The work was put in the hands of J.R. Lochary
+as a subject for a graduating thesis.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments were undertaken primarily for the
+purpose of learning the best methods of grafting herbs,
+but a secondary and more important object was the
+study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion,
+particularly in relation to variegation and coloration.
+This second feature of the work is still under way, in
+one form or another, and we hope for definite results
+in a few years. As a matter of immediate advantage,
+however, herbaceous grafting has its uses, particularly
+in securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon
+the same plant. There is no difficulty in growing a
+half dozen kinds or colors, on geraniums, chrysanthemums,
+or other plants from one stock of the respective
+species.</p>
+
+<p>Six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter.
+It was found that the wood must be somewhat
+hardened to secure best results. The very soft and
+flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation
+of grafting, and union does not take place readily.
+Vigorous coleus stocks, three months old, gave best
+results if cut to within two or three inches of the pot
+and all or nearly all the leaves removed from the
+stump. Geraniums, being harder in wood, made good
+unions at almost any place except on the soft growing
+points. The stock must not have ceased growth, however.
+Most of the leaves should be kept down on the
+stock. Cions an inch or two long were usually taken
+from firm growing tips, in essentially the same manner
+as in the making of cuttings. Sometimes an eye of the
+old wood was used, and in most cases union took place
+and a new shoot arose from the bud. The leaves were
+usually partly removed from the cion.</p>
+
+<p>Various styles of grafting were employed, of which
+the common cleft and the veneer or side graft were
+perhaps the most satisfactory. In most instances it
+was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly
+with bass or raffia. In some soft wooded plants, like
+coleus, a covering of common grafting wax over the
+bandage was an advantage, probably because it prevented
+the drying out of the parts. In some cases,
+however, wax injured the tissues where it overreached
+the bandage. Sphagnum moss was used in many cases
+tied in a small mass about the union, but unless the
+parts were well bandaged the cion sent roots into the
+moss and did not unite, and in no case did moss appear
+to possess decided advantages. Best results were obtained
+by placing the plants at once in a propagating
+frame, where a damp and confined atmosphere could
+be obtained. In some plants, successful unions were
+made in the open greenhouse, but they were placed in
+shade and kept sprinkled for a day after the grafts
+were made. The operation should always be performed
+quickly to prevent flagging of the cions. Or, if the
+cions cannot be used at once, they may be thrust into
+sand or moss in the same manner as cuttings, and kept
+for several days. In one series, tomato and potato
+cuttings, which had flagged in the cutting bed, revived
+when grafted. And cuttings which had been transported
+in the mail for three days grew readily, but
+they were in good condition when received. The
+mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these
+grafted plants, for they delighted to crawl under the
+bandages and suck the juices from the wounded
+surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is foreign to the purpose of this note, it
+may be worth while to mention a few of the plants upon
+which the experiments were made. Sections were
+taken of many of the grafts and microscopic examinations
+made to determine the extent of cell union.
+Coleuses of many kinds were used, with uniform success,
+and the cions of some of them were vigorous a
+year after being set. Even iresine (better known as
+<i>Achyranthes Verschaffeltii</i>) united with coleus and
+grew for a time. Zonale geraniums bloomed upon the
+common rose geranium. Tomatoes upon potatoes and
+potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were transplanted
+to the open ground, where they grew, flowered and
+fruited until killed by frost. The tomato-on-potato
+plants bore good tomatoes above and good potatoes
+beneath, even though no sprouts from the potato stock
+were allowed to grow. Peppers united with tomatoes
+and tomatoes united with peppers. Egg plants, tomatoes
+and peppers grew upon the European husk tomato
+or alkekengi (<i>Physalis Alkekengi</i>). Peppers and egg
+plants united with each other reciprocally. A coleus cion
+was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound
+with raffia. The cion remained green and healthy, and
+at the end of forty-eight days the bandage was removed,
+but it was found that no union had taken
+
+place. Ageratums united upon each other with difficulty.
+Chrysanthemums united readily. A bean plant,
+bearing two partially grown beans, chanced to grow in
+a chrysanthemum pot. The stem bearing the pods was
+inarched into the chrysanthemum. Union took place
+readily, but the beans turned yellow and died. Pumpkin
+vines united with squash vines, cucumbers with
+cucumbers, muskmelons with watermelons, and muskmelons,
+watermelons and cucumbers with the wild
+cucumber or balsam apple (<i>Echinocystis lobata</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting feature of the work was the
+grafting of one fruit upon another, as a tomato fruit
+upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon another
+cucumber. This work is still under progress and it
+promises some interesting results in a new and unexpected
+direction, reports of which may be expected
+later.&mdash;<i>Cornell Station Bulletin</i>.</p>
+
+<a name="FNa1_1"></a><a href="#FNa1_anc_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>This article is condensed by permission from a thesis prepared for the
+degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, by James Edward Rice, a
+graduate of the class of 1890. The work was planned and wholly carried
+out in the most careful manner by Mr. Rice under the immediate supervision
+of the Director. The results have been thought worthy of publication
+in the <i>Cornell Station Bulletin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h2>A HUMOROUS HEALTH OFFICER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Michigan State Board of Health recently took
+Health Officer Davis, of Close Village, to task for failing
+to send in his weekly reports. His reply was
+unique. He says: "There has not been enough sickness
+here the last two or three years to do much good.
+The physicians find time to go to Milwaukee on excursions,
+serve as jurors in justice courts, sit around
+on drygoods boxes, and beg tobacco, chew gum, and
+swap lies. A few sporadic cases of measles have existed,
+but they were treated mostly by old women,
+and no deaths occurred. There was an undertaker in
+the village, but he is now in the State prison. It is
+hoped and expected when green truck gets around,
+melons plenty, and cucumbers in abundance, that
+something may revive business. If it does, I will let
+you know."</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h3>A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers</h3>
+
+
+<p>Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
+during the past ten years, sent <i>free of charge</i> to any
+address. MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3>
+
+<h3>Architects and Builders Edition.</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr">$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.</p>
+
+
+<p>This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
+issued monthly&mdash;on the first day of the month.
+Each number contains about forty large quarto pages,
+equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages,
+forming, practically, a large and splendid <b>Magazine
+of Architecture</b>, richly adorned with <i>elegant plates
+in colors</i> and with fine engravings, illustrating the
+most interesting examples of modern Architectural
+Construction and allied subjects.</p>
+
+<p>A special feature is the presentation in each number
+of a variety of the latest and best plans for private
+residences, city and country, including those of very
+moderate cost as well as the more expensive. Drawings
+in perspective and in color are given, together
+with full Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate,
+and Sheets of Details.</p>
+
+<p>No other building paper contains so many plans,
+details, and specifications regularly presented as the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Hundreds of dwellings have
+already been erected on the various plans we have
+issued during the past year, and many others are in
+process of construction.</p>
+
+<p>Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work
+valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions.
+All who contemplate building or improving homes, or
+erecting structures of any kind, have before them in
+this work an almost <i>endless series of the latest and best
+examples</i> from which to make selections, thus saving
+time and money.</p>
+
+<p>Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping,
+Lighting, Warming, Ventilating, Decorating, Laying
+out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated. An extensive
+Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also
+given, in which the most reliable and approved Building
+Materials, Goods, Machines, Tools, and Appliances
+are described and illustrated, with addresses of the
+makers, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of
+this work have won for it the <b>Largest Circulation</b>
+of any Architectural publication in the world.</p>
+
+<p>A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture,
+Building, Carpentry, Masonry, Heating, Warming,
+Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of industry
+pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN&amp; CO., Publishers,</b><br/>
+<b>361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h3>Building Plans and Specifications.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In connection with the publication of the BUILDING
+EDITION of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn
+&amp; Co. furnish plans and specifications for buildings
+of every kind, including Churches, Schools, Stores,
+Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In this work they are assisted by able and experienced
+architects. Full plans, details, and specifications
+for the various buildings illustrated in this paper
+can be supplied.</p>
+
+<p>Those who contemplate building, or who wish to
+alter, improve, extend, or add to existing buildings,
+whether wings, porches, bay windows, or attic rooms,
+are invited to communicate with the undersigned.
+Our work extends to all parts of the country. Estimates,
+plans, and drawings promptly prepared. Terms
+moderate. Address</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">MUNN &amp; CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. </p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>The</h3>
+
+<h3>Scientific American Supplement.</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.<br />
+Terms of Subscription, $5 a year</b>.</p>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any
+part of the United States or Canada. Six dollars a
+year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the
+commencement, January I, 1876, can be had. Price,
+10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise
+be supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly.
+Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in paper, or $3.50
+bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES.&mdash;One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+and one copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT,
+one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
+canvassers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers</b>,<br />
+<b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b>.</p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<h3>Useful Engineering Books</h3>
+
+
+<p>Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers,
+Mechanics, Builders, men of leisure, and professional
+men, of all classes, need good books in the line of their
+respective callings. Our post office department permits
+the transmission of books through the mails at very
+small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books
+by different authors, on more than fifty different subjects,
+has recently been published, for free circulation,
+at the office of this paper. Subjects classified with
+names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only
+to ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address,</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York</b>.</p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>,
+Messrs. MUNN &amp; Co. are solicitors of American and
+Foreign Patents, have had 42 years' experience, and
+now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b>
+of all inventions patented through this Agency,
+with the name and residence of the Patentee. By the
+immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention
+can ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent
+can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent
+Laws, Patents, Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs and
+how procured. Address</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO.,</b><br />
+<b>361 Broadway, New York.
+Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.</b></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+795, March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 13443-h.htm or 13443-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/4/4/13443/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/01-1.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/01-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fcce99f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/01-1.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/01-1.png b/old/13443-h/images/01-1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad72c6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/01-1.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/01-2.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/01-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1824678
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/01-2.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/01-2.png b/old/13443-h/images/01-2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74ae203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/01-2.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..235e811
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.png b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cbbf85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig2-3.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig4.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6b1122
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig4.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig4.png b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig4.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3111a83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig4.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig5.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da20776
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig5.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig5.png b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig5.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3d0236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig5.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig6.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3b8b19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig6.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig6.png b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig6.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..659eb4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig6.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34c32b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.png b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e06bf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/04-fig7-9.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-elev.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/05-elev.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc19991
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-elev.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-elev.png b/old/13443-h/images/05-elev.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f91a70a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-elev.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-fig1.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d12b1cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig1.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-fig1.png b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45354cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig1.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-fig2.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26a71df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig2.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-fig2.png b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6e6ec7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-fig2.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-saw.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/05-saw.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a1e0f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-saw.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/05-saw.png b/old/13443-h/images/05-saw.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b7ebe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/05-saw.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/06-empress.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/06-empress.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..814f6f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/06-empress.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/06-empress.png b/old/13443-h/images/06-empress.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1d4a2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/06-empress.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/06-fig1.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0ec97a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig1.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/06-fig1.png b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2213694
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig1.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/06-fig2.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c597903
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig2.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/06-fig2.png b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79662a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/06-fig2.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/07-burnham.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/07-burnham.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..121aafd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/07-burnham.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/07-burnham.png b/old/13443-h/images/07-burnham.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6663ce3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/07-burnham.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/08-fig1.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/08-fig1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e41185
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/08-fig1.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/08-fig1.png b/old/13443-h/images/08-fig1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..897e380
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/08-fig1.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/08-map.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/08-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad37d74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/08-map.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/08-map.png b/old/13443-h/images/08-map.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ebaaac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/08-map.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/09-map.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/09-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a65ed42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/09-map.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/09-map.png b/old/13443-h/images/09-map.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8db22eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/09-map.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/10-fig12.png b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig12.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ccfecf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig12.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13a.png b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37e9e84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13a.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13b.png b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b585465
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13b.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13c.png b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..690e2ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig13c.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/10-fig14.png b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig14.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a866b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/10-fig14.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig15.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig15.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d58a993
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig15.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig16.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig16.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a852039
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig16.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig17.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig17.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b35318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig17.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig18.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig18.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f3a400
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig18.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig19.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig19.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a813de0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig19.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig20.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig20.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f1f4f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig20.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig21.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig21.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5552699
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig21.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig22.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig22.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e98c875
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig22.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/11-fig23.png b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig23.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a12bdfe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/11-fig23.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/12-fig24.png b/old/13443-h/images/12-fig24.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e45434
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/12-fig24.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/12-fig25.png b/old/13443-h/images/12-fig25.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95c155c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/12-fig25.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/14-stereo.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/14-stereo.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0850b99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/14-stereo.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/14-stereo.png b/old/13443-h/images/14-stereo.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f27fc70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/14-stereo.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/15-plucked.png b/old/13443-h/images/15-plucked.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94ea7e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/15-plucked.png
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/title.jpg b/old/13443-h/images/title.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e26500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/title.jpg
diff --git a/old/13443-h/images/title.png b/old/13443-h/images/title.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0b58b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443-h/images/title.png
diff --git a/old/13443.txt b/old/13443.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4bf6b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4472 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 795,
+March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 795, March 28, 1891
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2004 [EBook #13443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 795
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, March 28, 1891.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 795.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    AVICULTURE.--The Effect on Fowls of Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous
+      Rations.--A very valuable report upon the effects of different
+      diet on chickens, with tables of data.--1 illustration
+
+II.   BIOGRAPHY.--N.F. Burnham and his Life Work.--By W.H. BURNHAM.
+      --The life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers,
+      an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery.
+      --1 illustration
+
+III.  BOTANY.--The Source of Chinese Ginger.--An identification of
+      a long unknown plant
+
+IV.   CIVIL ENGINEERING.--A Railway through the Andes.--An
+      interesting enterprise now in progress in South America, with
+      maps.--2 illustrations
+
+      Chicago as a Seaport.--Proposed connection of Chicago with the
+      waters of the Mississippi River, thereby placing it in water
+      communication with the sea.--2 illustrations
+
+      Floating Elevator and Spoil Distributor.--A machine for removing
+      dredged material from barges, as employed on the Baltic Sea
+      Canal Works.--10 illustrations
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY.--Alternate Current Condensers.--A valuable review
+      of the difficulties of constructing these condensers.--An important
+      contribution to the subject.--1 illustration
+
+      Electricity in Transitu.--From Plenum to Vacuum.--By Prof.
+      WILLIAM CROOKES.--Continuation of this important lecture with
+      profuse illustrations of experiments.--14 illustrations
+
+      The Telegraphic Communication between Great Britain,
+      Europe, America, and the East.--By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.--
+      The engineering aspects of electricity.--The world's cables and
+      connections.--2 illustrations
+
+VI.   HORTICULTURE.--Herbaceous Grafting.--A hitherto little practiced
+      and successful method of treating herbs, with curious results
+
+VII.  MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Improved Cold Iron Saw.--The
+      "Demon" cold saw for cutting Iron.--Its capacity and general
+      principles.--1 illustration
+
+VIII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--How to Prevent Hay Fever.--By
+      ALEXANDER RIXA.--A systematic treatment of this very troublesome
+      complaint, with a special prescription and other treatment.
+
+IX.   MISCELLANEOUS.--The Business End of the American Newspaper.--By
+      A.H. SIEGFRIED.--A graphic presentation of the
+      technique of the newspaper office, circulation of the American
+      papers, methods of printing, etc.
+
+      The New Labor Exchange at Paris.--A new establishment, long
+      demanded by the laboring population of Paris.--Its scope and
+      prospects.--2 illustrations
+
+X.    NAVAL ENGINEERING.--The Empress of India.--The pioneer
+      of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the Canadian
+      Pacific Railway between Vancouver, China, and Japan.--1 illustration
+
+XI.   PHYSICS.--Stereoscopic Projections.--A most curious method
+      of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the
+      screen, involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators.
+      --1 illustration
+
+XII.  TECHNOLOGY.--Gaseous Illuminants.--By Prof. VIVIAN B.
+      LEWES.--The fifth and last of Prof. Lewes' Society of Arts lectures,
+      concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE NEW LABOR EXCHANGE AT PARIS.
+
+
+There will soon be inaugurated (probably about the 14th of July) a new
+establishment that has long been demanded by the laboring population,
+that is to say, a new labor exchange, the buildings of which, situated
+on Chateau d'Eau Street, are to succeed the provisional exchange
+installed in the vicinity of Le Louvre Street. The new structures have
+been erected from plans by Mr. Bouvard, and occupy an area of
+seventeen hundred meters.
+
+The main work is now entirely terminated, but the interior decorations
+are not yet completely finished. The distribution comprises a vast
+meeting room, committee rooms for the various syndicates, offices in
+which the workmen of the various bodies of trades will find
+information and advice, and will be enabled to be put in relation with
+employers without passing through the more or less recommendable
+agencies to which they have hitherto been obliged to have recourse.
+
+[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE, PARIS.]
+
+Upon the whole, the institution, if wisely conducted, is capable of
+bearing fruit and ought to do so, and the laboring population of Paris
+should be grateful to the municipal council for the six million francs
+that our ediles have so generously voted for making this interesting
+work a success. On seeing the precautions, perhaps necessary, that the
+laborer now takes against the capitalist, we cannot help instituting a
+comparison with the antique and solid organization of labor that
+formerly governed the trades unions. Each corporation possessed a
+syndic charged with watching over the management of affairs, and over
+the receipts and the use of the common resources. These syndics were
+appointed for two years, and had to make annually, at least, four
+visits to all the masters, in order to learn how the laborers were
+treated and paid, and how loyally the regulations of the corporation
+were observed. They rendered an account of this to the first assembly
+of the community and cited all the masters in fault.
+
+Evidently, the new Labor Exchange will not cause a revival of these
+old ways of doing things (which perhaps may have had something of
+good in them), but we may hope that laborers will find in it
+protection against those who would require of them an excess of work,
+as well as against those who would preach idleness and revolt to
+them.--_Le Monde Illustre_.
+
+[Illustration: NEW LABOR EXCHANGE--HALL FOR MEETINGS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BUSINESS END OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A recent address before the Outlook Club,
+of Montclair, N.J.]
+
+By A.H. SIEGFRIED.
+
+
+The controlling motive and direct purpose of the average newspaper are
+financial profit. One is now and then founded, and conducted even at a
+loss, to serve party, social, religious or other ends, but where the
+primary intent is unselfish there remains hope for monetary gain.
+
+The first newspapers never dreamed of teaching or influencing men, but
+were made to collect news and entertainment and deal in them as in any
+other commodity. But because this was the work of intelligence upon
+intelligence, and because of conditions inherent in this kind of
+business, it soon took higher form and service, and came into
+responsibilities of which, in its origin, it had taken no thought.
+Wingate's "Views and Interviews on Journalism" gives the opinions of
+the leading editors and publishers of fifteen years ago upon this
+point of newspaper motive and work. The first notable utterance was by
+Mr. Whitelaw Reid, who said the idea and object of the modern daily
+newspaper are to collect and give news, with the promptest and best
+elucidation and discussion thereof, that is, the selling of these in
+the open market; primarily a "merchant of news." Substantially and
+distinctly the same ideas were given by William Cullen Bryant, Henry
+Watterson, Samuel Bowles, Charles A. Dana, Henry J. Raymond, Horace
+White, David G. Croly, Murat Halstead, Frederick Hudson, George
+William Curtis, E.L. Godkin, Manton Marble, Parke Godwin, George W.
+Smalley, James Gordon Bennett and Horace Greeley. The book is fat with
+discussion by these and other eminent newspaper men, as to the
+motives, methods and ethics of their profession, disclosing high
+ideals and genuine seeking of good for all the world, but the whole of
+it at last rests upon primary motives and controlling principles in
+nowise different or better or worse than those of the Produce Exchange
+and the dry goods district, of Wall Street and Broadway, so that,
+taking publications in the lump, it is neither untrue nor ungenerous,
+nor, when fully considered, is it surprising, to say that the world's
+doing, fact and fancy are collected, reported, discussed, scandalized,
+condemned, commended, supported and turned back upon the world as the
+publisher's merchandise.
+
+The force and reach of this controlling motive elude the reckoning of
+the closest observation and ripest experience, but as somewhat
+measuring its strength and pervasiveness hear, and for a moment think,
+of these facts and figures.
+
+The American Newspaper Directory for 1890, accepted as the standard
+compiler and analyst of newspaper statistics, gives as the number of
+regularly issued publications in the United States and territories,
+17,760. Then when we know that these have an aggregate circulation for
+each separate issue--not for each week, or month, or for a year, but
+for each separate issue of each individual publication, a total of
+41,524,000 copies--many of them repeating themselves each day, some
+each alternate day, some each third day and the remainder each week,
+month or quarter, and that in a single year they produce 3,481,610,000
+copies, knowing, though dimly realizing, this tremendous output, we
+have some faint impression of the numerical strength of this mighty
+force which holds close relation to and bears strong influence upon
+life, thought and work, and which, measured by its units, is as the
+June leaves on the trees--in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable;
+a force expansive, aggressive, pervasive; going everywhere; stopping
+nowhere; ceasing never.
+
+I am to speak to you of "The Business End" of the American newspaper;
+that is of the work of the publisher's department--not the editor's.
+At the outset I am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the
+subject so many and so far reaching that right regard for time compels
+the merest generalization; but, as best I can, and as briefly as I
+can, I shall speak upon the topic under three general divisions:
+
+First.--The personal and material forces which make the newspaper.
+
+Second.--The sources of revenue from the joint working of these
+forces.
+
+Third.--The direct office, bearing and influence of these forces.
+
+It is but natural that the general public has limited idea of the
+personality and mechanism of the publication business, for much of its
+movement is at night, and there is separation and isolation of
+departments, as well as complicated relation of the several parts to
+the whole. Not many years ago a very few men and boys could edit,
+print and distribute the most important of newspapers, where now
+hundreds are necessary parts in a tremendous complexity. But even
+to-day, of the nearly 18,000 publications in the United States, more
+than 11,000 are of that class which, in all their departments, are
+operated by from two to four or five persons, and which furnish scant
+remuneration even for these. Among the thin populations and in the
+remote regions are thousands of weekly papers--and you may spell the
+weekly either with a double _e_ or an _ea_--where there are two men
+and a boy, one of whom does a little writing and much scissoring,
+loafing among the corner groceries and worse, begging for
+subscribers, button-holing for advertisements, and occasionally and
+indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the "esteemed
+contemporary" or the "outraged citizen;" the second of whom sets the
+type, reads the proofs, corrects them more or less, makes the rollers,
+works the old hand press, and curses the editor and the boy
+impartially; and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly, bi-weekly
+or monthly, inks the forms and sometimes pis them, carries the papers,
+and does generally the humble and diversified works of the "printer's
+devil," while between the three the whole thing periodically goes to
+the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now and then by papers of
+this class. Yet there are many of these country papers that Mr.
+Watterson once styled the "Rural Roosters" which are useful and
+honored, and which actively employ as editors and publishers men of
+fair culture and good common sense, with typographical and mechanical
+assistants who are worthy of their craft.
+
+But the personal workers upon the great magazines and the daily
+newspapers are for each a battalion or a regiment, and in the
+aggregate a vast army. The _Century Magazine_ regularly employs in its
+editorial department three editors and eight editorial assistants, of
+whom five are women; in the art department two artists in charge and
+four assistants, of whom three are women; in the business department
+fifty-eight persons, men and women--a total of seventy six persons
+employed on the magazine regularly and wholly, while the printers and
+binders engaged in preparing a monthly edition of 200,000 magazines
+are at least a duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial, art
+and business divisions.
+
+The actual working force upon the average large daily newspaper, as
+well as an outline idea of the work done in each department, and of
+its unified result in the printed sheet, as such newspapers are
+operated in New York, Chicago and Boston, may be realized from an
+exhibit of the exact current status in the establishment of a well
+known Chicago paper.
+
+In its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief, managing
+editors, city editors, telegraph editors, exchange editors, editorial
+writers, special writers and about thirty reporters--56 in all.
+Working in direct connection with this department, and as part of it,
+are three telegraph operators and nine artists, etchers, photographers
+and engravers; in the Washington office three staff correspondents,
+and in the Milwaukee office one such correspondent--making for what
+Mr. Bennett calls the intellectual end a force of 72 men, who are
+usually regarded by the business end as a necessary evil, to be fed
+and clothed, but on the whole as hardly worth the counting.
+
+In the business and mechanical departments the men and women and their
+work are these:
+
+The business office, for general clerical work, receiving and caring
+for advertisements, receiving and disbursing cash, and for the general
+bookkeeping, employs 24 men and women.
+
+On the city circulation, stimulating and managing it within the city
+and the immediate vicinity, 10 persons.
+
+On the country circulation, for handling all out-of-town subscriptions
+and orders of wholesale news agents, 30 persons.
+
+On mailing and delivery, for sending out by mail and express of the
+outside circulation, and for distribution to city agents and newsboys,
+31 persons.
+
+In the New York office, caring for the paper's business throughout the
+East, the Canadas, Great Britain and Europe, two persons.
+
+In the composing room, where the copy is put into type, and in the
+linotype room, where a part of the type-setting is done by machinery,
+95 persons.
+
+In the stereotype foundry, where the plates are cast (for the type
+itself never is put on the press), 11 persons.
+
+In the press room, where the printing, folding, cutting, pasting and
+counting of the papers is done, 30 persons.
+
+In the engine and dynamo room, 8 persons.
+
+In the care of the building, 3 persons.
+
+These numbers include only the minimum and always necessary force, and
+make an aggregate of 316 persons daily and nightly engaged for their
+entire working time, and borne on a pay roll of six thousand dollars a
+week for salaries and wages alone.
+
+But this takes no account of special correspondents subject to instant
+call in several hundred places throughout the country; of European
+correspondents; of 1,900 news agents throughout the West; of 200 city
+carriers; of 42 wholesale city dealers, with their horses and wagons;
+of 200 branch advertisement offices throughout the city, all connected
+with the main office by telephone; and of more than 3 000 news
+boys--all making their living, in whole or in part, from work upon or
+business relations with this one paper--a little army of 6,300 men,
+women, and children, producing and distributing but one of the 1,626
+daily newspapers in the United States.
+
+The leading material forces in newspaper production are type, paper,
+and presses.
+
+Printing types are cast from a composition which is made one-half of
+lead, one-fourth of tin, and one-fourth of antimony, though these
+proportions are slightly reduced, so as to admit what the chemist
+calls of copper "a trace," the sum of these parts aiming at a metal
+which "shall be hard, yet not brittle; ductile, yet tough; flowing
+freely, yet hardening quickly." Body type, that is, those classes ever
+seen in ordinary print, aside from display and fancy styles, is in
+thirteen classes, the smallest technically called brilliant and the
+largest great primer.
+
+In the reading columns of newspapers but four classes are ordinarily
+used--agate for the small advertisements; agate, nonpareil, and minion
+for news, miscellany, etc., and minion and brevier for editorials--the
+minion being used for what are called minor editorials, and the
+brevier for leading articles, as to which it may be said that young
+editorial writers consider life very real and very earnest until they
+are promoted from minion to brevier.
+
+A complete assortment of any one of these classes is called a font,
+the average weight of which is about 800 pounds. Whereas our alphabet
+has 26 letters, the compositor must really use of letters, spaces,
+accent marks, and other characters in an English font 152 distinct
+types, and in each font there are 195,000 individual pieces. The
+largest number of letters in a font belongs to small _e_--12,000; and
+the least number to the _z_--200. The letters, characters, spaces,
+etc., are distributed by the printer in a pair of cases, the upper one
+for capitals, small capitals, and various characters, having 98 boxes,
+and the lower one, for the small letters, punctuation marks, etc.,
+having 54 boxes.
+
+A few newspapers are using typesetting machines for all or part of
+their composition. The New York _Tribune_ is using the Linotype
+machine for all its typesetting except the displayed advertisements,
+and other papers are using it for a portion of their work, while still
+others are using the Rogers and various machines, of which there are
+already six or more. It seems probable that within the early future
+newspaper composition will very generally be done by machinery.
+
+It has been suggested to me that many of my hearers this evening know
+little or nothing of the processes of the printer's art, and that some
+exposition of it may interest a considerable portion of this audience.
+
+The vast number of these little "messengers of thought" which are
+required in a single modern daily newspaper is little known to
+newspaper readers. Set in the manner of ordinary reading, a column of
+the New York _Tribune_ contains 12,200 pieces, counting head lines,
+leads, and so on; while, if set solidly in its medium-sized type,
+there are 18,800 pieces in one column, or about 113,000 in a page, or
+about 1,354,000 in one of its ordinary 12-page issues. A 32-page
+Sunday issue of the New York _Herald_ contains nearly, if not quite,
+2,500,000 distinct types and other pieces of metal, each of which must
+be separately handled between thumb and finger twice--once put into
+the case and once taken out of it--each issue of the paper. No one
+inexperienced in this delicate work has the slightest conception of
+the intensity of attention, fixity of eye, deftness of touch,
+readiness of intelligence, exhaustion of vitality, and destruction of
+brain and nerve which enters into the daily newspaper from
+type-setters alone.
+
+Each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks, by sight and touch
+of which the compositor is guided in rapidly placing them right side
+up in the line. They are taken, one by one, between thumb and
+forefinger, while the mind not only spells out each word, but is
+always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead of the fingers, and
+each letter, syllable and word is set in its order in lines in the
+composing stick, each line being spaced out in the stick so as to
+exactly fit the column width, this process being repeated until the
+stick is full. Then the stickful is emptied upon a galley. Then, when
+the page or the paper is "up," as the printers phrase it, the galleys
+are collected, and the foreman makes up the pages, article by article,
+as they come to us in the printed paper--the preliminary processes of
+printing proofs from the galleys, reading them by the proof readers,
+who mark the errors, and making the corrections by the compositors
+(each one correcting his own work), having been quietly and swiftly
+going on all the while. The page is made up on a portable slab of
+iron, upon which it is sent to the stereotyping room. There wet
+stereotyping paper, several sheets in thickness, is laid over the
+page, and this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously beaten
+evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the soft paper is
+pressed down into all the interstices between the type; then this is
+covered with blankets and the whole is placed upon a steam chest,
+where it is subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes
+perfectly dry. Then, this dried and hardened paper, called a matrix,
+is placed in a circular mould, and melted stereotype metal is poured
+in and cooled, resulting in the circular plate, which is rapidly
+carried to the press room, clamped upon its cylinder, and when all the
+cylinders are filled, page by page in proper sequence, the pressman
+gives the signal, the burr and whirr begin, and men and scarcely less
+sentient machines enter upon their swift race for the early trains. As
+a matter of general interest it may be remarked that this whole
+process of stereotyping a page, from the time the type leaves the
+composing room until the plate is clamped upon the press, averages
+fifteen minutes, and that cases are upon record when the complex task
+has been accomplished in eleven minutes.
+
+The paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled upon wooden or iron
+cores. Some presses take paper the narrow way of the paper, rolls for
+which average between 600 and 700 pounds. Others work upon paper of
+double the width of two pages, that is, four pages wide, and then the
+rolls are sometimes as wide as six feet, and have an average weight of
+1,350 pounds. Each roll from which the New York _Tribune_ is printed
+contains an unbroken sheet 23,000 feet (4-1/3 miles) long. A few hours
+before the paper is to be printed, an iron shaft having journal ends
+is passed through the core, the roll is placed in a frame where it may
+revolve, the end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll
+is unwound at a speed of from 13 to 15 miles an hour, while a fan-like
+spray of water plays evenly across its width, so that the entire sheet
+is unrolled, dampened, for the better taking of the impression to be
+made upon it, and firmly rewound, all in twenty minutes. Each of these
+rolls will make about 7,600 copies of the _Tribune_.
+
+When all is ready, paper and stereotyped pages in place, and all
+adjustments carefully attended to, the almost thinking machine starts
+at the pressman's touch, and with well nigh incredible speed prints,
+places sheet within sheet, pastes the parts together, cuts, folds and
+counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and constancy beyond
+the power of human eye and hand.
+
+The printing press has held its own in the rapid advance of that
+wonderful evolution which, within the last half century, in every
+phase of thought and in every movement of material forces placed under
+the dominion of men, has almost made one of our years the equivalent
+of one of the old centuries. Within average recollection the single
+cylinder printing machine, run by hand or steam, and able under best
+conditions to print one side of a thousand sheets in one hour, was the
+marvel of mankind. In 1850, one such, that we started in an eastern
+Ohio town, drew such crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were
+obliged to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance which would
+allow the astonishing thing to work at all.
+
+To-day, in the United States alone, five millions of dollars are
+invested in the building of printing presses, many of which, by
+slightest violence to figure of speech, do think and speak.
+Inspiration was not wholly a thing of long-gone ages, for if ever men
+received into brain and worked out through hand the divine touch, then
+were Hoe, and Scott, and Campbell taught of God.
+
+Under existing conditions newspapers of any importance, in the smaller
+cities, use one and sometimes two presses, capable of producing from
+7,000 to 9,000 complete eight page papers each hour, each machine
+costing from $10,000 to $15,000. Papers of the second class in the
+large cities use treble or quadruple this press capacity, while the
+great papers, in the four or five leading cities, have machinery
+plants of from four to ten presses of greatest capacity, costing from
+$32,000 to $50,000 each, and able to produce papers of the different
+numbers of pages required, at a speed of from 24,000 to 90,000 four
+page sheets, or of from 24,000 to 48,000 eight, ten, or twelve page
+sheets per hour, each paper complete as you receive it at your
+breakfast table--printed, pasted, cut and folded, and the entire
+product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens, fifties,
+hundreds or thousands, as may be required for instantaneous delivery,
+while, as if to illustrate and emphasize the ever upward trend of
+public demand for the day's news, quick and inclusive, Hoe & Co. are
+now building machines capable of producing in all completeness 150,000
+four page papers each hour.
+
+All this tremendous combination of brain, nerve, muscle, material,
+machinery and capital depends for its movement and remuneration upon
+but two sources of income--circulation and advertisements--the unit
+measurements of which are infinitesimal--for the most part represented
+by wholesale prices; from one-half a cent to two cents per copy for
+the daily newspaper, and in like proportion for the weeklies and
+monthlies; and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line per
+thousand of circulation for advertising space. Verily, in a certain
+and large sense, the vast publishing interests rest upon drops of
+water and grains of sand. Under right conditions no kind of business
+or property is more valuable, and yet no basis of values is more
+intangible. Nothing in all trade or commerce is so difficult to
+establish or more environed by competitions, and yet, once
+established, almost nothing save interior dry rot can pull it down. It
+depends upon the judgment and favor of the million, yet instances are
+few where any external force has seriously and permanently impaired
+it.
+
+About two hundred years have gone since the publication of the first
+number of the first American newspaper. It was a monthly, called
+_Publick Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic_, first printed
+September 25, 1690, by Richard Pierce, and founded by Benjamin Harris.
+At that time public favor did seem to control newspaper interests, for
+that first paper aroused antagonism, and it was almost immediately
+suppressed by the authorities. Only one copy of it is now in
+existence, and that is in London. The first newspaper to live, in this
+country, was the Boston _News Letter_, first issued in 1704 and
+continued until 1776. New York's first newspaper, the New York
+_Gazette_, appeared October 16, 1725. At the outbreak of the
+revolution there were 37 newspapers, and in 1800 there were 200, of
+which several were dailies. In 1890 there were 17,760, of which there
+were 13,164 weeklies, 2,191 monthlies, 1,626 dailies, 280
+semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126 quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38
+bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies.
+
+The circulations belong largely to the weeklies, monthlies and
+dailies, the weeklies having 23,228,750, the monthlies 9,245,750, the
+dailies 6,653,250, leaving only 2,400,000 for all the others.
+
+The largest definitely ascertainable daily average circulation for one
+year, in this country, has been 222,745. Only one other daily paper in
+the world has had more--_Le Petit Journal_, in Paris, which really, as
+we understand it, is not a newspaper, but which regularly prints and
+sells for one sou more than 750,000 copies. The largest American
+weekly is the _Youth's Companion,_ Boston, 461,470. The largest
+monthly is the _Ladies' Home Journal_, Philadelphia, 542,000. The
+largest among the better known magazines is the _Century_, 200,000. Of
+the daily papers which directly interest us--those of the city of New
+York--the actual or approximate daily averages of the morning papers
+are given by "Dauchy's Newspaper Catalogue" for 1891, as follows:
+_Tribune_, daily, 80,000; Sunday, 85,000. _Times_, daily, 40,000;
+Sunday, 55,000. _Herald_, daily, 100,000; Sunday, 120,000. _Morning
+Journal_, 200,000. _Press_, daily, 85,000; Sunday, 45,000. _Sun_,
+daily, 90,000; Sunday, 120,000. _World_, daily, 182,000; Sunday,
+275,000. Of the afternoon papers, _Commercial Advertiser_, 15,000;
+_Evening Post_, 18,000; _Telegram_, 25,000; _Graphic_ (not the old,
+but a new one), 10,000; _Mail and Express_, 40,000; _News_, 173,000;
+_Evening Sun_, 50,000; _Evening World_, 168,000. The entire
+circulation of New York dailies, including with those named others of
+minor importance, and the German, French, Italian, Bohemian, Hebrew
+and Spanish daily newspapers, is 1,540,200 copies.
+
+Obviously, there is and must be ceaseless, incisive and merciless
+competition in securing and holding circulations, as well as in the
+outward statements made of individual circulations to those who
+purchase advertising space. In this, as in all other forms of
+enterprise, there are honest, clean-cut and business-like methods, and
+there are the methods of the time-server, the trickster and the liar.
+
+The vastly greater number of publications secure and hold their
+clientage by making the best possible goods, pushing them upon public
+patronage by aggressive and business-like means, and selling at the
+lowest price consistent with excellence of product and fairness alike
+to producer and consumer. But of the baser sort there are always
+enough to make rugged paths for those who walk uprightly, and to
+contribute to instability of values on the one hand, and on the other
+to flooding the country with publications which the home and the world
+would be better without. Every great city has more of the rightly made
+and rightly sold papers than of the other sort, and the business man,
+the working man, the professional man, the family, no matter of what
+taste, or political faith, or economic bias, or social status, or
+financial plenty or paucity, can have the daily visits of newspapers
+which are able, brilliant, comprehensive, clean and honest. But all
+the time, these men and families will have pressed upon their
+attention and patronage, by every device and artifice of the energetic
+and more or less unscrupulous publisher, other papers equally able and
+brilliant and comprehensive, but bringing also their burden of
+needless sensationalism and mendacity, undue expansion of all manner
+of scandal, amplification of every detail and kind of crime, and every
+phase of covert innuendo or open attack upon official doing and
+private character--the whole infernal mass procured, and stimulated
+and broadcast among the people by the "business end of it," with the
+one and only intent of securing and holding circulation.
+
+Take a representative and pertinent example. Eight years ago there
+were in New York ten or eleven standard newspapers, as ably and
+inclusively edited and as energetically and successfully conducted,
+business-wise, as they are now. Even at their worst they were decently
+mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and they throve by
+legitimate sale of the most and best news and the best possible
+elucidation and discussion thereof. The father could bring the paper
+of his choice to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral
+sense and self-respect might be outraged, or that the face of his wife
+might be crimsoned and the minds of his children befouled. But there
+came from out of the West new men and new forces, quick to see the
+larger opportunity opened in the very center of five millions of
+people, and almost in a night came the metamorphosis of the old World
+into the new. It was deftly given out that existing conditions were
+inadequate to the better deserts of the Knickerbocker, the Jersey-man,
+and the Yankee, and that a new purveyor of more highly seasoned news
+and a more doughty champion of their rights and interests was hither
+from the land of life and movement--at two cents per copy. There was a
+panic in New York newspaper counting rooms, and prices tumbled in two
+days from the three and four cents of fair profit to the two and three
+cents of bare cost or less. The new factors in demoralization cared
+nothing for competition in prices or legitimate goods, for they had
+other ideas of coddling the dear people. Ready to their purpose lay
+disintegrated Liberty, waiting for a rock upon which to plant her feet
+and raise her torch, and the new combination between the world, the
+flesh and the devil, waiting and ready for access to the pockets of
+the public, was only too ready to set up Liberty and itself at one
+stroke, if only the joint operation could be done without expense to
+itself. The people said, "What wonderful enterprise!" "What a generous
+spirit!" The combination, with tongue in cheek and finger laid
+alongside nose, said to itself as it saw its circulation spring in one
+bound from five figures into six, "Verily we've got there! for these
+on the Hudson are greater gudgeons than are they on the Mississippi."
+From then until now, with an outward semblance and constant pretense
+of serving the people; with blare of trumpet and rattle of drum; with
+finding Stanley, who never had been lost; with scurrying peripatetic
+petticoats around the globe; with all manner of unprofessional and
+illegitimate devices; with so-called "contests" and with all manner of
+"schemes" without limit in number, kind, or degree; with every
+cunningly devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity--from then
+until now that combination has been struggling to hold and has held an
+audience of the undiscriminating and the unthinking. But, further,
+and worse, a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation has led
+other papers to follow somewhat at a distance in this demoralizing
+race. None of them has gone to such lengths, but the tendency to
+literary, mental and moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown
+form of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods of
+every New York daily save only the _Tribune_, _Times_, _Commercial
+Advertiser_, and _Evening Post,_ while the converse side of securing
+business clientage is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it
+were not pathetic, by that abnormal and fantastic cross between news
+and pietetics which mails and expresses itself to the truly good.
+These are forms of competition which the business end of legitimately
+conducted newspapers is compelled to meet. In a certain way these
+methods do succeed, but how, and how long and how much shall they
+succeed except by unsettling the mental and moral poise of the people,
+and by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere whose
+thoughts take less account of means than of ends? Which shall we hold
+in higher esteem and in our business patronage--Manton Marble and
+Hurlbut, gentlemen, scholarly, wise leaders, conscientious teachers,
+with barely living financial income; or their successors, parvenus,
+superficial, meretricious, false guides, time-serving leaders, a
+thousand dollars a day of clear profit, housed in the tower of Babel?
+
+Considered in the large, the circulation side of the American
+newspaper has many indefensible aspects. As "nothing succeeds like
+success," or the appearance of success, the prestige of not a few
+newspapers is ministered unto by rotund and deceptive representations
+of circulation. Then, as few can live, much less profit, on their
+circulations alone, it becomes greatly important to make the
+advertiser see circulations through the large end of the telescope,
+and so the fine art of telling truth without lying is a live and
+perennial study in many counting rooms. Discussing the circulation
+question not long ago with the head of a leading religious paper, he
+told me that the number of copies he printed was a thing that he never
+stated definitely, because the publishers of the other religious
+newspapers lied so about their circulations that he would do himself
+injustice if he were to tell the truth about his own. The secular
+papers should set an example for their religious brethren, but they do
+not, for from many of them there is lying--systematic, persistent, and
+more or less colossal. Not long ago, within a few days of each other,
+three men who were simultaneously employed on a certain paper told me
+their _actual_ circulation, _confidentially_, too. One of them put it
+at 85,000, the second at 110,000, and the third at 130,000, and each
+of them lied, for their lying was so diversified and entertaining that
+I felt a real interest in securing the truth, and so I took some
+trouble to ask the pressman about it. He told me, _very_
+confidentially, that it was 120,000--and he lied.
+
+By this time my interest was so heightened that I told my personal
+friend, the publisher, about the inartistic and incoherent mendacity
+of his subordinates, whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation
+book, which clearly, and I have no doubt truthfully, exhibited an
+average of 88,000. The wicked partner is nearly always ready to show
+the actual record of the counting machines on the presses, and
+"figures never lie" but the truth-telling machines which record actual
+work of the impression cylinders make no mention of damaged copies
+thrown aside, of sample copies, files, exchanges, copies kept against
+possible future need, copies unsold, copies nominally sold but sooner
+or later returned and finally sold to the junk shop, and all that sort
+of thing. One prints a large extra issue on a certain day for some
+business corporation which has its own purpose to serve by publication
+of an article in its own interest, whereby many thousands of copies
+are added to that day's normal output, and he makes the exceptional
+number for that day serve as the exponent of his circulation until
+good fortune brings him a similar and possibly larger order, and his
+circulation is reported as "still increasing." Another struck a
+"high-water mark" of "190,500" the day after Mr. Cleveland was
+elected, and that has been the implied measure of circulation for the
+last six years. Another, during a heated political campaign, or a
+great financial crisis, or some other dominant factor in public
+interest, makes a large and genuine temporary increase, but the
+highest mark gained does enforced duty in the eyes of the marines
+until another flood tide sweeps him to a greater transient height.
+These are types of the competitions of the circulation liar. At this
+very hour there are four daily newspapers each of which has the
+largest circulation in the United States. Of the nearly 18,000
+American publications only 103 furnish detailed, open, and entirely
+trustworthy statements of circulation.
+
+As to the general public this is no great matter, but to the vast
+number of business men who buy the real or fancied publicity afforded
+by newspaper advertising it is of exceeding importance. That the large
+buyers of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled is
+because they understand the circulation extravaganza and buy space
+according to their understanding. The time is coming, and it should
+come soon, when newspaper circulations shall be open to the same
+inspection and publicity as is now the case with banks and insurance
+companies, and when the circulation liar and swindler shall be
+amenable to the same law and liable to the same penalty as stands
+against and is visited upon any other perjurer and thief.
+
+_(To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREVENT HAY FEVER.
+
+By ALEXANDER RIXA, M.D., New York.
+
+
+In the May (1890) number of the _Therapeutic Gazette_ I furnished some
+contribution to the "Treatment of Hay Fever." I reported therein a
+favorable result in the treatment of this mysterious disease in the
+experience of my last year's cases.
+
+My experience of this year is far more gratifying, and worthy of
+receiving a wide publicity.
+
+I treated six cases in all, four of which have been habitual for years
+to hay fever proper without complications, while the other two used to
+have the disease aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh.
+I succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease in every
+individual case. The treatment I applied was very simple, and
+consisted of the following:
+
+From the fact that I had known all my patients from previous years, I
+ordered them to my office two weeks before the usual onset of the
+disease. I advised them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of
+chloride of sodium four times a day--morning, noon, evening, and on
+retiring; and, a few minutes after the cleansing of the parts, had the
+nares thoroughly sprayed with peroxide of hydrogen and c.p. glycerin,
+half and half. Those subject to a conjunctivitis I prescribed a two
+per cent. solution of boric acid as a wash. At this period no internal
+medication was given, but three days previous to the usual onset of
+the disease I prescribed phenacetin and salol, five grains of each
+three times a day.
+
+On the respective expected days, to the great surprise of all the
+members concerned successively, who have been in the habit of getting
+the disease almost invariably at a certain date, no hay fever symptoms
+appeared, though everyone had been the victim of the disease for a
+great number of years, varying from five to nineteen years' standing.
+
+It is self-understood that this treatment was kept up all through the
+season, and, as no symptoms developed, the applications were reduced,
+toward the termination, to twice and once a day. The internal
+medication, however, was stopped after the expiration of the first
+week, and all the patients could attend to their various respective
+vocations, something they never have been able to do in previous
+years.
+
+In two cases, though no nasal symptoms developed, about two weeks
+after the calculated onset, slight symptoms of asthma made their
+appearance. However, I could easily suppress them at this time with
+the aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer, a very ingenious little
+apparatus, of which I gave a thorough description in my last year's
+article. I used the ozone inhalations every four hours, in connection
+with the internal administration of the following prescription:
+
+      Rx Iodide of ammonia, 8;
+         Fl. ex. quebracho, 30;
+         Fl. ex. grindelia robusta, 15;
+         Tr. lobelia, 12;
+         Tr. belladonna, 8;
+         Syr. pruni, virg., q.s., ad 120.
+
+  Sig.--Teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four hours.
+
+However, toward the end of the fourth week, especially in one case--a
+stout, heavy-set gentleman--very grave asthmatic symptoms developed,
+which compelled me to apply Chapman's spinal ice bag, as well as
+resort to the internal administration of large doses of codeine during
+the paroxysm, with the most beneficial result.
+
+I gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two cases. I find
+them to act very soothingly in the simple asthma, facilitating
+respiration after a few minutes; but during the paroxysmal stage they
+cannot be utilized, for the reason that respiration is short and
+rapid, and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the gas to
+be inhaled. Consequently, it is either of little use as a remedy; or,
+if too much is taken, a disagreeable headache will be the consequence.
+
+During the catarrhal stage, which, however, was very mild compared
+with last year, I derived great benefit from the administration of
+codeine, in combination with terpine hydrate, in the pill form. The
+codeine has the advantage over all other opium preparations that it
+does not affect the digestive organs, and still acts in a soothing
+manner. While during last year's sickness my patients lost from ten to
+twenty pounds of their bodily weight, this year but one lost eight
+pounds and the other five pounds.
+
+As the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped in
+obscurity, we may fairly conclude, by the success of my treatment, if
+it should meet with the confirmation of the profession, that the much
+pretended sensitive area, situated, according to Dr. Sajous, "at the
+posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and the corresponding
+portion of the septum," or, according to Dr. John Mackenzie, who
+locates this area "at the anterior extremity of the inferior
+turbinated bone," need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by
+cautery, in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever proper.
+
+I examined my patients twice a week, and the closest rhinoscopical
+exploration would not reveal the slightest pathological change in the
+mucous membrane of the nares.
+
+Now, what is the etiological factor of the disease? Is it a specific
+germ conveyed by the air to the parts and--_locus minoris
+resistencia_--deposited at the pretended area, or is the germinal
+matter present in the nasal mucous membrane with certain persons, and
+requires only at a certain time and under certain conditions
+physiological stimulation to manifest periodical pathological changes,
+which give rise to the train of symptoms called hay fever? Dropping
+all hypothetical reasoning, I think some outside vegetable germ is
+causing the disease in those predisposed, and peroxide of hydrogen
+acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles, _i.e._, drives them out
+when and wherever it finds them. I hope the profession will give this
+new measure a thorough trial and report their results.--_Therapeutic
+Gazette._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SOURCE OF CHINESE GINGER.
+
+
+In the Kew _Bulletin_ for January an interesting account is given of
+the identification of the plant yielding the rhizome employed to make
+the well-known Chinese preserved ginger. As long ago as 1878 Dr. E.
+Percival Wright, of Trinity College, Dublin, called the attention of
+Mr. Thiselton Dyer to the fact that the preserved ginger has very much
+larger rhizomes than _Zingiber officinale_, and that it was quite
+improbable that it was the product of that plant. The difficulty in
+identifying the plant arose from the fact that, like many others
+cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely flowers. The first
+flowering plant was sent to Kew from Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the
+superintendent of the Hope Garden there. During the past year the
+plant has flowered both at Dominica in the West Indies and in the
+Botanic Garden at Hong-Kong. Mr. C. Ford, the director of the Botanic
+Garden at Hong-Kong, has identified the plant as _Alpinia Galanga_,
+the source of the greater or Java galangal root of commerce. Mr.
+Watson, of Kew, appears to have been the first to suggest that the
+Chinese ginger plant is probably a species of _Alpinia_, and possibly
+identical with the Siam ginger plant, which was described by Sir J.
+Hooker in the _Botanical Magazine_ (tab. 6,946) in 1887 as a new
+species under the name of _Alpinia zingiberina_. Mr. J.G. Baker, in
+working up the Scitamineae for the "Flora of British India," arrived at
+the conclusion that it is not distinct from the _Alpinia Galanga_,
+Willd. The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical, and both
+are the produce of _Alpinia Galanga_, Willd.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.
+
+
+We illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor constructed by
+Mr. A.F. Smulders, Utrecht, Holland, for removing dredged material out
+of barges at the Baltic Sea Canal Works. We give a perspective view
+showing the apparatus at work, and on a page plate are given plans,
+longitudinal and cross sections, with details which are from
+_Engineering_. The dredged material is raised out of the launches or
+barges by means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of 10.5
+meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water line, from whence it is pushed
+to the place of deposition by a heavy stream of water supplied by
+centrifugal pumps.
+
+[Illustration: FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR FOR THE BALTIC
+SEA CANAL.]
+
+The necessary machinery and superstructure are supported on two
+vessels connected, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, with cross girders, a
+sufficient width being left between each vessel to form a well large
+enough for a barge to float into, and for the working of the bucket
+ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges. The girders
+are braced together and carry the framing for the bucket chains,
+gears, etc.
+
+The port vessel is provided with a compound engine of 150 indicated
+horse power, with injection condenser actuating two powerful
+centrifugal pumps, raising water which enters by a series of holes
+into the bottom of the shoots underneath the dredged material,
+carrying the material to the conduit (as indicated on Fig. 4 and in
+detail on Figs. 6 and 7).
+
+A steel boiler of 80 square meters (860 square feet) heating surface,
+and 6 atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam to the
+engine. Forward on the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical
+two-cylinder high pressure engine of 30 indicated horse power, which
+helps to bring the barge to the desired position between the parallel
+vessels. A horizontal two-cylinder engine of the same power, fitted
+with reversing gear, placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder,
+raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition of a strongly
+framed capstan, as shown on Fig. 5. The gearing throughout is of
+friction pulleys and worm and wormwheel. It is driven by belts.
+
+In the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of 100 indicated
+horse power, with injection condenser, working the bucket chain by
+means of belts and wheel gearing, as shown on Fig. 2. A marine boiler
+of 46 square meters (495 square feet) heating surface and 6
+atmospheres (90 lb.) working pressure, supplies steam. In this vessel,
+it may be added, there is a cabin for the crew.
+
+The dimensions of the vessels are as follows; Extreme length, 25
+meters (82 ft.); breadth, 4.5 meters (14 ft. 9 in.); depth (moulded),
+2.7 meters (6 ft. 63/4 in.); average draught of water, 1.4 meters (4 ft.
+7 in.); space between the ships, 6.55 meters (21 ft. 6 in.) The iron
+structure connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form
+stanchions on both ships, connected at the top by two strong box
+girders with tie pieces supporting the main framing. This main
+framing, also of the "box girder" form, is strengthened with angle
+irons and braced together at the tops by a platform supporting the
+gearing of the bucket chains, as shown on Fig. 5. The buckets have a
+capacity of 160 liters (5.65 cubic feet) and the speed in travel is at
+the rate of 25 to 30 buckets per minute, so that with both ladders
+working, 50 to 60 buckets are discharged per minute. The top tumbler
+shaft is placed at a height of 13 meters (42 ft. 8 in.) above the
+water line (Fig. 4), and the dredge conduit has a length of 50 meters
+(164 ft.), Fig. 1. The shooting is done at a height of 8.5 meters (27
+ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the shoot catches the dredged
+products at a height of 10.5 meters (34 ft. 5 in.) above the water
+line, the sliding gradient being 4 to 100. The dredge conduit is
+carried by timberwork resting on two of the upright box form
+stanchions.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR AND SPOIL DISTRIBUTOR.]
+
+All cables are of galvanized steel and provided with open twin
+buckles. The main parts of the apparatus are of steel, and all pieces
+subject to wear and tear are fitted with bushes so formed that they
+can be easily replaced.
+
+The quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus amounts to
+350 cubic meters (12,360 square feet) per hour. Four plants of similar
+construction have been built for the new Baltic Sea Canal, besides a
+fixed elevator of the same power and disposition, with the exception
+that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at a height of 16.1 meters
+(51 ft. 10 in.) above the water line, and the dredge conduit placed at
+a distance of 13 meters (43 ft.) from it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.
+
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED COLD IRON SAW.]
+
+The engraving given herewith shows a general view of the "Demon" cold
+saw, designed for cutting iron, mild steel, or other metals of fairly
+large sections, that is, up square or round, and any rectangular
+section up to 8 in. by 4 in. The maker, Mr. R.G. Fiege, of London,
+claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw, at once
+powerful, simple and effective. It is always in readiness for work,
+can be worked by inexperienced workmen. The bed plate has T slots, to
+receive a parallel vise, which can be fixed at any angle for angular
+cutting. The articulated lever carries a saw of 10 in. or 12 in.
+diameter, on the spindle of which a bronze pinion is fixed, gearing
+with the worm shown. The latter derives motion from a pair of bevel
+wheels, which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in the
+engraving. The lever and the saw connected with it can be raised and
+held up by a pawl while the work is being fixed. In small work the
+weight of the lever itself is found sufficient to feed the saw, but in
+heavier work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the end of
+the lever. The machine is fitted with fast and loose pulleys, strap
+fork and bar. We are informed that one of these machines is capable of
+making 400 cuts through bars of Bessemer steel 4 in. diameter, each
+cutting occupying six minutes on an average, without changing the
+saw.--_Industries_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A RAILWAY THROUGH THE ANDES.
+
+
+The railway system of the Argentine Republic is separated from the
+Chilian system by the chain of the Andes. The English contractors,
+Messrs. Clark & Co., have undertaken to connect them by a line which
+starts from Mendoza, the terminus of the Argentine system, and ends at
+Santa Rosa in Chili, with a total length of 144 miles. The distance
+from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso will thus be reduced to 816 miles. The
+Argentine lines are of 5.4 foot gauge, and those of Chili of 4.6 foot.
+
+The line in course of construction traverses an extremely hilly
+region. The starting and terminal points are at the levels of 2,338
+feet (Mendoza) and 2,706 feet (Santa Rosa) above the sea; the lowest
+neck of the chain is at the level of 11,287 feet.
+
+Study having shown that a direction line without tunnels, and even
+with the steepest gradients for traction by adhesion, would lead to a
+considerable lengthening of the line, and would expose it to
+avalanches and to obstructions by snow, there was adopted upon a
+certain length a rack track of the Abt system, with gradients of 8 per
+cent., and the neck is traversed by a tunnel 3 miles in length and
+1,968 feet beneath the surface. The number and length of the tunnels
+upon the two declivities, moreover, are considerable. They are all
+provided with rack tracks. The first 80 miles, starting from Mendoza,
+are exploited by adhesion, with maximum gradients of 21/2 per cent. Upon
+the remaining 64 miles, traction can be effected either by adhesion or
+racks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--REGION TRAVERSED BY THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE
+ANDES.]
+
+The track is of 3.28 foot gauge, and this will necessitate
+trans-shipments upon the two systems. The rails weigh 19 pounds to the
+running foot in the parts where the exploitation can be effected
+either through adhesion or racks, and 17 pounds in those in which
+adhesion alone will be employed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DIRECTION LINE OF THE RAILWAY THROUGH THE
+ANDES.]
+
+The special locomotives for use on the rack sections will weigh 45
+tons in service and will haul 70 ton trains over gradients of 8
+percent. Those that are to be employed upon the parts where traction
+will be by adhesion will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels,
+three of them coupled. The weight distributed over these latter will
+be 28 tons. These engines will haul 140 ton trains over gradients of 2
+per cent.
+
+The earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the length, and the
+track has been laid for a length of 58 miles from Mendoza. It is hoped
+that it will be possible to open the line to traffic as far as to the
+summit tunnels in 1891, and to finish the tunnels in 1893. These
+tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock. To this effect,
+it is intended to use drills actuated by electricity through dynamos
+driven by waterfalls. The Ferroux system seems preferable to the
+Brandt and other hydraulic systems, seeing the danger of the water
+being frozen in the conduits placed outside of the tunnels.--_Le Genie
+Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE EMPRESS OF INDIA.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH PACIFIC LINE EMPRESS OF INDIA.]
+
+The Empress of India is intended to be the pioneer of three fast mail
+steamers, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company for service in
+connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway, between Vancouver and
+the ports of China and Japan, thus forming the last link in the new
+route to the East through British territory. Her sister ships, the
+Empress of China and Empress of Japan, are to be ready in April next.
+These three ships all fulfill the requirements of the Board of Trade
+and of the Admiralty and Lloyd's, and are classed as 100 A1. They will
+also be placed on the list of British armed cruisers for service as
+commerce protectors in time of war. For this service each vessel is to
+be thoroughly fitted. There are two platforms forward and two aft, for
+mounting 7 in. Armstrong guns. These weapons, in the case of the
+Empress of India, are already awaiting the vessel at Vancouver. The
+Empress of India is painted white all over, has three pole masts to
+carry fore and aft sails. She has two buff-colored funnels and a
+clipper stern, and in external build much resembles the City of Rome.
+Her length over all is 485 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth, 36 feet; and
+gross tonnage, 5,920 tons. The hull, of steel, is divided into fifteen
+compartments by bulkheads, and has a cellular double bottom 4 feet in
+depth and 7 feet below the engine room. There are four complete decks.
+The ship is designed to carry 200 saloon passengers, 60 second cabin,
+and 500 steerage--these last chiefly Chinese coolies, for whose
+special delectation an "opium room" has been provided on
+board.--_Daily Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHICAGO AS A SEAPORT.
+
+
+The prairie land in the southwest corner of Lake Michigan, which,
+seventy years ago, was half morass from the overflowing of the
+sluggish creek, whose waters, during flood, spread over the low-lying,
+level plain, or were supplemented in the dry season by the inflow from
+the lake, showed no sign of any future development and prosperity. The
+few streets of wooden houses that had been built by their handful of
+isolated inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect and
+desertion than to increase, and ultimately to be swept away by fire,
+to make room for the extravagant and gigantic buildings that to-day
+characterize American civilization and commercial prosperity. Nearly
+1,000 miles from the Atlantic, a greater distance from the Gulf of
+Mexico, and 2,000 miles from the Pacific, no wilder dream could have
+been imagined fifty years ago than that Chicago should become a
+seaport, the volume of whose business should be second only to that of
+New York; that forty miles of wharves and docks lining the branches of
+the river should be insufficient for the wants of her commerce, and
+that none of the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply
+the demand.
+
+Yet this is the situation to-day, the difficulties of which must
+increase many fold as years pass and business grows, unless some
+changes are made by which increased accommodation can be obtained. The
+nature of these changes has long engrossed the attention of the
+municipality and their engineers, and necessity is forcing them from
+discussion to action. As such action is likely to be taken soon, the
+subject is of sufficient interest to the English reader to devote some
+space to its consideration.
+
+The most important problem, however, which the works to be
+undertaken--and which must of necessity be soon commenced--will have
+to solve, is not one of wharf accommodation or of increased facilities
+of commerce. It is the better disposal of the sewage of the city, the
+system in use at present being inadequate, and growing more and more
+imperfect as the city and its population increase. During the early
+days of Chicago, and indeed long after, the sewage question was
+treated with primitive simplicity, and with a complete disregard of
+sanitary laws.
+
+The river and the lake in front of the city were close at hand and
+convenient to receive all the discharge from the drains that flowed
+into them. But this condition of things had to come to an end, for the
+lake supplied the population with water, and it became too
+contaminated for use. To obtain even this temporary relief involved
+much of the ground level of the city being raised to a height of 14
+ft. above low water, a great undertaking carried out a number of years
+ago. To obtain an adequate supply of pure water, Mr. E.S. Chesborough,
+the city engineer, adopted the ingenious plan of driving a long tunnel
+beneath the bed of the lake, connected at the outer end to an inlet
+tower built in the water, and on shore to pumping engines. This plan
+proved so successful that it is now being repeated on a larger scale,
+and with a much longer tunnel, to meet the increased demands of the
+large population.
+
+But to improve the sanitary condition of the city has been a much more
+difficult undertaking, as may be gathered from the following extract
+from an official report: "The present sanitary condition calls loudly
+for relief. The pollution of the Desplaines and the Illinois Rivers
+extends 81 miles, as far as the mouth of the Fox (see plan, Fig. 1) in
+summer low water, and occasionally to Peoria (158 miles) in winter.
+Outside of the direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable.
+The spewing of the harbor contents into the lake, the sewers
+constantly discharging therein, clouds the source of water supply (the
+lake) with contamination. Relief to Chicago and equity to her
+neighbors is a necessity of the early future." To make this quotation
+clear it is necessary to explain the actual condition of the Chicago
+sewage question.
+
+Long before the present metropolis had arrived at the title and
+dignity of a city, the advantage to be derived from a waterway between
+Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, and thence to the Mississippi,
+was well understood. The scheme was, in fact, considered of sufficient
+importance to call for legislation as early as 1822, in which year an
+act was passed authorizing the construction of a canal having this
+object. It was not commenced, however, till 1836, and was opened to
+navigation in the spring of 1848. This canal extended from Chicago to
+La Salle, a distance of 971/4 miles, and it had a fall of 146 ft. to low
+water in the Illinois River (see Fig. 1). It was only a small affair,
+6 ft. deep, and 60 ft. wide on the surface; the locks were 110 ft.
+long and 18 ft. wide. The summit level, which was only 8 ft. above the
+lake, was 21 miles in length. This limited waterway remained in use
+for a number of years, until, in fact, the growth of Chicago rendered
+it impossible to allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake. In
+1865 the State of Illinois sanctioned widening and lowering the canal
+so that it should flow by gravity from Lake Michigan. The enlargement
+was completed in 1871, by the city of Chicago, and the sewage was then
+discharged toward the Illinois River. But the flow was insufficient,
+and in 1881 the State called on the city to supplement the flow by
+pumping water into the canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+In 1884, engines delivering 60,000 gallons a minute were set to work
+and remedied the evil for a time, so far as the city of Chicago was
+concerned, but the large discharge of sewage through the sluggish
+current of the canal and into the Illinois River proved a serious and
+ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the adjoining
+districts. To enlarge the existing canal, increase the volume and
+speed of its discharge, and to alter the levels, so that there shall
+be a relatively rapid stream flowing at all times from Lake Michigan,
+appears the only practical means of affording relief to the city, and
+immunity to other towns and villages lying along the route of the
+stream.
+
+The physical nature of the country is well suited for carrying out
+such a project on a scale far larger than that required for sewage
+purposes, and works thus carried out would, to a small extent, restore
+the old water _regime_ in this part of the continent. Before the vast
+surface changes produced during the last glacial period, three of the
+great lakes--Michigan, Huron and Superior--discharged their waters
+southward into the Gulf of Mexico by a broad river. The accumulation
+of glacial debris changed all this; the southern outlet was cut off,
+and a new one to the north was opened near where Detroit stands,
+making a channel to Lake Erie, which then became the outlet for the
+whole chain by way of Niagara. A very slight change in levels would
+serve to restore the present _regime_. Around Lake Michigan the land
+has been slightly raised, the summit above mean water level being only
+about 8 ft. Thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is again
+reached at a point near Lockport (see Fig. 2); the fall then becomes
+more marked. At Lake Joliet, 10 miles further, the fall is 77 ft.; and
+at La Salle, 100 miles from Chicago, the total fall reaches 146 feet.
+At La Salle the Illinois River is met, and this stream, after a course
+of 225 miles, enters the Missouri. In the whole distance the Illinois
+River has a fall of 29 ft. "It has a sluggish current; an oozy bed and
+bars, formed chiefly by tributaries, with natural depths of 2 ft. to 4
+ft.; banks half way to high waters, and low bottoms, one to six miles
+wide, bounded by terraces, overflowed during high water from 4 ft. to
+12 ft. deep, and intersected in dry seasons by lake, bayou, lagoon,
+and marsh, the wreck of a mighty past."
+
+The rectification of the Illinois and the construction of a large
+canal from La Salle to Lake Michigan are, therefore, all that is
+necessary to open a waterway to the Gulf of Mexico, and to make
+Chicago doubly a port; on the one hand, for the enormous lake traffic
+now existing; on the other, for the trade that would be created in
+both directions, northward to Lake Michigan, and southward to the
+Gulf.
+
+As a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied the attention
+of the United States government. A bill in 1882 authorized surveys for
+"a canal from a point on the Illinois River, at or near the town of
+Hennepin, by the most practical route to the Mississippi River ... and
+a survey of the Illinois and Michigan Canal connecting the Illinois
+River with Chicago, and estimates from its enlargements." This scheme
+only contemplated navigation for boats up to 600 tons. In 1885 the
+Citizens' Association, of Chicago caused a report to be made for an
+extended plan. The name of Mr. L.E. Cooly, at that time municipal
+sanitary engineer, was closely associated with this report, as it is
+at the present time for the agitation for carrying out the works. This
+report recommended that "an ample channel be created from Chicago to
+the Illinois River, sufficient to carry away in a diluted state the
+sewage of a large population. That this channel may be enlarged by the
+State or national government to any requirement of navigation or water
+supply for the whole river, creating incidentally a great water power
+in the Desplaines valley." Following this report and that of a
+Drainage and Water Supply Commission, a bill was introduced into
+Congress supporting the recommendations that had been made, and
+providing the financial machinery for carrying it into execution.
+Since that date much discussion has taken place, and some little
+action; meanwhile the sanitary requirements of the city are growing
+more urgent, and the pressure created from this cause will enforce
+some decision before long. Whether the new waterway is to be
+practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains yet to be seen, but
+it is tolerably certain that its dimensions and volume of water must
+approximate to the latter, if the large populations of other towns are
+to be satisfied. In fact the actual necessities are so great as
+regards sectional area of canal and flow of water--at least 600,000
+ft. a minute--that comparatively small extra outlay would be needed
+to complete the ship canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+The attention of engineers in Chicago, as well as of the United States
+government, is consequently closely directed at the present time to
+such a solution of the problem as shall secure to Chicago such a
+waterway as will dispose of the sewage question for very many years to
+come; that shall relieve the inhabitants on the line of the canal from
+all nuisances arising from the sewage disposal, and shall provide a
+navigable channel for vessels of deep draught. The maps, Figs. 1 and
+2, give an idea of the most favored scheme--that of Mr. Cooley.
+
+As will be seen, the canal commencing near the mouth of the Chicago
+River passes through a cut in the low ridge forming the summit level;
+then it runs to Lake Joliet, and through the valleys of the Desplaines
+and Illinois Rivers, to the Mississippi at Grafton, a distance of 325
+miles. The elevations and distances of the principal points are as
+follows:
+
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+                              |            |           |           |
+                              |            | Low Water |           |
+                              | Miles from |Level below| High Water|
+                              |     Lake   | Chicago   | above Low |
+                              |  Michigan. |  Datum.   |   Water.  |
+                              |            |           |           |
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+                              |            |           |           |
+                              |            |    ft.    |    ft.    |
+Lake Michigan                 |            |           |    4.7    |
+Lake Joliet                   |     40     |    77     |   5 to 6  |
+Kankakee River                |    51.30   |    93.70  |  18 to 20 |
+Morris                        |     61     |   100.3   |    21     |
+Marseilles                    |     77     |   102.8   |  4 to 5   |
+Ottawa                        |    84.5    |   132.1   |    26     |
+La Salle                      |   100.3    |   146.6   |    28     |
+Hennepin                      |   115.8    |   148.7   |    25     |
+Peoria                        |   161.4    |   151.3   |    21     |
+Mouth of the Illinois         |    325     |   172.4   |    20     |
+                              |            |           |           |
+------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+The project in contemplation provides that the depth of the canal as
+far as Lake Joliet (which is about six miles long) shall be not less
+than 22 ft., and on to La Salle not less than 14 ft. at first, with
+facilities to increase it to 22 ft. Beyond La Salle to the mouth of
+the Illinois, dredging and flushing by the large volume of water
+pouring in from Lake Michigan would make and maintain ultimately a
+similar depth.
+
+As it appears recognized that the sewage channel of Chicago must be 15
+ft. deep, and as provision is now being made all over the great lake
+system for vessels drawing 20 ft. of water, a comparatively small
+additional outlay would provide for a channel available for the
+largest lake vessels. It is claimed that by the co-operation of the
+Chicago municipality and the general government--the latter to advance
+a sum of not less than $50,000,000--a ship (and sanitary) canal 22 ft.
+deep could be made from the lake to Joliet, extended thence to Utica,
+20 ft. deep, and from there to the Mississippi, 14 ft. deep.
+
+That such a work would vastly enhance the commerce, not only of
+Chicago, but of the whole section of the country through which the
+canal would pass, admits of but little doubt, and probably the outlay
+would be justified by results similar to those achieved with other
+great canal works and rectified rivers in the United States.
+
+The following figures, showing the tonnage carried in 1888-89, give
+some idea of the volumes of water-borne traffic in America:
+
+                                    Tons.
+   Detroit River                19,099,060
+   Erie Canal                    5,370,369
+   Sault Ste. Marie              7,516,022
+   Welland Canal                   828,271
+   St. Lawrence Canal            1,500,096
+   Mississippi to New Orleans    3,177,000
+        "      below St. Louis     845,000
+   Ohio                          2,236,917
+   Chicago Canal and lake       11,029,575
+
+Except on the Mississippi, it may be reckoned that navigation is
+closed by ice during five months a year. It may be mentioned, by way
+of comparison, that the traffic on the Suez Canal during the year
+1888-89 was 6,640,834 tons.
+
+One very interesting point in connection with this work is the effect
+that the diversion of so large a body of water from the lakes will
+have upon their _regime_. At least 10,000 cubic feet a second would be
+taken from Lake Michigan and find its way into the Mississippi; this
+is approximately 41/2 per cent. of the total amount that now passes
+through the St. Clair River and thence over Niagara.
+
+The following table gives some particulars of the great lakes and the
+discharge from them:
+
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-----------------------
+               |          |       |        |Cubic Feet per Second.
+               |Elevation |Area of| Area of+-------+-------+-------
+               |  above   | Basin,|  Lake, |       |       |
+    Lake.      |Mean Tide.| Square|  Square| Rain- |Evapo- | Dis-
+               |  Feet.   | Miles.|  Miles.| fall. |ration.|charge.
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+Superior       |  601.78  | 90,505| 38,875 |187,386| 34,495| 80,870
+Huron and Mich.|  581.28  |121,941| 50,400 |262,964| 66,754|216,435
+Erie           |  572.86  | 40,298| 10,000 | 96,654| 13,870|235,578
+Ontario        |  246.61  | 31,558|  7,220 | 75,692| 10,568|272,095
+               |          |       |        |       |       |
+---------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The average variation in level of the lakes is from 18 in. to 24 in.
+during the year, and the range in evaporation from year to year is
+also very considerable; thus the evaporation per second on Huron and
+Michigan, as given in the table above, is nearly 67,000 ft., but the
+figures for another year show nearly 89,000 ft. per second, which
+would represent a difference of 61/2 in. in water level. As a discharge
+of 10,000 cubic feet a second into the new canal would lower the level
+of these two lakes by 2.87 in. in a year, it follows that the
+difference between a year of maximum and one of minimum evaporation is
+more than twice as great as would be required for the canal, and even
+under the most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from the whole
+chain of lakes would not lower them an inch.
+
+When the variations in level due to different causes--rain, wind, and
+evaporation being the chief--are taken into consideration, the effect
+of 10,000 cubic feet a second abstracted would probably not be
+noticeable. That this would be so is the opinion, after careful
+investigation, of many eminent American engineers. On the other hand
+there is a similar unanimity of opinion as to the advantages that
+would be obtained in the condition of the Mississippi by adding to it
+a tributary of such importance as the proposed canal.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+N.F. BURNHAM AND HIS LIFE WORK.
+
+By W.H. BURNHAM.
+
+
+The inventor and patentee of all water wheels known as the Burham
+turbine died from Bright's disease of the kidneys at his home, York,
+Pa., Dec. 22, 1890, aged 68 years 9 months and 9 days. He was born in
+the city of New York, March 13, 1822, and was of English-Irish and
+French descent. His father was a millwright and with him worked at the
+trade in Orange county, N.Y., until he was 16 years old. He then
+commenced learning the watchmakers' business, which he was obliged to
+relinquish, after three years, on account of his health. He then went
+to Laurel, Md., in 1844, and engaged with Patuxent & Co. as mercantile
+clerk and bookkeeper. In 1856 he commenced the manufacture of the
+French turbine water wheel. In 1879 he sold out his Laurel interests,
+went to New York and commenced manufacturing his own patents. On May
+22, 1883, he founded the Drovers' and Mechanics' National Bank of
+York, and was elected its first president, which position he held at
+the time of his death. In 1881, with others, he built the York opera
+house, at a cost of $40,000. He was a Knight Templar, and past master
+of the I.O.O.F., and past sachem of Red Men.
+
+[Illustration: N.F. BURNHAM.]
+
+He was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living, having been
+actually engaged in the manufacture of turbines since 1856. He first
+made and sold the French Jonval turbine, which was then the best
+turbine made, but being complicated in construction, it soon wore out
+and leaked. From the experience he had from this wheel he invented and
+patented Feb. 22, 1859, his improved Jonval turbine, which was very
+simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage of power than the
+French Jonval turbines. Hundreds of these improved wheels, which were
+put in operation between the years 1859 and 1868, are still in use.
+(We show no cut of this wheel, but it had four chutes instead of six,
+as shown in March 24, 1863, patent.)
+
+The first wheel (72 inch) made after the patent was granted was sold
+to Brightwell & Davis, Farmville, Va., and put into their flour mill
+under six feet head. In 1870, Brightwell & Davis sold their mill to
+Scott & Davis. Afterward G.W. Davis owned and operated the mill and
+put in one 1858 patent "New Turbine." In 1889 the Farmville Mill
+Company bought and remodeled the mill to roller process and required
+more power than the old 1856 Jonval turbine and 1868 "New Turbine"
+would yield, and on Aug. 30, 1889, sold the Farmville Mill Company two
+54 inch new improved Standard turbines to displace the two old wheels.
+In 1860 he commenced experimenting with different forms of buckets and
+chutes, and used six chutes instead of four as first made, and was
+granted patent March 24, 1863.
+
+This addition of chutes proved beneficial, as the wheel worked better
+with the gates partly opened than it did with four chutes. His next
+invention was granted him Dec. 24, 1867, which he called Burnham's
+improved central and vertical discharge turbine.
+
+This improvement consisted in making the guide blade straight on the
+outside (instead of rounding, as then made by all others), from inner
+point back to bolt or gudgeon, and thick enough at the latter point to
+let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt and the
+arrangement for shifting the water guides. Two 42-inch wheels of this
+pattern were built and put into operation, but they soon commenced
+leaking water and became troublesome on account of the many small
+pieces of castings and bolts, and were abandoned as worthless. There
+are several manufacturers of this style of wheel that advertise them
+as "simple and durable." Such a complicated case with twelve chutes
+cannot be made to operate unless by a large number of castings, bolts
+and studs. With these adjustable water guides, one of the objects was
+obtained. Admitting the water to the wheel through chutes
+corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets exposed, but not
+placing the water against the face of the buckets at right angles with
+the center of the wheel, except when the guide blades were full
+opened, for as the guides are changed so is the current of the water
+likewise changed.
+
+After making several differently constructed wheels and testing them a
+number of times, he selected the best one and obtained a patent for it
+March 3, 1868, and called it "new turbine," which he still further
+improved and patented May 9, 1871. This "new turbine" consisted of the
+former improved Jonval wheel, hub and buckets, with a new circular
+case and new form of chutes, having a register gate entirely
+surrounding the case and having apertures corresponding to those in
+the case for admitting water to the wheel. This register gate was
+moved by means of a segment and pinion.
+
+This "new turbine" soon gained for itself a reputation enjoyed by no
+other water wheel. It was selected by the United States Patent Office,
+and put at work in room 189, to run a pump which forces water to the
+top of the building. It was likewise selected by the Japan commission
+when they were in this country to select samples of our best machines.
+He continued making the 1868 patent and improved in 1871 "new turbine"
+but a few years, for as long as he could detect a defect in the wheel,
+case or gate, he continued improving and simplifying them, and in 1873
+he erected a very complete testing flume, also made a very sensitive
+dynamometer, it having a combination screw for tightening the friction
+band, which required 100 turns to make one inch, and commenced making
+and experimenting with different constructed turbines. He made five
+different wheels and made over a hundred tests before he was
+satisfied. Application was then made for a patent, which was granted
+March 31, 1874, for his "Standard turbine."
+
+This "Standard turbine" was a combination of his former improvements,
+with the cover extending over top of the gate to prevent it from
+tilting, and an eccentric wheel working in cam yoke to open and close
+the gate.
+
+Thousands of Standard turbines are to-day working and giving the best
+satisfaction, and we venture to say that not one of the Standard
+turbines has been displaced by any other make of turbine, which gave
+better results for the water used. In 1881 he again commenced
+experimenting to find out how much water could be put through a wheel
+of given diameter. After making and testing several wheels it was
+found that the amount of water with full gate drawn named in tables
+found in Burnham Bros.' latest catalogue for each size wheel yielded
+84 per cent. and that the water used with 7/8 gate drawn yielded the
+same percentage (84), or with 3/4 gate 82 per cent., 5/8 gate 79, and 1/2
+gate 75 per cent. A patent for the mechanism was applied for and
+granted March 27, 1883, and named Burnham's Improved Standard Turbine.
+
+It was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached, to prevent
+the gate from rising and tilting and rubbing the curb, soon wore and
+allowed the gate to rub against the curb, and he experimented with
+several devices of gate arms. While so engaged he found that the great
+weight of water on the top of the cover sprang it, causing the sleeve
+bearing on the under side of the cover to be thrown out of place, and
+the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was almost
+impossible to move it, and after thoroughly testing with the different
+devices of gate arms, application was made and patent granted for
+adjustable gate arms, also for the new worm gate gearing May 1, 1888,
+and named Burham's new improved standard turbine.
+
+This he improved and patented May 13, 1890, to run on horizontal
+shaft.
+
+In the year 1872 he had two patents granted him for improvement in
+water wheels, but never had any wheels built of that pattern. After
+completing and patents granted for his new improved Standard turbine,
+he was perfectly satisfied, and often remarked, "I cannot improve on
+my register gate turbine any more, as it is as near perfection as can
+be made," and he was fully convinced, for the past year he was
+experimenting with a cylinder gate turbine, and patent was granted
+Oct. 21, 1890. Previously he had made a 24-inch wheel, which was
+tested Aug. 14, 1890, at Holyoke testing flume, and gave fair results,
+and at the time of his demise he was having made a new runner for the
+cylinder gate turbine, which we will complete and have tested. His
+idea was to have us manufacture and sell register and cylinder gate
+turbines. His inventive powers were not confined to water wheels, for
+on Feb. 23, 1886, patents were granted him for automatic steam engine,
+governor and lubricating device. We also remember in the year 1873 or
+1874, when his mind was occupied with his "Standard turbine," he was
+hindered by some device used now on locomotives of the present
+construction (what it was we are unable to say), but when draughting
+at his water wheel, would conflict the two, and by his invitation we
+wrote to a prominent locomotive builder and had him examine the
+drawings, which he had not fully completed, and sold same to him. Of
+this we only have a faint recollection, but do recollect his saying:
+"Well, that is off my mind now, and I can devote it to the finishing
+of my new wheel."--_American Miller_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALTERNATE CURRENT CONDENSERS.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Physical Society, London, Mr. James
+Swinburne read a paper on alternate current condensers. It is, he
+said, generally assumed that there is no difficulty in making
+commercial condensers for high pressure alternating currents. The
+first difficulty is insulation, for the dielectric must be very thin,
+else the volume of the condenser is too great. Some dielectrics 0.2
+mm. thick can be made to stand up to 8,000 volts when in small pieces,
+but in complete condensers a much greater margin must be allowed.
+Another difficulty arises from absorption, and whenever this occurs,
+the apparent capacity is greater than the calculated. Supposing the
+fibers of paper in a paper condenser to be conductors embedded in
+insulating hydrocarbon, then every time the condenser is charged the
+fibers have their ends at different potentials, so a current passes to
+equalize them and energy is lost. This current increases the capacity.
+One condenser made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally
+large current and heated rapidly. At a high temperature it gave off
+water, and the power wasted and current taken gradually decreased.
+
+When a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils, it heats
+excessively; and the fall of potential over the air films separating
+the mica and foil is great enough to cause disruptive discharge to the
+surface of the mica. There appears to be a luminous layer of minute
+sparks under the foils, and there is a strong smell of ozone. In a
+dielectric which heats, there may be three kinds of conduction, viz.,
+metallic, when an ordinary conductor is embedded in an insulator;
+disruptive, as probably occurs in the case of mica; and electrolytic,
+which might occur in glass. In a transparent dielectric the conduction
+must be either electrolytic or disruptive, otherwise light vibrations
+would be damped. The dielectric loss in a cable may be serious.
+Calculating from the waste in a condenser made of paper soaked in hot
+ozokerite, the loss in one of the Deptford mains came out 7,000 watts.
+Another effect observed at Deptford is a rise of pressure in the
+mains. There is as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what
+happens, and it is generally assumed that the effect depends on the
+relation of capacity to self-induction, and is a sort of resonator
+action. This would need a large self-induction, and a small change of
+speed would stop the effect. The following explanation is suggested.
+When a condenser is put on a dynamo, the condenser current leads
+relatively to the electromotive force, and therefore strengthens the
+field magnets and increases the pressure.
+
+[Illustration: T_{1} and T_{2} are large transformers; t_{1} and t_{2}
+are small transformers or voltmeters V_{1} and V_{2}. The numbers 1,
+4, 1, 25, represent their conversion ratios.]
+
+In order to test this, the following experiment was made for the
+author by Mr. W.F. Bourne. A Gramme alternator was coupled to the low
+pressure coil of a transformer, and a hot wire voltmeter put across
+the primary circuit. On putting a condenser on the high pressure
+circuit, the voltmeter wire fused. The possibility of making an
+alternator excite itself like a series machine, by putting a condenser
+on it, was pointed out. Prof. Perry said it would seem possible to
+obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the magnets
+independently, the field being altogether due to the armature
+currents. Mr. Swinburne remarked that this could be done by making the
+rotating magnets a star-shaped mass of iron. Sir W. Thomson thought
+Mr. Swinburne's estimate of the loss in the Deptford mains was rather
+high. He himself had calculated the power spent in charging them, and
+found it to be about 16 horse power, and although a considerable
+fraction might be lost, it would not amount to nine-sixteenths. He was
+surprised to hear that glass condensers heated, and inquired whether
+this heating was due to flashes passing between the foil and the
+glass. Mr. A.P. Trotter said Mr. Ferranti informed him that the
+capacity of his mains was about 1/3 microfarad per mile, thus making
+2-1/3 microfarads for the seven miles. The heaping up of the potential
+only took place when transformers were used, and not when the dynamos
+were connected direct. In the former case the increase of volts was
+proportional to the length of main used, and 8,500 at Deptford gave
+10,000 at London.
+
+Mr. Blakesley described a simple method of determining the loss of
+power in a condenser by the use of three electrodynamometers, one of
+which has its coils separate. Of these coils, one is put in the
+condenser circuit, and the other in series with a non-inductive
+resistance r, shutting the condenser. If a_{2} be the reading of a
+dynamometer in the shunt circuit, and a_{3} that of the divided
+dynamometer, the power lost is given by r (Ca_{3} - Ba_{2}) where B and
+C are the constants of the instruments on which a_{2} and a_{3} are
+the respective readings. Prof. S.P. Thompson asked if Mr. Swinburne
+had found any dielectric which had no absorption. So far as he was
+aware, pure quartz crystal was the only substance. Prof. Forbes said
+Dr. Hopkinson had found a glass which showed none. Sir William
+Thomson, referring to the same subject, said that many years ago he
+made some tests on glass bottles, which showed no appreciable
+absorption. Sulphuric acid was used for the coatings, and he found
+them to be completely discharged by an instantaneous contact of two
+balls. The duration of contact would, according to some remarkable
+mathematical work done by Hertz in 1882, be about 0.0004 second, and
+even this short time sufficed to discharge them completely.
+
+On the other hand, Leyden jars with tinfoil coatings showed
+considerable absorption, and this he thought due to want of close
+contact between the foil and the glass. To test this he suggested that
+mercury coatings be tried. Mr. Kapp considered the loss of power in
+condensers due to two causes: first, that due to the charge soaking
+in; and second, to imperfect elasticity of the dielectric. Speaking of
+the extraordinary rise of pressure on the Deptford mains, he said he
+had observed similar effects with other cables. In his experiments the
+sparking distance of a 14,000 volt transformer was increased from 3/16
+of an inch to 1 inch by connecting the cables to its terminals. No
+difference was detected between the sparking distances at the two ends
+of the cable, nor was any rise of pressure observed when the cables
+were joined direct on the dynamo.
+
+In his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance, and would
+be a maximum for some particular frequency. Mr. Mordey mentioned a
+peculiar phenomenon observed in the manufacture of his alternators.
+Each coil, he said, was tested to double the pressure of the completed
+dynamo, but when they were all fitted together, their insulation broke
+down at the same volts. The difficulty had been overcome by making the
+separate coils to stand much higher pressures. Prof. Rucker called
+attention to the fact that dielectrics alter in volume under electric
+stress, and said that if the material was imperfectly elastic, some
+loss would result. The president said that, as some doubt existed as
+to what Mr. Ferranti had actually observed, he would illustrate the
+arrangements by a diagram. Speaking of condensers, he said he had
+recently tried lead plates in water to get large capacities, but so
+far had not been successful.
+
+Mr. Swinburne, in replying, said he had not made a perfect condenser
+yet, for, although he had some which did not heat much, they made a
+great noise. He did not see how the rise of pressure observed by Mr.
+Ferranti and Mr. Kapp could be due to resonance. Mr. Kapp's experiment
+was not conclusive, for the length of spark is not an accurate measure
+of electromotive force. As regards Mr. Mordey's observation, he
+thought the action explicable on the theory of the leading condenser
+current acting on the field magnets. The same explanation is also
+applicable to the Deptford case, for when the dynamo is direct on, the
+condenser current is about 10 amperes, and this exerts only a small
+influence on the strongly magnetized magnets. When transformers are
+used, the field magnets are weak, while the condenser current rises
+to 40 amperes. Mr. Blakesley's method of determining losses was, he
+said, inapplicable except where the currents were sine functions of
+the time; and consequently could not be used to determine loss due to
+hysteresis in iron, or in a transparent dielectric.--_Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, EUROPE, AMERICA,
+AND THE EAST.
+
+By GEORGE WALTER NIVEN.
+
+
+There are at present twenty-six submarine cable companies, the
+combined capital of which is about forty million pounds sterling.
+Their revenue, including subsidies, amounts to 3,204,060L.; and their
+reserves and sinking funds to 3,610,000L.; and their dividends are
+from one to 143/4 per cent. The receipts from the Atlantic cables alone
+amount to about 800,000L. annually.
+
+The number of cables laid down throughout the world is 1,045, of which
+798 belong to governments and 247 to private companies. The total
+length of those cables is 120,070 nautical miles, of which 107,546 are
+owned by private telegraph companies, nearly all British; the
+remainder, or 12,524 miles, are owned by governments.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING CABLES FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND
+THE CONTINENT.]
+
+The largest telegraphic organization in the world is that of the
+Eastern Telegraphic Company, with seventy cables, of a total length of
+21,859 nautical miles. The second largest is the Eastern Extension,
+Australasia and China Telegraph Company, with twenty-two cables, of a
+total length of 12,958 nautical miles. The Eastern Company work all
+the cables on the way to Bombay, and the Eastern Extension Company
+from Madras eastward. The cables landing in Japan, however, are owned
+by a Danish company, the Great Northern. The English station of the
+Eastern Company is at Porthcurno, Cornwall, and through it pass most
+of the messages for Spain, Portugal, Egypt, India, China, Japan, and
+Australia.
+
+The third largest cable company is the Anglo-American Telegraph
+Company, with thirteen cables, of a total length of 10,196 miles.
+
+The British government has one hundred and three cables around our
+shores, of a total length of 1,489 miles. If we include India and the
+colonies, the British empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen
+cables of a total length of 3,811 miles.
+
+The longest government cable in British waters is that from Sinclair
+Bay, Wick, to Sandwick Bay, Shetland, of the length of 122 miles, and
+laid in 1885. The shortest being four cables across the Gloucester and
+Sharpness Canal, at the latter place, and each less than 300 ft. in
+length.
+
+Of government cables the greatest number is owned by Norway, with two
+hundred and thirty-six, averaging, however, less than a mile each in
+length.
+
+The greatest mileage is owned by the government of France with 3,269
+miles, of the total length of fifty-one cables.
+
+The next being British India with 1,714 miles, and eighty-nine cables;
+and Germany third with 1,570 miles and forty-three cables.
+
+Britain being fourth with ninety miles less. The oldest cable still
+in use is the one that was first laid, that namely from Dover to
+Calais. It dates from 1851.
+
+The two next oldest cables in use being those respectively from
+Ramsgate to Ostend, and St. Petersburg to Cronstadt, and both laid
+down in 1853.
+
+Several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect England and Ireland
+by means of a cable between Holyhead and Howth; but communication
+between the two countries was finally effected in 1853, when a cable
+was successfully laid between Portpatrick and Donaghadee (31).
+
+As showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in comparatively
+shallow waters are exposed, we may relate the curious accident that
+befell the Portpatrick cable in 1873. During a severe storm in that
+year the Port Glasgow ship Marseilles capsized in the vicinity of
+Portpatrick, the anchor fell out and caught on to the telegraph cable,
+which, however, gave way. The ship was afterward captured and towed
+into Rothesay Bay, in an inverted position, by a Greenock tug, when
+part of the cable was found entangled about the anchor.
+
+The smallest private companies are the Indo-European Telegraph
+Company, with two cables in the Crimea, of a total length of fourteen
+and a half miles; and the River Plate Telegraph Company, with one
+cable from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, thirty-two miles long.
+
+The smallest government telegraph organization is that of New
+Caledonia, with its one solitary cable one mile long.
+
+We will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding the companies
+having cables from Europe to America.
+
+The most important company is the Anglo-American Telegraph Company,
+whose history is inseparably connected with that of the trials and
+struggles of the pioneers of cable laying.
+
+Its history begins in 1851 when Tebets, an American, and Gisborne, an
+English engineer, formed the Electric Telegraph Company of
+Newfoundland, and laid down twelve miles of cable between Cape Breton
+and Nova Scotia. This company was shortly afterward dissolved, and its
+property transferred to the Telegraphic Company of New York,
+Newfoundland and London, founded by Cyrus W. Field, and who in 1854
+obtained an extension of the monopoly from the government to lay
+cables.
+
+A cable, eighty-five miles long, was laid between Cape Breton and
+Newfoundland (22).
+
+Field then came to England and floated an English company, which
+amalgamated with the American one under the title of the Atlantic
+Telegraph Company.
+
+The story of the laying of the Atlantic cables of 1857 and 1865, their
+success and failures, has often been told, so we need not go into any
+details. It may be noted, however, that communication was first
+established between Valentia and Newfoundland on August 5. 1858, but
+the cable ceased to transmit signals on September 1, following.
+
+During that period, ninety-seven messages had been sent from Valentia,
+and two hundred and sixty-nine from Newfoundland. At the present time,
+the ten Atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages daily
+between the two continents. The losses attending the laying of the
+1865 cable resulted in the financial ruin of the Atlantic company and
+its amalgamation with the Anglo-American. In 1866 the Great Eastern
+successfully laid the first cable for the new company, and with the
+assistance of other vessels succeeded in picking up the broken end of
+the 1865 cable and completing its connection with Newfoundland.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING MAIN CABLES FROM EUROPE AND THEIR
+CONNECTIONS WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Reference to places--A, Heart's Content; B, Placentia; C, St. Peter
+Miquelon; D, North Sydney, Cape Breton Island; E, Louisbourg; F Canso,
+Nova Scotia; G, Halifax; H, Bird Rock; I, Madeline Isles; J,
+Anticosti; K, Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island; LLL, Banks of
+Newfoundland.]
+
+The three cables of this company presently in use and connecting
+Valentia in Ireland with Heart's Content in Newfoundland, were laid in
+1873, 1874, and 1880; and (1) are respectively 1886, 1846, and 1890
+nautical miles in length. This company also owns the longest cable in
+the world, that namely from Brest in France to St. Pierre Miquelon,
+one of a small group of islands off the south coast of Newfoundland
+and which, strange to say, still belongs to France (6).
+
+The length of this cable is 2,685 nautical miles, or 3,092 statute
+miles. It was laid in 1869. There are seven cables of a total length
+of 1773 miles, connecting Heart's Content, Placentia Bay and St.
+Pierre, with North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and Duxbury, near Boston,
+belonging to the American company. Communication is maintained with
+Germany and the rest of the Continent by means of a cable from
+Valentia to Emden 846 miles long (7); and a cable from Brest to
+Salcombe, Devon, connects the St. Pierre and Brest cable with the
+London office of the company (10).[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cables not fully described in the text, Map B. Eight
+cables at the Anglo-American Company: 7, Heart's Content to Placentia,
+two cables; 8, Placentia to St. Pierre; 9, St. Pierre to North Sydney;
+10, Placentia to North Sydney, two cables; 11, St. Pierre to Duxbury;
+18, Charlotte's Town to Nova Scotia; 19, Government Cable, North
+Sydney to Bird Rock, Madeline Isles, and Anticosti; 21, Halifax and
+Bermuda Cable Company's proposed cable to Bermuda.]
+
+The station of the Direct United States Cable Company is situated at
+Ballinskelligs Bay, Ireland (2). Its cable was laid in 1874-5, and is
+2,565 miles in length. The terminal point on the other side of the
+Atlantic is at Halifax, Nova Scotia, from whence the cable is
+continued to Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a distance of 536 miles, and
+thence by a land line of 500 miles to New York (17).
+
+The Commercial Cable Company's station in Ireland is at Waterville, a
+short distance from Ballinskelligs (3). It owns two cables laid in
+1885; the northern cable being 2,350, and the southern 2,388 miles
+long. They terminate in America at Canso, Nova Scotia. From Canso a
+cable is laid to Rockfort, about thirty miles south of Boston, Mass.,
+a distance of 518 miles (16), and another is laid to New York, 840
+miles in length (15). This company has direct communication with the
+Continent by means of a cable from Waterville to Havre of 510 miles
+(9), and with England by a cable to Weston-super-Mare, near Bristol,
+of 328 miles (8).
+
+The Western Union Telegraph Company (the lessees of the lines of the
+American Telegraph and Cable Company) has two cables from Sennen Cove,
+Land's End, to Canso, Nova Scotia (4). The cable of 1881 is 2,531 and
+that of 1882 is 2,576 miles in length. Two cables were laid November,
+1889, between Canso and New York (14).
+
+The Compagnie Francaise du Telegraphe de Paris a New York has a cable
+from Brest to St. Pierre Miquelon of 2,242 miles in length (5), from
+thence a cable is laid to Louisbourg, Cape Breton (12), and another
+to Cape Cod (13). It has also a cable from Brest to Porcella Cove,
+Cornwall (11).
+
+Those ten cables owned by the six companies named, of the total milage
+of 22,959, not counting connections, represent the entire direct
+communication between the continents of Europe and North America.
+
+A new company, not included in the preceding statistics, proposes to
+lay a cable from Westport, Ireland, to some point in the Straits of
+Belle Isle on the Labrador coast (Map A32, Map B20).
+
+The station of the Eastern Telegraph Company is at Porthcurno Cove,
+Penzance, from whence it has two cables to Lisbon, one laid in 1880,
+850 miles long, the other laid in 1887, 892 miles long (12), and one
+cable to Vigo, Spain, laid in 1873, 622 miles long (13). From Lisbon
+the cable is continued to Gibraltar and the East, whither we need not
+follow it, our intention being to confine ourselves entirely to a
+brief account of those cables communicating directly with Europe and
+America. As already stated, this company has altogether seventy
+cables, of a total length of nearly 22,000 miles.
+
+The Direct Spanish Telegraph Company has a cable, laid in 1884, from
+Kennach Cove, Cornwall, to Bilbao, Spain, 486 miles in length (14).
+
+Coming now to shorter cables connecting Britain with the Continent, we
+have those of the Great Northern Telegraph Company, namely, Peterhead
+to Ekersund, Norway, 267 miles (15). Newbiggin, near Newcastle, to
+Arendal, Norway, 424 miles, and thence to Marstrand, Sweden, 98 miles.
+
+Two cables from the same place in England to Denmark (Hirstals and
+Sondervig) of 420 and 337 miles respectively (17 and 18).
+
+The great Northern Company has altogether twenty-two cables, of a
+total length of 6,110 miles. The line from Newcastle, is worked direct
+to Nylstud, in Russia--a distance of 890 miles--by means of a "relay"
+or "repeater," at Gothenburg. The relay is the apparatus at which the
+Newcastle current terminates, but in ending there it itself starts a
+fresh current on to Russia.
+
+The other continental connections belong to the government, and are as
+follows: two cables to Germany, Lowestoft to Norderney, 232 miles, and
+to Emden, 226 miles (19 and 20).
+
+Two cables to Holland: Lowestoft to Zandvoort, laid in 1858 (21), and
+from Benacre, Kessingland, to Zandvoort (22).
+
+Two cables to Belgium: Ramsgate to Ostend (23), and Dover to Furness
+(24).
+
+Four cables to France: Dover to Calais, laid in 1851 (25), and to
+Boulogne (26), laid in 1859; Beachy Head to Dieppe (27), and to Havre
+(28).
+
+There is a cable from the Dorset coast to Alderney and Guernsey, and
+from the Devon coast to Guernsey, Jersey, and Coutances, France (29
+and 30).
+
+A word now as to the instruments used for the transmission of
+messages. Those for cables are of two kinds, the mirror galvanometer
+and the siphon recorder, both the product of Sir Wm. Thomson's great
+inventive genius.
+
+When the Calais-Dover and other short cables were first worked, it was
+found that the ordinary needle instrument in use on land lines was not
+sufficiently sensitive to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary
+current it was possible to send through a cable. Either the current
+must be increased in strength or the instruments used must be more
+sensitive. The latter alternative was chosen, and the mirror
+galvanometer was the result.
+
+The principle on which this instrument works may be briefly described
+thus: the transmitted current of electricity causes the deflection of
+a small magnet, to which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, a beam of light is reflected from a properly
+arranged lamp, by the mirror, on to a paper scale. The dots and dashes
+of the Morse code are indicated by the motions of the spot of light to
+the right and left respectively of the center of the scale.
+
+The mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely superseded by the
+siphon recorder. This is a somewhat complicated apparatus, with the
+details of which we need not trouble our readers. Suffice it for us to
+explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate its motions, by
+means of fine silk fibers, to a very fine glass siphon, one end of
+which dips into an insulated metallic vessel containing ink, while the
+other extremity rests, when no current is passing, just over the
+center of a paper ribbon. When the instrument is in use the ink is
+driven out of the siphon in small drops by means of an electrical
+arrangement, and the ribbon underneath is at the same time caused to
+pass underneath its point by means of clockwork.
+
+If a current be now sent through the line, the siphon will move above
+or below the central line, thus giving a permanent record of the
+message, which the mirror instrument does not. The waves written by
+the siphon above the central line corresponding to the dots of the
+Morse code, and the waves underneath corresponding to the dashes.
+
+The cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies from one shilling
+per word, the rate to New York and east of the Mississippi, to ten
+shillings and seven pence per word, the rate to New Zealand. In order
+to minimize that cost as much as possible, the use of codes, whereby
+one word is made to do duty for a lengthy phrase, is much resorted to.
+Of course those code messages form a series of words having no
+apparent relation to each other, but occasionally queer sentences
+result from the chance grouping of the code words. Thus a certain tea
+firm was once astonished to receive from its agent abroad the
+startling code message--"Unboiled babies detested"!
+
+Suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams in their
+travels over the world.
+
+A message to India from London by the cable route requires to be
+transmitted eight times at the following places: Porthcurno
+(Cornwall), Lisbon, Gibraltar, Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay.
+
+A message to Australia has thirteen stoppages; the route taken beyond
+Bombay being via Madras, Penang, Singapore, Banjoewangie and Port
+Darwin (North Australia); or from Banjoewangie to Roebuck Bay (Western
+Australia).
+
+To India by the Indo-European land lines, messages go through Emden,
+Warsaw, Odessa, Kertch, Tiflis, Teheran, Bushire (Persian Gulf), Jask
+and Kurrachee, but only stop twice between London and Teheran--namely,
+at Emden and Odessa.
+
+Messages from London to New York are transmitted only twice--at the
+Irish or Cornwall stations, and at the stations in Canada. Owing to
+the great competition for the American traffic, the service between
+London, Liverpool, and Glasgow and New York is said to be much
+superior to that between any two towns in Britain. The cables are
+extensively used by stock brokers, and it is a common occurrence for
+one to send a message and receive a reply within five minutes.
+
+During breakages in cables messages have sometimes to take very
+circuitous routes. For instance, during the two days, three years ago,
+that a tremendous storm committed such havoc among the telegraph wires
+around London, cutting off all communication with the lines connected
+with the Channel cables at Dover, Lowestoft, etc., it was of common
+occurrence for London merchants to communicate with Paris through New
+York. The cablegram leaving London going north to Holyhead and
+Ireland, across the Atlantic to New York and back _via_ St. Pierre to
+Brest and thence on to Paris, a total distance of about seven thousand
+miles.
+
+Three years ago, when the great blizzard cut off all communication
+between New York and Boston, messages were accepted in New York, sent
+to this country, and thence back to Boston.
+
+Some time ago the cables between Madeira and St. Vincent were out of
+order, cutting off communication by the direct route to Brazil, and a
+message to reach Rio Janeiro had to pass through Ireland, Canada,
+United States, to Galveston, thence to Vera Cruz, Guatemala,
+Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chili; from Valparaiso across the
+Andes, through the Argentine Republic to Buenos Ayres, and thence by
+East Coast cables to Rio Janeiro, the message having traversed a
+distance of about twelve thousand miles and having passed through
+twenty-four cables and some very long land lines, instead of passing,
+had it been possible to have sent it by the direct route, over one
+short land line and six cables, in all under six thousand miles.
+
+Perhaps some of our readers may remember having read in the newspapers
+of the result of last year's Derby having been sent from Epsom to New
+York in fifteen seconds, and may be interested to know how it was
+done. A wire was laid from near the winning post on the race course to
+the cable company's office in London, and an operator was at the
+instrument ready to signal the two or three letters previously
+arranged upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed the
+post. When the race began, the cable company suspended work on all the
+lines from London to New York and kept operators at the Irish and Nova
+Scotian stations ready to transmit the letters representing the
+winning horse immediately, and without having the message written out
+in the usual way. When the race was finished, the operator at Epsom at
+once sent the letters representing the winner, and before he had
+finished the third letter, the operator in London had started the
+first one to Ireland. The clerk in Ireland immediately on bearing the
+first signal from London passed it on to Nova Scotia, from whence it
+was again passed on to New York. The result being that the name of the
+winner was actually known in New York before the horses had pulled up
+after passing the judge. It seems almost incredible that such
+information could be transmitted such a great distance in fifteen
+seconds, but when we get behind the scenes and see exactly how it is
+accomplished, and see how the labor and time of signaling can be
+economized, we can easily realize the fact.
+
+The humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been described; we will
+conclude by giving only one example. A St. Louis merchant had gone to
+New York on business, and while there received a telegram from the
+family doctor, which ran: "Your wife has had a child, if we can keep
+her from having another to-night, all will be well." As the little
+stranger had not been expected, further inquiry was made and elicited
+the fact that his wife had simply had a "chill"! This important
+difference having been caused simply by the omission of a single dot.
+
+   -.-. .... .. .-.. .-..
+      c    h  i    l    l = chill
+   -.-. .... .. .-..  -..
+      c    h  i    l    d = child
+
+--_Hardwicke's Science-Gossip_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY IN TRANSITU--FROM PLENUM TO VACUUM.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Presidential address before the Institute of Electrical
+Engineers, London; continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 792, page 12656.]
+
+By Prof. WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.
+
+
+If an idle pole, C, C, Fig. 12 (P=0.0001 millimeter or 0.13 M),
+protected all but the point by a thick coating of glass, is brought
+into the center of the molecular stream in front of the negative pole,
+A, and the whole of the inside and outside of the tube walls are
+coated with metal, D, D, and "earthed" so as to carry away the
+positive electricity as rapidly as possible, then it is seen that the
+molecules leaving the negative pole and striking upon the idle pole,
+C, on their journey along the tube carry a negative charge and
+communicate negative electricity to the idle pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+This tube is of interest, since it is the one in which I was first
+able to perceive how, in my earlier results, I always obtained a
+positive charge from an idle pole placed in the direct stream from the
+negative pole. Having got so far, it was easy to devise a form of
+apparatus that completely verified the theory, and at the same time
+threw considerably more light upon the subject. Fig. 13, a, b, c, is
+such a tube, and in this model I have endeavored to show the
+electrical state of it at a high vacuum by marking a number of + and -
+signs. The exhaustion has been carried to 0.0001 millimeter, or 0.13
+M, and you see that in the neighborhood of the positive pole, and
+extending almost to the negative, the tube is strongly electrified
+with positive electricity, the negative atoms shooting out from the
+negative pole in a rapidly diminishing cone. If an idle pole is placed
+in the position shown at Fig. 13, a, the impacts of positive and
+negative molecules are about equal, and no decided current will pass
+from it, through the galvanometer, to earth. This is the _neutral_
+point. But if we imagine the idle pole to be as at Fig. 13, b, then
+the positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate over the
+negative molecules, and positive electricity is shown. If the idle
+pole is now shifted, as shown at Fig. 13, c, the negative molecules
+preponderate, and the pole will give negative electricity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 A.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 B.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13 C.--PRESSURE = 0.0001 MM. = 0.13 M.]
+
+As the exhaustion proceeds, the positive charge in the tube increases
+and the neutral point approaches closer to the negative pole, and at a
+point just short of non-conduction so greatly does the positive
+electrification preponderate that it is almost impossible to get
+negative electricity from the idle pole, unless it actually touches
+the negative pole. This tube is before you, and I will now proceed to
+show the change in direction of current by moving the idle pole.
+
+I have not succeeded in getting the "Edison" current incandescent
+lamps to change in direction at even the highest degree of exhaustion
+which my pump will produce. The subject requires further
+investigation, and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies
+promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the experimental
+philosopher, just as the waste products of the chemist have often
+proved the source of new and valuable bodies.
+
+
+PROPERTIES OF RADIANT MATTER.
+
+One of the most characteristic attributes of radiant matter--whence
+its name--is that it moves in approximately straight lines and in a
+direction almost normal to the surface of the electrode. If we keep
+the induction current passing continuously through a vacuum tube in
+the same direction, we can imagine two ways in which the action
+proceeds: either the supply of gaseous molecules at the surface of the
+negative pole must run short and the phenomena come to an end, or the
+molecules must find some means of getting back. I will show you an
+experiment which reveals the molecules in the very act of returning.
+Here is a tube (Fig. 14) exhausted to a pressure of 0.001 millimeter
+or 1.3 M. In the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm, C,
+pierced with two holes, D and E. At one part of the tube a concave
+pole, A', is focused on the upper hole, D, in the diaphragm. Behind
+the upper hole and in front of the lower one are movable vanes, F and
+G, capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas through the
+holes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.]
+
+On passing the current with the concave pole negative, the small veins
+rotate in such a manner as to prove that at this high exhaustion a
+stream of molecules issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm, while
+at the same time a stream of freshly charged molecules is forced by
+the negative pole through the upper hole. The experiment speaks for
+itself, showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that so far the
+theory is right.
+
+This view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced merely as a
+working hypothesis, which, in the present state of our knowledge, may
+be regarded as a necessary help to be retained only so long as it
+proves useful. In experimental research early hypotheses have
+necessarily to be modified, or adjusted, or perhaps entirely
+abandoned, in deference to more accurate observations. Dumas said,
+truly, that hypotheses were like crutches, which we throw away when we
+are able to walk without them.
+
+
+RADIANT MATTER AND "RADIANT ELECTRODE MATTER."
+
+In recording my investigations on the subject of radiant matter and
+the state of gaseous residues in high vacua under electrical strain, I
+must refer to certain attacks on the views I have propounded. The most
+important of these questionings are contained in a volume of "Physical
+Memoirs," selected and translated from foreign sources under the
+direction of the Physical Society (vol. i., part 2). This volume
+contains two memoirs, one by Hittorff on the "Conduction of
+Electricity in Gases," and the other by Puluj on "Radiant Electrode
+Matter and the So-called Fourth State." Dr. Puluj's paper concerns me
+most, as the author has set himself vigorously to the task of opposing
+my conclusions. Apart from my desire to keep controversial matter out
+of an address of this sort, time would not permit me to discuss the
+points raised by my critic; I will, therefore, only observe in passing
+that Dr. Puluj has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth
+state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine of four
+dimensional space.
+
+Reference has already been made to the mistaken supposition that I
+have pronounced the thickness of the dark space in a highly exhausted
+tube through which an induction spark is passed to be identical with
+the natural mean free path of the molecules of gas at that exhaustion.
+I could quote numerous passages from my writings to show that what I
+meant and said was the mean free path as amplified and modified by the
+electrification.[2] In this view I am supported by Prof. Schuster,[3]
+who, in a passage quoted below, distinctly admits that the mean free
+path of an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in its
+ordinary state.
+
+[Footnote 2: "The thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative
+pole is the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous
+molecules between successive collisions. The electrified molecules are
+projected from the negative pole with enormous velocity, varying,
+however, with the degree of exhaustion and intensity of the induction
+current."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 530.
+
+"The extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited
+negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are
+advancing toward the pole. The conflict occurs at the boundary of the
+dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of
+the discharge."--_Phil. Trans._, part i., 1879, par. 507.
+
+"Here, then, we see the induction spark actually illuminating the
+lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative
+pole."--_R.I. Lecture_, Friday, April 4, 1879.
+
+"The electrically excited negative pole supplies the _force majeure_,
+which entirely, or partially, changes into a rectilinear action the
+irregular vibration in all directions."--_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1880. page
+472.
+
+"It is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules
+is increased so as to make the mean velocity with which they
+leave the negative pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous
+molecules."--_Phil. Trans._, part ii., 1881, par. 719.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "It has been suggested that the extent of the dark space
+represents the mean free path of the molecules.... It has been pointed
+out by others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably
+greater than the mean free path of the molecules, calculated according
+to the ordinary way. My measurements make it nearly twenty times as
+great. This, however, is not in itself a fatal objection; for, as we
+have seen, the mean free path of an ion may be different from that of
+a molecule moving among others."--Schuster, _Proc. Roy. Soc_., xlvii.,
+pp. 556-7.]
+
+The great difference between Puluj and me lies in his statement
+that[4] "the matter which fills the dark space consists of mechanical
+detached particles of the electrodes which are charged with statically
+negative electricity, and move progressively in a straight direction."
+
+[Footnote 4: "Physical Memoirs," part ii., vol. i., p. 244. The
+paragraph is italicized in the original.]
+
+To these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes, "of
+different sizes, often large lumps,"[5] Puluj attributes all the
+phenomena of heat, force and phosphorescence that I from time to time
+have described in my several papers.
+
+[Footnote 5: _Loc. cit._, p. 242.]
+
+Puluj objects energetically to my definition "Radiant Matter," and
+then proposes in its stead the misleading term "Radiant Electrode
+Matter." I say "misleading," for while both his and my definitions
+equally admit the existence of "Radiant Matter," he drags in the
+hypothesis that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated
+material of the poles.
+
+Puluj declares that the phenomena I have described in high vacua are
+produced by his irregularly shaped lumps of radiant electrode matter.
+My contention is that they are produced by radiant matter of the
+residual molecules of gas.
+
+Were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental evidence, I
+would not mention the subject to you. On such an occasion as this
+controversial matter must have no place; therefore I content myself at
+present by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively prove
+my case.
+
+Let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis. Some metals,
+it is well known, such as silver, gold or platinum, when used for the
+negative electrode in a vacuum tube, volatilize more or less rapidly,
+coating any object in their neighborhood with a very even film. On
+this depends the well known method of electrically preparing small
+mirrors, etc. Aluminum, however, seems exempt from this volatility.
+Hence, and for other reasons, it is generally used for electrodes.
+
+If, then, the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to the "electrode
+matter," the more volatile the metal used, the greater should be the
+effect.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society,
+November 20, 1890, by Professors Liveing and Dewar, on finely divided
+metallic dust thrown off the surface of various electrodes, in vacuum
+tubes, they find not only that dust, however fine, suspended in a gas
+will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its
+characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge, but that it is
+driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course of the
+discharge.]
+
+Here is a tube (Fig. 15, P=0.00068 millimeter, or 0.9 M), with two
+negative electrodes, AA', so placed as to protect two luminous spots
+on the phosphorescent glass of the tube. One electrode, A', is of pure
+silver, a volatile metal; the other, A, is of aluminum, practically
+non-volatile. A quantity of "electrode matter" will be shot off from
+the silver pole, and practically none from the aluminum pole; but you
+see that in each case the phosphorescence, CC', is identical. Had the
+radiant electrode matter been the active agent, the more intense
+phosphorescence would proceed from the more volatile pole.
+
+A drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus is shown in Fig.
+16. A pear-shaped bulb of German glass has near the small end an inner
+concave negative pole, A, of pure silver, so mounted that its
+inverted image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube. In front
+of this pole is a screen of mica, C, having a small hole in the
+center, so that only a narrow pencil of rays from the silver pole can
+pass through, forming a bright spot, D, at the far end of the bulb.
+The exhaustion is about the same as in the previous tube, and the
+current has been allowed to pass continuously for many hours so as to
+drive off a certain portion of the silver electrode; and upon
+examination it is found that the silver has all been deposited in the
+immediate neighborhood of the pole; while the spot, D, at the far end
+of the tube, that has been continuously glowing with phosphorescent
+light, is practically free from silver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+The experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it here, so I shall not
+attempt it; but I have on the table the results for examination.
+
+The identity of action of silver and aluminum in the first case, and
+the non-projection of silver in this second instance, are in
+themselves sufficient to condemn Dr. Puluj's hypotheses, since they
+prove that phosphorescence is independent of the material of the
+negative electrode. In front of me is a set of tubes that to my mind
+puts the matter wholly beyond doubt. The tubes contain no inside
+electrodes with the residual gaseous molecules; and with them I will
+proceed to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments
+without any inner metallic poles at all.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+In all these tubes the electrodes, which are of silver, are on the
+outside, the current acting through the body of the glass. The first
+tube contains gas only slightly rarefied and at the stratification
+stage. It is simply a closed glass cylinder, with a coat of silver
+deposited outside at each end, and exhausted to a pressure of 2
+millimeters. The outline of the tube is shown in Fig. 17. I pass a
+current, and, as you see, the stratifications, though faint, are
+perfectly formed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PRESSURE = 2 MM.]
+
+The next tube, seen in outline in Fig. 18, shows the dark space. Like
+the first it is a closed cylinder of glass, with a central indentation
+forming a kind of hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two
+compartments. This pocket, silvered on the air side, forms a hollow
+glass diaphragm that can be connected electrically from the outside,
+forming the negative pole, A; the two ends of the tube, also outwardly
+silvered, form the positive poles, B B. I pass the current, and you
+will see the dark space distinctly visible. The pressure here is 0.076
+millimeter, or 100 M. The next stage, dealing with more rarefied
+matter, is that of phosphorescence. Here is an egg-shaped bulb, shown
+in Fig 19, containing some pure yttria and a few rough rubies. The
+positive electrode, B, is on the bottom of the tube under the
+phosphorescent material; the negative, A, is on the upper part of the
+tube. See how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows under
+molecular bombardment, at an internal pressure of 0.00068 millimeter,
+or 0.9 M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--PRESSURE = 0.076 MM. = 100 M.]
+
+A shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected on to the
+opposite wall of the bulb by means of an outside pole. A mica cross is
+supported in the middle of the bulb (Fig. 20), and on connecting a
+small silvered patch, A, on one side of the bulb with the negative
+pole of the induction coil, and putting the positive pole to another
+patch of silver, B, at the top, the opposite side of the bulb glows
+with a phosphorescent light, on which the black shadow of the cross
+seems sharply cut out. Here the internal pressure is 0.00068
+millimeter, or 0.9 M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--PRESSURE = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PRESSURE = 0.001 MM. = 1.3 M.]
+
+Passing to the next phenomenon, I proceed to show the production of
+mechanical energy in a tube without internal poles. It is shown in
+Fig. 21 (P = 0.001 millimeter, or 1.3 M). It contains a light wheel of
+aluminum, carrying vanes of transparent mica, the poles, A B, being in
+such a position outside that the molecular focus falls upon the vanes
+on one side only. The bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is
+projected on the screen; if I now pass the current, you see the wheels
+rotate rapidly, reversing in direction as I reverse the current.
+
+Here is an apparatus (Fig. 22) which shows that the residual gaseous
+molecules when brought to a focus produce heat. It consists of a glass
+tube with a bulb blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool,
+C, fixed in the center, and exhausted to a pressure of 0.000076
+millimeter, or 0.1 M. The negative electrode, A, is formed by coating
+part of the outside of the bulb with silver, and it is in such a
+position that the focus of rays falls upon the carbon wool. The
+positive electrode, B, is an outer coating at the other end of the
+tube. I pass the current, and those who are close may see the bright
+sparks of carbon raised to incandescence by the impact of the
+molecular stream.
+
+You thus have seen that all the old "radiant matter" effects can be
+produced in tubes containing no metallic electrodes to volatilize. It
+may be suggested that the sides of the tube in contact with the
+outside poles become electrodes in this case, and that particles of
+the glass itself may be torn off and projected across, and so produce
+the effects. This is a strong argument, which fortunately can be
+tested by experiment. In the case of this tube (Fig. 23, P = 0.00068
+millimeter, or 0.9 M), the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing
+blue under molecular bombardment. Inside the bulb, completely covering
+the part that would form the negative pole, A, I have placed a
+substantial coat of yttria, so as to interpose a layer of this earth
+between the glass and the inside of the tube. The negative and
+positive poles are silver disks on the outside of the bulb, A being
+the negative and B the positive poles. If, therefore, particles are
+torn off and projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence, these
+particles will not be particles of glass, but of yttria; and the spot
+of phosphorescent light, C, on the opposite side of the bulb will not
+be the dull blue of lead glass, but the golden yellow of yttria. You
+see there is no such indication; the glass phosphoresces with its
+usual blue glow, and there is no evidence that a single particle of
+yttria is striking it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pressure = 0.000076 MM. = 0.1 M.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pressure = 0.00068 MM. = 0.9 M.]
+
+Witnessing these effects I think you will agree I am justified in
+adhering to my original theory, that the phenomena are caused by the
+radiant matter of the residual gaseous molecules, and certainly not by
+the torn-off particles of the negative electrode.
+
+
+PHOSPHORESCENCE IN HIGH VACUA.
+
+I have already pointed out that the molecular motions rendered visible
+in a vacuum tube are not the motions of molecules under ordinary
+conditions, but are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions
+and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus.
+
+Experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules may traverse more
+than a hundred times the _mean_ free path, with a correspondingly
+increased velocity, until they are arrested by collisions. Indeed, the
+molecular free path may vary in one and the same tube, and at one and
+the same degree of exhaustion.
+
+Very many bodies, such as ruby, diamond, emerald, alumina, yttria,
+samaria, and a large class of earthy oxides and sulphides,
+phosphoresce in vacuum tubes when placed in the path of the stream of
+electrified molecules proceeding from the negative pole. The
+composition of the gaseous residue present does not affect
+phosphorescence; thus, the earth yttria phosphoresces well in the
+residual vacua of atmospherical air, of oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic
+anhydride, hydrogen, iodine, sulphur and mercury.
+
+With yttria in a vacuum tube, the point of maximum phosphorescence, as
+I have already pointed out, lies on the margin of the dark space. The
+diagram (Fig. 24) shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence in
+different parts of a tube at an internal pressure of 0.25 millimeter,
+or 330 M. On the top you see the positive and negative poles, A and B,
+the latter having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted
+line, C. The curve, D E F, shows the relative intensities of the
+phosphorescence at different distances from the negative pole, and the
+position inside the dark space at which phosphorescence does not
+occur. The height of the curve represents the degree of
+phosphorescence. The most decisive effects of phosphorescence are
+reached by making the tube so large that the walls are outside the
+dark space, while the material submitted to experiment is placed just
+at the edge of the dark space.
+
+Hitherto I have spoken only of the phosphorescence of substances
+placed under the negative pole. But from numerous experiments I find
+that bodies will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative
+pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--PRESSURE = 0.25 MM. = 330 M.]
+
+This is only a temporary phenomenon, and ceases entirely when the
+exhaustion is pushed to a very high point. The experiment is one
+scarcely possible to exhibit to an audience, so I must content myself
+with describing it. A U-tube, shown in Fig. 25, has a flat aluminum
+pole, in the form of a disk, at each end, both coated with a paint of
+phosphorescent yttria. As the rarefaction approaches about 0.5
+millimeter the surface of the negative pole, A, becomes faintly
+phosphorescent. On continuing the exhaustion this luminosity rapidly
+diminishes, not only in intensity but in extent, contracting more and
+more from the edge of the disk, until ultimately it is visible only as
+a bright spot in the center. This fact does not prop a recent theory,
+that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge leaves the center of
+the pole and takes place only between the edge and the walls of the
+tube.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+If the exhaustion is further pushed, then, at the point where the
+surface of the negative pole ceases to be luminous, the material on
+the positive pole, B, commences to phosphoresce, increasing in
+intensity until the tube refuses to conduct, its greatest brilliancy
+being just short of this degree of exhaustion. The probable
+explanation is that the vagrant molecules I introduce in the next
+experiment, happening to come within the sphere of influence of the
+positive pole, rush violently to it, and excite phosphorescence in the
+yttria, while losing their negative charge.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 794, page 12690.]
+
+
+
+
+GASEOUS ILLUMINANTS.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts,
+London. From the _Journal_ of the Society.]
+
+By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES.
+
+
+V.
+
+Having now brought before you the various methods by which ordinary
+coal gas can be enriched, so as to give an increased luminosity to the
+flame, I wish now to discuss the methods by which the gas can be
+burnt, in order to yield the greatest amount of light, and also the
+compounds which are produced during combustion.
+
+In the first lecture, while discussing the theory of luminous flames,
+I pointed out that, in an atmospheric burner, it was not the oxygen of
+the air introduced combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons, and
+so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon, which gave the
+non-luminous flame, but the diluting action of the nitrogen, which
+acted by increasing the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are
+broken up, and carbon liberated, a fact which was proved by
+observation that heating the mixture of gas and air again restored the
+luminosity of the flame. This experiment clearly shows that
+temperature is a most important factor in the illuminating value of a
+flame, and this is still further shown by a study of the action of the
+diluents present in coal gas, the non-combustible ones being far more
+deleterious than the combustible, as they not only dilute, but
+withdraw heat.
+
+Anything which will increase the temperature of the flame will also
+increase the illuminating power, provided, of course, that the
+increase in temperature is not obtained at the expense of the too
+rapid combustion of the hydrocarbons.
+
+As has been shown in the experiments relating to the action of
+diluents on flame, already quoted, oxygen, when added to coal gas,
+increases its illuminating value to a marked and increasing degree,
+until a certain percentage has been added, after which the
+illuminating power is rapidly decreased, until the point is reached
+when the mixture becomes explosive. This is due to the fact that the
+added oxygen increases the temperature of the flame by doing the work
+of the air, but without the cooling and diluting action of the
+nitrogen; when, however, a certain proportion is added, it begins to
+burn up the heavy hydrocarbons, and although the temperature goes on
+increasing, the light-giving power is rapidly diminished by the
+diminution of the amount of free carbon in the flame.
+
+It has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor coal gas by
+admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made under Tatham's patents, in
+which crude oils are cracked at a comparatively low temperature, and
+are there mixed with from 12 to 24 per cent. of oxygen gas. Oil gas
+made at low temperatures, _per se_, is of little use as an illuminant,
+as it burns with a smoky flame, and does not travel well, but when
+mixed with a certain amount of oxygen, it gives a very brilliant white
+light, and no smoke, while as far as experiments have at present gone,
+its traveling powers are much improved.
+
+At first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix a heavy
+hydrocarbon gas with oxygen, but it must be remembered that although
+hydrogen and carbon monoxide only need to be mixed with half their own
+volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture, yet as the number
+of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the combustible gas increase, so does
+the amount of oxygen needed to give explosion. Thus coal gas needs
+rather more than its own volume, and ethylene three times its volume,
+to give the maximum explosive results, while these mixtures begin to
+be explosive when 10 per cent. of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or
+water gas, 30 per cent. with coal gas, and over 50 per cent. of oil
+gas of the character used. It is claimed that if this gas was used as
+an enricher of coal gas, 5 per cent. of it would increase the
+luminosity of 16-candle gas by about 40 per cent.
+
+Oxygen has been obtained for some time past from the air on a
+commercial scale by the Brin process, and at the present time there
+seems every prospect of our being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of
+about 3s. 6d. per 1,000 cubic feet. Another process by which this
+important result can also be obtained was first introduced by Tessie
+du Mothay, and has now just been revived. It consists of passing
+alternate currents of steam and air over sodic manganate heated to
+dull redness in an iron tube; the process has never been commercially
+successful, for the reason that the contents of the tube fused, and
+flowing over the surface of the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or
+retorts, and also as soon as fusion took place, the mass became so
+dense that it had little or no action on the air passing over it. Now,
+however, this difficulty has been partly overcome by so preparing the
+manganate as to prevent fusion, and to keep it in a spongy state,
+which gives very high results, and the substance being practically
+everlasting, the cost of production is extremely low.
+
+It is proposed to feed this by a separate system of pipes to small gas
+jets, and by converting them into practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes,
+to raise solid masses of refractory material to incandescence, and
+also by supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular
+construction, to obtain a very great increase in illuminating power.
+
+Whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen would be successful or
+not, I do not wish to discuss at the present time, but there is no
+doubt but that cheap oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas
+manager, as by mixing 0.8 per cent. of oxygen with his coal gas before
+purification, he could not only utilize the method so successfully
+introduced by Mr. Valon at Ramsgate, but could also increase the
+illuminating value of his gas.
+
+In speaking of the structure of flame, I pointed out that close to the
+burner from which the gas giving the flame is issuing, a space exists
+in which no combustion is going on--in other words, a flame is never
+in contact with the rim of the burner. This is best seen when the gas
+is turned low--with a batswing burner, for instance--turned so low
+that only a small non-luminous flame is left, the space between burner
+and flame will appear as great as the flame itself, while, if the gas
+is mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide, the space can be
+very much increased.
+
+Several theories have been brought forward to explain this phenomenon,
+but the true one is that the burner abstracts so much heat from the
+flame at that point that it is unable to burn there, and this can be
+proved by the fact that where a cold object touches the flame, a
+dividing space, similar to that noticed between flame and burner, will
+always be observed, and the colder the object and the more diluted the
+gas the greater is the observed space. If a cold metal wire or rod is
+held in a non-luminous flame, it causes an extinction of the gas for
+some considerable space around itself; but as the temperature of the
+rod rises, this space becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is
+heated to redness, and then the flame comes in contact with the rod.
+
+In the same way, if the burner from which the gas is issuing be heated
+to redness, the space between burner and flame disappears. It has
+already been shown that cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces
+the illuminating value, and finally renders it more luminous; and we
+are now in a position to discuss the points which should be aimed at
+in the construction of a good gas burner.
+
+In the first place, a sensible diminution in light takes place when a
+metal burner is employed, and the larger the surface and thickness of
+the metal the worse will be its action on the illuminating power of
+the flame; but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom of
+the flame, so that with a small flame the total effect is very great,
+and with a very large flame almost _nil_.
+
+The first point, therefore, to attend to is that the burner shall be
+made of a good non-conductor. In the next place, the flow of the gas
+must be regulated to the burner, as, if you have a pressure higher
+than that for which the burner is constructed, you at once obtain a
+roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power, as the too rapid rush
+of gas from the burner causes a mingling of gas and air and a
+consequent cooling of the flame. The tap also which regulates the
+flame is better at a distance from the burner than close to it, as any
+constriction near the burner causes eddies, which give an unsteady
+flame.
+
+These general principles govern all burners, and we will now take the
+ordinary forms in detail. In the ordinary flat flame burner, given a
+good non-conducting material, and a well regulated gas supply, little
+more can be done, while burning it in the ordinary way, to increase
+its luminosity; and it is the large surface of flame exposed to the
+cooling action of the air which causes this form of burner to give the
+lowest service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed. Much is done,
+moreover, by faulty fittings and shades, to reduce the already poor
+light given out, because the light-yielding power of the flame largely
+depends upon its having a well rounded base and broad, luminous zone;
+and when a globe with a narrow opening is used with such a flame--as
+is done in 99 out of 100 cases--the updraught drags the flame out of
+shape, and seriously impairs its light-giving powers, a trouble which
+can be got over by having the globe with an opening at the bottom not
+less than 4 inches in diameter, and having small shoulders fixed to
+the burner, which draw out the flame and protect the base from the
+disturbing influence of draughts.
+
+The Argand burner differs from the flat flame burners in that a
+circular flame is employed. The air supply is regulated by a
+cylindrical glass, and this form of burner gives a better service than
+the flat flame burner, as not only can the supply of gas and air be
+better adjusted, but the air being slightly warmed by the hot glass
+adds to the temperature of the flame, which is also increased by
+radiation from the opposite side of the flame itself.
+
+The chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon the fact that,
+being circular, the light from the inner surface has to pass through
+the wall of flame, and careful photometric experiments show that the
+solid particles present in the flame so reduce its transparency that a
+loss amounting to about 25 per cent. of light takes place during its
+transmission.
+
+The height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted to the size of
+the flame, as too long a chimney, by increasing the air supply unduly,
+cools, and so lowers the illuminating power of the flame. Experiments
+with carbureted water gas gave the following results, with a
+consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour:
+
+-----------------------------------------------------
+ Size of Chimney. | Height of Flame. | Candle Power. |
+------------------+------------------+---------------|
+    6 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/2       |     21        |
+    7 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/4       |     21.3      |
+    8 X 1-7/8     |      2-1/8       |     20.8      |
+    9 X 1-7/8     |      1-7/8       |     18.2      |
+------------------+------------------+---------------+
+
+For many years no advance was made upon these forms of burner, but
+when, ten years ago, it was recognized that anything which cools the
+flame reduces its value, while anything which increases its
+temperature raises its illuminating power, then a change took place in
+the forms of burner in use, and the regenerative burners, introduced
+by such men as Siemens, Grimston, and Bower, commenced what was really
+a revolution in gas lighting.
+
+By utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products of combustion
+to raise the temperature of the gas and air which are to enter into
+combination in the flame, an enormous increase in the temperature of
+the solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained, and a far
+greater and whiter light is the result.
+
+The Bower lamp, in which (at any rate in the later forms) the flame
+burns between a downward and an upward current of air, was one of the
+first produced, and so well has it been kept up to date that it still
+holds its own; while as types of the "inverted cone" regenerative
+burner, we may also take the Cromarty and Wenham lights, which have
+been followed by a host of imitators, and so closely are the original
+types adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what the use of
+the Patent Office really is.
+
+The Schulke, and the last form of Siemens regenerative burner,
+however, stand apart from all the others by dealing with flat and not
+conical flames, and in both regeneration is carried on to a high
+degree. The only drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by
+far the best form of gas stove as well as burner, and that the amount
+of heat thrown out by the radiant solid matter in the flame is, under
+some circumstances, an annoyance. But, on the other hand, we must not
+forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead burners, and
+that nearly every form of regenerative lamp can be adapted as a
+ventilating agent, and that with the withdrawal of the products of
+combustion from the air of the room, the great and only serious
+objection to gas as an illuminant disappears.
+
+When coal gas is burned, the hydrogen is supposed to be entirely
+converted into water vapor, and the carbon to finally escape into the
+air as carbon dioxide; and if this were so, every cubic foot of gas
+consumed would produce approximately 0.52 cubic foot of carbon dioxide
+and 1.34 cubic feet of water vapor, while the illuminating power
+yielded by the cubic foot of gas will, of course, vary with the kind
+of burner used.
+
+Roughly speaking, the ordinary types of burner give the following
+results:
+
+   ------------------------------------------------------------
+                    | Illuminating    | Products of Combustion
+                    |  Power in       |           per
+    Name of Burner. | Candles per     |      Candle Power.
+                    |  c.f. of gas    |------------------------
+                    |  Consumed.      |   Carbon   |  Water
+                    |                 |  Dioxide.  |  Vapor.
+   -----------------+-----------------+------------+-----------
+    Batswing.       |      2.9        | 0.18 c.f.  | 0.46 c.f.
+    Argand.         |      3.3        | 0.16 c.f.  | 0.40 c.f.
+    Regenerative.   |     10.0        | 0.05 c.f.  | 0.13 c.f.
+   -----------------+-----------------+------------+------------
+
+So that the regenerative forms of burner, by giving the greatest
+illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, yield a smaller
+amount of vitiation to the air per candle of light emitted.
+
+An ordinary room, say 16' X 12' X 10', would not be considered
+properly illuminated unless the light were at least equal to 32 candle
+power; and in the table below the amount of the oxygen used up and the
+products of combustion formed by each class of illuminant and burner
+in attaining this result are given, the number of adults who would
+exhale the same amount during respiration being also stated.
+
+From these data it appears, according to rules by which the degree of
+vitiation of the air in any confined space is measured by the amount
+of oxygen used up and carbon dioxide formed, that candles are the
+worst offenders against health and comfort. Oil lamps come next, and
+gas least. This, however, is an assumption which practical experience
+does not bear out. Discomfort and oppression in a room lighted by
+candles or oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older
+forms of gas burner; and the partial explanation of this is to be
+found in the fact that, when a room is illuminated with candles or
+oil, people are contented with a feebler and more local light than
+when using gas. In a room of the size described, the inmates would be
+more likely to use two candles placed near their books, or on a table,
+than thirty-two scattered about the room.
+
+Moreover, the amount of water vapor given off during the combustion of
+gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants. Water vapor
+having a great power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas
+becomes heated, and diffusing itself about the room, causes great
+feeling of oppression; the air also being highly charged with
+moisture, is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapor which is
+always evaporating from the surface of our skin, whereby the functions
+of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of
+_malaise_.
+
+Added to these, however, is a far more serious factor which has, up to
+the present, been overlooked, and that is that an ordinary gas flame,
+in burning, yields distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and
+acetylene, the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest traces
+produces headache and general physical discomfort, while its effect
+upon plant life is equally marked.
+
+
+AMOUNT OF OXYGEN REMOVED FROM THE AIR, AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER
+VAPOR GENERATED TO GIVE AN ILLUMINATION EQUAL TO 32 CANDLE POWER.
+
+(The amount of light required in a room 16' X 12' x 10'.)
+
+              |Quantity of |          | Products of Combustion|      |
+              |  Materials | Oxygen   |           |  Carbon   |      |
+Illuminant    |    Used    | Removed  |Water Vapor|  Dioxide  |Adults|
+--------------+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------+
+Sperm Candles |3,840 grains|19.27 c.f.|13.12 c.f. |13.12 c.f. | 21.8 |
+Paraffin Oil  |1,984   "   |12.48 c.f.| 7.04 c.f. | 8.96 c.f. | 14.9 |
+Gas (London)--|            |          |           |           |      |
+ Burners:     |            |          |           |           |      |
+  Batswing    |  11  c.f.  |13.06 c.f.|14.72 c.f. | 5.76 c.f. |  9.6 |
+  Argand      |   9.7 c.f. |11.52 c.f.|12.80 c.f. | 5.12 c.f. |  8.5 |
+  Regenerative|   3.2 c.f. | 3.68 c.f.| 4.16 c.f. | 1.60 c.f. |  2.6 |
+
+Ever since the structure of flame has been noted and discussed, it has
+been accepted as a fact beyond dispute that the outer almost invisible
+zone which is interposed between the air and the luminous zone of the
+flame is the area of complete combustion, and that here the unburnt
+remnants of the flame gases, meeting the air, freely take up oxygen
+and are converted into the comparatively harmless products of
+combustion, carbon dioxide and water vapor, which only need partial
+removal by any haphazard process of ventilation to keep the air of the
+room fit to support animal life. I have, however, long doubted this
+fact, and at length, by a delicate process of analysis have been able
+to confirm my suspicions. The outer zone of a luminous flame is not
+the zone of complete combustion; it is a zone in which luminosity is
+destroyed in exactly the same way that it is destroyed in the Bunsen
+burner; that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools
+down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered
+non-luminous, while some of the gas sinks below the point at which it
+is capable of burning, with the result that considerable quantities of
+the products of incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene
+escape into the air, and render it actively injurious.
+
+I have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe, with a circular
+loop on the end, the interior of the loop being pierced with minute
+holes, and by making a circular flame burn within the loop so that the
+non-luminous zone of the flame just touched the inside of the loop,
+and then by aspiration so gentle as not to distort the shape of the
+flame, withdrawing the gases escaping from the outer zone. On
+analyzing these by a delicate process, which will be described
+elsewhere, I arrived at the following results:
+
+    GASES ESCAPING FROM THE OUTER ZONE OF FLAME.
+
+                             Luminous.   Bunsen.
+
+    Nitrogen.                76.612      80.242
+    Water vapor.             14.702      13.345
+    Carbon dioxide.           2.201       4.966
+    Carbon monoxide.          1.189       0.006
+    Oxygen.                   2.300       1.430
+    Marsh gas.                0.072       0.003
+    Hydrogen.                 2.888       0.008
+    Acetylene.                0.036        Nil.
+                            -------     -------
+                            100.000     100.000
+
+The gases leaving the luminous flame show that the diluting action of
+the nitrogen is so great that considerable quantities even of the
+highly inflammable and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion,
+while the products of incomplete combustion are present in sufficient
+quantity to account perfectly for the deleterious effects of gas
+burners in ill-ventilated rooms. The analyses also bring out very
+clearly the fact that, although the dilution of coal gas by air in
+atmospheric burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of the
+heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon, and so destroy
+luminosity, yet the presence of the extra supply of oxygen does make
+the combustion far more perfect, so that the products of incomplete
+combustion are hardly to be found in the escaping gases.
+
+These experiments are of the gravest import, as they show more clearly
+than has ever been done before the absolute necessity for special and
+perfect ventilation where coal gas is employed for the illumination of
+our dwelling rooms.
+
+When coal gas was first employed during the early part of this century
+as an illuminating agent, the low pitch of the old fashioned rooms,
+and the excess of impurities in the gas, rendered it imperative that
+the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas should be
+conducted from the apartment, and for this purpose arrangements of
+tubes with funnel shaped openings were suspended over the burners. The
+noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or open air; but
+this type of ventilator was unsightly in the extreme, and some few
+attempts were made to replace it by a more elegant arrangement, as in
+the ventilating lamp invented by Faraday, and in the adaptation of the
+same principle by Mr. I.O.N. Rutter, who strove for many years to
+direct attention to the necessity of removing the products of
+combustion from the room. But with the increase of the gas industry,
+the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually more and more
+perfect, while the rooms in the modern houses were made more lofty;
+and the products of combustion being mixed with a larger volume of
+air, and not containing so many deleterious constituents, became, if
+not much less noxious, at all events less perceptible to the nose. As
+soon as this point was reached, the ventilating tubes were discarded,
+and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms has been
+contaminated by illuminants, with hardly an effort to alleviate the
+effect produced upon health. I say "hardly an effort," for the Messrs.
+Boyle tried, by their concentric tube ventilators, to meet the
+difficulty, while Mr. De la Garde and Mr. Hammond have each
+constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the Rutter lamp;
+but either from their being somewhat unsightly, or from their
+diminishing the amount of light given out, none of them have met with
+any degree of success. In places of public entertainment, where large
+quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating purposes, the
+absolute necessity for special ventilation gave rise to the "sun
+burner," with its ventilating shaft. This, however, gives but a very
+poor illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed, due partly to
+the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced, and partly to
+its distance from the objects to be illuminated.
+
+The great difficulty which in the whole history of ventilation has
+opposed itself to the adoption of proper arrangements for removing the
+products of combustion has been the necessity of bringing the tube to
+carry off the gases low down into the room, and of incasing the burner
+in such a way that none of the products should escape; but with the
+present revolution in gas burners this necessity is entirely done away
+with, and the regenerative burner offers the means not only of
+removing all the products of combustion but also of effecting thorough
+ventilation of the room itself, as experiments made some few years ago
+showed me that a ventilating regenerative burner, burning 20 cubic
+feet of gas per hour and properly fitted, will not only remove all its
+own products of combustion, but also over 5,000 cubic feet per hour of
+the vitiated air from the upper part of the room. I am quite aware
+that many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections to fitting
+ventilating lamps, these being chiefly due to the fact that it
+requires considerable trouble to fit them properly; but I think I have
+said enough to show the absolute necessity of some such system, and
+when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps, engineering
+skill will soon find means to overcome any slight difficulties which
+exist.
+
+Having disposed in a few words of a subject which, if fully treated,
+would occupy a long course of lectures by itself, I will pass on to
+the consideration of gas as at present used as a fuel.
+
+There is no doubt that gas is the most convenient and in many ways one
+of the best forms of fuel for heating and cooking purposes, and the
+efforts which all large gas companies are now making to popularize and
+increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly bear fruit
+in the future. But before the day can come for gas to be used in this
+way on a large scale, there is one fact which the gas manager and gas
+stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to, and that is
+that no gas stove or gas water heater, of any construction, should be
+sent out or fitted without just as great care being taken to provide
+for the carrying away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary
+fuel range was being fitted. Do not for one moment allow yourself to
+be persuaded that, because a gas stove or geyser does not send out a
+mass of black smoke, the products of combustion can be neglected and
+with safety allowed to mingle with the atmosphere we are to breathe.
+
+Scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are recorded from the
+products of combustion given off from various forms of water heaters
+used in bath rooms; scarcely a cookery class is given, with gas
+stoves, that one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from an
+intense headache, and often in an almost fainting condition. And the
+same cause which brings about these extreme cases, on a smaller scale
+causes such physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons
+that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely decline to have
+gas as an illuminant or fuel in any of their living rooms; and if the
+use of gas, more especially as fuel, is to be extended, and if gas is
+to hold its own in the future against such rivals as the electric
+light, then those interested in gas and gas stoves must face the
+problem, and by improving the methods of burning and using gas do away
+with the present serious drawbacks which exist to its use.
+
+The feeling has gradually been gaining ground in the public mind that,
+when atmospheric burners and other devices for burning coal gas are
+employed for heating purposes, certain deleterious products of
+incomplete combustion find their way into the air, and that this takes
+place to a considerable extent is shown by the facts brought forward
+in a paper read by Mr. William Thomson before the last meeting of the
+British Association.
+
+Mr. Thomson attempted to separate and determine the quantity of carbon
+monoxide and hydrocarbons present in the flue gases from various forms
+of gas stoves and burners, but, like every other observer who has
+attempted to solve this most difficult problem, he found it so beset
+with difficulties that he had to abandon it, and contented himself
+with determining the total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in
+an unburned condition, experiments which showed that the combustion of
+gas in stoves for heating purposes is much more incomplete than one
+had been in the habit of supposing, but his experiments give no clew
+as to whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of such
+deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene, or comparatively
+harmless gases, such as marsh gas and hydrogen. After considerable
+work upon the subject, I have succeeded in doing this by a very
+delicate process of analysis, and I now wish to lay some of my results
+before you.
+
+If a cold substance, metal or non-metal, be placed in a flame, whether
+it be luminous or non-luminous, it will be observed that there is a
+clear space, in which no combustion is taking place, formed round the
+cool surface, and that as the body gets heated so this space gets less
+and less until, when the substance is at the same temperature as the
+flame itself, there is contact between the two. Moreover, when a
+luminous flame is employed in this experiment the space still exists
+between the cool body and the flame, but you also notice that the
+luminosity is decreased over a still larger area although the flame
+exists.
+
+This meaning that, in immediate contact with the cold body, the
+temperature is so reduced that the flame cannot exist, and so is
+extinguished over a small area; while over a still larger space the
+temperature is so reduced that it is not hot enough to bring about
+decomposition of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon to
+the same extent as in hotter portions of the flame. Now, inasmuch as
+when water is heated or boiled in an open vessel, the temperature
+cannot rise above 100 deg.C., and as the temperature of an ordinary flame
+is over 1,000 deg.C., it is evident that the burning gas can never be in
+contact with the bottom of the vessel, or, in other words, the gas is
+put out before combustion is completed, and the unburned gas and
+products of incomplete combustion find their way into the air and
+render it perfectly unfit for respiration.
+
+The portion of the flame which is supposed to be the hottest is about
+half an inch above the tip of the inner zone of the flame, and it is
+at this point that most vessels containing water to be heated are made
+to impinge on the flame; and it is this portion of the flame, also,
+which is utilized for raising various solids to a temperature at which
+they radiate heat.
+
+In order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination which the
+air undergoes when a geyser or cooking stove is at work, I have
+determined the composition of the products of combustion, and the
+unburned gases escaping when a vessel containing water at the ordinary
+temperatures is heated up to the boiling point by a gas flame, the
+vessel being placed, in the first case, half an inch above the inner
+cone of the flame, and in the second, at the extreme outer tip of the
+flame.
+
+         GASES ESCAPING DURING CHECKED COMBUSTION.
+
+                    |    Bunsen flame.      |     Luminous flame.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+                    |   Inner.  |   Outer.  |     Inner.  |  Outer.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+Nitrogen            |   75.75   |    79.17  |     77.52   |   69.41
+Water vapor         |   13.47   |    14.29  |     11.80   |   19.24
+Carbon dioxide      |    2.99   |     5.13  |      4.93   |    8.38
+Carbon monoxide     |    3.69   |     Nil.  |      2.45   |    2.58
+Marsh gas           |    0.51   |     0.31  |      0.95   |    0.39
+Acetylene           |    0.04   |     Nil.  |      0.27   |    Nil.
+Hydrogen            |    3.55   |     0.47  |      2.08   |    Nil.
+                    +-----------+-----------+-------------+----------
+                    |  100.00   |   100.00  |    100.00   |  100.00
+
+These figures are of the greatest interest, as they show conclusively
+that the extreme top of the Bunsen flame is the only portion of the
+flame which can be used for heating a solid substance without
+liberating deleterious gases; and this corroborates the previous
+experiment on the gases in the outer zone of a flame, which showed
+that the outer zone of a Bunsen flame is the only place where complete
+combustion is approached.
+
+Moreover, this sets at rest a question which has been over and over
+again under discussion, and that is whether it is better to use a
+luminous or a non-luminous flame for heating purposes. Using a
+luminous flame, it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon, which
+is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer surface, and the
+carbon dioxide formed by the complete combustion of the carbon already
+burned up in flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide, so that
+even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it is impossible to heat a
+cool body without giving rise to carbon monoxide, although acetylene
+being absent, gas stoves, in which small flat flame burners are used,
+have not that subtile and penetrating odor which marks the ordinary
+atmospheric burner stove, with the combustion checked just at the
+right spot for the formation of the greatest volume of noxious
+products.
+
+It is the contact of the body to be heated with the flame before
+combustion is complete which gives rise to the greatest mischief; any
+cooling of the flame extinguishes a portion of the flame, and the
+gases present in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along the
+cooled surface and escape combustion.
+
+Dr. Blochmann has shown the composition of the gases in various parts
+of the Bunsen flame to be as follows:
+
+  Height above tube. |In tube. |1 inch. |2 inch. |3 inch. |Complete
+                     |         |        |        |        |combustion
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Air with 100 vols. |         |        |        |        |
+    gas              | 253.9   | 284.7  | 284.5  | 484.3  | 608.8
+  Hydrogen           |  48.6   |  36.4  |  17.7  |  16.1  |  Nil.
+  Marsh gas          |  39.0   |  40.1  |  28.0  |   5.7  |  Nil.
+  Carbon monoxide    |   2.9   |   2.2  |  19.9  |  12.7  |  Nil.
+  Olefiant gas       |   4.0   |   3.4  |   2.2  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Buteylene          |   3.0   |   2.5  |   1.6  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Oxygen             |  52.7   |  52.0  |  21.7  |  Nil.  |  Nil.
+  Nitrogen           | 199.1   | 223.8  | 225.9  | 382.4  | 482.3
+  Carbon dioxide     |   0.8   |   3.5  |  13.0  |  41.7  |  62.4
+  Water vapor        |   3.1   |  11.8  |  45.8  | 116.1  | 141.2
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Which results show that it would be impossible to check the flame
+anywhere short of the extreme tip (where complete combustion is
+approximately taking place), without liberating deleterious products.
+I think I have said enough to show that no gas stove, geyser or gas
+cooking stove should be used without ample and thorough means of
+ventilation being provided, and no trace of the products of combustion
+should be allowed to escape into the air; until this is done, the use
+of improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious injury on
+the health of the people using them, and this will gradually result in
+the abandonment of gas as a fuel, instead of, as should be the case,
+its coming into general use. The English householder is far too prone
+to accept what is offered to him, without using his own common sense,
+and will buy the article which tickles his eye the most and his pocket
+the least, on the bare assurance of the shopkeeper, who is only
+anxious to sell; but when he finds that health and comfort are in
+jeopardy, and has discarded the gas stove, it will take years of labor
+to convince him that it was the misuse of gas which caused the
+trouble. Already signs are not wanting that the employers of gas
+stoves are beginning to fight shy of them, and I earnestly hope that
+the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to bear upon the
+stove manufacturers to give proper attention to this all important
+question.
+
+So strongly do I feel the importance of this question to the gas world
+and the public, that I freely offer to analyze the products of
+combustion given off by any gas stove or water heater sent to me at
+Greenwich during the next six months, on one condition, and that is
+that the results, good, bad, or indifferent, will be published in a
+paper before this Society, which has always been in the front when
+matters of great sanitary importance to the public had to be taken up.
+And if after that the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have
+not been certified, it is their own fault; but I do think that the
+maker of any stove or geyser which causes a death should be put upon
+his trial for manslaughter.
+
+In conclusion, let us consider for a moment what is likely to be the
+future of gas during the next half century. The labor troubles, bad as
+they are and have been, will not cease for many a weary year. The
+victims of imperfect education (more dangerous than none at all, as,
+while destroying natural instinct, it leaves nothing in its place)
+will still listen and be led by the baneful influence of irresponsible
+demagogues, who care for naught so long as they can read their own
+inflammatory utterances in the local press, and gain a temporary
+notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause they profess to
+serve. The natural tendency of this will be that every labor-saving
+contrivance that can will be pressed into the gas manager's service;
+and that, although coal (of a poorer class than at present used) will
+still be employed as a source of gas, the present retort setting will
+quickly give way to inclined retorts on the Coze principle; while,
+instead of the present wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke,
+it will be shot direct into the generator of the water gas plant, and
+the water gas carbureted with the benzene hydrocarbons derived from
+the smoke of the blast furnace and coke oven, or from the creosote oil
+of the tar distiller, by the process foreshadowed in the concluding
+sentences of my last lecture. It will then be mixed with the gas from
+the retorts, and will supply a far higher illuminant than we at
+present possess. In parts of the United Kingdom, such as South Wales,
+where gas coal is dear, and anthracite and bastard coals are cheap,
+water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant coal gas, with a
+saving of fifty per cent. on the prices now existing in those
+districts. While these changes have been going on, and while improved
+methods of manufacture have been tending to the cheapening of gas, it
+will have been steadily growing in public favor as a fuel; and if in
+years to come the generation of electricity should have been so
+cheapened as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an
+illuminant, the gas works will still be found as busy as of yore, the
+holder of gas shares as contented as to-day; for with a desire for a
+purer atmosphere and a white mist instead of a yellow fog, gas will
+have largely supplanted coal as a fuel, and gas stoves, properly
+ventilated and free from the reproaches I have hurled at them
+to-night, will burn a gas far higher in its heating power, far better
+in its power of bearing illuminating hydrocarbons, and free from
+poisonous constituents.
+
+When the demand for it arises, hydrogen gas can be made as cheaply as
+water gas itself, and when time is ripe for a fuel gas for use in the
+house, it is hydrogen and not water gas which will form its basis.
+With carbureted water gas and 20 per cent. of carbon monoxide we are
+still below the limit of danger, but a pure water gas with over 40 per
+cent. of the same insidious element of danger will never be tolerated
+in our households. Already a patent has been taken by Messrs. Crookes
+and Ricarde-Seaver for purifying water gas from carbon monoxide, and
+converting it mainly into hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature
+through a mixture of lime and soda lime, a process which is chemically
+perfect, as the most expensive portion of the material used could be
+recovered; but in the present state of the labor market it is not
+practical, as for the making of every 100,000 cubic feet of gas,
+fifteen tons of material would have to be handled, the cost of labor
+alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted; moreover,
+hydrogen can be made far cheaper directly.
+
+From the earliest days of gas making, the manufacture of hydrogen by
+the passage of steam over red-hot iron has been over and over again
+mooted, and attempted on a large scale, but several factors have
+combined to render it futile.
+
+In the first place, for every 478.5 cubic feet of hydrogen made under
+perfect theoretical conditions never likely to be obtained in
+practice, 56 lb. of iron were converted into the magnetic oxide, and
+as there was no ready sale for this article, this alone would prevent
+its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen; the next point was that
+when steam was passed over the red-hot iron, the temperature was so
+rapidly lowered that the generation of gas could only go on for a very
+short period, while, finally, the swelling of the mass in the retort
+and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into the side renders the
+removal of the spent material almost an impossibility. These
+difficulties can, however, be got over. Take a fire clay retort, six
+feet long and a foot in diameter, and cap it with a casting bearing
+two outlet tubes closed by screw valves, while a similar tube leads
+from the bottom of the retort. Inclose this retort by a furnace
+chamber of iron lined with fire brick, leaving a space of two feet six
+inches round the retort, and connect the top of the furnace chamber
+with one opening at the top of the upright retort, while air blasts
+lead into the bottom of the furnace chamber, below rocking fire bars,
+which start at bottom of the retort, and slope upward, to leave room
+for ash holes closed by gas tight covers. The retort is filled with
+iron or steel borings, alone if pure hydrogen is required, or cast
+into balls with pitch if a little carbon monoxide is not a drawback,
+as in foundry work. The furnace chamber is now filled with coke, fed
+in through manholes, or hoppers, in the top, and the fuel being
+ignited, the blast is turned on, and the mixture of nitrogen and
+carbon monoxide passes over the iron, heating it to a red heat, while
+the fuel in contact with the retort does the same thing.
+
+When the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red heat, the
+air blast is cut off, and the pipe connecting the furnace and retort,
+together with the pipe in connection with the bottom of the retort,
+are closed, and steam, superheated by passing through a pipe led round
+the retort or interior wall of the furnace, is injected at the bottom
+of the red-hot mass of iron, which decomposes it, forming magnetic
+oxide of iron and hydrogen, which escapes by the second tube at the
+top of the retort, and is led away either to a carbureting chamber if
+required for illumination, or direct to the gasholder if wanted as a
+fuel. The mass of incandescent fuel in the furnace chamber,
+surrounding the retort, keeping up the temperature of retort and iron
+sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed.
+
+The hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and the air blast turned
+on. The hot carbon monoxide passing over the hot magnetic oxide
+quickly reduces it down to metallic iron, which, being in a spongy
+condition, acts more freely on the steam during later makes than it
+did at first, and being infusible at the temperature employed, may be
+used for a practically unlimited period.
+
+What more simple method than this could be desired? Here we have the
+formation of the most valuable of all fuel gases at the cost of the
+coke and steam used, a gas also which has double the carrying power
+for hydrocarbon vapors possessed by coal gas, while its combustion
+gives rise to nothing but water vapor.
+
+In this course of lectures I have left much unsaid and undone which I
+should have liked to have had time to accomplish, and if I have been
+obliged to leave out of consideration many important points, it is the
+time at my disposal and not my will which is to blame. And now, in
+conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to my assistants, Messrs. J.A.
+Foster and J.B. Warden, who have heartily co-operated with me in much
+of the work embodied in these lectures.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS.
+
+
+The celebrated philosopher Bacon, the founder of the experimental
+method, claimed that we see better with one eye than with two, because
+the attention is more concentrated and becomes profounder. "On looking
+in a mirror," says he, "we may observe that, if we shut one eye, the
+pupil of the other dilates." To this question: "But why, then, have we
+two eyes?" he responds: "In order that one may remain if the other
+gets injured." Despite the reasoning of the learned philosopher, we
+may be permitted to believe that the reason that we have two eyes is
+for seeing better and especially for perceiving the effects of
+perspective and the relief of objects. We have no intention of setting
+forth here the theory of binocular vision; one simple experiment will
+permit any one to see that the real place of an object is poorly
+estimated with one eye. Seated before a desk, pen in hand, suddenly
+close one eye, and, at the same time, stretch out the arm in order to
+dip the pen in the inkstand; you will fail nine times out of ten. It
+is not in one day that the effects of binocular vision have been
+established, for the ancients made many observations on the subject.
+It was in 1593 that the celebrated Italian physicist Porta was the
+first to give an accurate figure of two images seen by each eye
+separately, but he desired no apparatus that permitted of
+reconstituting the relief on looking at them. Those savants who, after
+him, occupied themselves with the question, treated it no further
+than from a theoretical point of view. It was not till 1838 that the
+English physicist Wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic
+apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining simultaneously
+with each of the eyes two different images of an object, one having
+the perspective that the right eye perceives, and the other that the
+left eye perceives.
+
+This apparatus is described in almost all treatises on physics. We may
+merely recall the fact that it operated by reflection, that is to say,
+the two images were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors making
+an angle of 45 degrees. The instrument was very cumbersome and not
+very practical. Another English physicist, David Brewster, in 1844
+devised the stereoscope that we all know; but, what is a curious
+thing, he could not succeed in having it constructed in England, where
+it was not at first appreciated. It was not till 1850 that he brought
+it to Paris, where it was constructed by Mr. Soleil and his son-in-law
+Duboscq. Abbot Moigno and the two celebrated opticians succeeded, not
+without some difficulty, in having it examined by the _official_
+savants; but, at the great exposition of 1851, it was remarked by the
+Queen of England, and from this moment Messrs. Soleil & Duboscq
+succeeded with difficulty only in satisfying the numerous orders that
+came from all parts. As photography permitted of easily making
+identical images, but with different perspective, it contributed
+greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus.
+
+The stereoscope, such as we know it, presents the inconvenience of
+being incapable of being used by but one person at once. Several
+inventors have endeavored to render the stereoscopic images visible to
+several spectators at the same time. In 1858, Mr. Claudet conceived
+the idea of projecting the two stereoscopic images upon ground glass
+in superposing them. The relief was seen, it appears, but we cannot
+very well explain why; the idea, however, had no outcome, because the
+image, being quite small, could be observed by but three or four
+persons at once. It was Mr. D'Almeida, a French physicist, who toward
+the same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable manner, and we
+cannot explain why his process (that required no special apparatus)
+fell into the desuetude from which Mr. Molteni has just rescued it and
+obtained much success.
+
+[Illustration: STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTIONS]
+
+This is in what it consists: The impression of the relief appears when
+each eye sees that one of the two images which presents the
+perspective that it would perceive if it saw the real object. If we
+take two transparent stereoscopic images and place each of them in a
+projection lantern, in such a way that they can be superposed upon the
+screen, we shall obtain thereby a single image. It will always be a
+little light and soft, as the superposition cannot be effected
+accurately, the perspective not being the same for each of them. It is
+a question now to make each eye see the one of the two images proper
+to it. To this effect, Mr. D'Almeida conceived the very ingenious idea
+of placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image having the
+perspective of the right eye, and a red glass in front of the other
+image. As green and red are complementary colors, the result was not
+changed upon the screen; there was a little less light, that was all.
+But if, at this moment, the spectator places a green glass before his
+right eye and a red one before his left, he will find himself in the
+condition desired for realizing the effect sought.
+
+Each eye will then see only the image responding to the coloration
+chosen, and, as it is precisely the one which has the perspective
+proper to it, the relief appears immediately. The effect is striking.
+We perceive a diffused image upon the screen with the naked eye, but
+as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief appears with as
+much distinctness as in the best stereoscope. One must not, for
+example, reverse his eye-glass, for if (things being arranged as we
+have said) he looks through a red glass before his right eye, and
+through a green one before his left, it is the image carrying the
+perspective designed for the right eye that will be seen by the left
+eye, and reciprocally. There is then produced, especially with certain
+images, a very curious effect of reversed perspective, the background
+coming to the front.
+
+Now that photography is within every one's reach, and that many
+amateurs are making stereopticon views and own projection lanterns,
+we are persuaded that the experiment will be much more successful than
+it formerly was. An assemblage of persons all provided with colored
+eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate. Our engraving represents
+a stereopticon seance, and the draughtsman has well rendered the
+effect of the two luminous and differently colored fascicles
+superposed upon the screen.
+
+In a preceding note upon the same subject, Mr. Hospitalier remarked
+that upon combining these effects of perspective with those of the
+praxinoscope, which give the sensation of motion, we would obtain
+entirely new effects. It would be perhaps complicated as to the
+installation, and especially as to the making of the images, but, in
+certain special cases (for giving the effect of a machine in motion,
+for example), it might render genuine services.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE EFFECT ON FOWLS OF NITROGENOUS AND CARBONACEOUS RATIONS.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This article is condensed by permission from a thesis
+prepared for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, by
+James Edward Rice, a graduate of the class of 1890. The work was
+planned and wholly carried out in the most careful manner by Mr. Rice
+under the immediate supervision of the Director. The results have been
+thought worthy of publication in the _Cornell Station Bulletin_.]
+
+
+On July 2, 1889, ten Plymouth Rock hens, one year old, and as nearly
+as possible of uniform size, were selected from a flock of
+thirty-five. At the same time ten chickens, hatched from the same hens
+mated with a Plymouth Rock cock, were similarly chosen. The chickens
+were about six weeks old, healthy and vigorous and of nearly the same
+size. Up to the time of purchase both hens and chickens had full run
+of the farm. The hens foraged for themselves and were given no food;
+the chickens had been fed corn meal dough, sour milk and table scraps.
+
+A preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five days, during
+which time both hens and chickens were confined, all together, in a
+fairly well lighted and ventilated room, and fed a great variety of
+food, in order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly as
+possible in the same condition. During this preliminary feeding both
+hens and chickens increased in live weight. The ten hens from a total
+of 44 lb. 12 oz. to 47 lb. 1.5 oz., or 3.75 oz. each, and laid 93
+eggs. The chickens from a total of 9 lb. 15 oz. to 18 lb., or 12.9 oz.
+each.
+
+Food, shells and water were kept constantly before the fowls. Basins
+which contained the food and water were kept within a box constructed
+of lath, so arranged that the fowls could reach between the slats and
+procure food and drink without wasting or soiling.
+
+July 26th the hens and chickens were each separated into two lots of
+five each, as follows:
+
+      Hens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 23 lb. 8.5 oz.
+      Hens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 23 lb. 9 oz.
+      Chickens, nitrogenous ration, weighed 8 lb. 15 oz.
+      Chickens, carbonaceous ration, weighed 9 lb. 1 oz.
+
+The four lots were placed in separate pens where they remained during
+the entire experiment, which lasted 125 days. They were fed and
+watered once daily, and an account kept of the food eaten and water
+drank. At each feeding the food and water remaining were weighed back
+and deducted from the amount charged at the previous feeding.
+
+The hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration were given daily all
+they would eat of the following mixture: 1/3 part wheat bran, 1/3 part
+wheat shorts, 1/3 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts skimmed milk, and
+will be designated Lot I.
+
+The hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration were given daily all
+they would eat of a ration of cracked maize and maize dough, and will
+be designated Lot II.
+
+Both groups were given a small amount of green clover as long as it
+lasted, and afterward cabbage.
+
+For convenience the experiment was divided into five periods of twenty
+five days.
+
+
+FOOD CONSUMED AND INCREASE IN LIVE WEIGHT.
+
+During the first period all the fowls seemed in good health except the
+carbonaceous fed chickens; they, during this as in all succeeding
+periods, were restless and peevish, always moping or hunting for
+something to eat, though their trough was filled. When fed they would
+greedily take a few mouthfuls and then, with their hunger still
+unappeased, would leave the dish. They always ate ravenously the green
+food which was given them, as did the hens and chickens of Lot I. The
+hens of Lot II., on the contrary, seemed quite willing to squat about
+the pen and subsist on the maize diet, and strangely enough cared
+little for green food. The clear maize diet was accompanied by such
+ill effects that the chickens of each lot, after the first period,
+were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat, and the hens each one
+ounce. The wheat was increased during the fourth and fifth periods in
+the case of the chickens to one ounce each. During the second period
+one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food, and during the third period
+another of the same lot were taken ill and removed from the
+experiment. Both seemed to be suffering from impacted crops, as the
+stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be empty.
+
+The fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous ration, and
+since the first period the amount of food eaten by the hens and
+chickens of Lot I had continually decreased, led to the belief that
+their food might be too nitrogenous, and as during the last days of
+the third period one of the hens in Lot I was also ill, it was decided
+to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal and to use linseed meal
+instead. The hen recovered soon after the change in food.
+
+The supply of skim milk running short in the last two periods, water
+was used instead in mixing the ration of the lots fed nitrogenous
+food.
+
+At the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the linseed meal in
+the ration of Lot I was removed, and cotton seed meal substituted.
+This combination seemed a happy one, for on this ration both hens and
+chickens made large gains.
+
+At the end of the experiment little difference could be seen in the
+hens of the two groups; but the two lots of chickens were in striking
+contrast. While the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large,
+plump, healthy, active, and well feathered, the chickens fed on a
+carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller, sickly, and in
+several cases almost destitute of feathers. Two of them had perfectly
+bare backs, and so ravenous were they for flesh and blood that they
+began eating one another.
+
+The inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous diet to throw out
+new feathers and the ability of the chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet
+to grow an enormous coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the
+effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain
+requirements of animal growth. It was plain to see that maize, even
+when assisted by a small amount of wheat and green clover, could not
+supply sufficient nitrogen for the growth of feathers.
+
+It will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost weight during
+the experiment, the loss was slightly greater with those fed
+nitrogenous food, but these produced by far the most eggs.
+
+The chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about doubled in weight,
+while those fed carbonaceous food only added about one-third to their
+weight.
+
+
+PRODUCTION OF EGGS.
+
+During the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid three eggs while
+the others laid two. The two groups were, therefore, practically
+evenly divided at the start as to the condition of the laying stage.
+At the end of the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid
+forty-three eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid twenty. During
+the next twenty-five days the former laid thirty and the latter six;
+during the third period the former laid six and the latter not any.
+From this time on no eggs were received from either group. The decline
+in egg production was probably due in large part to the fact that the
+hens began to moult during the second period, and continued to do so
+during the rest of the experiment.
+
+The eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of small size, having a
+disagreeable flavor and smell, watery albumen, an especially small,
+dark colored yolk, with a tender vitelline membrane, which turned
+black after being kept several weeks. While the eggs of the
+carbonaceous fed hens were large, of fine flavor, of natural smell,
+large normal albumen, an especially large, rich yellow yolk, with
+strong vitelline membrane, which was perfectly preserved after being
+kept for weeks in the same brine with the other eggs.
+
+          TOTAL FOOD CONSUMED DURING EXPERIMENT.
+ _____________________________________________________________________
+ Lot. I.--Nitrogenous.            | Lot. II.--Carbonaceous.
+ _________________________________|___________________________________
+                  |       |       |                  |       |
+                  | Hens. |*Chicks|                  | Hens. |Chicks.
+                  |_______|_______|                  |_______|________
+                  |  lb.  |  lb.  |                  |  lb.  |  lb.
+ Bran.            | 29.90 | 21.85 | Maize.           | 82.15 | 51.30
+ Shorts.          | 29.90 | 21.85 | Green clover.    | 18.75 | 18.75
+ Cotton seed meal.| 21.48 | 13.24 | Cabbage.         | 16.00 | 16.00
+ Linseed meal.    |  8.43 |  8.61 | Wheat            | 15.63 | 11.71
+ Skimmed milk.    |105.49 | 61.33 |                  |       |
+ Wheat.           | 15.63 | 11.71 |                  |       |
+ Green clover.    | 18.75 | 18.75 |                  |       |
+ Cabbage.         | 16.00 | 16.00 |                  |       |
+ _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________
+  Total.          |245.58 |173.34 | Total.           |132.53 | 92.76
+  Nutritive ratio.| 1:3.1 |  1:3  | Nutritive ratio. | 1:7.8 |  1:8
+ _________________|_______|_______|__________________|_______|________
+
+* Calculated for five chicks, based upon the amount eaten by the three
+after the two sick were removed.
+
+                 EGGS LAID AND GAIN IN WEIGHT--HENS.
+  ____________________________________________________________________
+                                      |              |
+                                      |    Lot I.    |    Lot II.
+                                      | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous.
+                                      |______________|________________
+                                      |              |
+  Live weight, July 26.               |     23.53    |     23.56
+   "     "     November 27.           |     21.31    |     22.00
+  Loss.                               |      2.22    |      1.56
+  Number of eggs laid.                |     79.00    |     26.00
+  Weight "   "    "   lb.             |      8.25    |      2.92
+  Average weight of eggs, oz.         |      1.67    |      1.80
+  Gain in weight, including eggs, lb. |      6.03    |      1.36
+  ____________________________________|______________|________________
+
+
+                     GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT--CHICKENS.
+  ____________________________________________________________________
+                                      |              |
+                                      |    Lot I.    |    Lot II.
+                                      | Nitrogenous. | Carbonaceous.
+                                      |______________|________________
+                                      |              |
+  Live weight, July 26.               |      8.94    |      9.06
+   "     "     November 27.           |     17.89    |     12.63
+  Gain, lb.                           |      8.95    |      3.57
+   "    per cent.                     |    100.11    |     39.40
+  ____________________________________|______________|________________
+
+Samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately marked and
+sold to a boarding house where the cook did not know that the eggs
+were undergoing a test. On meeting the cook several days later the
+following words were heard: "Do you expect me to cook such eggs as
+these! About every other one is spoiled." On examination of the
+ovaries after slaughtering, it was found that in the case of one of
+the carbonaceous fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage,
+but on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much nearer the laying
+period. With this single exception, the clusters of ovules in the
+carbonaceous fed hens were uniformly small. Neither group would have
+laid under any probability for several weeks. It would seem from these
+facts, together with the fact that during the experiment the
+nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three times as many eggs, that a
+nitrogenous ration stimulates egg production.
+
+
+THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING.
+
+On November 27 the fowls were slaughtered. Each fowl was weighed,
+wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering, and killed by severing an
+artery in the roof of the mouth. The blood was caught in a glass jar.
+The fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed, after which the
+body was laid open longitudinally by cutting alongside the sternum and
+through the back bone. When all had been thus prepared, they were hung
+up in groups to be photographed, but the photographs were quite
+unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative proportions of fat and
+lean. The accompanying drawing made from the photograph shows the
+relative development of an average pair of chickens. Attention is
+particularly called to the thighs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+One-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for flavor, succulence,
+and tenderness. The other half was carefully prepared for chemical
+analysis by separating the meat from the bones. The flesh was
+thoroughly mixed and run through a sausage cutter, mixed again, and
+the process repeated three times. From different parts of this mixture
+a large sample was taken, from which the chemist took his samples for
+analysis. The right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by
+placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a wire on its
+center, on which were placed small weights until the bone gave way.
+
+               DRESSED WEIGHT, INTERNAL ORGANS, ETC.
+ ____________________________________________________________________
+                            |                   |
+                            |       Hens.       |     Chickens.
+                            |___________________|____________________
+                            |         |         |         |
+                            | Lot I.  | Lot II. | Lot I.  | Lot II.
+                            | Nitro-  | Carbon- | Nitro-  | Carbon-
+                            | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous.
+                            |_________|_________|_________|__________
+                            |   lb.   |   lb.   |   lb.   |   lb.
+ Live weight.               |  21.31  |  22.0   |  17.89  |  12.63
+ Dressed weight.            |  14.86  |  15.09  |  12.01  |   8.89
+    "      "     per cent.  |  69.7   |  68.6   |  67.1   |  70.5
+ Weight of blood.           |   0.75  |   0.66  |   0.55  |   0.34
+   "    "  feathers.        |   1.41  |   1.25  |   1.28  |   0.66
+   "    "  intestinal fat.  |   0.59  |   1.98  |   0.34  |   0.66
+   "    "  offal.           |   3.70  |   3.02  |   3.62  |   2.08
+   "    "  bones.           |   3.47  |   3.63  |   3.18  |   2.69
+   "    "  flesh.           |  11.39  |  11.47  |   8.93  |   6.20
+ ___________________________|_________________________________________
+
+The breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows for the hens and
+chickens of the various lots:
+
+  Average hens, nitrogenous.                         48.16
+     "     "    carbonaceous.                        51.74
+     "    chickens, nitrogenous.                     46.64
+     "       "      carbonaceous.                    31.18
+
+There was little difference in the strength of the bones of the hens,
+undoubtedly because the bones were mature before the feeding began,
+and were little affected by the feeding. We find, however, that the
+bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost fifty per
+cent. (49.6) stronger than those fed carbonaceous food.
+
+The difference in the composition of the flesh, as shown by the
+analysis of Mr. W.P. Cutter, is given below:
+
+  __________________________________________________________________
+                           |                   |
+                           |       Hens.       |     Chickens.
+                           |___________________|____________________
+                           |         |         |         |
+                           | Lot I.  | Lot II. | Lot I.  | Lot II.
+                           | Nitro-  | Carbon- | Nitro-  | Carbon-
+                           | genous. | aceous. | genous. | aceous.
+                           |_________|_________|_________|__________
+  Albuminoids.             |  43.81  |  25.13  |  52.00  |  30.06
+  Fat.                     |  12.59  |  20.76  |   5.54  |  11.34
+  _________________________________________________________________
+
+The flesh of each group was submitted to a number of persons for a
+cooking test, and the almost unanimous verdict was that the flesh of
+the fowls fed a nitrogenous ration was darker colored, more succulent,
+more tender, and better flavored, though on this last there was some
+difference of opinion.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+So far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions from a single
+experiment of this kind, it would seem that:
+
+Chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make a satisfactory
+development, particularly of feathers.
+
+The bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration are fifty per
+cent. stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous ration.
+
+Hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs but of smaller
+size and poorer quality than those fed exclusively on corn.
+
+Hens fed on corn, while not suffering in general health, become
+sluggish, deposit large masses of fat on the internal organs, and lay
+a few eggs of large size and excellent quality.
+
+The flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids and less
+fat than those fed on a carbonaceous ration, and is darker colored,
+juicier and tenderer.
+
+I.P. ROBERTS, Director.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HERBACEOUS GRAFTING.
+
+
+My attention has been called a number of times to the unsatisfactory
+records and directions concerning the grafting of herbaceous plants.
+There appears to have been very little attention given to the subject,
+and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from one author to
+another. A few years ago I made some attempts at herbaceous grafting,
+but it was not until last winter that experiments were seriously
+undertaken. The work was put in the hands of J.R. Lochary as a subject
+for a graduating thesis.
+
+The experiments were undertaken primarily for the purpose of learning
+the best methods of grafting herbs, but a secondary and more important
+object was the study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion,
+particularly in relation to variegation and coloration. This second
+feature of the work is still under way, in one form or another, and we
+hope for definite results in a few years. As a matter of immediate
+advantage, however, herbaceous grafting has its uses, particularly in
+securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon the same plant.
+There is no difficulty in growing a half dozen kinds or colors, on
+geraniums, chrysanthemums, or other plants from one stock of the
+respective species.
+
+Six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter. It was found
+that the wood must be somewhat hardened to secure best results. The
+very soft and flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation
+of grafting, and union does not take place readily. Vigorous coleus
+stocks, three months old, gave best results if cut to within two or
+three inches of the pot and all or nearly all the leaves removed from
+the stump. Geraniums, being harder in wood, made good unions at almost
+any place except on the soft growing points. The stock must not have
+ceased growth, however. Most of the leaves should be kept down on the
+stock. Cions an inch or two long were usually taken from firm growing
+tips, in essentially the same manner as in the making of cuttings.
+Sometimes an eye of the old wood was used, and in most cases union
+took place and a new shoot arose from the bud. The leaves were usually
+partly removed from the cion.
+
+Various styles of grafting were employed, of which the common cleft
+and the veneer or side graft were perhaps the most satisfactory. In
+most instances it was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly
+with bass or raffia. In some soft wooded plants, like coleus, a
+covering of common grafting wax over the bandage was an advantage,
+probably because it prevented the drying out of the parts. In some
+cases, however, wax injured the tissues where it overreached the
+bandage. Sphagnum moss was used in many cases tied in a small mass
+about the union, but unless the parts were well bandaged the cion sent
+roots into the moss and did not unite, and in no case did moss appear
+to possess decided advantages. Best results were obtained by placing
+the plants at once in a propagating frame, where a damp and confined
+atmosphere could be obtained. In some plants, successful unions were
+made in the open greenhouse, but they were placed in shade and kept
+sprinkled for a day after the grafts were made. The operation should
+always be performed quickly to prevent flagging of the cions. Or, if
+the cions cannot be used at once, they may be thrust into sand or moss
+in the same manner as cuttings, and kept for several days. In one
+series, tomato and potato cuttings, which had flagged in the cutting
+bed, revived when grafted. And cuttings which had been transported in
+the mail for three days grew readily, but they were in good condition
+when received. The mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these
+grafted plants, for they delighted to crawl under the bandages and
+suck the juices from the wounded surfaces.
+
+Although it is foreign to the purpose of this note, it may be worth
+while to mention a few of the plants upon which the experiments were
+made. Sections were taken of many of the grafts and microscopic
+examinations made to determine the extent of cell union. Coleuses of
+many kinds were used, with uniform success, and the cions of some of
+them were vigorous a year after being set. Even iresine (better known
+as _Achyranthes Verschaffeltii_) united with coleus and grew for a
+time. Zonale geraniums bloomed upon the common rose geranium. Tomatoes
+upon potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were
+transplanted to the open ground, where they grew, flowered and fruited
+until killed by frost. The tomato-on-potato plants bore good tomatoes
+above and good potatoes beneath, even though no sprouts from the
+potato stock were allowed to grow. Peppers united with tomatoes and
+tomatoes united with peppers. Egg plants, tomatoes and peppers grew
+upon the European husk tomato or alkekengi (_Physalis Alkekengi_).
+Peppers and egg plants united with each other reciprocally. A coleus
+cion was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound with raffia.
+The cion remained green and healthy, and at the end of forty-eight
+days the bandage was removed, but it was found that no union had taken
+place. Ageratums united upon each other with difficulty.
+Chrysanthemums united readily. A bean plant, bearing two partially
+grown beans, chanced to grow in a chrysanthemum pot. The stem bearing
+the pods was inarched into the chrysanthemum. Union took place
+readily, but the beans turned yellow and died. Pumpkin vines united
+with squash vines, cucumbers with cucumbers, muskmelons with
+watermelons, and muskmelons, watermelons and cucumbers with the wild
+cucumber or balsam apple (_Echinocystis lobata_).
+
+Another interesting feature of the work was the grafting of one fruit
+upon another, as a tomato fruit upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon
+another cucumber. This work is still under progress and it promises
+some interesting results in a new and unexpected direction, reports of
+which may be expected later.--_Cornell Station Bulletin_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A HUMOROUS HEALTH OFFICER.
+
+
+The Michigan State Board of Health recently took Health Officer Davis,
+of Close Village, to task for failing to send in his weekly reports.
+His reply was unique. He says: "There has not been enough sickness
+here the last two or three years to do much good. The physicians find
+time to go to Milwaukee on excursions, serve as jurors in justice
+courts, sit around on drygoods boxes, and beg tobacco, chew gum, and
+swap lies. A few sporadic cases of measles have existed, but they were
+treated mostly by old women, and no deaths occurred. There was an
+undertaker in the village, but he is now in the State prison. It is
+hoped and expected when green truck gets around, melons plenty, and
+cucumbers in abundance, that something may revive business. If it
+does, I will let you know."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS
+
+
+Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years,
+sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New
+York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION.
+
+$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.
+
+
+This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued
+monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about
+forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book
+pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF
+ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with
+fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern
+Architectural Construction and allied subjects.
+
+A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of
+the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country,
+including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive.
+Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full
+Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of
+Details.
+
+No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and
+specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans
+we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of
+construction.
+
+Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
+furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building
+or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before
+them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best
+examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.
+
+Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
+Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated.
+An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given,
+in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods,
+Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with
+addresses of the makers, etc.
+
+The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have
+won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication in
+the world.
+
+A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry,
+Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of
+industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.
+
+MUNN& CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUILDING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
+
+
+In connection with the publication of the BUILDING EDITION of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn & Co. furnish plans and
+specifications for buildings of every kind, including Churches,
+Schools, Stores, Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.
+
+In this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects.
+Full plans, details, and specifications for the various buildings
+illustrated in this paper can be supplied.
+
+Those who contemplate building, or who wish to alter, improve, extend,
+or add to existing buildings, whether wings, porches, bay windows, or
+attic rooms, are invited to communicate with the undersigned. Our work
+extends to all parts of the country. Estimates, plans, and drawings
+promptly prepared. Terms moderate. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. The
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR.
+
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January
+I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in
+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+USEFUL ENGINEERING BOOKS
+
+
+Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers, Mechanics,
+Builders, men of leisure, and professional men, of all classes, need
+good books in the line of their respective callings. Our post office
+department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very
+small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different
+authors, on more than fifty different subjects, has recently been
+published, for free circulation, at the office of this paper. Subjects
+classified with names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only to
+ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address,
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+
+In connection with the Scientific American, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 42 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the Scientific American of all inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the
+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & Co.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs and how procured. Address
+
+MUNN & CO.,
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+BRANCH OFFICE, 622 AND 624 F ST., WASHINGTON, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+795, March 28, 1891, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 13443.txt or 13443.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/4/4/13443/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Victoria Woosley and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/13443.zip b/old/13443.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c00254
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13443.zip