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diff --git a/13358-h/13358-h.htm b/13358-h/13358-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbed3eb --- /dev/null +++ b/13358-h/13358-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5165 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, May 23, 1891</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + img {border: 0;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .ctr {text-align: center;} + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13358 ***</div> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="images/title-th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 803</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, May 23, 1891</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 803.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#ast-1"> +ASTRONOMY.—The Great Equatorial of the Paris Observatory.— + The new telescope recently put in use in Paris.—Description of + the instrument and of its effects.—3 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#chem-1"> +CHEMISTRY.—An Apparatus for Heating Substances in Glass + Tubes under Pressure.—By H. PEMBERTON, Jr.—A simple apparatus + for effecting this purpose, avoiding risk of personal injury.— + 2 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#chem-2"> + Table of Atomic Weights.—A revised table of atomic weights, + giving the results of the last determinations, and designed for + every-day use</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#chem-3"> +Testing Cement.—A laboratory process for testing Portland cement</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#ce-1"> +CIVIL ENGINEERING.—The Compressed Air System of Paris. + —An elaborate review of this great installation for the transmission + of power.—The new compressed air station, with full details + of performances of apparatus, etc.—10 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#ent-1"> +ENTOMOLOGY.—Report on Insects.—Continuation of this report + on noxious insects.—Their habits and how to cope with them. + —18 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#flo-1"> +FLORICULTURE.—Lily of the Valley.—Practical notes on the + cultivation of this popular flower.—How to raise it and force the + growth +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#math-1"> +MATHEMATICS.—The Conic Sections.—By Prof. C.W. + MACCORD.—Examination of the four conic sections with a general + definition applicable to all.—6 illustrations </a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#me-1"> +MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.—The Builders of the Steam + Engine—The Founders of Modern Industries and Nations.—By Dr. + R.H. THURSTON.—Prof. Thurston's address before the Centennial + Celebration of the American Patent System at Washington, + D.C.—The early history of the steam engine and its present position + in the world +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#misc-1"> +MISCELLANEOUS.—The Breeds of Dogs.—Popular description + of the different breeds of dogs most affected by amateurs.—6. + illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#nav-1"> +NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Modern Armor.—By F.R. BRAINARD.—The + development of modern ship armor, from laminated + sandwiched and compound types to the present solid armor.—9 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">X.</td> +<td><a href="#pisc-1"> +PISCICULTURE.—Restocking the Seine with Fish.—The introduction + of 40,000 fry of California trout and salmon, designed to restock + the Seine, depopulated of fish by explosions of dynamite + used in breaking up the ice.—1 illustration</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XI.</td> +<td><a href="#rr-1"> +RAILWAY ENGINEERING.—Improved Hand Car.—A novelty + in the construction of hand cars, avoiding the production of a + dead center.—1 illustration</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XII.</td> +<td><a href="#tec-1"> +TECHNOLOGY.—The Tanning Materials of Europe.—The natural + tanning materials and pathological or abnormal growth tanning + materials described and classified, with relative power</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr /> + +<a name="ast-1"></a><h2>THE GREAT EQUATORIAL OF THE +PARIS OBSERVATORY.</h2> + +<p>The great instrument which has just completed +the installation of our national observatory +is constructed upon the same principle as +the elbowed equatorial, 11 in. in diameter, established +in 1882, according to the ingenious +arrangement devised as long ago as 1872, by +Mr. Loewy, assistant director of the Paris Observatory.</p> + + +<p>We shall here recall the fact that the elbowed +equatorial consists of two parts joined at right +angles. One of these is directed according to +the axis of the world, and is capable of revolving +around its own axis, and the other, which +is at right angles to it, is capable of describing +around the first a plane representing the celestial +equator. At the apex of the right angle +there is a plane mirror of silvered glass inclined +at an angle of 45 deg. with respect to the +optical axis, and which sends toward the ocular +the image coming from the objective and already +reflected by another and similar plane +mirror. The objective and this second mirror +(which is inclined at an angle of 45 deg.) are +placed at the extremity of the external part of +the tube, and form part of a cube, movable +around the axis of the instrument at right +angles with the axis of the world. The diagram +in Fig. 3 will allow the course of a luminous +ray coming from space to be easily +understood. The image of the star, A, toward +which the instrument is directed, traverses the +objective, B C, is reflected first from the mirror, B D, +and next from the central mirror, E F, and finally +reaches O, at the ocular where the observer is stationed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/1-fig3.png" alt="FIG. 3. COURSE OF LUMNIOUS RAY" title=""> +<br clear="all" />FIG 3.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COURSE OF +A LUMINOUS RAY IN THE GREAT EQUATORIAL.</p> + +<p>This new equatorial differs from the first model by +its much larger dimensions and its extremely remarkable +mechanical improvements. The optical part, +which is admirably elaborated, consists of a large astronomical +objective 24 in. in diameter, and of a photographic +objective of the same aperture, capable of +being substituted, one for the other, according to the +nature of the work that it is desired to accomplish by +the aid of this colossal telescope, the total length of +which is 59 ft. The two plane mirrors which complete +the optical system have, respectively, diameters of 34 +in. and 29 in. These two magnificent objectives and +the two mirrors were constructed by the Brothers +Henry, whose double reputation as astronomers and +opticians is so universally established. The mechanical +part is the successful work of Mr. Gautier, who has +looked after every detail with the greatest care, and +has thus realized a true <i>chef d'oeuvre</i>. The colossal instrument, +the total weight of which is 26,400 lb., is +maneuvered by hand with the greatest ease. A clockwork +movement, due to the same able manufacturer, is +capable, besides, of moving the instrument with all the +precision desirable, and of permitting it to follow the +stars in their travel across the heavens. A star appearing +in the horizon can thus be observed from its +rising to its setting. The astronomer, his eye at the +ocular, is always conveniently seated at the same place, +observing the distant worlds, rendered immovable, so +to speak, in the field of the instrument. For stars +which, like the moon and the planets, have a course +different from the diurnal motion, it is possible to +modify the running of the clockwork, so that they can +thus be as easily followed as in the preceding case. +Fig. 1 gives a general view of the new installation, for +which it became necessary +to build a special edifice 65 +ft. in height on the ground +south of the observatory +bordering on the Arago +Boulevard. A large movable +structure serves for +covering the external part +of the instrument. This +structure rests on rails, +upon which it slides toward +the south when it is +desired to make observations. +It will be seen from +the figure how the principal +axis of the instrument +rests upon the two masonry +pillars, one of which is +49 ft. and the other 13 ft. +in height.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1-fig1.png"> +<img src="images/1-fig1-th.jpg" alt="FIG 1." title=""> +</a><br clear="all" /> FIG 1.—THE GREAT EQUATORIAL OF THE PARIS OBSERVATORY.</p> + +<p> The total cost of the +pavilion, rolling structure, +and instrument (including +the two objectives) will +amount to about $80,000 +after the new equatorial +has been provided with the +scientific apparatus that +necessarily have to accompany +it for the various +and numerous applications +to which the use of +it will give rise.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1-fig2.png"> +<img src="images/1-fig2-th.jpg" alt="FIG 2.--OCULAR OF THE GREAT EQUATORIAL." title=""></a> +<br clear="right" /> FIG 2.—OCULAR OF THE GREAT EQUATORIAL.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 shows us the room +in the observatory in +which the astronomer, +seated in his chair, is completely +protected against +the inclemencies of the +weather. Here, with his eye applied to the ocular, he +can, without changing position (owing to all the +handles that act at his will upon the many transmissions +necessary for the maneuvering), direct his instrument +unaided toward every point of the heavens with +wonderful sureness and precision. The observer has +before him on the same plane two divided circles, one +of which gives the right ascensions and the other the +declinations, and which he consults at each observation +for the exact orientation of the equatorial. +</p> + +<p>All the readings are done by the aid of electric lamps +of very small dimensions, supplied by accumulators, +and which are lighted at will. Each of these lamps is +of one candle power; two of them are designed for the +reading of the two circles of right ascension +and of declination; a third serves for the reading +of the position circle of the micrometer; +two others are employed for the reading of the +drums fixed upon the micrometric screws; four +others serve for rendering the spider threads of +the reticule brilliant upon a black ground; and +still another serves for illuminating the field of +the instrument where the same threads remain +black upon a luminous ground. The currents +that supply these lamps are brought over two +different circuits, in which are interposed rheostats +that permit of graduating the intensity +of the light at will.</p> + +<p>Since the installation of the first model of an +elbowed equatorial of 11 in. aperture, in 1882, +at the Paris Observatory, the numerous and indisputable +advantages of this sort of instrument +have led a certain number of observatories +to have similar, but larger, instruments +constructed. In France, the observatories of +Alger, Besancon, and Lyons have telescopes of +this kind, the objectives of which have diameters +of from 12 in. to 13 in., and which have +been used for several years past in equatorial +observations of all kinds. The Vienna Observatory +has for the last two years been using an +instrument of this kind whose objective has +an aperture of 15 inches. Another equatorial +of the same kind, of 16 in. aperture, is now in +course of construction for the Nice Observatory, +where it will be especially employed as a +seeker of exceptional power—a role to which +this kind of instrument lends itself admirably. +The optical part of all these instruments was furnished +by the Messrs. Henry, and the mechanical part by Mr. +Gautier.</p> + +<p>The largest elbowed equatorial is, therefore, that of +the Paris Observatory. Its optical power, moreover, +corresponds perfectly to its huge dimensions. The experimental +observations which have already been +made with it fully justify the hopes that we had a +right to found upon the professional skill of the eminent +artists to whom we owe this colossal instrument. +The images of the stars were given with the greatest +sharpness, and it was possible to study the details of +the surface of the moon and other planets, and several +star clusters, in all their peculiarities, in the most remarkable +manner.</p> + +<p>When it shall become possible to make use of this +equatorial for celestial photography, there is no doubt +that we shall obtain the most important results. As +regards the moon, in particular, the photographing of +which has already made so great progress, its direct +image at the focus of the large 24 in. photographic objective +will have a diameter of 11 in., and, being magnified, +will be capable of giving images of more than +3 ft. in diameter.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<a name="flo-1"></a><h2>LILY OF THE VALLEY.</h2> + +<p>There is no flower more truly and universally popular +than the lily of the valley. What can be more delicious +and refreshing than the scent of its fragrant +flowers? What other plant can equal in spring the attractiveness +of its pillars of pure white bells half hidden +in their beautiful foliage? There are few gardens +without a bed of lily of the valley, but too often the +place chosen for it is some dark corner where nothing +else would be expected to grow, but it is supposed as a +matter of course that "it will do for a lily bed." The +consequence is that although +these lilies are very +easy things to cultivate, as +indeed they ought to be, +seeing that they grow wild +in the woods of this and +other countries, yet one +hears so often from those +who take only a slight interest +in practical gardening, +"I have a lily bed, +but I scarcely ever get any +lilies." Wild lilies are hardly +worth the trouble of gathering, +they are so thin +and poor; it is interesting +to find a plant so beautiful +and precious in the garden +growing wild in the woods, +but beyond that the flowers +themselves are worth +but very little. This at +once tells us an evident +fact about the lily of the +valley, viz., that it does +require cultivation. It is +not a thing to be left alone +in a dark and dreary corner +to take care of itself +anyhow year after year. +People who treat it so deserve +to be disappointed +when in May they go to the +lily bed and find plenty of +leaves, but no flowers, or, if +any, a few poor, weak attempts +at producing blossoms, +which ought to be +so beautiful and fragrant. + +One great advantage of this lovely spring flower is that +it can be so readily and easily forced. Gardeners in large +places usually spend several pounds in the purchase of +crowns and clumps of the lily of the valley, which +they either import direct from foreign nurserymen or +else procure from their own dealer in such things, who +imports his lilies in large quantities from abroad. But +we may well ask, Have foreign gardeners found out +some great secret in the cultivation of this plant? Or is +their climate more suitable for it? Or their soil adapted +to growing it and getting it into splendid condition for +forcing? It is impossible that the conditions for growing +large and fine heads of this lily can be in any way +better in Berlin or elsewhere than they are in our own +land, unless greater heat in summer than we experience +in England is necessary for ripening the growths +in autumn.</p> + +<p>There is another question certainly as to varieties; +one variety may be superior to another, but surely if +so it is only on the principle of the survival of the fittest, +that is to say, by carefully working on the finest +forms only and propagating from them, a strong and +vigorous stock may be the result, and this stock may +be dignified with a special name. For my own part +what I want is to have a great abundance of lily of the +valley from February till the out-door season is over. +To do this with imported clumps would, of course, be +most costly, and far beyond what any person ought +to spend on mere flowers. Though it must be remembered +that it is an immense advantage to the parish +priest to be able to take bright and sweet flowers to the +bedside of the sick, or to gratify the weary spirit of a +confirmed invalid, confined through all the lovely +spring time to the narrow limits of a dull room, with +the fragrant flowers of the lily of the valley. I determined, +therefore, that I would have an abundance of +early lilies, and that they should not be costly, but +simply produced at about the same expense as any +other flowers, and I have been very successful in accomplishing +this by very simple means. First of all, it +is necessary to have the means of forcing, that is to say +the required heat, which in my case is obtained from +an early vinery. I have seen lilies forced by pushing +the clumps in under the material for making a hot bed +for early cucumbers, the clumps being drawn out, of +course, as soon as the flowers had made a good start. +They have then to be carefully and very gradually exposed +to full light, but often, although fine heads of +bloom may be produced in this way, the leaves will be +few and poor.</p> + +<p>My method is simply this: In the kitchen garden +there is the old original bed of lilies of the valley in a +corner certainly, but not a dark corner. This is the +reservoir, as were, from whence the regular supply +of heads for special cultivation is taken. This large +bed is not neglected and left alone to take care of itself, +but carefully manured with leaf mould and peat +moss manure from the stable every year. Especially +the vacant places made by taking out the heads for +cultivation are thus filled up.</p> + +<p>Then under the east wall another piece of ground is +laid out and divided into four plots. When I first began +to prepare for forcing I waited four years, and +had one plot planted with divided heads each year. +Clumps are taken up from the reserve bed and then +shaken out and the heads separated, each with its little +bunch of fibrous roots. They are then carefully planted +in one of the plots about 4 in. or 5 in. apart, the ground +having previously been made as light and rich as possible +with plenty of leaf mould. I think the best time +for doing this is in autumn, after the leaves have +turned yellow and have rotted away; but frequently +the operation has been delayed till spring, without +much difference in the result.</p> + +<p>Asparagus is usually transplanted in spring, and +there is a wonderful affinity between the two plants, +which, of course, belong to the same order. It was a +long time to wait—four years—but I felt there was no +use in being in too great a hurry, and every year the +plants manifestly improved, and the buds swelled up +nicely and looked more plump each winter when the +leaves were gone. It must be remembered also that a +nice crop of flowers could be gathered each year. +When the fourth year came, the first plot was divided +up into squares about 2 ft. each way, and taken up before +any hard frost or snow had made their appearance, +and put away on the floor of an unused stable. +From the stable they are removed as required in the +squares to the vinery, where they grow beautifully, +not sending up merely fine heads of bloom without a +vestige of leaf, but growing as they would in spring out +of doors with a mass of foliage, among which one has +to search for the spikes of flower, so precious for all +sorts of purposes at that early season of the year.</p> + +<p>The spikes produced in this way do not equal in +thickness and substance of petal the flowers which +come from more carefully prepared clumps imported +from Berlin, but they are fine and strong, and above +all most abundant. I can not only supply the house +and small vases for the church, but also send away +boxes of the flowers to friends at a distance, besides the +many gifts which can be made to those who are ill or +invalids. Few gifts at such a time are more acceptable +than a fragrant nosegay of lily of the valley. In order +to keep the supply of prepared roots ready year after +year, a plot of ground has only to be planted each +autumn, so that in the rotation of years it may be +ready for forcing when its turn shall come.</p> + +<p>As the season advances, as every one knows who has +attempted to force the lily of the valley, much less +time is taken in bringing the flowers to perfection under +precisely the same circumstances as those in which +the first sods are forced. In February or earlier the +buds are more unwilling to start; there seems to be +a natural repugnance against being so soon forced +out of the winter's sleep and rest. But when the flowers +do come, they are nearly as fine and their leaves are +quite as abundant in this way of forcing as from the +pieces introduced much later into heat. It would +be easy to preserve the squares after all the flowers are +gathered, but I found that they would not, like strawberries, +kindly furnish forth another crop later on in +the year, and, therefore, mine are flung away; and I +have often pitied the tender leaves in the frost and +snow after their short sojourn in the hot climate of the +vinery. But the reserve bed will always supply an +ample quantity of fresh heads, and it is best to take +the new plants for preparation in the kitchen garden +from this reserve bed.</p> + +<p>This very simple method of forcing lilies of the + +valley is within the reach of any one who has even a +small garden and a warm house, and these two things +are becoming more and more common among us +every day.—<i>A Gloucestershire Parson, in The Garden</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 802, page 12820.] + +<a name="ent-1"></a><h2>REPORT ON INSECTS</h2>. + +<h3>THE ONION MAGGOT.</h3> + +<h4><i>Phorbia ceparum</i> (Meig.)</h4> + + +<p> +Early in June a somewhat hairy fly, Fig. 9, may be +seen flying about, and depositing its eggs on the leaves +of the young onion plants, near the roots, Fig. 10.</p> + + +<img src="images/2-fig9.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 9." title=""> + +<img src="images/2-fig10.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 10." title=""> +<br clear="all" /> + +<p>Dr. Fitch describes this fly as follows: "It has a considerable +resemblance to the common house fly, though +when the two are placed side by side, this is observed +as being more slender in its form. The two sexes are +readily distinguished from each other by the eyes, +which in the males are close together, and so large as +to occupy almost the whole surface of the head, while +in the females they are widely separated from each +other. These flies are of an ash gray color, with the +head silvery, and a rusty black stripe between the eyes, +forked at its hind end. And this species is particularly +distinguished by having a row of black spots along +the middle of the abdomen or hind body, which sometimes +run into each other, and then forming a continuous +stripe.</p> + +<p>"This row of spots is quite distinct in the male, but +in the female is very faint, or is often wholly imperceptible. +This fly measured 0.22 to 0.25 inch in length, +the females being usually rather larger than the males." +The eggs are white, smooth, somewhat oval in outline, +and about one twenty-fifth of an inch in length. Usually +not more than half a dozen are laid on a single +plant, and the young maggot burrows downward within +the sheath, leaving a streak of pale green to indicate +its path, and making its way into the root, devours all +except the outer skin.</p> + +<p>The maggots reach their full growth in about two +weeks, when they are about one-third of an inch long, +white and glossy, tapering from the posterior end to +the head, which is armed with a pair of black, hook-like +jaws. The opposite end is cut off obliquely and has +eight tooth-like projections around the edge, and a +pair of small brown tubercles near the middle. Fig. +11 shows the eggs, larva, and pupa, natural size and +enlarged.</p> + +<img src="images/2-fig11.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 11." title=""> + +<p>They usually leave the onions and transform to pupæ +within the ground. The form of the pupa does not +differ very much from the maggot, but the skin has +hardened and changed to a chestnut brown color, and +they remain in this stage about two weeks in the summer, +when the perfect flies emerge. There are successive +broods during the season, and the winter is passed +in the pupa stage.</p> + +<p>The following remedies have been suggested:</p> + +<p>Scattering dry, unleached wood ashes over the plants +as soon as they are up, while they are wet with dew, +and continuing this as often as once a week through +the month of June, is said to prevent the deposit of +eggs on the plants.</p> + +<p>Planting the onions in a new place as remote as possible +from where they were grown the previous year +has been found useful, as the flies are not supposed to +migrate very far.</p> + +<p>Pulverized gas lime scattered along between the rows +has been useful in keeping the flies away.</p> + +<p>Watering with liquid from pig pens collected in a +tank provided for the purpose, was found by Miss Ormerod +to be a better preventive than the gas lime.</p> + +<p>When the onions have been attacked and show it by +wilting and changing color, they should either be taken +up with a trowel and burned, or else a little diluted +carbolic acid, or kerosene oil, should be dropped on +the infested plants to run down them and destroy the +maggots in the roots and in the soil around them.</p> + +<p>Instead of sowing onion seed in rows, they should +be grown in hills, so that the maggots, which are footless, +cannot make their way from one hill to another.</p> + + +<h3>THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY.</h3> + +<h4><i>Pieris rapae</i> (Linn.)</h4> + +<p>In the New England States there are three broods +of this insect in a year, according to Mr. Scudder, the +butterflies being on the wing in May, July, and September; +but as the time of the emergence varies, we +see them on the wing continuously through the +season.</p> + +<img src="images/2-fig12.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 12." title=""> + +<p>The expanded wings, Fig. 12, male, measure about +two inches, are white above, with the base dusky. Both +sexes have the apex black and a black spot a little beyond +the middle, and the female, Fig. 13, has another +spot below this. The under side of the fore wings is +white, yellowish toward the apex, and with two black +spots in both sexes corresponding to those on the upper +side of the female. A little beyond the middle of the +costa, on the hind wings, is an irregular black spot on +the upper surface, while the under surface is pale +lemon yellow without marks, but sprinkled more or +less with dark atoms. The body is black above and +white beneath.</p> + +<img src="images/2-fig13.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 13." title=""> + +<p>The caterpillars of this insect feed on the leaves of +cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, mignonette, and some +other plants.</p> + +<p>The female lays her eggs on the under side of the +leaves of the food plants, generally, but sometimes on +the upper sides or even on the leaf stalks. They are +sugar loaf shaped, flattened at the base, and with the +apex cut off square at the top, pale lemon yellow in +color, about one twenty-fifth of an inch long and one +fourth as wide, and have twelve longitudinal ribs with +fine cross lines between them.</p> + +<p>The eggs hatch in about a week, and the young caterpillars, +which are very pale yellow, first eat the shells +from which they have escaped, and then spin a carpet +of silk, upon which they remain except when feeding. +They now eat small round holes through the leaves, +but as they grow older change to a greenish color, with +a pale yellow line along the back, and a row of small +yellow spots along the sides, and eat their way down +into the head of the cabbage.</p> + +<img src="images/2-fig14.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 14." title=""> + +<p>Having reached its full growth, the caterpillar, Fig. +14, a, which is about an inch in length, wanders off to +some sheltered place, as under a board, fence rail, or +even under the edge of clapboards on the side of a +building, where it spins a button of silk, in which to +secure its hind legs, then the loop of silk to support +the forward part of the body.</p> + +<p>It now casts its skin, changing to a chrysalis, Fig. 14, +b, about three-fourths of an inch in length, quite +rough and uneven, with projecting ridges and angular +points on the back, and the head is prolonged into a +tapering horn. In color they are very variable, some +are pale green, others are flesh colored or pale ashy +gray, and sprinkled with numerous black dots. The +winter is passed in the chrysalis stage.</p> + +<p>After the caterpillar changes to a chrysalis, their +minute parasites frequently bore through the outside +and deposit their eggs within. These hatch before the +time for the butterflies to emerge, and feeding on the +contents, destroy the life of the chrysalis.</p> + +<p>Birds and spiders are of great service in destroying +these insects.</p> + +<p>The pupæ should be collected and burned if the +abdomen is flexible; but if the joints of the abdomen +are stiff and cannot be easily moved, they should be +left, as they contain parasites.</p> + +<p>Several applications of poisons have been used, the +best results being obtained from the use of pyrethrum +as a powder blown on to the plants by a hand bellows, +during the hottest part of the day, in the proportion +of one part to four or five of flour.</p> + +<p>As the eggs are laid at different times, any application, +to be thoroughly tested, must be repeated several +times.</p> + + +<h3>THE APPLE TREE TENT CATERPILLAR.</h3> + +<h4><i>Clisiocampa Americana</i> (Harr.)</h4> + +<p>Large, white, silken web-like tents, Fig. 15, are +noticed by the roadsides, in the early summer, on wild + +cherry trees, and also on fruit trees in orchards, containing +numerous caterpillars of a blackish color, with +fine gray hairs scattered over the body.</p> + +<p>This well known pest has been very abundant +throughout the State for several years past, and the +trees in many neglected orchards have been greatly +injured by it, some being entirely stripped of their +leaves. The trees in these orchards and the neglected +ones by the roadsides form excellent breeding places for +this insect, and such as are of little of no value should +be destroyed. If this were well done, and all fruit +growers in any given region were to destroy all the +tents on their trees, even for a single season, the work +of holding them in check or destroying them in the +following year would be comparatively light.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig15.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 15." title=""> + +<p>The moths, Fig. 16, appear in great numbers in July, +their wings measuring, when expanded, from one and a +quarter to one and a half inches or more. They are of a +reddish brown color, the fore wings being tinged with +gray on the base and middle, and crossed by two +oblique whitish stripes.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig16.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 16." title=""> + +<p>The females lay their eggs, about three hundred in +number, in a belt, Fig. 15, c, around the twigs of apple, +cherry, and a few other trees, the belt being covered +by a thick coating of glutinous matter, which probably +serves as a protection against the cold weather during +winter.</p> + +<p>The following spring, when the buds begin to swell, +the egg hatch and the young caterpillar seek some fork +of a branch, where they rest side by side. They are +about one-tenth of an inch long, of a blackish color, +with numerous fine gray hairs on the body. They feed +on the young and tender leaves, eating on an average +two apiece each day. Therefore the young of one pair +of moths would consume from ten to twelve thousand +leaves; and it is not uncommon to see from six to eight +nests or tents on a single tree, from which no less than +seventy-five thousand leaves would be destroyed—a +drain no tree can long endure.</p> + +<p>As the caterpillars grow, a new and much larger +skin is formed underneath the old one, which splits +along the back and is cast off. When fully grown, Fig. +15, a and b, which is in about thirty-five to forty days +after emerging from the eggs, they are about two +inches long, with a black head and body, with numerous +yellowish hairs on the surface, with a white stripe +along the middle of the back, and minute whitish or +yellowish streaks, which are broken and irregular along +the sides; and there is also a row of transverse, small, +pale blue spots along each side of the back.</p> + +<p>As they move about they form a continuous thread +of silk from a fleshy tube on the lower side of the +mouth, which is connected with the silk-producing +glands in the interior of the body, and by means of this +thread they appear to find their way back from the +feeding grounds. It is also by the combined efforts of +all the young from one belt of eggs that the tents are +formed.</p> + +<p>These caterpillars do not feed during damp, cold +weather, but take two meals a day when it is pleasant.</p> + +<p>After reaching their full growth, they leave their +tents and scatter in all directions, seeking for some +protected place where each one spins its spindle-shaped +cocoon of whitish silk intermingled with sulphur colored +powder, Fig. 15, d. They remain in these cocoons, +where they have changed to pupæ, from twenty to +twenty-five days, after which the moths emerge, pair, +and the females lay their eggs for another brood.</p> + +<p>Several remedies have been suggested, a few of which +are given below. Search the trees carefully, when +they are bare, for clusters of eggs; and, when found, +cut off the twigs to which they are attached, and burn +them.</p> + +<p>As soon as any tents are observed in the orchard +they should be destroyed, which may be readily and +effectually done by climbing the trees, and with the +hand protected by a mitten or glove, seize the tent and +crush it with its entire contents; also swab them down +with strong soapsuds or other substances; or tear +them down with a rounded bottle brush.</p> + +<p>Burning with a torch not only destroys the caterpillars +but injures the trees.</p> + +<p>It should be observed, however, since the caterpillars, +are quite regular in taking their meals, in the +middle of the forenoon and afternoon, that they + +should be destroyed only in the morning or evening, +when all are in the tent.</p> + +<p>Another remedy is to shower the trees with Paris +green in water, in the proportion of one pound to one +hundred and fifty gallons of water.</p> + +<h3>THE FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR.</h3> + +<h4><i>Clisiocampa disstria</i> (Hübner.)</h4> + +<img src="images/3-fig17.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 17." title=""> + +<p>This species, commonly known as the forest tent +caterpillar, closely resembles the apple tree tent caterpillar, +but does not construct a visible tent. It feeds +on various species of forest trees, such as oak, ash, +walnut, hickory, etc., besides being very injurious to +apple and other fruit trees. The moth, Fig. 17, b, expands +an inch and a half or more. The general color +is brownish yellow, and on the fore wings are two +oblique brown lines, the space between them being +darker than the rest of the wing. The eggs, Fig. 17, +c and d, which are about one twenty fifth of an inch +long and one fortieth wide, are arranged, three or four +hundred in a cluster, around the twigs of the trees, +Fig. 17, a. These clusters are uniform in diameter and +cut off squarely at the ends. The eggs are white, and +are firmly fastened to the twigs and to each other, by +a brown substance, like varnish, which dries, leaving +the eggs with a brownish covering.</p> + + +<p>The eggs hatch about the time the buds burst, or before, +and the young caterpillars go for some time +without food, but they are hardy and have been +known to live three weeks with nothing to eat, although +the weather was very cold.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig18.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 18." title=""> + +<p>As soon as hatched they spin a silken thread wherever +they go, and when older wander about in search +for food. The caterpillars are about one and a half +inches long when fully grown, Fig. 18. The general +color is pale blue, tinged with greenish low down on +the sides, and everywhere sprinkled with black dots or +points, while along the middle of the back is a row of +white spots each side of which is an orange yellow +stripe, and a pale, cream yellow stripe below that. +These stripes and spots are margined with black. Each +segment has two elevated black points on the back, +from each of which arise four or more coarse black +hairs. The back is clothed with whitish hairs, the head +is dark bluish freckled with black dots, and clothed +with black and fox-colored hairs, and the legs are +black, clothed with whitish hairs.</p> + +<p>At this stage the caterpillars may be seen wandering +about on fences, trees, and along the roads in search of +a suitable place to spin their cocoons, which are +creamy white, and look very much like those of the +common tent caterpillar, except that they are more +loosely constructed.</p> + +<p>Within the cocoons, in two or three days they transform +to pupæ of a reddish brown color, densely clothed +with short pale yellowish hairs. The moths appear in +two or three weeks, soon lay their eggs and then die. +The insects are not abundant many years in succession, +as their enemies, the parasites, increase and check +them.</p> + +<p>Many methods have been suggested for their destruction, +but the most available and economical are to remove +the clusters of eggs whenever found, and burn +them, and to shower the trees with Paris green in the +proportion of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons +of water.</p> + +<h3>THE STALK BORER.</h3> + +<h4><i>Gortyna nitela</i> (Gruen.)</h4> + +<p>The perfect moth, Fig. 19, 1, expands from one to +one and a half inches. The fore wings are a mouse +gray color, tinged with lilac and sprinkled with fine +yellow dots, and distinguished mainly by a white band +extending across the outer part. The moths hibernate +in the perfect state, and in April or May deposit +their eggs singly on the outside of the plant upon +which the young are to feed. As soon as the eggs +hatch, which is in about a month, the young larvæ, or +caterpillars, gnaw their way from the outside into +the pith.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig19.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 19." title=""> + +<p>The plant does not show any sign of decay until the +caterpillar is fully grown, when it dies. The caterpillar, +Fig. 19, 2, is about one and one-fourth inches long, +of a reddish brown color, with whitish stripes along the +body. The stripes on the sides are not continuous, +and the shading of the body varies, being darker on +the anterior than on the posterior portion. When +fully grown, Fig. 20, the color is lighter and the stripes +are broader. At this stage of life it burrows into the + +ground just beneath the surface, and changes into the +pupa state. The pupa is three-fourths of an inch long, +and of a mahogany brown color. The perfect moth +appears about the first of September, and there is only +one brood in a season.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig20.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 20." title=""> + +<p>The caterpillars feed in the stalks of corn, tomatoes, +potatoes, dahlias, asters, and also in young currant +bushes, besides feeding on many species of weeds. By +a close inspection of the plants about the beginning of +July, the spot where the borer entered, which is generally +quite a distance from the ground, may be detected, +and the caterpillar cut out without injury to the +plant. This plan is impracticable for an extensive +crop, but by destroying the borers found in the vines +that wilt suddenly, one can lessen the number another +year.</p> + +<h3>THE PYRAMIDAL GRAPEVINE CATERPILLAR.</h3> + +<h4><i>Pyrophila pyramidoides</i> (Guen.)</h4> + +<p>This caterpillar, Fig. 21, is generally found on grapevines +early in June, but also feeds on apple, plum, +raspberry, maple, poplar, etc. It is about an inch and +a half in length, with the body tapering toward the +head; of a whitish green color, darker on the sides; +with a longitudinal white stripe on the back, broader +on the last segments. Low down on each side is a +bright yellow stripe, between this and the one on the +back is another less distinct, and the under surface of +the body is pale green.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig21.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 21." title=""> + +<p>The caterpillar is fully grown about the middle or +last of June, when it descends to the ground, draws +together some of the fallen leaves, and makes a +cocoon, in which it soon changes to a mahogany brown +pupa.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig22.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 22." title=""> + +<p>In the latter part of July the perfect moth, Fig. 22, +emerges, measuring, when its wings are expanded, +about one and three-fourths inches; the fore wings are +dark brown shaded with lighter, with dots and wavy +lines of dull white. The hind wings are reddish, or of +a bright copper color, shading to brown on the outer +angle of the front edge of the wing, and paler toward +the hinder and inner angle.</p> + +<p>The under surface of the wings is lighter than the +upper, and the body is dark brown, with its posterior +portion banded with lines of a paler hue.</p> + +<p>This pest may be destroyed by hand picking, or +by jarring the trees or vines on which they are feeding, +when they will fall to the ground and may be crushed +or burned.</p> + +<h3>THE GRAPE BERRY MOTH.</h3> + +<h4><i>Eudemis botrana</i> (S.V.)</h4> + +<p>The moths emerge and fly early in June, and are +quite small, measuring, when the wings are expanded, +only two-fifths of an inch, Fig. 23, a, enlarged. The +fore wings are purplish or slate brown from the base to +the middle, the outer half being irregularly marked +with dark and light brown.</p> + +<img src="images/3-fig23.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 23." title=""> + +<p>These insects are two-brooded and the first brood +feeds not only on the leaves of the grape, but on tulip, +sassafras, vernonia and raspberry. The caterpillars of +the second brood emerge when the grapes are nearly +grown, and bore in them a winding channel to the +pulp, continuing to eat the interior of the berry till +the pulp is all consumed, Fig. 23, d, when, if not full +grown, they draw one or two other berries close to the +first and eat the inside of those.</p> + +<p>The mature caterpillar, Fig. 23, b, measures about +half an inch in length, is dull greenish, with head and +thoracic shield somewhat darker; the internal organs +give the body a reddish tinge. It then leaves the grape +and forms its cocoon by cutting out a piece of a leaf, +leaving it hinged on one side; then rolling the cut end +over, fastens it to the leaf, thus making for itself a +cocoon in which to pupate. The pupa is dark reddish +brown.</p> + +<p>The second generation passes the winter in the pupa +state, attached to leaves which fall to the ground; +therefore, if all the dead and dried leaves be gathered +in the fall and burned, also all the decayed fruit, a +great many of these insects would be destroyed. As + +the caterpillars feed inside of the berry, no spraying +of the vines with poisons would reach them. The caterpillar +makes a discolored spot where it enters the +berry, Fig. 23, c. Therefore the infested fruit may be +easily detected and destroyed.</p> + +<p>There is a small parasite that attacks this insect and +helps to keep it in check. The insect has been known +in Europe over a hundred years. It is not certain +when it was introduced into America, but it is now +found from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, and from +the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.</p> + +<h3>THE CODLING MOTH.</h3> + +<h4><i>Carpocapsa pomonella</i> (Linn.)</h4> + +<p>This well known insect has a world-wide reputation, +and is now found wherever apples are raised.</p> + +<img src="images/4-fig24.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 24." title=""> + +<p>The moths are on the wing about the time the young +apples are beginning to set, and the female lays a +single egg in the blossom end of each apple. The fore +wings of the moths when expanded, Fig. 24, g (f, with +the wings closed), measure about half an inch across, +and are marked with alternate wavy, transverse streaks +of ashy gray and brown, and have on the inner hind +angle a large tawny brown, horseshoe shaped spot, +streaked with light bronze or copper color. The hind +wings and abdomen are light brown with a luster of +satin.</p> + +<p>Each female lays about fifty eggs, which are minute, +flattened, scale-like bodies of a yellowish color. In +about a week the eggs hatch and the tiny caterpillar +begins to eat through the apple to the core, Fig. 24, a, +pushing its castings out through the hole where it +entered, Fig. 24, b. Oftentimes these are in sight on +the outside in a dark colored mass, thus making wormy +apples plainly seen at quite a distance.</p> + +<p>The caterpillar is about two-fifths of an inch in +length, of a glossy, pale yellowish white color, with a +light brown head. The skin is transparent and the +internal organs give to it a reddish tinge.</p> + +<p>When mature the caterpillars, Fig. 24, e, top of head +and second segment, h, emerge from the apples and +seek some sheltered place, such as crevices of bark, or +corners of the boxes or barrels in which the fruit is +stored, where they spin a tough whitish cocoon, Fig. +24, i, in which they remain unchanged all winter, and +transform to pupæ, Fig. 24, d, the next spring, the perfect +moths emerging in time to lay their eggs in the +new crop of apples.</p> + +<p>One good remedy is to gather all the fallen apples, +and feed them to hogs; another is to let swine and +sheep run in the orchard, and eat the infested fruit.</p> + +<p>It has been recommended to place bands of cloth or +hay around the trunks of the trees for the caterpillars +to spin their cocoons beneath, and to remove them at +the proper time, and put them in scalding water to +destroy the worms.</p> + +<p>By far the most successful method as yet adopted is +to shower the apple trees with Paris green in water, +one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water, +when the apples are about the size of peas, and again +in about a week.</p> + + +<h3>THE CABBAGE LEAF MINER.</h3> + +<h4><i>Plutella cruciferarum</i> (Zell.)</h4> + +<p>The cabbage leaf miner is not a native of this country, +but was imported from Europe.</p> + +<img src="images/4-fig25.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 25." title=""> + +<p>The perfect moth, Fig. 25, f, with the wings expanded +(h, with the wings closed, g, a dark variety), measures +three-quarters of an inch. The fore wings are +ashy gray, and on the hinder margin is a white or yellowish +white stripe having three points extending into +the gray, thus forming, when the wings are closed, +three diamond-shaped white spots. Generally there is +a dark brown stripe between the white and the gray. +There are also black dots scattered about on the +anterior part of these wings.</p> + +<p>The hind wings are leaden brown, and the under +side of all the wings is leaden brown, glossy, and without +any dots.</p> + +<p>The antennæ are whitish with dark rings, and the +abdomen white. There are two broods of this insect in +this region, the moths of the first appearing in May, +and those of the second in August. They hibernate in +the pupa stage.</p> + +<p>The caterpillars, Fig. 25, a (b, the top and c, the side +of a segment), appear in June or July and September; +they are small and cylindrical, tapering at both ends, +pale green, and about one-fourth of an inch long. The +head has a yellowish tinge, and there are several dark +stiff hairs scattered over the body.</p> + +<p>When ready to transform, this caterpillar spins a +delicate gauze-like cocoon, Fig. 25, e, made of white, +silken threads, on the under side of a cabbage leaf. +The pupa, Fig. 25, d, and i, the end of a pupa, is commonly +white, sometimes shaded with reddish brown, +and can be distinctly seen through the silken case.</p> + +<p>The first brood is more injurious than the second, as +it feeds on the young cabbage leaves before the head is +formed, and this must surely stunt the growth and +make weak, sickly plants; while the second brood +feeds only on the outside leaves. The caterpillars are +very active, wriggling violently when disturbed, and +falling by a white silken thread.</p> + +<p>Hot dry weather is favorable to them and enables +them to multiply rapidly. Advantage has been taken +of this fact, and spraying the plants thoroughly with +water is strongly recommended. Prof. Riley states +that the insects are very readily destroyed by pyrethrum. +There are two species of spiders and a species +of ichneumon fly that destroy them.</p> + + +<h3>THE GARTERED PLUME MOTH.</h3> + +<h4><i>Oxyptilus periscelidactylus</i> (Fitch.)</h4> + +<p>The caterpillars of this species draw together the +young grape leaves, Fig. 26, a, in the spring, with fine +silken threads, and feed on the inside, thus doing much +damage in proportion to their size. These caterpillars, +Fig. 26, a, and e, a segment greatly enlarged, are full +grown in about two weeks, when they are about one-fourth +of an inch long, pale green with whitish hairs +arising from a transverse row of warts on each segment.</p> + +<p>Early in June they transform to pupæ, Fig. 26, b, +which are pale green at first and change to dark brown. +The surface is rough and the head is cut off obliquely, +while on the upper side near the middle are two sharp +pointed horns, Fig. 26, c. They remain in this stage +from a week to ten days, when the moths emerge.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/4-fig26.png" alt="FIG. 26." title=""> +</p> + +<p>The moths, Fig. 26, d, belong to the family commonly +known as plume moths or feather wings +(Pterophoridæ), from having their wings divided into +feather-like lobes. When the wings are expanded they +measure about seven-tenths of an inch across. They +are yellowish brown with a metallic luster, and have +several dull whitish streaks and spots. The fore wings +are split down the middle about half way to their base, +the posterior half having a notch in the outer margin. +The body is somewhat darker than the wings.</p> + +<p>It is not known positively in what stage the winter +is passed, but it is supposed to be the perfect, or imago +stage. The unnatural grouping and spinning of the +leaves together leads to their detection, and they can +be easily destroyed by hand picking and then crushing +or burning them.</p> + +<hr /> + +<a name="misc-1"></a><h2>THE BREEDS OF DOGS.</h2> + +<p>The dog exhibitions that have annually taken place +for the last eight years at Paris and in the principal +cities of France have shown how numerous and varied +the breeds of dogs now are. It is estimated that there +are at present, in Europe, about a hundred very distinct +and very fine breeds (that is to say, such as reproduce +their kind with constant characters), without +counting a host of sub-breeds or varieties that a number +of breeders are trying to fix.</p> + +<p>Most of the breeds of dogs, especially those of modern +creation, are the work of man, and have been obtained +by intercrossing older breeds and discarding all +the animals that departed from the type sought. But +many of these breeds are also the result of accident, or +rather of modifications of certain parts of the organism—of +a sort of rachitic or teratological degeneration +which has become hereditary and has been due to +domestication; for it is proved that the dog is the +most anciently domesticated animal, and that its submission +to man dates back to more than five thousand +years. Such is the origin of the breeds of terriers, bulldogs, +and all of the small house dogs.</p> + +<p>Man has often, designedly or undesignedly, aided in +the production of breeds of this last category by submitting +the dog to a regimen contrary to nature, or +setting to work to reproduce an animal born monstrous, +either for curiosity or for interest. As well known, +the accidental characters and the spontaneous modifications +which work no injury to the essential functions +of life became easily hereditary, and the same is the +case with certain artificial modifications pursued for a +long series of generations.</p> + +<p>It was the opinion of Buffon that the breeds of dogs, +which were already numerous in his time, were all derived +from a single type, which, according to him, was +the shepherd's dog. Other scientists have insisted that +the dog descended from the wolf, and others from the +jackal. At the present time, it is rightly admitted that +several species of wild dogs have concurred in the formation +of the different breeds of dogs as we now have +them.</p> + +<p>In the lacustrine habitations of the stone age in +Sweden, and in the <i>kjoekkenmoedding</i> (kitchen remains) +of Denmark, of the same epoch, we find the remains +of a dog, which, according to Rutymeyer, belongs +to a breed which is constant up to its least details, +and which is of a light and elegant conformation, +of medium size, with a spacious and rounded cranium +and a short, blunt muzzle, and a medium sized jaw, +the teeth of which form a regular series.</p> + +<p>This dog, which has been named by geologists <i>Canis +palustris</i>, fully resembles in size, slenderness of the +limbs, and weakness of the muscular insertions, the +spaniel, the brach hound, or the griffon.</p> + +<p>This dog of the stone age is entirely distinct from the +wolf and jackal, of which some regard the domestic +dog as a descendant, and as it has appeared in Denmark +as well as in Sweden, there is no doubt that this +species, peculiar to Europe, was subjugated by man +and used by him, in the first place, for hunting, and +later on for guarding houses and cattle. Later still, +in the age of metals, we observe the appearance, +both in Denmark and Sweden, of larger and stronger +breeds of dogs, having in their jaws the character of +mastiffs, and probably introduced by the first emigrants +from Asia.</p> + +<p>There are, moreover, historic proofs that the dogs of +the strongest breeds are indigenous to Asia, where we +still find the dog of Thibet, the most colossal of all; in +fact, in Pliny we read the following narrative: Alexander +the Great received from a king of Asia a dog of +huge size. He wished to pit it against bears and wild +boars, but the dog remained undisturbed and did not +even rise, and Alexander had it killed. On hearing of + +this, the royal donor sent a second dog like the first, +along with word that these dogs did not fight so weak +animals, but rather the lion and the elephant, and +that he had only two of such individuals, and in +case that Alexander had this one killed, too, he would +no longer find his equal. Alexander matched this dog +with a lion and then with an elephant, and he killed +them both. Alexander was so afflicted at the premature +death of the first dog, that he built a city and +temples in honor of the animal.</p> + +<p>Did the mountainous province of Epirus called +Molossia, in ancient Greece, give its name to the +<i>molossi</i> that it produced, or did these large dogs give +their name to the country? At all events, we know +that it was from Epirus that the Romans obtained the +molossi which fought wild animals in the circuses, and +that from Rome they were introduced into the British +islands and have became the present mastiffs.</p> + +<p>Although our hunting and shepherd's dogs have a +European and the mastiffs an Asiatic ancestry, the +ancestry of the harriers is African, and especially +Egyptian; in fact, in Upper Egypt we find a sort of large +white jackal (<i>Simenia simensis</i>) with the form of a +harrier, and which Paul Gervais regarded with some +reason as the progenitor of the domestic harrier, and a +comparison of their skulls lends support to this opinion.</p> + +<p>A study of the most ancient monuments of the +Pharaohs shows that the ancient Egyptians already +had at least five breeds of dogs: two very slim watch +dogs, much resembling the harrier, a genuine harrier, +a species of brach hound and a sort of terrier with +short and straight legs. All these dogs had erect ears, +except the brach, in which these organs were pendent, +and this proves that the animal had already undergone +the effects of domestication to a greater degree +than the others. The harrier of the time of the +Pharaohs still exists in great numbers in Kordofan, according +to Brehm.</p> + +<p>Upon the whole, we here have, then, at least three +stocks of very distinct dogs: 1, a hunting or shepherd's +dog, of European origin; 2, a mastiff, typical of the +large breed of dogs indigenous to Asia; and 3, a harrier, +indigenous to Africa.</p> + +<p>We shall not follow the effects of the combination of +these three types through the ages, and the formation +of the different breeds; for that we shall refer our +readers to a complete work upon which we have been +laboring for some years, and two parts of which have +already appeared.<a name="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>We shall rapidly pass in review the different breeds +of dogs that one may chance to meet with in our dog +shows, beginning with the largest. It is again in mountainous +countries that the largest dogs are raised, and +the character common to all of these is a very thick +coat. The largest of all, according to travelers, is the +Thibetan dog. Buffon tells of having seen one which, +when seated, was five feet in height. One brought +back by the Prince of Wales from his voyage to the +Indies was taller in stature, stronger and more stocky +than a large mastiff, from which it differed, moreover, +in its long and somewhat coarse hair, which was +black on the back and russet beneath, the thighs and +the tail being clothed with very long and silky hair.</p> + +<p>In France, we have a beautiful mountain dog—the +dog of the Pyrenees—which is from 32 to 34 inches in +height at the shoulders, and has a very thick white +coat, spotted above with pale yellow or grayish fox +color. It is very powerful, and is capable of successfully +defending property or flocks against bears and +wolves.</p> + +<p>The Alpine dog is the type of the mountain dog. It +is of the same size as the dog of the Pyrenees, and differs +therefrom especially in its coloring. It is white +beneath, with a wide patch of orange red covering +the back and rump. The head and ears are of the +same color, with the addition of black on the edges; +but the muzzle is white, and a stripe of the same color +advances upon the forehead nearly up to the nape of +the neck. The neck also is entirely white. There are +two varieties of the Alpine or St. Bernard dog, one +having long hair and the other shorter and very thick +hair. We give in Fig. 1 a portrait of Cano, a large +St. Bernard belonging to Mr. Gaston Leonnard.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4-fig1.png"> +<img src="images/4-fig1-th.jpg" alt="FIG.1--LARGE ST. BERNARD DOG BELONGING TO MR. LEONARD." title=""> +</a><br clear="all" />FIG.1—LARGE ST. BERNARD DOG BELONGING TO MR. LEONARD.</p> + +<p>Although this breed originated at the celebrated +convent of St. Bernard, it no longer exists there in a +state of purity, and in order to find fine types of it we +have to go to special breeders of Switzerland and England. +The famous Plinnlimon, which was bought for +$5,000 by an American two or three years ago, and +about which there was much talk in the papers, even +the political ones, was born and reared in England. +It appears that it is necessary, too, to reduce the number +of life-saving acts that it is said are daily performed +by the St. Bernard dogs. This is no longer but a +legend. There was, it is true, a St. Bernard named +Barry, now exhibited in a stuffed state in the Berne +Museum, which accomplished wonders in the way of +saving life, but this was an exception, and the reputation +of this animal has extended to all others of its +kind. These latter are simply watch dogs kept by the +monks for their own safety, and which do not go at all +by themselves alone to search for travelers that have +lost their way in the snow.</p> + +<p>The Newfoundland dog, which differs from the preceding +in its wholly black or black and white coat, +was, it appears, also of mountain origin. According +to certain authors, it is indigenous to Norway, and was +carried to Newfoundland by the Norwegian explorers +who discovered the island. Adapted to their new existence, +they have become excellent water dogs, good +swimmers, and better life savers by far than the majority +of their congeners.</p> + +<p>Is it from descending to the plain that the mountain +dogs have lost their long hair and have become short +haired dogs like the English dog or mastiff and the +German or large Danish dogs? It is very probable. +At all events, it is by this character of having short +hair that mastiffs are distinguished from the mountain +dogs. Again, the large breed of dogs are distinguished +from each other by the following characters: The mastiff +is not very high at the shoulders (30 inches), but he +is very heavy and thick set, with powerful limbs, large +head, short and wide muzzle and of a yellowish or café-au-lait +color accompanying a black face; that is to say, +the ears, the circumference of the eyes and the muzzle +are of a very dark color. The German or large Danish +dogs constitute but one breed, but of three varieties, +according to the coat: (1) those whose coat is of a +uniform color, say a slaty gray or isobelline of varying +depth, without any white spots; (2) those having a +fawn colored coat striped transversely with black like +the zebra, but much less distinctly; (3) those having a +spotted coat, that is to say, a coat with a white ground +strewed with irregular black spots of varying size. +These, like those of the first variety are generally small-eyed. +Whatever be the variety to which they belong, +the German or large Danish dogs are slimmer than, +and not so heavy as, the mastiffs. Some, even, are so +light that it might be supposed that they had some +heavier blood in their veins. They have also a longer +muzzle, although square, and are quicker in gait and +motions.</p> + +<p>The largest dogs are to be met with in this breed, and +the beautiful Danish dog belonging to Prof. Charcot +(Fig. 2) is certainly the largest dog in France and perhaps +in Europe. It measures 36 inches at the shoulders +and has an osseous and muscular development +perfectly in keeping with its large stature, and at the +same time has admirable proportions and lightness, +and its motions are comparable to those of the finest +horse.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4-fig2.png"> +<img src="images/4-fig2-th.jpg" alt="FIG. 2" title=""> +</a><br clear="all" />FIG. 2—DR. CHARCOT'S LARGE DANISH DOG.</p> + +<p>Among the English dogs or mastiffs, we very frequently +meet with individuals in which the upper incisors +and canines are placed back of the corresponding +ones in the lower jaw, this being due to a slight shortening +of the bones of the upper jaw, not visible externally. +This is the first degree of an artist of teratological +development, which, since the middle ages, +has become very marked in certain subjects, and has +given rise to a variety in which this defect has become +hereditary. Such is the origin of the breed of bulldogs. +The latter were originally as large as the mastiffs. +Carried to Spain under Philip II., they have +there preserved their primitive characters, but the bulldogs +remaining in England have continued to degenerate, +so that now the largest are scarcely half the +size of the Spanish bulldog, and the small ones attain +hardly the size of the pug, although they preserve +considerable width of chest and muscular strength.</p> + +<h3>POINTERS.</h3> + +<p>Man hunted for ages with dogs that he united in a +pack; but these packs were of a very heterogeneous +composition, since they included strong dogs, light dogs +very swift of foot, shepherds' dogs, and others noted for +acuteness of scent, and even mongrels due to a crossing +with the wolf. It is from the promiscuousness of all +these breeds that has arisen our ordinary modern +dog.</p> + +<p>The pointer is of relatively recent creation, and is due +to the falconers. In our western countries, falconry +dates from the fourth and fifth centuries, as is proved +by the capitularies of Dagobert. This art, therefore, +was not brought to us from the East by the crusaders +in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as stated by Le +Maout in his Natural History of Birds.</p> + +<p>The falconer soon saw the necessity of having a dog +of nice scent having for its role the finding or hunting +up of game without pursuing it, in order to permit the +falcons themselves to enter into the sport. This animal +was called the bird dog, and was regarded as coming + +from various countries, especially from Spain, +whence the name of spaniel that a breed of pointers +has preserved. It is quite curious to find that for three +or four centuries back there have been no spaniels in +Spain. From Italy also and from southern climes +comes what is called the <i>bracco</i>, whence doubtless is +derived the French name <i>braque</i> and English brach. +Finally the <i>agasse</i> of the Bretons was certainly also +one of the progenitors of our present pointers. It was, +says Oppian, a breed of small and very courageous +dogs, with long hair, provided with strong claws and +jaws, that followed hares on the sly under shelter of +vine-stocks and reeds and sportively brought them +back to their masters after they had captured them. +We have certainly here the source of our barbets and +griffons.</p> + +<p>Finally the net hunters of the middle ages also contributed +much to the creation of the pointer, for it is +to them that we owe the setter. It is erroneously, in +fact, that certain authors have attributed the creation +of this dog to hunters with the arquebuse, since +this weapon did not begin to be utilized in hunting +until the sixteenth century. Gaston Phoebus, who +died in 1391, shows, in his remarkable work, that the +net hunters made use of Spanish setters and that it +was they who created the true pointer—the animal that +fascinates game by its gaze. By the same pull of their +draw net they enveloped in its meshes both the setter +and the prey that it held spellbound.</p> + +<p>Upon the whole, we see that at the end of the middle +ages there existed three types of pointers: spaniels, +brachs and very hairy dogs, that Charles Estienne, +in his Maison Rustique, of the sixteenth century, calls +barbets. It is again with these three types that are +connected all the present pointers, which we are going +to pass rapidly in review.</p> + +<p><i>The Brach hounds</i>.—To-day we reserve the name of +brachs for all pointers with short hair. The type of +the old brach still exists in Italy, Spain, the south of +France and in Germany. It is characterized by its +large size, its robust form, its large head, its long, flat +ears, its square muzzle separated from the forehead by +a deep depression, its large nose, often double (that +is to say, with nostrils separated by a deep vertical +groove), its pendent lips, its thick neck, its long and +strong paws provided with dew claws, both on the fore +and the hind feet, and its short hair, which is usually +white and marked with brown or orange-yellow spots. +The old brach breed has been modified by the breeders +of different countries, either by hygiene or by crossing +with ordinary dogs, according to the manner of +hunting, according to taste, and even according to +fashion. Thus in England, where "time is money" +reigns in every thing and where they like to hunt quickly +and not leisurely, the brach has been rendered +lighter and swifter of foot and has become the pointer. +In France, while it has lost a little in size and weight, +it has preserved its moderate gait and has continued to +hunt near its master, "under the gun," as they say. +The same is the case in Spain, Italy and Germany +even. In France there are several varieties or sub-breeds +of brach hounds. The old French brach, which +is nothing more than the old type, preserved especially +in the south, where it is called the Charles the +Tenth brach, is about twenty-four inches in height, +and has a white and a maroon coat, which is somewhat +coarse. It often has a cleft nose and dew-claws on all +the feet. The brach of the south scarcely differs from +the preceding except in color. Its coat has a white +ground covered with pale orange blotches and spots +of the same color. The St. Germain brach is finer +bred, and appears to be a pointer introduced into +France in the time of Charles X. It has a very fine +skin, very fine hair of a white and orange color. The +Bourbon brach has the characters of the old French +brach, with a white coat marked here and there with +large brown blotches, and the white ground spotted +with the same color; but what particularly characterizes +this dog is that it is born with a stumpy tail, as if +three-quarters of it had been chopped off. The Dupuy +brach is slender and has a narrow muzzle, as if it had +some harrier blood in its veins. It is white, with large +dark maroon blotches. The Auvergne brach resembles +the southern brach, but has a white and black +coat spotted with black upon white. The pointer, or +English brach (Fig. 3), descends from the old Spanish +brach, but has been improved and rendered lighter and +much swifter of foot by the introduction of the blood +of the foxhound into its veins, according to the English +cynegetic authors themselves. The old pointer +was of a white and orange color, and was indistinguishable +from our St. Germain. The pointer now fancied +is white and maroon and has a stronger frame than the +pointer of twenty years ago. The Italian brachs are +heavy, with lighter varieties, usually white and orange +color, more rarely <i>roan</i>, and provided with dew-claws, +this being a sign of purity of breed according to Italian +fanciers. The German brachs are of the type of the +old brach, with a stiff white and maroon coat, the latter +color being so extensively distributed in spots on +the white as to make the coat very dark.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/5-fig3.png" alt="FIG 3.--POINTER." title=""> +<br clear="all" />FIG 3.—POINTER.</p> + +<p><i>Spaniels</i>.—The old type of spaniel has nearly disappeared, +yet we still find a few families of it in France, +especially in Picardy and perhaps in a few remote parts +of Germany. The old spaniel was of the same build as +the brach, and differed from it in that the head, while +being short-haired, was provided with ears clothed with +long, wavy hair. The same kind of hair also clothed +the whole body up to the tail, where it constituted a +beautiful tuft. The Picard spaniel is a little lighter +than the old spaniel. It has large maroon blotches upon +a white ground thickly spotted with maroon, with a +touch of flame color on the cheeks, over the eyes, and +on the legs. The Pont-Andemer spaniel is a Norman +variety, with very curly hair, almost entirely maroon +colored, the white parts thickly spotted with a little +color as in the Picard variety, and a characteristic forelock +on the top of the head.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5-fig4.png"> +<img src="images/5-fig4-th.jpg" alt="FIG 4.--ENGLISH SETTERS." title=""> +</a><br clear="all" />FIG 4.—ENGLISH SETTERS.</p> + +<p>In England, the spaniel has given rise to several varieties. +In the first place there are several sub-breeds of +setters, viz.: The English setter, still called laverack, +which has large black or orange-colored blotches on +the head, the rest of the body being entirely white, +with numerous spots of the same color as the markings +on the head (Fig. 4); the Irish setter, which is entirely +of a bright yellowish mahogany color; and the Gordon +setter, which is entirely black, with orange color on +the cheeks, under the throat, within and at the extremity +of the limbs (Fig. 5). Next come the field spaniels, +a group of terrier spaniels, which includes the Clumber +spaniel, which is white and orange color; the Sussex +spaniel, which is white and maroon; the black spaniel, +which is wholly black; and the cocker, which is the +smallest of all, and is entirely black, and white and +maroon, or white and orange-colored, or tricolored.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/6-fig5.png" alt="FIG 5.--GORDON SETTER." title=""> +<br clear="all" />FIG 5.—GORDON SETTER.</p> + +<p><i>Barbets and Griffons</i>.—To this latter category belong +the dogs, <i>par excellence</i>, for hunting in swamps. The +barbets are entirely covered with long curly hair, like +the poodles, which are directly derived from them. +They are white or gray, with large black or brown +blotches. The griffons differ from the poodles in their +coarse and stiff hair, which never curls. They have +large brown blotches upon a white ground, which is +much spotted or mixed, as in the color of the hair +called roan. There is an excellent white and orange-colored +variety. The griffons, neglected for a long +time on account of the infatuation that was and is still +had for English hunting dogs, are being received again +with that favor which they have never ceased to be the +object of in Germany and in Italy (where they bear the +name of <i>spinone</i>). Breeders of merit, such as Mr. Korthals, +in Germany, and Mr. E. Boulet, in France, are +endeavoring to bring them into prominence (Fig. 6). Finally, +we reckon also among hunting dogs some very +happy crosses between the spaniels and the barbets, +which in England are called retrievers or water +spaniels.—<i>P. Megnin, in La Nature</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/6-fig6.png" alt="FIG 6.--COARSE HAIRED GRIFFON." title=""> +<br clear="all" />FIG 6.—COARSE HAIRED GRIFFON.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a><div class="note">Les Races des Chiens, in La Bibliotheque de l'Eleveur.</div> + +<hr /> + +<a name="pisc-1"></a><h2>RESTOCKING THE SEINE WITH FISH.</h2> + +<p>A few days ago, at Bougival, a short distance below +the dam of the Marly machine, there were put into +water 40,000 fry of California trout and salmon, designed +to restock the Seine, which, in this region, has +been depopulated by the explosions of dynamite which +last winter effected the breaking up of the ice jam +that formed at this place.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6-a.png"> +<img src="images/6-a-th.jpg" alt="RESTOCKING THE SEINE WITH FISH." title=""> +</a><br clear="all" />RESTOCKING THE SEINE WITH FISH.</p> + +<p>The operation, which is quite simple in itself, attracted +a large number of inquisitive people by reason +of the exceptional publicity given to the conflict provoked +by a government engineer, who, under the pretext +that he had not been consulted, made objections +to the submersion of the little fish. As well known, +the affair was terminated by a sharp reprimand from +Mr. Yves Guyot, addressed to his overzealous subordinate.</p> + +<p>It would have been a great pity, moreover, if this interesting +experiment had not taken place, and had not +come to corroborate the favorable results already obtained.</p> + +<p>In three years the California salmon reaches a weight +of eleven pounds, and, from this time, is capable of reproduction. +Its flesh is delicious, and comparable to +that of the trout, the development of which is less rapid, +but just as sure.</p> + +<p>The fry put into the water on Sunday were but two +months old. The trout were, on an average, one and a +half inches in length, and the salmon two and three-quarter +inches. They were transported in three iron +plate vessels, weighing altogether, inclusive of the +water, 770 lb., and provided with air tubes through +which, during the voyage, the employes, by means of +pumps, assured the respiration of the little fish.</p> + +<p>Our engraving represents the submersion at the +moment at which the cylinders (of which the temperature +has just been taken and compared with that of +the Seine, in order to prevent too abrupt a transition +for the fry) are being carefully let down into the river.—<i>L'Illustration</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>Figures show that the consumption of iron in general +construction—other than railroads—in this country +has grown from a little more than a million and a half +of tons in 1879 to more than six million tons in 1889. +Much of this increase has gone into iron buildings. By +using huge iron frames and thin curtain walls for each +story supported thereon, as is done in a building going +up on lower Broadway, New York city, a good deal of +space can be saved.</p> + +<hr /> +<a name="nav-1"></a><h2>MODERN ARMOR.</h2> + +<h3>By F.R. BRAINARD, U.S.N.</h3> + +<p>The building of a navy, which has been actively +going on for the past few years, has drawn public attention +to naval subjects, and recent important experiments +with armor plates have attracted large attention, +hence it may not be amiss to give a description +of the manufacture and testing of armor. It would be +interesting to wade through the history of armor, +studying each little step in its development, but we +shall simply take a hasty glance at the past, and then +devote our attention to modern armor and its immediate +future.</p> + +<p>Modern armor has arrived at its present state of development +through a long series of experiments. These +experiments have been conducted with great care and +skill, and have been varied from time to time as the +improvements in the manufacture of materials have +developed, and as the physical laws connected with +the subject have been better understood. There has +been very little war experience to draw from, and +hence about all that is now known has been acquired +in peaceful experiments.</p> + +<p>The fundamental object to be obtained by the use of +armor is to keep out the enemy's shot, and thus protect +from destruction the vulnerable things that may +be behind it. The first serious effort to do this dates +with the introduction of iron armor. With this form +of armor we have had a small amount of war experience. +The combat of the Monitor and Merrimac, in +Hampton Roads, in May, 1862, not only marked an +epoch in the development of models of fighting ships, +but also marked one in the use of armor. The Monitor's +turret was composed of nine one-inch plates of +wrought iron, bolted together. Plates built in this +manner form what is known as laminated armor. +(See Fig. 1.) +<img src="images/7-fig1.png" align="left" alt="Fig. 1. Laminated" title=""> +The side armor of the hull was composed +of four one-inch plates. The Merrimac's casemate was +composed of four one-inch plates or two two-inch plates +backed by oak. The later monitors had laminated armor +composed of one-inch plates. The foregoing, with +the Albemarle and Tennessee rams under the Confederate +flag, are about the sum of our practical experience +in the use of armor.</p> + + +<p>European nations took up the subject of armor and +energetically conducted experiments which have cost +large sums of money, but have given much valuable +data. For a long time wrought iron was the only material +used for armor, and the resisting power depending +on the thickness; and the caliber and penetration +of guns rapidly increasing, it was not long before a +point was reached where the requisite thickness made +the load of armor so great that it was impracticable for +a ship to carry it. The question then arose as to what +were the most important parts of a ship to protect. +The attempted solutions of this question brought out +various systems of distributions.</p> + +<p>Armored ships were formerly of two classes; in one +the guns were mounted in broadside, in the other in +turrets. Every part of the ship was protected with +iron to a greater or less thickness. In more modern +ships the guns are mounted in an armored citadel, in +armored barbettes or turrets, the engines, boilers and +waterline being the only other parts protected. There +may be said to be three systems of armor distribution. +The belt system consists in protecting the whole waterline +by an armored belt, the armor being thickest +abreast of the engines and boilers. The guns are protected +by breastworks, turrets or barbettes, the other +parts of the ship being unprotected. The French use +the belt system, and our own monitors may be classed +under it. The central citadel system consists in armoring +that part of the waterline which is abreast of +the engines and boilers. Forward and aft the waterline +is unprotected, but a protective deck extends from +the citadel in each direction, preventing the projectiles +from entering the compartments below. The hull is +divided into numerous compartments by water-tight +bulkheads, and, having a reserve of flotation, the stability +of the ship is not lost, even though the parts +above the protective deck, forward and aft, be destroyed +or filled with water. The guns are protected +by turrets or barbettes. The deflective system consists +in inclining the armor, or in so placing it that it +will be difficult or impossible to make a projectile +strike normal to the face of the plate. A plate that is +inclined to the path of a projectile will, of course, offer +greater resistance to penetration than one which is +perpendicular; hence, when there is no other condition +to outweigh this one, the armor is placed in such a +manner as to be at the smallest possible angle with +the probable path of the projectile. This system is designed +to cause the projectile to glance or deflect on +impact. Deflective armor should be at such an angle +that the projectiles fired at it cannot bite, and hence +the angle will vary according to the projectile most +likely to be used. In the usual form of deflective deck +the armor is at such a small inclination with the horizon +that it becomes very effective. Turret and +barbette armor may be considered as deflective armor. +The term inclined armor denotes deflective armor +that is inclined to the vertical. The kinds of armor +that are in use may be designated as rolled iron, chilled +cast iron, compound, forged and tempered steel, and +nickel steel. Iron armor consists of wrought iron +plates, rolled or forged, and of cast iron or chilled cast +iron, as in the Gruson armor. Compound armor consists +of a forged combination of a steel plate and an +iron plate. Steel armor consists of wrought steel +plates. Nickel-steel armor consists of plates made +from an alloy of nickel and steel.</p> + +<p>I have spoken above of laminated armor. To secure +the full benefit of this kind, the plates must be neatly +fitted to each other; the surfaces must make close contact. +This requires accurate machining, and hence is +expensive. To overcome this point sandwiched armor +was suggested. This consists in placing a layer of wood +between the laminations, as shown in Fig. 2. +<img src="images/7-fig2.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 2." title=""> +It was +found that laminated and sandwiched armor gave very +much less resisting power than solid rolled plates +of the same thickness. Wrought iron armor is made +under the hammer or under the rolls, in the ordinary +manner of making plates, and has been exhaustively +studied and experimented with—more so than any +other form of armor.</p> + + +<p>Chilled cast iron armor is manufactured by Gruson, +in Germany, and is used in sea coast defense forts of +Europe.</p> + +<p>In 1867 several compound plates were made by Chas. +Cammell & Co., of Sheffield, England, and were tested +at Shoeburyness, in England, and at Tegel, in Russia. +These plates were made by welding slabs of steel to +iron; but the difficulties were so great that the idea +was abandoned for the time.</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/7-fig3.png" align="left" alt="Fig. 3." title=""> + +<img src="images/7-fig4.png" align="right" alt="FIG. 4." title=""> +<br clear="all" /></p> + +<p>Compound armor, as now manufactured, is of two +types: Wilson's patent, a backing of rolled iron, faced +with Bessemer steel; Ellis' patent, a backing of rolled +iron, faced with a plate of hard rolled steel, cemented +with a layer of Bessemer steel. Both these kinds are +manufactured in England and France in sizes up to +fifty tons weight. The Wilson process is used at the +works of Messrs. Cammell & Co., of Sheffield, England, +and the Ellis process at the Atlas Works of Sir John +Brown & Co., of the same place. These are the two +leading manufacturers of compound plate.</p> + + +<p>The method employed by Wilson in making compound +plate is to first make a good wrought iron +plate. To the surface of this and along each side of +the length of the plate are fixed two small channel +irons, as shown in Fig. 5. +<img src="images/7-fig5.png" align="left" alt="Fig. 5." title=""> +The plate is then raised to +a welding heat in a gas furnace, and transferred to an +iron flask or mould. Wedges are driven in between +the back of the plate and the side of the mould, thus +forcing the channel irons up snug against the opposite +side of the mould. Moulding sand is then packed +around the back and sides of the plate (see Fig. 6). +<img src="images/7-fig6.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 6." title=""> +The +mould is lowered in a vertical position into a pit. +Molten steel, manufactured by either the Siemens-Martin +or Bessemer process, is then poured in through +a trough that forms several streams, and forms the +hard face of the plate. The molten steel as it runs +down cleans the face of the wrought iron plate, scoring +it in places, and, being of much higher temperature, +the excessive heat carbonates the iron to a depth +of one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch, forming +a zone of mild steel between the hard steel and soft +iron. The mould is placed in a vertical position to insure +closeness of structure and the forcing of gases +out of the steel. After solidifying, the whole plate is +pressed, and passed through the rolls to obtain +thorough welding. It is then bent, planed, fitted, +tempered, and annealed to remove internal strains.</p> + +<p>In 1887, Wilson took out a patent for improvements +in his process of making compound plates. In this +method of manufacture he takes a wrought iron, +fibrous plate, fifteen inches thick, built up from a +number of thin plates. While hot from the forging +press, he places this plate in an iron mould (see Fig. 7) +<img src="images/7-fig7.png" align="left" alt="Fig. 7." title=""> +about 28 inches deep, and upon it runs "ingot iron" +or very mild steel to a depth of thirteen inches. In +this form of mould the plate rests on brickwork, and is +held in place by two grooved side clamps or strips which +are caused to grip the plate by means of screws which +extend through the sides of the mould. After solidifying, +the plate, which is twenty-eight inches thick, is +reheated and rolled down to eighteen inches. This is +the iron backing of the finished plate, and it is again +put in the iron mould and heated, when a layer of hard +steel is run on the exposed surface of the original +wrought iron plate to a depth of eight inches. This +makes a plate about twenty-eight inches thick. It is +taken from the mould, reheated, rolled, hammered or +pressed down to twenty inches. After cooling, it is +bent, planed, and fitted as desired, then tempered and +annealed to relieve internal strains.</p> + + + +<p>The method employed by Ellis in making compound +plates is to take two separate plates, one of good +wrought iron and one of hard forged steel, placing the +forged steel plate on the wrought iron plate, keeping +them separate by a wedge frame or berm of steel +around three sides, and placing small blocks of steel at +various points near the middle of the plates (see Fig. 8). +<img src="images/7-fig8.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 8." title=""> +These blocks are called distance blocks. After covering +all the exposed steel surfaces with ganister, the +plates are put in a gas furnace and heated to a welding +heat. They are then lowered into a vertical iron pit +with the open side uppermost. The plates are held in +position by hydraulic rams, which also prevent bulging. +Molten steel of medium softness is then poured +into the space between the plates, by means of a distributing +trough having holes in the bottom, and after +this has solidified, the whole plate is placed under the +hydraulic press and reduced about twenty per cent. in +thickness. The plate is then passed through the rolls, +bent, planed, fitted, tempered, and annealed to reduce +internal strains.</p> + +<p>In heating the compound plates for rolling, the plate +is placed in the furnace with the steel face down, so +that the iron part gets well heated and the steel does +not become too hot. Great care must be taken not to +overheat the plate, and in working, many passes are +given the plate with small closings of the rolls. The +steel part of a compound plate is usually about one +third of the full thickness of the plate.</p> + +<p>Forged steel armor, tempered in oil, is fabricated at +Le Creusot, France, by Schneider & Co., using open-hearth +steel, and forging under the 100 ton hammer. + +The ingots are cast, with twenty-five per cent. sinking +head and are cubical in form. The porter bar is attached +to a lug on one side of the ingot. By means of +a crane with a curved jib which gives springiness under +the hammer, the ingot is thrust into the heating +furnace. On arriving at a good forging heat it is +swung around to the 100 ton hammer, under which it is +worked down to the required shape. A seventy-five +ton ingot requires about eight reheatings before being +reduced to shape. Having been reduced to shape, the +plate is carefully annealed, then raised to a high tempering +heat, and the face tempered in oil. It is reannealed +to take out the internal strains, care being taken +not to reduce the face hardness more than necessary. +The Schneider process of tempering is based upon the +utilization of the absorption of heat caused by the fusing +or melting of a solid substance, and of the fact +that so long as a solid is melting or dissolving in a +liquid substance, the liquid cannot get appreciably +hotter, except locally around the heating surface. The +body to be hardened is plunged at the requisite temperature +into a bath containing the solid melting body, +or is kept under pressure in the solid material of low +melting point until the required extraction of heat has +taken place, more solid material being added if necessary +as that originally present melts and dissolves.</p> + +<p>Nickel steel armor is made in a similar manner to +the steel plates, the material used in casting the ingot +being an alloy of nickel and steel containing between +three and four per cent. of nickel.</p> + +<p>The Harvey process of making armor consists in taking +an all-steel plate and carbonizing the face. This +carbonizing process is very similar to the cementation +process of producing steel, and by it the face of the +plate is made high in carbon and very hard.</p> + +<p>The system invented by Sir Joseph Whitworth, of +Manchester, England, consists in what might be called +scale armor. A section of a sample of the armor represents +four plates. The outer layer, one inch thick, is +composed of steel of a tensile strength of 80 tons per +square inch; the second layer, one inch thick, of steel +whose tensile strength is 40 tons per square inch; the +third and fourth layers, each one-half inch thickness, +of mild steel. The outer layer is in small squares of +about ten inches on a side, and is fastened to the second +layer by bolts at the corners and one in the middle of +each square. The surface is flush. (See Fig. 9.) +<img src="images/8-fig9.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 9." title=""> +The +end sought by the above system is to break up the shot +by the hard steel face and to restrict any starring or +cracking of the metal to the limit of the squares or +scales struck. The bolts are of high carbon and are +extremely hard steel. +</p> + +<p>Armor plates must often be bent or curved to single +or double curvature and sometimes to a warped surface +to fit the form of the ship. There are several methods +of bending plates. One method employs a cast iron +slab of the required form, which is placed on the piston +of a hydraulic press. The armor plate is placed +face down on this slab, and on top of the plate are laid +packing blocks of cast iron, of such sizes and shapes as +to conform to the required curve. These blocks take +against the upper table of the press, when the piston +is forced up, and the hot plate is thus dished to the +proper form.</p> + +<p>In the French method of bending, an anvil or bed +plate of the required curve is used, and the armor plate +is forced to take the curve by being hammered all over +its upper surface with a specially designed steam +hammer.</p> + +<p>The edges of the plate are trimmed by large, powerful +slotting machines or circular saws; the latter, however, +operate in exactly the same manner as a slotter, +except that there is no return motion to the tool. Each +tooth of the saw is but a slotting tool, and these teeth +are, by screws, rendered capable of being nicely adjusted +in the circumference of the saw.</p> + +<p>The plates are fastened to the hulls and backing by +heavy bolts, varying in size according to the weight of +the individual plate. For the 6,000 ton armored ships, +these bolts are from 2.75 to 3.1 inches in diameter and +from 18.45 to 23 inches in length. They are tapped +two or three inches into the armor and do not go +through the plate. They pass through wrought iron +tubes in the backing and set up with cups, washers +and nuts against the inner skin of the ship.</p> + +<p>At steel works where plates for our new navy are +being manufactured, there are inspectors who look +after the government's interests. Officers of the navy +are detailed for this work, and their duty is to watch +the manufacture of plates through each part of the +process and to see that the conditions of the specifications +and contract are complied with.</p> + + +<p>The inspection and testing of armor plates consists +in examining them for pits, scales, laminations, forging +cracks, etc., in determining the chemical analysis of +specimens taken from different parts, in determining +the physical qualities of specimens taken longitudinally +and transversely, and the ballistic test. Specifications +for these different tests are constantly undergoing +change, and it would be impossible to state, with exactness, +what the requirements are or will be in the near +future. The ballistic test is the important one, +and is made by taking one plate of a group and subjecting +it to the fire of a suitable gun. The other tests +are simply to insure, as far as practicable, that all the +other plates of the group are similar to and are capable +of standing as severe a ballistic test as the test plate.</p> + +<p>The following will give an idea of the ballistic test +as prescribed by the Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department. +The test plate, irrespective of its thickness, +is to be backed by thirty-six inches of oak or other +substantial wood. Near the middle region of the plate an +equilateral triangle will be marked, each side of which +will be three and one-half calibers long. The lower +side of the triangle will be horizontal. Three shots +will be fired, the points of impact being as near as possible +the extremities of the triangle. The velocity of +the shot will be such as to give the projectile sufficient +energy to just pass through a wrought iron plate of +equal thickness to the test plate, and through its wood +backing. The velocity is calculated by the Gavre +formula:</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"V^2 = \frac{a}{w} \{ 3507 \ E^2 \times 2265464 \ e^{1.4} \}"></p> + +<p class="ind">V = the velocity of the projectile in feet per second.<br /> + a = the diameter of the projectile in inches.<br /> + w = the weight of the projectile in pounds.<br /> + E = the thickness of the backing in inches.<br /> + e = the thickness of the plate in inches.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Using the above formula we can make out a table as follows:</p> + +<pre> +-------+-------+-------------+-------+-------+------+---------+ +Plate. |Backi'g| Gun, service| w, | a, | V. | Energy, | +Inches.|Inches.| shot. |Pounds.|Inches.| f. 8.| Impact. | + | | | | | | f. tons.| +-------+-------+-------------+-------+-------+------+---------+ + 6 | 36 | 6" B.L.R. | 100 | 5.96 | 1389 | 1337 | + 7 | 36 | 6" " | 100 | 5.96 | 1528 | 1619 | + 8 | 36 | 8" " | 250 | 7.96 | 1213 | 2550 | + 9 | 36 | 8" " | 250 | 7.96 | 1308 | 2966 | + 10 | 36 | 8" " | 250 | 7.96 | 1399 | 3390 | + 11 | 36 | 8" " | 250 | 7.96 | 1489 | 3839 | + 12 | 36 | 10" " | 500 | 9.96 | 1247 | 5386 | + 13 | 36 | 10" " | 500 | 9.96 | 1315 | 5987 | + 14 | 36 | 10" " | 500 | 9.96 | 1381 | 6608 | + 15 | 36 | 12" " | 850 | 11.96 | 1215 | 8699 | + 16 | 36 | 12" " | 850 | 11.96 | 1269 | 9710 | + 17 | 36 | 12" " | 850 | 11.96 | 1332 | 10454 | + 18 | 36 | 12" " | 850 | 11.96 | 1374 | 11124 | + 19 | 36 | 12" " | 850 | 11.96 | 1425 | 11965 | + 20 | 36 | 12" " | 850 | 11.96 | 1476 | 12837 | +-------+-------+-------------+-------+-------+------+---------+ +</pre> + +<p>No projectile or fragment of the plate or projectile +must get wholly through the plate and backing. The +plate must not break up or give such cracks as to expose +the backing, previous to the third shot.</p> + +<p>The penetration of projectiles of different forms +into various styles of armor has been very thoroughly +studied and many attempts have been made to bring +the subject down to mathematical formulæ. These +formulæ are based on several suppositions, and agree +very closely with results obtained in actual experiments, +but there are so many varying conditions that +it is extremely doubtful if any formulæ will ever be +written that will properly express the penetration.</p> + +<p>Many different forms have been given to the heads +of projectiles, as flat, ogival, hemispherical, conoidal, +parabolic, blunt trifaced, etc.</p> + +<p>The flat headed projectile has the shape of a right +cylinder, and acts like a punch, driving the material of +the armor plate in front of it. These projectiles are +especially valuable when firing at oblique armor, for +they will bite or cut into the armor when striking at +an angle of thirty degrees.</p> + +<p>The ogival head acts more as a wedge, pushing the +metal aside, and generally will give more penetration +in thick solid plates than the flat headed projectile. +The ogival head is usually designed by using a radius +of two calibers.</p> + +<p>The hemispherical, conoidal, parabolic and blunt +trifaced all give more or less of the wedging effect. +The blunt trifaced has all the good qualities of the ogival +of two calibers. It bites at a slightly less angle, +and the three faces start cracks radiating from the +point of impact.</p> + +<p>Forged steel is the best material for armor-piercing +projectiles, but many are made of chilled cast iron, on +account of its great hardness and cheapness.</p> + +<p>The best weight for a projectile is found by the formula</p> + +<pre> + w = d³ (0.45 to 0.5) +</pre> + +<p>w being the weight in pounds, d the diameter in inches +and 0.45 to 0.5 having been determined by experiment.</p> + +<p>With a light projectile we get a flat trajectory, and +accuracy at short ranges is increased. With a heavy +projectile the resistance of the air has less effect and +the projectile is advantageously employed at long ranges.</p> + +<p>In the following formulæ, used in calculating the +penetration of projectiles in rolled iron armor,</p> + +<pre> + g = the force of gravity. + w = the weight of projectile in pounds. + d = the diameter of projectile in inches. + v = the striking velocity in feet per second. + P = the penetration in inches. +</pre> + +<p>Major Noble, R.A., gives</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex2.png" align="middle" alt= +"P = \sqrt[1.6]{\frac{w \ v^2}{\pi \ g \ d \ 11334.4}}"></p> + +<p>U.S. Naval Ordnance Proving Ground uses</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex3.png" align="middle" alt= +"P = \sqrt[2.035]{\frac{w \ v^2}{\pi \ g \ d \ 3852.8}}"></p> + +<p>Col. Maitland gives</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex4.png" align="middle" alt= +"P = \frac{w \ v^2}{g \ d^2 \ 16654.4}"></p> + +<p>Maitland's latest formula, now used in England, is</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex5.png" align="middle" alt= +"P = \frac{v}{608.3} \sqrt{\frac{w}{d}} - 0.14 \ d"></p> + + +<p>General Froloff, Russian army, gives</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex6.png" align="middle" alt= +"P = \frac{w \ v}{d^2 \ 576}"></p> + +<p>for plates less than two and one-half inches thick, and</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex7.png" align="middle" alt= +"P = \frac{w \ v}{d^2 \ 400} - 1.5"></p> + +<p>for plates more than two and one-half inches thick.</p> + +<p>If θ be the angle between the path of the projectile +and the face of the plate, then v in the above formulæ +becomes v sin θ.</p> + +<p>When we come to back the plates, their power to +resist penetration becomes greater, and our formula +changes. The Gavre formula, given above, is used to +determine the velocity necessary for a projectile to pass +entirely through an iron plate and its wood backing.</p> + +<p>Compound and steel armor are said to give about +29 per cent. more resisting power than wrought iron, +but in one experiment at the proving ground, at Annapolis, +a compound plate gave over 50 per cent. more +resisting power than wrought iron.</p> + +<p>The Italian government, after most expensive and +elaborate comparative tests, has decided in favor of +the Creusot or Schneider all-steel plates, and has +established a plant for their manufacture at Terni, +near Rome.</p> + +<p>The French use both steel and compound plates; +the Russians, compound; the Germans, compound; +the Swedes and Danes use both. Spain has adopted +and accepted the Creusot plate for its new formidable +armored vessel, the Pelayo; and China too has recently +become a purchaser of Creusot plates.</p> + +<p>Certain general rules may be laid down for attacking +armor. If the armor is iron, it is useless to attack with +projectiles having less than 1,000 feet striking velocity +for each caliber in thickness of plate. It is unadvisable +to fire steel or chilled iron filled shells at thick +armor, unless a normal hit can be made. When perforation +is to be attempted, steel-forged armor-piercing +shells, unfilled, should be used. They may be filled if +the guns are of great power as compared to the armor. +Steel and compound armor are not likely to be pierced +by a single blow, but continued hammering may break +up the plate, and that with comparatively low-powered +guns.</p> + +<p>Wrought iron must be perforated, and hard armor, +compound or steel, must be broken up. Against wrought +iron plates the projectile may be made of chilled cast +iron, but hard armor exacts for its penetration or +destruction the use of steel, forged and tempered. Against +unarmored ships, and against unarmored portions of +ironclads, the value of rapid-firing guns, especially +those of large caliber, can hardly be overestimated.</p> + +<p>The relative value of steel and compound armor is +much debated, and at present the rivalry is great, but +the weight of evidence and opinion seems to favor the +all-steel plate. The hard face of a compound plate is +supposed to break up the projectile, that is, make the +projectile expend its energy on itself rather than upon +the plate, and the backing of wrought iron is, by its +greater ductility, to prevent the destruction of the +plate. It seems probable that these two systems will +approach each other as the development goes on. An +alloy of nickel and steel is now attracting attention +and bids fair to give very good results.</p> + +<p>The problem to be solved, as far as naval armor is +concerned, is to get the greatest amount of protection +with the least possible weight and volume, and this +reduction of weight and volume must be accomplished, +in the main, by reducing the thickness of the plates +by increasing the resisting power of the material. In +the compound plate great surface hardness is readily +and safely attained, but it has not yet been definitely +determined what the proper proportionate thickness +of iron and steel is.</p> + +<p>A considerable thickness of steel is necessary to aid, +by its stiffness, in preventing the very ductile iron from +giving back to such an extent as to distort the steel +face and thus tear or separate the parts of the plate. +The ductile iron gives a very low resisting power, its +duty being to hold the steel face up to its work. If +now we substitute a soft steel plate in the place of the +ductile iron, we will get greater resisting power, but +our compound plate then becomes virtually an all-steel +one, only differing in process of manufacture. The +greatest faults of the compound plate are the imperfect +welding of the parts and the lack of solidity of the +iron. When fired at, the surface has a tendency to +chip.</p> + +<p>In the all-steel plate we have the greatest resisting +power throughout, but there are manufacturing difficulties, +and surface hardness equal to that of the compound +plate has not been obtained. The manufacturing +difficulties are being gradually overcome, and +artillerists are in high hopes that the requisite surface +hardness will soon be obtained.</p> + +<p>The following may be stated as well proved:</p> + +<p class="ind">1. That steel armor promises to replace both iron and compound.<br /> +<br /> +2. That projectiles designed for the piercing of hard +armor must be made of steel.<br /> +<br /> +3. That the larger the plate, the better it is able +to absorb the energy of impact without injury to itself.<br /> +<br /> +4. That the backing must be as rigid as possible.<br /> +</p> +<hr /> + +[FROM ENGINEERING.] + +<a name="ce-1"></a><h2>THE COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM OF PARIS.</h2> + +<p>The demand for compressed air as a motive power is +constantly increasing in Paris; the company, according +to its official reports, is financially prosperous, and +it seems difficult to understand how it should continue +as an actively going concern, unless it at all events +paid its way. The central station of St. Fargeau, +originally started on modest lines, for maintaining a +uniform time by pneumatic pressure throughout Paris, +has grown rapidly to very large proportions, though it +has never been able to supply the demand made on it +for power; and at the present time a second and still +larger station is being constructed in another part of +Paris. We confess that we do not understand why such +large sums of money should continue to be spent if the + +enterprise is not commercially a sound one, nor how men +of such eminence in the scientific world as Professor +Riedler should, without hesitation, risk their reputation +on the correctness of the system, if it were the idle +dream of an enthusiast, as many persons—chiefly those +interested in electric transmission—have declared it +to be.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9-fig1.png"> +<img src="images/9-fig1-th.jpg" alt="Fig. 1.--MAP OF PARIS WITH ST. FARGEAU STATION" title=""></a><br clear="all" />Fig. 1.—MAP OF PARIS WITH ST. FARGEAU STATION</p> + +<p>In describing the developments that have taken +place during the last two years, we shall confine ourselves +entirely to the details of a report recently made +on the subject by Professor Riedler. As soon as it +became evident that a very largely increased installation +was necessary, it was determined that the new central +station should be as free as possible from the defects +of the first one. These defects, which were the natural +results of the somewhat hasty development of an +experimental system, were of several kinds. In the first +place, so large a growth had not been contemplated, + +and the extensions were made more or less piecemeal, +instead of being on a regular plan; the location of the +central station itself was very unfavorable, both as regards +the facilities for obtaining coal and other supplies; +the cost of water was excessive, and the amount +available, inadequate.</p> + +<p>This evil was partly remedied by elaborate arrangements +for cooling the injection water so that it could +be repeatedly used, a device costly and ineffective, +and resulting in extravagant working, to say nothing +of the high charges made by the Paris company for +supplying water. To these drawbacks had to be added +others of an even more serious character. The engines +first laid down were not economical, and the compressors +employed gave but a very inferior result; with +each extension of the plant, the efficiency of both engines +and compressors was increased, the most satisfactory, +we believe, having been those supplied by the + +Societe Cockerill, and one of which was exhibited at the +Paris exhibition in 1889. Still it was clearly recognized +that much better results were possible, results which +Professor Riedler claims have been attained and which +will be embodied in the new installation now in progress.</p> + +<p>This central station is located on the left bank of the +Seine, close to the fortifications, opposite Vincennes +and not far from the terminal stations of the Orleans +and the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railways; +the plan, Fig. 1, shows the position. The works are +separated from the river by the quay, over which a +bridge will be constructed for the transfer of coal from +the landing stages belonging to the company, into the +works; as will be readily seen from the plan, it would +be quite easy to run junction lines to the two adjacent +railways, but with all the advantages given by water +carriage, it was considered unnecessary to incur the expense. +The river also affords a constant and unlimited +water supply, so that none of the difficulties existing +at St. Fargeau Station in imperfect condensation and +cooling will be met with.</p> + +<p>The new installation, called the Central Station of +the Quai de la Gare, is laid out on a very large scale, +the total generating energy provided for being no less +than 24,000 horse power; of this it is intended that +8,000 horse power will be in operation this year, and an +extension of 10,000 horsepower in 1892; the power now +in course of completion comprises four engines of 2,000 +horse power each. Four batteries of boilers will provide +steam for these engines. Figs. 2, 3, and 4 show the first +section of the installation now in progress; the four +groups of engines (three-cylinder condensing) are shown +at 1, 2, 3, and 4; the four groups of boilers ranged behind +them at F, F; the feed water heaters belonging to +each group at V V.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9-fig234.png"> +<img src="images/9-fig234-th.jpg" alt="COMPRESSED AIR STATION ON THE QUA DE LA GARE, PARIS. (FIG. 2,3,4)" title=""> +</a><br clear="all" />COMPRESSED AIR STATION ON THE QUA DE LA GARE, PARIS. (FIG. 2,3,4)</p> + +<p>The end of the building abuts against the Seine, and +the position of the water conduits for inlet and discharge +are indicated at C and A respectively. The installation, +when completed, will include very extensive +arrangements for transporting and storing coal, and +the interior of the boiler houses will be furnished with +an overhead system of rails and carriers for handling +the coal automatically, as far as possible. All the +principal mains and steam pipes are made in duplicate, +not only for greater security, but in order that +each set of engines and boilers may be connected interchangeably +without delay. The Seine supplies an +ample quantity of water, but not in a condition either +for feeding the boilers, for condensation, or for the air +compressors.</p> + +<p>Special provisions have therefore to be made to +filter the water efficiently before it is used. For this +purpose the water is led to a group of four filters (see +L, Fig. 4); from them it passes into the tanks, JJ, and +is pumped into the heaters. The filters can be rapidly +and automatically cleaned by reversing the flow of +water through them. Figs. 5 and 6 show the general +form of the type of engine adopted, as well as the engine +house, some of the mains, etc. They are vertical +triple-expansion engines, and are being constructed by +MM. Schneider et Cie, of Creusot, with a guarantee of +coal consumption not to exceed 1.54 lb. per horse power +per hour, with a penalty of 2,000 francs for every 100 +grammes in excess of this limit. It is evident that with +this restricted fuel consumption, a large margin for +economy will exist at the new works, as compared with +the St. Fargeau station, where the best engines cannot +show anything like this result, while some of the earlier +ones are distinctly extravagant, and the whole installation +is handicapped with imperfect means of condensation.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9-fig56.png"> +<img src="images/9-fig56-th.jpg" alt="THE NEW COMPRESSED AIR STATION AT +PARIS. (FIG. 5, 6)" title=""></a><br clear="all" />THE NEW COMPRESSED AIR STATION AT +PARIS. (FIG. 5, 6)</p> + +<p>Moreover, according to Professor Riedler, the consumption +of steam by the new Schneider engines will +be only 5.3 kilos. per horse power and per hour as compared +with some of the large engines requiring 9 kilos., +and the Cockerill engines—using 8 kilos. per hour, not +to speak of the older motors that are very extravagant +in the use of steam. The St. Fargeau station is worked +under a further disadvantage. The constantly increasing +demand from subscribers taxes the resources of +the station to their fullest extent, so that practically +there is no reserve power.</p> + +<p>In the new installation the work will be equally constant, +but care will be taken always to have a sufficient +reserve. Electric lighting will form a considerable part +of the duty to be done from this station, and in all +cases it is intended to work with accumulators, so that +the resistance to be overcome by the engines, so far as +this part of the duty is concerned, will be well known +and uniform. The engineers of the Compressed Air Co., +of Paris, have during the last five years acquired an +experience which could only be attained at a high +price and at the expense of a certain amount of failure; +this period, it is claimed, is now passed, and in the +new installation it is possible to put into practice all +the valuable lessons learned at St. Fargeau, to say +nothing of the more favorable natural conditions under +which the extension is being started and the improvements +in the compression of the air made by Mr. Popp +and Professor Riedler, and to which we shall refer +later.</p> + +<p>Chiefly in consequence of the high value of the +ground, vertical engines were adopted at the new +station; the proximity to the river made the foundations +somewhat costly, and the risk of occasional floods +rendered it desirable to set the level of the engine bedplates +20 inches above the floor of the building; the +foundations of the engines are continuous, but are quite +independent of the building. There are three compressing +cylinders in each set of engines, one being +above each steam cylinder. Two of these are employed +to compress the air to about 30 lb. per square inch, +after which it passes into a receiver and is cooled; it is +then admitted into the third or final compressing cylinder +and raised to the working pressure at which it flows +into the mains. In the illustrations, h, m, and b are +the high, intermediate, and low pressure cylinders of +one set of engines; as will be seen, each cylinder is on a +separate frame connected by girders; directly above +the cylinders are the two low and the one high pressure +air cylinders, b¹, m¹, and h¹ respectively. The former +deliver the air compressed to the first stage into the +receiver, T¹ (see Fig. 5), whence it passes into the third +compression cylinder, and thence by a main into the +cylinders, R R, which are in direct communication with +the delivery mains; these mains terminate in the subway, +T. The water for condensation is brought into +the engine house by the channel, C, and the condenser +pumps, a, draw direct from this supply; the discharge +main back to the river is shown at A. The relative +positions of the engine and boiler houses are indicated +in Figs. 2 to 5, where F shows the end of one group of +boilers; the air supply for the compressors is led from +the central raised portion, S, of the roof.</p> + +<p>Professor Riedler's first experiments in improving +the efficiency of air compressors were made with one +of the Cockerill compressors in use at the St. Fargeau +Station, and considerable difficulty attended this work, +because the machinery was necessarily kept almost in +constant operation. These compressors were designed +by MM. Dubois and Francois, of Seraing. Two of their +leading features were the delivery of the compressed +air at as low a temperature as possible, and with a relatively +high piston speed of about 400 ft. a minute. +The former object is attained by the injection of a +very fine water spray at each end of the air cylinder, +and its rapid removal with each stroke; the free as +well as the compressed air flows through the same +passages, one at each end of the cylinder; the inlet +valves being placed at the side of these passages, and +the outlet or compressed air valves at the top, the +compressed air, entering a chamber above the cylinder, +common to both valves, and passing thence to the reservoir. +The compressed air valves, which are seven in. +in diameter, are brought back sharply to their seats at +each stroke, by a small piston operated by compressed +air flowing through a by-pass from the chamber. The +illustrations published by us on page 686 of our forty-seventh +volume show the construction of these compressors. +The engravings on page 683 of the same volume +illustrate the compressors used in a somewhat older +part of the installation; they were made by M. Blanchod, +of Vevey, and a passing reference may be made +to them. The air is admitted through valves in the +cylinder, and is forced out through spring-loaded +valves; water is admitted into the cylinder to cool the +air.</p> + +<img src="images/10-fig7.png" align="right" alt="Fig. 7" title=""> + +<p>Fig. 7 indicates the modification made by Professor +Riedler in one of the Cockerill compressors: a receiver, +A, was placed under the two compressing cylinders, B +and C. The first stage is completed in the large cylinder, +B, the air being compressed to about 30 lb. per +square inch; from this it is discharged into the receiver, +A, through the pipe, B¹, where it meets with a + +spray injection that cools it to the temperature of the +water. The final stage is then effected in the smaller +cylinder, C, which, drawing the air from the receiver +through the pipe, C¹, compresses it to about 90 lb. and +delivers it through the pipe, d, to the mains. We hope +shortly to publish drawings of this compressor in its +final form; in its elementary stage Professor Riedler +claims to have obtained some very remarkable results. +He says that the waste spaces in his modification were +much smaller than in the Cockerill compressor, while the +efficiency of the apparatus was largely increased. The +actual engine duty per horse power and per hour was +raised, as a maximum, to 384 cubic feet of air at atmospheric +pressure, and compressed to 90 lb. per square +inch, a marked increase on the duty of the compressors +in use at the St. Fargeau station. The Cockerill compressors +experimented on at the same time showed a +maximum duty of 306 cubic feet of air. A considerable +advantage is claimed in drawing clean and cool air from +the outside of the building, and beyond the main feature +of carrying out the compression in two stages, Mr. +Riedler appears to have shown great skill in introducing +several minor alterations and improvements in the +plant.</p> + +<p><a href="images/10-fig8910.png"> +<img src="images/10-fig8910-th.jpg" align="right" alt="EFFICIENCY CURVES FOR THREE TYPES OF COMPRESSORS. (Fig. 8, 9, 10)" title=""> +</a> +Figs. 8, 9 and 10 are diagrams showing the comparative +efficiency of the three types of compressors at St. +Fargeau—Fig. 10 being a diagram of the Riedler +compressor—and indicate the gain derived from the +intermediate cooling. The loss is shown to be only 12 per +cent., as compared with a loss of 43 per cent. in a large +part of the plant, and of 105 per cent. in the earlier +compressors of the St. Gothard type. The table +given herewith contains a summary of trials made +by Professor Gutermuth, and are intended to show +the comparative results of an extended trial with three +kinds of compressors at St. Fargeau.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<pre> + + PERFORMANCES OF COMPRESSORS AT THE ST. FARGEAU CENTRAL STATION. + +--------------+-------+--------+------+-------+--------+--------+----------+ + | | | | | | | | + |Revolu-| Horse- | |Amount |Quantity| Cubic | | +Compressors. | tions | Power |Effic-|of Air | of Air |Feet of |Final Air | + |of Eng-|Absorbed|iency.|Passing| Passing|Air per |Pressure. | + |ine per| by | |through| through| Horse- | | + |Minute.|Compres-| | Inlet | Valves | Power | | + | | sors. | | Valves| per | and per| | + | | | | each | Hour. | Hour. | | + | | | |Revolu-| | | | + | | | | tion. | | | | +--------------+-------+--------+------+-------+--------+--------+----------+ + | | | | cubic | cubic | |lb. per | +1. | | | | feet | feet | |sq. in. | +<i>Sturgeon</i> | | | | | | | | +<i>Compressor</i> | 37 | 302 | .87 | 41.67 | 91,507| 261.3 | 90 | +Diameter of | 37 | 258 | .87 | 38.13 | 84,650| 276.1 | 90 | +cylinder, | | | | | | | | +23.62 in. | | | | | | | | +and 21.66 in.;| | | | | | | | +stroke, | | | | | | | | +48.63 in. | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | +2. | | | | | | | | +<i>Cockerill</i> | 40 | 337 | .83 | 46.61 | 111,864| 281.83 | 90 | +<i>Compressor.</i> | 45 | 353 | .83 | 46.61 | 125,844| 302.66 | 90 | +Diameter of | 40 | 342 | .88 | 49.43 | 118,632| 296.65 | 90 | +cylinder, | 46 | 377 | .85 | 48.02 | 132,534| 298.77 | 90 | +25.98 in.; | 38.67 | 324 | .89 | 50.14 | 116,434| 306.19 | 90 | +stroke, | 38.5 | 337 | .89 | 50.14 | 115,818| 294.18 | 90 | +47.24 in. | 38.6 | 329 | .91 | 50.84 | 117,740| 305.13 | 90 | + | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | +3. | | | | | | | | +<i>Riedler</i> | 52 | 615 | .985 | 77.34 | 241,300| 353.50 | 90 | +<i>Compressor.</i> | 60 | 709 | .985 | 76.98 | 277,128| 353.50 | 90 | +Diameter of | 38 | 422 | .985 | 77.34 | 176,330| 376.12 | 90 | +low-pressure | 39 | 424 | .985 | 77.34 | 181,030| 384.60 | 90 | +cylinder, | | | | | | | | +42.91 in.; | | | | | | | | +diameter of | | | | | | | | +high-pressure | | | | | | | | +cylinder, | | | | | | | | +26.38 in.; | | | | | | | | +stroke, | | | | | | | | +47.24 in. | | | | | | | | +--------------+-------+--------+------+-------+--------+--------+----------+ +</pre> + +<p>The results thus obtained were so satisfactory that +the designs were prepared for the great compressors to +be operated at the new central station on the Quai de +la Gare by the 2,000 horse power engines.</p> + +<p>The transmission of the compressed air through the +mains is unavoidably attended with a certain percentage +of loss, which, of course, increases with the length +of the transmission, the presence of leakage at the +joints, etc. Professor Riedler has devoted considerable +time to the investigation of this source of waste, +and we shall presently refer to the results he has +recorded; in the first place, however, we propose to +consider what he has to say on the subject of utilizing the +air at the points of delivery, and the means employed +for obtaining a relatively high efficiency of the motor.</p> + +<p>In the earliest stages of the Popp system in Paris it +was recognized that no good results could be obtained +if the air were allowed to expand direct into the motor; +not only did the formation of ice due to the expansion +of the air rapidly accumulate and choke the exhaust, +but the percentage of useful work obtained, +compared with that put into the air at the central station, +was so small as to render commercial results +hopeless. The practice of heating the air before admitting +it to the motor is quite old, but until a few years +ago it never seems to have been properly carried out; +in several mining installations where this motive power +had been long used, more or less imperfect attempts +had been made to heat the air; in one instance only, +recorded by Professor Riedler, was an efficient means +employed. In this case a spray of boiling water was +injected into the cylinder and mixed with the air at +each stroke, with the result that a very marked economy +was obtained.</p> + +<p>After a number of experiments, Mr. Popp arrived at +the conclusion that the simplest mode of heating, if +not the most efficient, was at all events the most suitable, +as it was a matter of the first importance that subscribers +should not be troubled with the charge of any +apparatus involving complication or careful management; +he therefore adopted a simple form of cast iron + +stove lined with fireclay, heated either by a gas jet or +by a small coke fire. It was found that this apparatus, +crude as it was, answered the desired purpose, +until some better arrangement was perfected, and the +type was accordingly adopted throughout the whole +system. It was quite recognized that this method still +left much to be desired, and the economy resulting +from the use of an improved form was very marked.</p> + +<p>From a large number of trials very carefully carried +out by Professor Gutermuth, it was found that +more than 70 per cent. of the total number of calories +in the fuel employed was absorbed by the air and +transformed into useful work. Whether gas or coal +be employed as the fuel, the amount required is so +small as to be scarcely worth consideration; according +to the experiments carried out, it does not exceed 0.09 +kilo. per horse power and per hour, but it is scarcely +to be expected that in regular practice this quantity +is not largely exceeded. Professor Weyrauch has also +carefully investigated this part of the subject and fully +confirms, if he, indeed, does not go beyond Professor +Gutermuth. He claims that the efficiency of fuel consumed +in this way is six times greater than when burnt +under a boiler to generate steam. He goes so far as to +assert that with a good method of heating the air, not +only can all the losses due to the production and +the transmission of the compressed air be made good, +but also that it will actually contain more useful energy +at the motor than was expended at the central +station in compressing it.</p> + +<p>According to Professor Riedler, from 15 to 20 per +cent. above the power at the central station can be +obtained by means at the disposal of the power users, +and it has been shown by experiment that by heating +the air to 250 deg. Cent. an increased efficiency of 30 +per cent. can be obtained. Better results than those +heretofore obtained may, therefore, be confidently expected +with a more perfect and economical application +of the fuel in heating the air, and a better means of +regulation in admitting it to the motors. In his report +Professor Riedler indicates a method by the use of +which he considers considerable advantages may be +secured. This is the heating the air in two stages instead +of at one operation, and passing it through two +motors, to the first of which the air is admitted heated +only to a moderate extent; the exhaust from this motor +then passes into a second heater and thence into +the second motor. A series of experiments with this +arrangement were recently carried out.</p> + + +<p>The consumption of air per brake horse power was +reduced from 812 cubic feet per hour, a favorable duty +in the single motor, to 720, and in the best result to +646 cubic feet with the two motors and double heaters. +It should be added that these trials were carried out +with steam engines but ill adapted for the purpose. +It is to be regretted that the experiments of Professor +Riedler could not have been conducted with more perfect +appliances, but it must be borne in mind that the +utilization of compressed air, especially as regards the +motors, is still in a very imperfect stage, and that a +great deal remains to be done before the maximum +power available at the motor can be obtained. Investigations +in this direction for a considerable time to +come must be directed, therefore, toward improving +the design and construction of the motors and the +treatment of the air at the point of delivery into the +engine.</p> + +<p>A large number of motors in use among the subscribers +to the Compressed Air Company, of Paris, are rotary +engines developing one horse power and less, and +these in the early times of the industry were extravagant +in their consumption, to a very high degree. To +some extent this condition of things has been improved, +chiefly by the addition of better regulating valves +to control the air admission.</p> + +<p>As altered, the two horse power rotary motors, when +employed as cold air engines, a method often desired +in special industries, consume 1,059 cubic feet per hour +and per indicated horse power; with a moderate degree +of heating, say to 50 deg. Cent., this consumption +falls to 847 cubic feet. The efficiency of this type of +rotary motors with air heated to 50 deg. may now be +assumed at 43 per cent., not a very economical result, +it is true, and one that may be largely improved, yet it +is evident that with such an efficiency the use of small +motors in many industries becomes possible, while in +cases where it is necessary to have a constant supply +of cold air, economy ceases to be a matter of the first +importance.</p> + +<p>Some useful results were obtained with compressed +air used in crank engines; it is to be regretted that with +this, also, apologies have to be made for the imperfect +design and construction; they were old steam engines, +some of those of two horse power losing from 25 to 30 +per cent. by their own friction; some of the others tried, +however, were far better, a newer type losing only from +8 to 10 per cent., while the 80 horse power referred to +below showed an efficiency of 91 per cent. From these +trials Prof. Riedler deduces—assuming 85 per cent. efficiency—a +consumption of 611, 752, and 720 cubic feet +per brake horse power. It is very evident from the +foregoing that the Compressed Air Company, of Paris, +will never do itself justice until as much thought and +care has been devoted to the economical use of the motive +power as has been expended in the means of producing +it, and Professor Riedler's recent investigations +should be especially useful in this respect. The question +has indeed attracted the attention of more than +one manufacturer, and reference is made to a particular +type of small rotary motors which are being constructed +by MM. Riedinger & Co., and which is stated +have given very excellent results. These engines were +specially used for working sewing machines and developed +on the brake an efficiency of 34.07 and 51.63 +foot pounds per second. Trials were made with a half +horse power variable expansion Riedinger engine.</p> + +<pre> + TRIALS OF A SMALL ROTARY RIEDINGER ENGINE. + ______________________________________________________________ + | | + Number of trials. | I. | II. + ______________________________________________|_______|_______ + | | + Initial air pressure. lb. per square inch | 86 | 71.8 + " temperature. deg. Cent. | +12 | +170 + Ft. pounds per second measured on the brake. | 51.63 | 34.07 + Revolutions per minute. | 384 | 300 + Consumption of air for one horse power per | | + hour. | 1,377 | 988 + ______________________________________________|_______|_______ + + + TRIALS OF A 0.5 HORSE POWER RIEDINGER ROTARY ENGINE. + _____________________________________________________________________ + | | | | + Number of trials. | I. | II. | III. | IV. + __________________________________________|______|______|______|_____ + | | | | + Initial pressure of air. lb. per sq. in. | 54 | 69.7 | 85 | 71.8 + " temperature of air. deg. Cent. | 170 | 180 | 198 | 8 + Final " " " | 25 | 20 | ... | 25 + Revolutions per minute. | 335 | 350 | 310 | 243 + Foot pounds per second measured on | | | | + brake. | 271 | 477 | 376 | 316 + Consumption of air per horse power | | | | + and per hour. | 883 | 791 | 900 |1,148 + __________________________________________|______|______|______|_____ + + + TRIAL OF AN 80 HORSE POWER (NOMINAL) FARCOT STEAM ENGINE. + ______________________________________________________________ + | | | | + | Re- | In- | | Consumption of + | vo- | di- | Temperature | air per horse + | lu- | ca- | of air. | power and per + |tions | ted | | hour. + | | |_____________|________________ + | per |horse | | | | + Motor. | | |Admis-| Ex- |Nominal| Brake + | min- |power.| sion.|haust.| horse | horse + | ute. | | | | power.| power. + _________________|______|______|______|______|_______|________ + | | |deg. C|deg. C| | + Nominal 80 horse | 54.3 | 72.3 | 129 | 21 | 469 | 517 + power single cy- | 54.3 | 72.3 | 152 | 29 | 437 | 475 + linder Farcot | 54.0 | 72.3 | 160 | 35 | 424 | 465 + engine. | 40 | 65.0 | 170 | 49 | 438 | 477 + _________________|______|______|______|______|_______|______________ +</pre> + +<p>These motors, it may be assumed, represent the best +practice that has been obtained up to the present time +in the construction of compressed air motors; with the +smallest of them, indicating about one-tenth of a horse +power, the consumption of air, when admitted cold, +was 1377 cubic feet and 988 cubic feet when the air was +heated before admission. The half horse power engine +consumed 1148 cubic feet of cold air, and of heated air +791 cubic feet per horse power and per hour. It +should be mentioned that these, the most valuable and +suggestive of all the trials carried out by Professor +Riedler, were conducted with the greatest care, two +distinct modes of measuring the air supplied being +followed on two occasions for each test; it may therefore +be considered that the results given are absolutely +correct. The trials were made with an old single cylinder + +Farcot engine, nominally of 80 horse power, but indicating +over 72.3. With this engine the consumption of +air varied from 465 to 517 cubic feet, the larger consumption +being due to the lower temperature (129 deg. +Cent.) to which the air was raised before admission; in +the most economical result the temperature was 160 +deg. Cent. The volumes of air referred to are, of +course, in all cases taken at atmospheric pressure.</p> + +<p>Among the important losses that have to be reckoned +with in every system of distributing motive power +from a central station—whether by steam or by electricity, +water, or compressed air—losses must occur in +the mains by which the power generated is transferred +from the point of production to that of consumption. +In the case we are now considering very careful tests +were conducted in 1889 by Professor Kennedy, to whose +report we have already referred. Since that time important +changes have been made by the Compressed +Air Company, at Paris, in the details of distribution, +and on this account the later investigations of Professor +Riedler on the losses due to this cause are of special +interest.</p> + +<p>Before its admission into the mains a certain loss occurs +at the St. Fargeau station, in the large reservoirs +to which the air is delivered from the compressors. This +question of preliminary storage was one that received +considerable attention when the designs of the new station +on the Quai de la Gare were being considered. It was +intended to construct very large receivers in the basement +of the station, and the foundations for these were +even commenced. It was decided, however, that for +the 10,000 horse power which is to form the first section +of the new station, and for which the complete +system of mains has already been laid down, storage +reservoirs would be unnecessary, and a saving both in +first cost and subsequent loss of air would be effected. +The length of mains of 19.69 in. diameter is so considerable +that they will contain at all times a sufficient +reserve of air to prevent any irregularities in pressure +at the motors.</p> + +<p>With reference to these mains it may be mentioned +that, unlike the 11.81 in. conductors of the St. Fargeau +system, of which 17 kilometers are laid in the Paris +subways, the new mains are entirely laid in the streets, +it having been found impossible to make room for these +large pipes in the subways already crowded with telegraph +and telephone wires, water mains, etc.</p> + +<p>Professor Riedler investigated the two causes of loss +in the mains—leakage and resistance. It was superficially +evident that the mains of the old system were +so well laid, and the joints so well designed, that the loss +from leakage was never a serious one. In order, however, +to ascertain the amount accurately, a series of careful +experiments were carried out by Professor Gutermuth +with the 11.81 in. mains of the St. Fargeau +system.</p> + +<p>These trials refer to the mains running from the St.</p> + +<pre> + EXPERIMENTS ON LEAKAGE IN MAINS. + +--------------------------------------------------------------------- +| | | | | | L P A | +| | | | Air Pressure | Loss of | o e i | +| | | | in Mains. | Pressure. | s r r | +| | | |---------------|-------------| s | +| | | | | | | | C D | +| |System of Mains | Length. | | | | | o e e | +|N| Tried. | | At | At | | | f n l | +|u| | |Begin- | End |During| Per | t i | +|m| | |ning of| of |Trials|Hour. | A . v | +|b| | |Trials.|Trials.| | | i e | +|e| | | | | | | r o r | +|r| | | | | | | f e | +| | | | | | | | d | +--+-----------------+---------+-------+-------+------+------+-------| +| | | yards. | atm. | atm. | | | | +|1|Southern reseau | | | | | | | +| | to Place de la | | | | | | | +| | Concorde. | 9,980 | 6.5 | 6.0 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 3 | +|2| Total reseau | 18,500 | 6.9 | 5.9 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 6.3 | +|3|To Place de | | | | | | | +| | la Concorde | 9,980 | 7.0 | 6.43 | 0.57 | 0.75 | 2.16 | +|4|Total reseau | 18,500 | 6.7 | 5.28 | 0.88 | 1.32 | 5.5 | +|5|Northern reseau | | | | | | | +| | to Rue de Belle-| | | | | | | +| | ville. | 1,530 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 2.3 | +|6|To the Rue des | | | | | | | +| | Pyrenees. | 600 | 6.1 | 3.7 | 2.4 | 0.56 | 2.2 | +--------------------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>Fargeau station to the Place de la Concorde, a length +of 9.142 kilometers; to the whole system of mains, 16.5 +kilometers; to the northern mains running from St. +Fargeau to the Rue de Belleville, 1.4 kilometers; and +from St. Fargeau to the Rue des Pyrenees, 6.5 kilometers. +It will be seen from the figures given in the table +that the actual loss is small, and it is stated that +this is due chiefly to the elastic joint employed throughout +the system, excepting in the Rue de Belleville, +where rigid couplings are used, and continual trouble +is experienced from loss by leakage. In all cases the +losses given are the maximum, which only occur under +the most unfavorable conditions.</p> + +<p>It was found, during the first, second, and fourth +tests, that considerable leakage occurred between the +St. Fargeau central station and the Rue de Belleville. +During the trials two and four, an uncertain amount +of loss occurred from the consumption of air required +to work the pneumatic clocks, and also motors in the +circuit, that could not be stopped. The tests two and +four include all losses in the service pipes, as well as +the mains.</p> + +<p>The production of compressed air at the central station +is assumed at 30,000 cubic feet per hour (atmospheric +pressure), and in all cases the loss in the +mains is taken as a percentage of the total production.</p> + +<p>The losses due to resistance in the mains were also +examined with great care, over independent sections, +as well as through the complete <i>réseau</i>. During the +early part of these trials, an unusual and excessive loss +was recorded, the cause of which could not be at first +ascertained. At intervals along these mains are placed +a number of water reservoirs which receive the water +injected into the mains; in addition to these the direct +flow of the air is interrupted by numerous siphons, the +stop valves to branches, etc. Investigation showed +that the presence of these reservoirs created considerable +resistance on account of an increased and subsequently +reduced section. The exact loss from this +cause was, therefore, carefully measured, as well as the +losses existing in the mains not so interrupted. The +results show that the loss by expansion at one reservoir, +when the speed of the air flow was 23 ft. per +second, was equal to 0.15 atmosphere; with a speed +of 29 ft. 6 in. per second, it amounted to 0.2 atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Therefore, the presence of five such reservoirs would +cause a loss in pressure equal to one atmosphere. This +very undesirable arrangement is not repeated in the +new system, the sumphs being connected in such a way +as not to modify the section of the tube, nor consequently +the pressure of the air. The presence of the +siphons and stop valves did not seem to affect the +pressure to any measurable extent. The following +table contains a list of the more important mains tested, +and it may be mentioned that the resistance, due +to the reservoirs, was at first partially included. The +trials were carried out while the mains were not being +drawn upon by subscribers. </p> + +<pre> +----------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | +Section of Mains Tested. | Length. |No. of + | |Tests. + | | +---------------------------------------------------+------------+------ + | yards. | +From the central station to the end of reseau and | | + back to central station by return circuit | 18,100 | 7 +From the central station to the Rue Fontaine au |\ 14,600 |/ 3 + Roi |/ 9,900 |\ 4 +From the central station to the Rue de la | | + Charonne | 9,490 | 5 +From the Rue de la Charonne to Fontaine au | | + Roi | 4,770 | 3 +From the central station to the Avenue de la | | + Republique | 1,860 | 8 +Various trials on different lengths of mains |770 to 8,000| 11 +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>Over the whole system of 16.5 kilometers, which was +also tested when no air was being taken off, there were +four reservoirs of considerable size, and which offered +a large resistance with a corresponding loss of pressure; +on the line there were also 23 siphons and 42 stop +valves.</p> + +<p>These trials were repeated several times to secure +accuracy, and the speed of the air was brought to 49 +ft. a second. The results obtained in one of these trials +may be taken as an example. The main between the +Rue St. Fargeau and the Fontaine au Roi, on which +there are no collecting reservoirs, but three siphons +and eight stop valves, gave, with an average speed of +21 ft. 3 in., a loss in pressure of 0.05 atmosphere for each +kilometer of main.</p> + +<p>From these experiments it would appear that, assuming +a speed of 21 ft. per second, a loss in pressure +of one atmosphere would correspond to a distance of +20 kilometers; that is to say, a central station could extend +its mains on all sides with a radius of 20 kilometers, +and the motors at the ends of the lines would receive +the air at a pressure 15 lb. less than at the central +station. Professor Riedler states that as an actually +measured result, the velocity of the air through the +mains of the St. Fargeau system is 19 ft. 8 in. per +second, and that the loss in pressure per kilometer is +0.07 atmosphere. From this it follows that including +the resistances due to the four reservoirs, and other obstructions +actually existing, an allowance of one atmosphere +loss on a 14 kilometer radius is ample. By +increasing the initial pressure of the air, much better +results can be obtained, and future attention in practice +should be devoted to this point. The amount of +work required to compress air does not increase in the +same ratio as the pressure, and for this reason considerable +economy can be effected at the first stage, +and the loss in the mains will be reduced.</p> + +<p>Passing to another point of the same subject, Professor +Riedler considers the best dimensions that should +be given to the mains. Resistance decreases with an +increase in the diameter of these and in direct ratio to +their diameter; for this reason—still assuming a pressure +corresponding to a velocity of 20 ft. per second—with +a fall of one atmosphere, a length of 40 kilometers +could be succesfully worked.</p> + +<p>The mains of the new <i>réseau</i> for the Quai de la Gare +station are 19.69 in. in diameter; they are built up of +steel plates riveted, and this Professor Riedler considers +to have been a serious error on account of the +extra resistance offered by the large number of rivet +heads.</p> + +<p>The following may be taken as a brief summary +of Professor Riedler's conclusions: Recent improvements +in central station practice have resulted in an +increased efficiency of about 30 per cent. in the compressors, +but this benefit can only be realized when the +new station is in operation. That the small and very +imperfect air engines in use on the system give an +efficiency of 50 per cent., while with ordinary +steam engines driven by air an efficiency of 80 per cent. +can be reached with a very small expenditure of fuel +for heating the air before admitting it into the motor. +That special attention should be given to the improvement +of air engines, and that with increased initial +pressures at the central station the distance of the +transmission can be very considerably augmented. +Finally, Professor Riedler claims that power can be +transmitted by compressed air more conveniently and +more economically than by any other means.</p> + +<hr /> + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 802, page 12810.] + +<a name="me-1"></a><h2>THE BUILDERS OF THE STEAM ENGINE—THE FOUNDERS OF MODERN INDUSTRIES +AND NATIONS.<a name="FNanchor_1a"></a><a href="#Footnote_1a"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Dr. R.H. THURSTON, Director of Sibley College, +Cornell University.</h3> + +<p>Papin, Worcester, Savery, were the authors of the +period of application of the power of steam to useful +work in our later days. The world was, in their time, +just waking into a new life under the stimulus of a new +freedom that, from the time of Shakespeare, of Newton, +and of Gilbert, the physicist, has steadily become +wider, higher, and more fruitful year by year. All the +modern sciences and all the modern arts had their +reawakening with the seventeenth century. Every +aspect of freedom for humanity came into view in those +days of a new birth. Both the possibility of the introduction +of new sciences and of new arts and the power +of utilizing all new intellectual and physical forces +came together. The steam engine could not earlier +have taken form, and, taking form, it could not have +promoted the advance of civilization in the earlier +centuries. The invention becoming possible of development +and application, the promotion of the arts and +of all forms of human activity became a possible consequence +of its final successful introduction into the rude +arts that it was to so effectively promote and improve.</p> + +<p>But the work of these inventors was in itself but +little more important than that of the Greek inventor of +the steam ælopile, for each brought forward a machine +which was, from a business point of view, utterly +impracticable, and which, in each case, only served to +show that a better device might prove useful and lead +the way to its introduction. The merit of the inventors +of the eighteenth century was that they were <i>able</i> to +lead the way, to point out the path to success, to furnish +evidence of the value of the coming, crowning +invention. The "fire engines," as they were then +called, of these now famous men were merely contrivances +by the use of which the pressure of confined +steam of high tension could be brought to act on the +surface of a mass of confined water, forcing it downward +into pipes through which it was led off and +upward to a higher level; and thus a mine could be +drained, ineffectively and expensively to be sure, but +vastly more satisfactorily than by the animal power +of the time. The machine of Savery was the best of +all; but that was only a somewhat improved and manageable +rearrangement of the engines of Papin and +Worcester. And, after all, Papin, the greatest man of +science perhaps of his time, died in poverty; Worcester +languished in prison his whole life, and the later +efforts of his widow brought nothing by way of a +return for his invention; nor did either they or their +successor, Morland, make the introduction of the +engine either general or remunerative.</p> + +<p>Savery, coming on the stage at more nearly the right +time to seize upon an opportunity, gained more than +either of his predecessors; but we have no evidence +that he ever acquired any large compensation or met +with any remarkable business success in the introduction +of the rude engine which bore his name; nor did +Desaguliers, the great philosopher, or even Smeaton, the +great engineer, of the later years of that century, make +any great success of it. It was reserved for Watt to +reap the harvest. But, though he so effectively reaped +where his predecessors had sown, Watt is not the +greatest of the inventors of the steam engine, if we +rate his standing by the magnitude of the improvement +which marked his reconstruction of the engine.</p> + +<p>It was NEWCOMEN who made the modern steam +engine.</p> + +<p>When Newcomen came forward the labors of Worcester +in Great Britain had sufficed to attract the attention +of all intelligent men to the character of the +problem to be solved, and to convince them of its +importance and promise. The work of Savery had +shown the practicability of the solution of the problem, +both in mechanics and finance. He succeeded, +though under great disadvantages and comparatively +inefficiently. Once the task had been performed, +though ever so rudely, the rest came easily and promptly. +The defects of the Savery system were at once +recognized; its great wastes of heat and of steam were +noted, and the fact that they were inherent in the system +itself was perceived. A complete change of type +of machine was obviously requisite; it was this which +constituted the greatest invention in the whole history +of the steam engine, from Hero's time to our own; and +to Newcomen we owe more than to any other man who +ever lived, the value of the invention itself being considered, +and the importance of the services of its introducer +being left out of consideration. No such +complete and vital improvement and modification of +the machine has ever been effected by any other man, +Watt and Corliss not excepted. Newcomen and his +comrade Calley—we do not know how the honors +should be divided—produced the modern steam engine. +Its predecessor, the Savery engine, had been a mere +steam "squirt." Newcomen constructed an engine. +Savery built a simple combination of cylindrical or +ellipsoidal vessels which wastefully and at once performed +all the several offices of engine, pump, condenser, +and boiler; Newcomen divided the several +elements among as many parts, each especially adapted +to the performance of its task in the most effective +manner—the condenser excepted; for that was Watt's +principal invention—and thus produced the first steam +engine in the modern sense of that term.</p> + +<p>It was Newcomen, not Watt, who gave us the train +of mechanism that we now call the steam engine. It +is to Newcomen, rather than Watt, that we owe the +highest honors as an inventor in this series of the +most important of all the products of the inventive +genius of mankind. Newcomen brought into existence +a new, the modern, type of engine, and effected the +greatest revolution that has been recorded in the history +of the arts. Without Newcomen, there might +have been no Watt; without Watt, there very possibly +may not even yet have been brought into existence +that giant of our time, whose mighty powers are +employed more effectively than ever those of Aladdin's +genii, in building palaces, in transporting men and +material, in doing the work of the whole world; promoting +the welfare of the race, in a single century, +more than had all the forces of matter and mind +together in the whole previous history of the world. +Newcomen laid down a foundation beneath our whole +economic system, out of sight, almost, but the essential +base, nevertheless, on which Watt and his successors +have carried up the great superstructure which seems +to us to-day so imposing; which is so tremendous in +magnitude, importance, and result. If to any one man +could be assigned the credit, it is Newcomen who is to +be considered the inventor of the steam engine.</p> + +<p>James Watt, indisputably the great inventor that he +was, found the steam engine ready to his hand, applied +himself to its improvement, and made it substantially +what it is to-day. His most important work, the most +unique service performed by him, was, however, that +of its adaptation and introduction to do the work of +the world. James Watt was the inaugurator of the +era of refinement of the machine already invented, and +the greatest of its builders and distributors. His inventions +were all directed to the improvement of its +details, and his labors to its introduction and its application +to the myriad tasks awaiting it. By the hands +of Watt it was made to pump water, to spin, to weave, +to drive every mill; and he it was who gave it the +form demanded by Stephenson, by Fulton, by the +whole industrial world, for use on railway and +steamboat, and in mill and factory, throughout the +civilized countries of the globe. It was this great mechanic + +who showed how it might be made to do its +work with least expense, with highest efficiency, with +greatest regularity, with utmost concentration of +power.</p> + +<p>The grand secret of his success was historical and +economic, as much as scientific and mechanical. He +brought out his inventions just when the world was +economically and historically ready for them. The age +of authority was past, that of freedom was come; the +period of political and ecclesiastical tyranny was gone +by, and that of the spontaneous development of man +was arrived. The great invention was offered to a +world ready and needing it, and, more than all, competent, +for the first time in history, to make and use +it.</p> + +<p>James Watt was himself a product of the modern +scientific spirit. He was a man so constituted mentally +that he could apply scientific methods to problems +which his logical and clairvoyant mind could readily +and exactly formulate the instant he was led to their +consideration in the natural course of his progress. He +was the ideal great inventor and mechanic. With +inventive genius he combined strong common sense—not +always a quality distinguishing the inventor—clear +perception, breadth of view, and scientific method +and spirit in the treatment of every question. His +natural talent was re-enforced by an experience and an +environment which led him to develop these ways and +this mental habit. His trade was that of an instrument +maker, his position was that of custodian and repairer +of the apparatus of Glasgow University. He had for +his daily companions and stimulus the great men and +ozonized atmosphere of that famous institution. He +kept pace with advancing science, and was imbued, +both naturally and through contact with its promoters, +with that ambition and those aspirations which are +the life element of all progress, whether scientific or +other. He was aware of the nature of the problems +seeking solution at the time, and familiar with the +state of his own art and that of the great mechanicians +about him. Everything was favorable to his progress, +so soon as he should be given an opportunity to take a +step in advance and to come into sight at the front. +The man and the time were both ready, and all conditions, +internal and external, social and personal, were +favorable to his development.</p> + +<p>The invention upon which Watt was to improve was +at his hand. A word in regard to its status at the +moment will throw some light upon that of Watt and +his creation. Newcomen had, as we have seen, produced +the modern type of steam engine as an original +and wholly novel invention. But this machine, marvelous +as an advance upon pre-existing forms of the +steam engine, was still, as seen in the light of recent +knowledge and experience, exceedingly defective. The +purpose of a steam engine is to convert into usefully +applicable power the hidden energy of fuel, stored +ages ago in the earth, by transformation, through the +action of vegetation, from the original form, the heat +of the sun, into an available form for reconversion, +through thermodynamic operations. In this process +of reconversion, whatever the nature of the machine +used in the operation, there are invariably wastes, +both of heat required for conversion into power and of +the power thus produced. That machine which effects +the most complete transmutation of the heat supplied +it into mechanical power, which wastes the least amount +of heat supplied and of power produced, is the best +engine, and constitutes an advance over every other.</p> + +<p>It was this reduction of wastes that made the Newcomen +engine so much superior to that of Savery. The +latter was by far the simpler and less costly construction; +but its enormous losses, both of heat and of power, +mainly the former, however, made it an extravagant +expenditure of money to buy and use it. The Newcomen +engine, costly and cumbrous, comparatively, +nevertheless wasted so much less heat and steam and +fuel that no one could afford to buy the cheaper machine. +Before considering what Watt accomplished, we +may find it profitable to examine into the nature of +the wastes which characterized this later and better +machine on which he effected his improvements.</p> + +<p>The Newcomen engine consisted of a steam boiler, a +steam cylinder, a beam and a set of pumps. By making +the boiler do its work separately, the engine acting +independently, and the pumps as a detached portion +of the mechanism, this inventor had reduced to an +enormous extent those wastes of heat and of steam and +of fuel which were unavoidable in the older machines +in which all these parts were represented by a single +vessel, or by two at most, in each element. In the +Savery engine, the steam entering first heated up the +interior of the working vessel to its own temperature, +and held it at that temperature in spite of the cooling +influence of the water present. This consumed large +quantities of heat. It then was compelled to surrender +probably much greater quantities still to the water +itself, coming in direct contact as it did with its surface. +If the water was agitated, either by the currents +produced during its ingress or by the impact of the +steam entering the vessel, this heating action penetrated +to considerable depths and perhaps even warmed +the whole mass very far above its initial temperature. +This constituted another and a very serious loss. Then, +again, as the water was gradually driven out of the +containing vessel by the steam pressing on its surface, +new portions of the vessel and new masses of water +were continually brought in contact with the hot steam, +taking its full temperature, and thus, often, probably, +finally heating the whole mass of the forcing vessel, +and a large proportion of the water as well, up to the +temperature, approximately at least, of the steam itself. +Thus in many instances, if not always, vastly more heat +and steam were wasted, in this undesirable heating +of water and forcing vessel, than were usefully employed +in the legitimate work of raising the water to a +higher level. In fact, in some cases in which these +quantities were measured, the wastes were one hundred +times as much as the work done. One per cent. +of the heat supplied did the work; while ninety-nine +per cent. was thrown away. One dollar or one +shilling expended for fuel to do the work was accompanied +by an expenditure of ninety-nine dollars or +shillings thrown away, because of the imperfections of +the system and machine. The whole history of the +development of the steam engine has been one of +gradual reduction of these wastes; until to-day, our +best engines only compel us to spend five dollars for +wastes to each dollar paid out for useful work. A +business man would think that amply extravagant, +however, and the man of science is continually seeking +methods of evading these losses, a large proportion of +which are now apparently unavoidable in heat engines, +by finding some new system of heat and energy transformation.</p> + +<p>Watt was the instrument maker and repairer at Glasgow +University in the year 1763. His companions were, +among others, the professors of natural philosophy and +of mathematics in the university. Their conversation +and their frequent presentation of practical and scientific +questions and problems stimulated his naturally +inquiring and inventive mind to the pursuit of a thousand +interesting and promising schemes for the improvement +of existing methods and machinery. Dr. +Robison, then a student, suggested the invention of a +steam carriage for use on common roads, and the young +mechanician at once began experiments that, resulting +in nothing at the time, were nevertheless continued, in +one or another form, until all modern applications of +steam came into view. Dr. Black taught Watt chemistry, +then a newly constructed science, and led him on +to the discovery, finally made by them independently, +of the fact and the magnitude of the latent heat of +steam; the discovery coming of a series of scientifically +planned and accurately conducted investigations, such +as the man of science of to-day would deem creditable. +The treatises of Desaguliers and others on physics gave +Watt a knowledge of that domain of natural phenomena +which stood him in good stead later, when he +attempted to apply its principles to the reduction of +the wastes of the steam engine.</p> + +<p>It was while at Glasgow University, working under +such influences and in such an atmosphere of intellectual +activity, that the accident of the Newcomen +model engine needing repair brought to the mind of +Watt the opportunity which, availed of at once, made +him famous and gave the world its greatest aid, its +most powerful servant. The observing mind of the +great mechanic immediately noted its defects, sought +their causes, found their remedy. He discovered, at +once, that the quantity of steam entering the cylinder +of the little engine has four times the volume of the +cylinder receiving it: in other words, three-fourths of +that steam must be condensed immediately on entrance. +This meant, evidently, that only one-fourth +of the steam supplied was utilized, and even then inefficiently, +in doing its work. The reason of this was as +easily seen, immediately the fact was revealed. As Watt +himself expressed it, the causes of this loss, causes +which would obviously be exaggerated in a small +engine, were: "First, the dissipation of heat by the +cylinder itself, which was of brass and both a good +conductor and a good radiator. Secondly, the loss of +heat consequent upon the necessity of cooling down the +cylinder at every stroke in producing the vacuum. +Thirdly, the loss of power due to the pressure of vapor +beneath the piston, which was a consequence of the +imperfect method of condensation." This much determined, +the next step looked toward the confirmation +of his conclusions and the remedy of the defects.</p> + +<p>To meet the first difficulty he made a cylinder of +wood, soaked in oil and baked, a non-conducting and +non-radiating material. Then he was able to determine +with some accuracy the quantities of steam and +injection water used in the engine; and a comparison +with the original cylinder and its operation showed +that not only four times the quantity of steam, but also +four times the amount of injection water was used as +was necessary, assuming wastes checked. Further +scientific research on the part of Watt gave him measures +of specific heats of the metals and of wood, the +specific volumes of steam at various working pressures, +the evaporative efficiency of boilers, the pressures and +temperatures of steam in the boiler under specified +conditions, the quantities of steam and of water required +for the operation of his little condensing +engine.</p> + +<p>Then came his enunciation of the grand principle of +economy in the construction and operation of the steam +engine: "Keep the cylinder as hot as the steam which +enters it," as he expressed it. This was Watt's guiding +principle, as it has been that of all his successors in the +improvement of the economic performance of the steam +engine and of all other heat engines. The great source +of waste is the dispersion of heat, uselessly, which +should be applied to the production of work by its +transformation, thermodynamically, into the latter +form of energy. The second form of waste is that of +power thus produced in the unprofitable work of moving +the parts of the engine itself; and the third is that +of heat by transfer, without transformation, by conduction +and radiation to surrounding bodies. In +modern engines, the latter is but three or five per cent., +in the best cases; the second waste constitutes perhaps +ten per cent.; while the first of these losses +amounts very usually to seventy per cent., of which +last one-third or one-fourth is of the kind discovered +by Watt, the rest being the thermodynamic waste incident +to all known methods of operation of heat +engines, and apparently unavoidable. In our very +best and largest engines, the waste found by Watt to +constitute three fourths of all heat supplied has been +brought down to ten per cent., a fact which well exemplifies +the advances made since his time of apprenticeship +by himself and his successors of this nineteenth +century. The steam engine of to-day, in its most successful +operation, gives us twenty-five times as much +power from a pound of coal as did the engine that the +great inventor sought to improve: this is the magnificent +fruit of that one discovery of James Watt, +and of application of the simple principle which he so +concisely and clearly stated.</p> + +<p>The method adopted by Watt to secure a remedy, +so far as practicable, of this defect of the older machine +was as simple and as perfect as was the principle +which it embodied. He first removed from the cylinder +the prime source of its wastes; providing a separate +condenser, and thus avoiding the repeated chilling +of its surfaces by the cold water used in condensing +the steam at exhaust, and also permitting its strokes +to be made with far greater frequency, thus giving less +time for cooling by the influence of the remaining +vapors after condensation. He next went still further, +and provided the cylinder with a closed top, keeping +out the air, and a "jacket" of hot boiler steam to +<i>keep</i> it as hot as the steam which entered it. These +were the two great improvements which converted the +first real steam engine into an economical form of heat +engine and essentially finished the work so grandly begun +by Newcomen and Calley. These changes gave + +us the modern steam engine; and these are Watt's +first and greatest, but by no means only, contributions +to the production of the modern world with all its +comforts, its luxuries and its opportunities for material, +intellectual and moral advancement of individual +and of race. His work was to this extent complete in +1765.</p> + +<p>But Watt did not stop here. There still remained +for him the no less important and the, in some senses, +still more imposing, work of finding employment for +the new servant of mankind and of setting it at its +work of giving the human arm a thousand times +greater strength, to the mind of man uncounted opportunities +to promote the advancement of knowledge, +of civilization, of every good of the race. His was still +the task of adapting the new machine to all the purposes +of modern industry. It had been hitherto confined +to the task of raising water from the depths of +the mine; it was now to be harnessed to the railway +train; to be made to drive the machinery of the mill, +to apply its marvelous power to the impulsion of the +river boat and ocean steamer; to furnish energy, +through endless systems of transfer and use, to every +kind of work that man could devise and should invent. +All this meant the giving of the machine forms as various +as the purposes to which it was to be devoted. It +had previously only raised and depressed a rod; it must +now turn a shaft. It had then only operated a pump; +it must now turn a mill, grind our grain, spin our +threads, weave our cloths, drive our shops and factories, +supply the powerful blast of the iron furnace. It +must be made to move with the utmost conceivable +regularity, and must, with all this, do its work in the +development of the hidden energy of the fuel, with +the greatest possible economy, through the expansion +of its steam. All this was achieved by James Watt.</p> + +<p>The invention of the double-acting engine, in which +the impulsion of the steam is felt both in driving the +piston forward and in forcing it backward, both upward +and downward, the application of its force +through crank and fly wheel, the creation of an automatic +system of governing its speed, and the discovery +of the economy due to its complete expansion, +were all improvements of the first magnitude, and of +the greatest practical importance; and all these were +in rapid succession brought into existence by the creative +mind that had apparently been brought into the +world for the express purpose of giving to the hand of +man this mighty agent, to perfect the mightiest power +that mind of man has yet conceived.</p> + +<p>But to do the rest required more than inventive +genius and mechanical skill. It demanded capital and +the stored energy of labor and genius in other fields, +directed by the mind of a great "captain of industry." +This came to Watt through Matthew Boulton, a manufacturer +of Birmingham, whose father and ancestors +had gradually and toilsomely, as always, accumulated +the property needed for the prosecution of a great +business. The combination of genius and capital is +always an essential to success in such cases; and +good fortune, a Providence, we may well say, brought +together the genius and the capitalist to do their work, +hand in hand, of providing the world with the steam +engine. Hand in hand they worked, and all the world +to-day, and the race throughout its future life, must +testify gratitude for the inexpressible obligations under +which these two men have placed them, doing the +work of the world.</p> + +<p>Boulton & Watt, the capitalist with the inventor, +gave the world the steam engine, finally, in such form +and in such numbers that its permanent establishment +as the servant of man was insured. The capitalist was +as essential an element of success as was the inventor, +and, in this instance, as in a thousand others, the race +is indebted to that much-abused friend of the race, the +capitalist, for much that it enjoys of all that it desires. +The industry and patience, the skill and the wisdom +required for the accumulation of this energy stored for +future use in great enterprises is as important, as essential, +as inventive power or any other form of genius. +Talent and genius must always aid each other. This +firm was established in 1764 and its main resources, +aside from the bank account, were Watt's patent, +about expiring, and Watt's genius, and Boulton's talent +as a man of business. The patent was extended +for twenty-four years, the new inventions of Watt, now +beginning to pour from his prolific brain in a wonderful +stream, were also patented, and the whole works +were soon employed upon the construction of engines +for which numerous orders soon began to pour in upon +the now prosperous builders. The patent law established +Boulton and Watt and the firm paid back the +nation with handsome usury, giving it unimaginable +profits indirectly through its control of the work of the +world and large profits directly through the business +brought them from all parts of the then civilized globe. +There has never, in the history of the world, been a +more impressive illustration of the value to a nation of +that generous public policy, that simply just legislation, +which gives to the man of brain control of the +products of his mind. For a hundred years, Great +Britain has, largely through her encouragement of the +inventor and her protection of his mental property by +securing the fruits of his labors, in fair portion, to him, +gained the power of dictating to the world and has +gained an advance that cannot be measured. Watt +and Arkwright and Stephenson and Crompton and their +ilk, protected by their government and its patent laws, +made their country the peaceful conqueror of the +world. The story of the work of the inventor is a +poem of mighty meaning and of wonderful deeds. The +inventor proved himself a mightier magician than +ever the world had seen.</p> + +<p class="ind"> +"A creature he called to wait on his will,<br /> +Half iron, half vapor—a dread to behold;<br /> +Which evermore panted, and evermore rolled,<br /> +And uttered his words a millionfold."</p> + + +<p>Such was the outcome of this grand modern "trust," +a combination of the wisest legislation, the most brilliant +invention, and the most wisely applied capital. +There are "trusts" of which the outcome is most beneficent.</p> + +<p>Since the days of Watt, the improvement of the +steam engine and the work of inventors has been confined +to matters of detail. All the fundamental principles +were developed by Watt and his predecessors and +contemporaries and it only was left to his successors to +find the best ways of carrying them into effect. But +these matters of detail have been found to involve opportunities + +to make enormous strides in the direction +of securing improved efficiency of the machine. The +further application of the principle which led Watt to +his greatest inventions; of the principle, keep the +cylinder as hot as the steam which enters it, of that +which he enunciated relative to the advantage of expanding +steam, and of that affecting the regulation of +the machine; have reduced the costs of steam and of +fuel to a small fraction of their earlier magnitude. One +ton of engine to-day does the work of eight or ten in +the time of Watt: one pound of fuel or of steam gives +to-day ten times the power then obtained from it. A +steamship now crosses the Atlantic in one-eighth the +time required by the famous "liner" of the "Black +Ball Line." The wastes of the engine have been +brought down from above eighty per cent. to eight; +and a half-ounce of fuel on board ship will now transport +a ton of cargo over a mile of ocean.</p> + +<p>FREDERICK E. SICKELS gave us the first practicable +form of expansion gear in 1841; GEORGE H. CORLISS +gave a new type of engine of marvelous perfection and +economy in 1849; Noble T. Green, Wm. Wright and +many less well known but no less meritorious inventors +have since done their part in the transformation +of the old engine of Watt into the modern wonder of +concentrated and economical power, and marvel of +accurate and beautiful design and workmanship. The +"trip cut-off," with reduced clearances, increased boiler +pressure, higher rates of expansion, accelerated speeds +of engine, better construction in all respects, as well as +improved design, have enabled us to avail ourselves to +the utmost of the principles of Watt, and our mills, our +railways, our steamers and our fields, even, have +gained almost as extraordinarily by these advances, +since the days of the great inventor, as through his +immediate labors.</p> + +<p>With the introduction of the new form of older energy, +electricity, with the reduction of the lightning +into thraldom, has now come a new impulse affecting +all the industries. Through its mysterious, its still unknown +action, steam now reaches out far from its own +place, driving the electric car along miles of rail; giving +light throughout all the country about it, turning +night into day, and repressing crime while encouraging +legitimate labor, reaching into distant chambers and +every little workshop, to offer its powerful aid in all the +distributed work of cities. Without the steam engine +there would be little work available for electricity, but +the appearance of this, the latest and most useful +handmaid of steam, has given the engine work to do +in an uncounted number of new fields, has called in the +inventor once more to adapt steam to its new work. +The "high-speed engine" is the latest form of the +universal helper. And such has been the readiness +and the intelligence of the contemporary inventor that +we now have engines capable of turning their shafts +three hundred rotations a minute and without a perceptible +variation of velocity, whatever the change of +load or the suddenness with which it is varied. In the +days of Watt a fluctuation of five per cent. in speed +was thought wonderfully small; in those of Corliss, the +variation was restricted to two per cent. and we wondered +at this unanticipated success. To-day, thanks +to Porter and Allen, to Hartnell, to Hoadley, to Sims, +to Thomson, to Sweet, to Ide, and to Ball, we have +seen the speed fluctuation restricted to even less than +one per cent. of its normal average.</p> + +<p>The inventors of the steam engine are, through their +representatives of to-day, according to the statisticians, +doing the equivalent of twelve times the work of a +horse, for every man, woman and child on the globe. +We have not less, probably, than a half million of miles +of railway, transporting something over 150,000,000,000 +of tons a mile a year. A horse is reckoned to haul a +ton weight about six and a half miles, day by day, by +the year together. In the United States, it is reckoned +that the steam engine, on the railways alone, hauls a +thousand tons one mile, for every inhabitant of the +country, every year, or, if it is preferred to so state +it, a ton a thousand miles. This is the way in which +the East and the West are, by the inventors of the +steam engine, enabled to help each other. This costs +about $10 each individual; it would require some 25 +millions of horses to do the work, and would cost about +$1,000 a family, which is more than twice the average +family earnings.</p> + +<p>Dr. Strong, in that remarkable book, "Our Country," +says: "One man, by the aid of steam, is able to do the +work which required two hundred and fifty men at the +beginning of the century. The machinery of Massachusetts +alone represents the labor of more than 100,000,000 +men, as if one-half of all the workmen of the +globe had engaged in her service." And again: "Some +thirty years ago, the power of machinery in the mills +of Great Britain was estimated to be equal to 600,000,000 +men, or more than all the adults, male and female, +of all mankind." Mr. Gladstone estimated that the +aggregation of wealth on the globe during the whole +period from the birth of Christ to that of Watt was +equaled by the production in twenty years, at the middle +of this century, with the aid of machinery driven +by the fruit of the brain of the inventors of the steam +engine. We may probably now safely estimate the +former quantity as rivaled in less than five years, +while, since the birth of Watt and his engine, and the +production of the spinning mule, the power loom, the +cotton gin and our own patent system and its marvelous +mechanism, all events of a century ago, we may +estimate that they have, together, accomplished more +in this period which we now celebrate than could have +been done in a millenium of milleniums without these +now subjected genii. But the power behind all these +curious inventions and their work is that of steam. +The steam engine even supplies power to the telegraph +and transports words and thought as well as cotton +bales and coal.</p> + +<p>And now what has this combination of legislation +for private protection and public good, of a genius +producing great inventions, and of the accumulated +capital of earlier years, brought about?</p> + +<p>It has given us the best fruits of science in permanent +possession. The study of science invariably aids, +in a thousand ways, the progress of mankind. It gives +us new conceptions of nature and of the possibilities of +art; it promotes right ways of work and of study; it +teaches the inventor and the discoverer how most surely +and promptly to gain their several ends, it gives the +world the results of all acquired knowledge in concrete +form. This one instance which we are now especially +interested in contemplating has performed more wonderful +miracles than ever Aladdin's genii attempted. +One man, with a steam engine at his hand, turns the +wheels of a great mill, drives forty thousand spindles, +applies a thousand horse power to daily work in the +spinning of threads, the weaving of cloth, the impulsion +of a steamboat, or the drawing of great masses of +hot iron into finest wire. This puny creature, his +mind in his finger tips, exerts the power of ten thousand +men, working with muscle alone, and, aided by a +handful of women, boys and girls, clothes a city. A +half dozen men in the engine room of an ocean steamer, +with a hundred strong laborers in the boiler room +and on deck, transports colonies and makes new nations, +brings separated peoples together, unites countries on +opposite sides of the globe, brings about easy exchanges +between pole and equator. One man on the +footboard of the locomotive, one man shoveling into +the furnaces the black powder that incloses the energy +stored in early geological ages, a half dozen men +mounted on the long train of following vehicles, combine +to bring to the mill girl in Massachusetts, the +miner in Pennsylvania, the sewing woman, and the +wealthy merchant, her neighbor in New York, the +flour made in Minnesota from the grain harvested a +few weeks earlier in Dakota. All the world is served +faithfully and efficiently by this unimaginable power, +this product of the brain of the inventor, protected by +the law, stimulated and aided by the capital that it +has itself almost alone produced.</p> + +<p>And thus have the inventors of the steam engine set +in motion and placed at the disposal of mankind for +every form of useful work all the great forces of nature; +thus Hero of Alexandria touched the then concealed +spring which called all the genii of earth, fire, +water and air to do the bidding of the race. Thus Papin, +Worcester, Newcomen, Watt, and Corliss and others +of our own contemporaries, have applied the genii to +their task of leveling mountains, traversing seas, continents, +and the depths of the earth, building ships, +locomotives, hamlets and cities, cottages and palaces, +turning the spindle, operating the loom, and setting +motion and giving energy to every machine, doing the +work of thousands of millions of men, converting barbarism +into civilization, giving necessaries of life in +profusion, comforts in plenty, and luxuries in superabundance.</p> + +<p>Aiding and working hand in hand with those other +genii of progress, the inventors of the printing press +and of the telegraph, the telephone, and the electric +railway, of the modern system of textile manufactures, +of iron and steel making, of the mowing machine and +the harvester, they have compressed into two centuries +the progress of a millennium, destitute of their aid. +Every step taken under their stimulus, and with their +help, is a step toward a higher life for all, intellectually +and morally as well as physically; every advance in +the improvement of their work is a gain to every man, +woman, and child; every improvement of the steam +engine is a help to the whole world. This progress +makes the day of the extinction of the system now +grinding the populations of the earth into the ground, +the day of the abolition of armies and the restoration +to the people of that freedom which characterized the +times of the patriarchs, and of the restoration of the +rights of the citizen to his own time and strength and +producing power, perceptibly nearer.</p> + +<p>When this final revolution shall have been accomplished, +and when all the world has settled down to +the steady and undisturbed work of production by +daily and regular labor, aided by the genii of steam, +of electricity, of all nature, combined for good, the results +of the intellectual activity of the inventors of the +steam engine will be fully seen. Then no monument +will be required to keep green the memory of Watt, +Corliss, or any other of these great men, but it will be +said of them, as of Sir Christopher Wren in the epitaph +in St. Paul's: "Seek you a monument, look about +you!" Every wreath of steam rising to the heavens +from factory, mill or workshop will be a reminder of +Hero of Alexandria, every mine will possess a memorial +to Papin, Worcester and Savery; every steamship will +bring into grateful memory Fitch and Stevens, and +Bell and Fulton; thousands of locomotives, crossing the +continents, will perpetuate the thought of the Stephensons +and their colleagues in the introduction of the +railway; the hum of millions of spindles and the music +of the electric wire will tell of the work of Corliss and +his contemporaries and successors who made these +things possible, and all kingdoms and races, all nations, +will revere the name of James Watt, the genius to +whom the world is most indebted for the beginnings of +all this later and grander civilization which has converted +the slow progress of earlier centuries into the +meteor-like advance of to-day toward a future as +grand and as mighty and as noble as humanity shall +choose to make it.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1a"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1a">[1]</a><div class="note"> +An address delivered at the Centennial Celebration of the American +Patent System, Washington, April, 1891.</div> + +<hr /> + +<a name="rr-1"></a><h2>IMPROVED HAND CAR.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/13a.png" alt="Hand Car Illustration" title=""> +</p> + +<p>In the accompanying illustration we show a new design +of hand car, being introduced by the Courtright +Manufacturing Co., of Detroit. It will be seen that +the apparatus for propelling the car is very different +from the mechanism generally used. An upright framework +secured to the platform carries a large sprocket +wheel, which is connected to a smaller one upon one +of the axles by means of a chain. The larger sprocket +wheel is rotated by means of a triangular shaped lever +attached at the lower corner to the crank of the sprocket +wheel and having a handle at each of its upper corners. +It is hinged upon a fulcrum which slides upon +the two vertical rods shown in the illustration. It will +be seen that this gives a peculiar movement to the +handles by which the operators propel the car, but it +has been found that the motion is an excellent one, +and it is claimed that a higher speed can be obtained +with the mechanism here shown than with any other +now in use. There is practically no dead center, as in +the case where the ordinary crank and lever is used. +A number of leading roads have given the car a trial, +and being well satisfied it, have given orders for more. +The company claim that a car with 20 in. wheels can +easily be made to attain a speed of 15 miles an hour by +two men.—<i>Railway Review</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<a name="math-1"></a><h2>THE CONIC SECTIONS.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. C.W. MACCORD, Sc.D.</h3> + +<p>In Fig. 1 let D be a given point, and O the center of +a given circle, whose diameter is FG. Bisect DF at +A. Also about D describe an arc with any radius DP +greater than DA, and about O another arc with a radius +OP = DP + FO, intersecting the first arc at P, +then draw PD, and also PO, cutting the circumference +of the given circle in L. Since PD = PL, and +DA = AF, it is evident that by repeating this process +we shall construct a curve PAR, which satisfies the +condition that <i>every point in it is equally distant from +a given point and from the circumference of a given +circle</i>. Since PO-PD = LO, and AO-AD = FO, +this curve is one branch of the hyperbola of which D +and O are the foci. +<img src="images/14-fig1.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 1" title=""> +</p> + +<p>Bisect DG at B, then about D describe an arc with +any radius DQ greater than DB, and about O another +are with radius OQ = DQ-FO; draw from Q the +intersections of these arcs, the line QD, and also QO, +producing the latter to cut the circumference in E. By +this process we may construct the curve QBZ, each +point of which is also equally distant from the given +point D, and from the concave instead of the convex +arc of the given circumference. The difference between +QD and QO being constant and equal to FO, and AB +being also equal to FO, this curve is the other branch +of the same hyperbola, whose major axis is equal to +the radius of the given circle.</p> + +<p>The tangent at P bisects the angle DPL, and is perpendicular +to DL, which it bisects at a point I on the +circumference of the circle whose diameter is AB, the +major axis, the center being C, the middle point of DO. +As P recedes from A, it is evident that the angles +P D L, P L D, will increase, until DL assumes the +position D T tangent to the given circle, when they +will become right angles. P will therefore be infinitely +remote, and the point I having then reached t, where +D T touches the smaller circle, C t S will be an asymptote +to the curve. This shows that the measurements +from the convex arc, for the construction of A P, are +made only from the portion FT of the given circumference.</p> + +<p>In the diagram the point Q is so chosen that DL +produced passes through E, so that QJ, the tangent +at Q, is parallel to PI. It will thus be seen that the +measurements from the concave arc, for the construction +of BQ, are confined to the portion G T of the +given circumference. As DLE rises, the points P and +Q recede from A and B, the points L and E approach +each other, finally coinciding at T; at this instant I +and J fall together at t, so that S S is the common +asymptote to A P and B Q.</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/14-fig2.png" align="right" alt="FIG 2." title=""> +In Fig. 2 the given point D lies within the circumference +of the given circle. Bisect DF at A, and DG +at B; about D describe an arc with any radius DP +greater than DA, and about O another, with radius +OP = OF - DP, these arcs intersect in P, and producing +OP to cut the circumference in L, we have PD = PL. +Similarly ED = EH, UD = UW, etc. +And since PD + PO = LP + PO, DE + EO = HE ++ EO, and so on, the curve is obviously the ellipse of +which the foci are D and O, and the major axis is AB += FO, the radius of the given circle.</p> + +<p>If, as in Fig. 3, the given point be made to coincide +with the center of the circle, the ellipse becomes a +circle with diameter A B = F O. But if the point be +placed upon the circumference, as in Fig. 4, the ellipse +will reduce to the right line A B coinciding with FO. + +<img src="images/14-fig3456.png" align="left" alt="FIGs 3, 4, 5, 6." title=""> +</p> + +<p>In this case we may also apply the same process as in +Fig. 1; D T becomes a tangent at D to the circumference, +and the asymptotes coincide with the axis of the +hyperbola, of which one branch reduces to the right +line A P extending from A to infinity on the left, and +the other reduces to the right line B G Q, extending +from B to infinity on the right.</p> + +<p>If the circle be reduced to a point, as in Fig. 5, the +resulting locus is a right line perpendicular to and bisecting +D O. If on the other hand the diameter of the +given circle be infinite, the circumference, as in Fig. 6, +becomes a right line perpendicular to the axis at F, and +the curve satisfies the familiar definition of the parabola, +D E being equal to E H, D P equal to P L, and +so on.</p> + + +<p> +<img src="images/14-fig7.png" align="right" alt="FIG 7." title=""> +In Fig. 7, as in Fig. 1, DT is tangent at T to the +given circle whose center is O, and at t to the circle +about C whose diameter is AB, the major axis. Since +DTO is a right angle, T lies upon the circumference +of the circle whose center is C, and diameter DO; this +circle cuts the asymptote SCS at M and N. The +semi-conjugate axis is a mean proportional between D +A and AO; now drawing TM and TN, it is seen +that Tt is that mean proportional; and a circle described +about C with that radius will be tangent to TO. DT, +then, is the radius of the circle to be described about the +focus of the conjugate hyperbola for its construction +according to the enunciation first given: and we observe +that DT and TO are supplementary chords in +the circle about C through D and O. The conjugate +foci must therefore lie upon this circumference, at D' +and O'; and since D'O' is perpendicular to DO, D'T +will be perpendicular and T'O' will be parallel to +SCS.</p> + + + +<p>Now as TO increases, T'O' will diminish, until, +when TO equals DO, T'O' will vanish and with it +Ct'; and at this crisis, the case is the same as in Fig. +4; but the conjugate hyperbola logically reduces to +<i>two</i> right lines, extending from C to infinity on the +right and left. As indeed it should from the familiar +construction, since the distances from D' and O' to any +point on the horizontal axis being equal, their difference +is constant and equal to zero.</p> + +<p>It appears, then, that a conic section may be defined +as the locus of a point which is equally distant from a +given point and from the circumference of a given circle. +Boscovich defines it as the locus of a point so moving +that its distances from a given point and from a +given right line shall have a constant ratio.</p> + +<p>The latter definition involves the conceptions of a +rectilinear directrix, and a varying ratio in the cases +of the different curves, this ratio being unity for the +parabola, less for the ellipse, and greater for the hyperbola. +The former involves the conception of a circular +directrix with a ratio equal to unity in all cases; and +the two definitions become identical in the construction +of the parabola, which is in fact the only curve +of which a clear idea is given by either of them. That +of Boscovich has been given a prominence far in excess +of its merits, being made the foundation for the discussion +of these important curves, and this in a textbook +whose preface contains the following true and +emphatic statement, viz.:</p> + +<blockquote> +"The abstract nature of a ratio, and the fact that it +is a compound concept, peculiarly unfit it for elementary +purposes." +</blockquote> + +<p>The definition herein set forth has not been given in +any treatise on the subject, so far as we have been able +to ascertain. And it is presented with the distinctly +expressed hope that it never will be, except as a mere +matter of abstract interest.</p> + +<p>Of this it may, like the other, possess a little, but +both have the great disadvantage that, except in relation +to the parabola, the idea which they convey to +the mind of the curves to which they relate, if indeed +they convey any at all, is most obscure and indirect; +and of practical utility neither one can claim a particle.</p> + +<hr /> + +<a name="chem-2"></a><h2>TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS.</h2> + +<h3>(Issued December 6, 1890.)</h3> + +<p>By request of the Committee of Revision and Publication +of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States of +America, Prof. F.W. Clarke, chief chemist of the +United States Geological Survey, has furnished a table +of atomic weights, revised upon the basis of the most +recent data and his latest computations. The committee +has resolved that this table be printed and furnished +for publication to the professional press. The +committee also requests that all calculations and analytical +data which are to be given in reports or contributions +intended for its use or cognizance be based +upon the values in the table. It would be highly desirable +that this table be adopted and uniformly followed +by chemists in general, at least for practical +purposes, until it is superseded by a revised edition. It +would only be necessary for any author of a paper, +etc., to state that his analytical figures are based upon +"Prof. Clarke's table of atomic weights of December +6, 1890," or some subsequent issue.</p> + +<p>This table represents the latest and most trustworthy +results, reduced to a uniform basis of comparison, with</p> + +<p>oxygen = 16 as starting point of the system. No decimal +places representing large uncertainties are used. +When values vary, with equal probability on both +sides, so far as our present knowledge goes, as in the +case of cadmium (111.8 and 112.2), the mean value is +given in the table.</p> + +<p>The names of elements occurring in pharmaceutical, +medicinal, chemicals, are printed in italics:</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table summary="Auto-table" cellspacing="10"> +<colgroup span="3"> +<col align="left"> +<col align="center"> +<col align="center"> +</colgroup> +<thead> +<tr><th>Name.</th><th>Symbol.</th><th>Atomic Weight.</th></tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr><td><i>Aluminum.</i></td><td><i>Al</i></td><td>27. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Antimony.</i></td><td><i>Sb</i></td><td>120. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Arsenic.</i></td><td><i>As</i></td><td>75. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Barium.</i></td><td><i>Ba</i></td><td>137. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Bismuth.</i></td><td><i>Bi</i></td><td>208.9 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Boron.</i></td><td><i>B</i></td><td>11. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Bromine.</i></td><td><i>Br</i></td><td>79.95 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Cadmium.</td><td>Cd</td><td>112. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Caesium.</td><td>Cs</td><td>132.9 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Calcium.</i></td><td><i>Ca</i></td><td>40. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Carbon.</i></td><td><i>C</i></td><td>12. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Cerium.</i></td><td><i>Ce</i></td><td>140.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Chlorine.</i></td><td><i>Cl</i></td><td>35.45 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Chromium.</i></td><td><i>Cr</i></td><td>52.1 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Cobalt.</td><td>Co</td><td>59. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Columbium.<a name="FNanchor_1b"></a><a href="#Footnote_1b"><sup>1</sup></a></td><td>Cb</td><td>94. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Copper.</i></td><td><i>Cu</i></td><td>63.4 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Didymium.<a name="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>2</sup></a></td><td>Di</td><td>142.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Erbium.</td><td>Er</td><td>166.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Fluorine.</td><td>F</td><td>19. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Gallium.</td><td>Ga</td><td>69. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Germanium.</td><td>Ge</td><td>72.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Glucinum.<a name="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>3</sup></a></td><td>Gl</td><td>9. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Gold.</i></td><td><i>Au</i></td><td>197.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Hydrogen.</i></td><td><i>H</i></td><td>1.007 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Indium.</td><td>In</td><td>113.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Iodine.</i></td><td><i>I</i></td><td>126.85 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Iridium.</td><td>Ir</td><td>193.1 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Iron.</i></td><td><i>Fe</i></td><td>56. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Lanthanum.</td><td>La</td><td>138.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Lead.</i></td><td><i>Pb</i></td><td>206.95 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Lithium.</i></td><td><i>Li</i></td><td>7.02 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Magnesium.</i></td><td><i>Mg</i></td><td>24.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Manganese.</i></td><td><i>Mn</i></td><td>55. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Mercury.</i></td><td><i>Hg</i></td><td>200. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Molybdenum.</i></td><td><i>Mo</i></td><td>96. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Nickel.</td><td>Ni</td><td>58.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Nitrogen.</i></td><td><i>N</i></td><td>14.03 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Osmium.</td><td>Os</td><td>191.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Oxygen</i>.<a name="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>4</sup></a></td><td><i>O</i></td><td>16. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Palladium.</td><td>Pd</td><td>106.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Phosphorus.</i></td><td><i>P</i></td><td>31. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Platinum.</td><td>Pt</td><td>195. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Potassium.</i></td><td><i>K</i></td><td>39.11 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Rhodium.</td><td>Rh</td><td>103.5 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Rubidium.</td><td>Rb</td><td>85.5 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Ruthenium.</td><td>Ru</td><td>101.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Samarium.</td><td>Sm</td><td>150. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Scandium.</td><td>Sc</td><td>44. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Selenium.</td><td>Se</td><td>79. </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Silicon.</i></td><td><i>Si</i></td><td>28.4 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Silver.</i></td><td><i>Ag</i></td><td>107.92 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Sodium.</i></td><td><i>Na</i></td><td>23.05 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Strontium.</td><td>Sr</td><td>87.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Sulphur.</i></td><td><i>S</i></td><td>32.06 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Tantalum.</td><td>Ta</td><td>182.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Tellurium.</td><td>Te</td><td>125. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Terbium.</td><td>Tb</td><td>159.5 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Thallium.</td><td>Tl</td><td>204.18 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Thorium.</td><td>Th</td><td>232.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Tin.</td><td>Sn</td><td>119. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Titanium.</td><td>Ti</td><td>48. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Tungsten.</td><td>W</td><td>184. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Uranium.</td><td>U</td><td>239.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Vanadium.</td><td>V</td><td>51.4 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Yterbium.</td><td>Yb</td><td>173. </td></tr> +<tr><td>Yttrium.</td><td>Yt</td><td>89.1 </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Zinc.</i></td><td><i>Zn</i></td><td>65.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td>Zirconium.</td><td>Zr</td><td>90.6 </td></tr> +</tbody> +</table></div> + + +<p>—<i>Am. Jour. Pharm.</i></p> + +<a name="Footnote_1b"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1b">[1]</a><div class="note">Has priority over niobium.</div> +<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a><div class="note">Now split into neo-and praseo-didymium.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a><div class="note">Has priority over beryllium.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a><div class="note">Standard, or basis of the system.</div> + +<hr /> + + +<a name="tec-1"></a><h2>THE TANNING MATERIALS OF EUROPE.</h2> + +<p>The tanning materials of Europe are of an altogether +different type from those of the United States. +The population is so dense that the quantity of home +materials produced is not nearly proportionate to the +amount consumed, and consequently they must draw +upon surrounding lands for their supply. The vegetation +of these adjacent countries is of a much more +tropical nature, and it naturally follows that the +tanning materials are also of a different species.</p> + +<p>Tanning materials may be divided into two great +classes, viz.: Physiological and pathological.</p> + +<h3>PHYSIOLOGICAL.</h3> + +<p>The first class includes those tannins which are the +results of perfectly natural or normal growth, and a +growth necessary to the development of vegetation, +for instance, bark, sumac, etc., whereas the second +class contains those which are the results of abnormal +growth, caused by diseases, stings of insects, etc. An +example of this is the gall. Both of these classes are +used to a great extent in Europe, while only the first +division is in general use in the United States. We will +first consider the physiological tannins.</p> + +<p><i>Oak Bark.</i>—This material was, is, and will be for +some time to come the main tanning material in use +here in Europe. The advantages of the oak tannage +are as fully appreciated here as in the United States. +The European oak gives a light colored, firm leather, +with good weight results, is comparatively cheap and +of an excellent quality. The varieties are numerous, +each country having its own kind. Those in most +general use are:</p> + +<p><i>Spiegel Rinde</i> (mirror bark).—This bark is well +distributed throughout Europe, and is peeled when the +tree has attained a growth of from 12 to 24 years. It +is marketed in three grades.</p> + +<p><i>Reitel Rinde</i>—Is obtained from the same tree as the +spiegel rinde, but after the tree has attained a growth +of from 25 to 40 years.</p> + +<p><i>Alte Pische</i> (old oak).—Obtained from the aged tree. +It is not as valuable as the younger bark, and consequently +brings a much lower price.</p> + +<p>Spiegel rinde may be judged by small warts which +appear on the shining surface of the bark. The presence +of a great number of these, as a rule, indicates a +high tannin percentage.</p> + +<p>Bosnia has fine oak trees, the bark containing 10 to +11 per cent. tannin.</p> + +<p>Bohemia has the <i>trauben eiche</i> (grape oak).</p> + +<p>France uses the kirmess oak, which grows in the +south of that country and in northern Africa. Two +grades are made, viz., root and trunk.</p> + +<p>Tyrol has the evergreen oak—12 to 13 per cent. tannin.</p> + +<p>Sardinia possesses a cork oak, which yields 13 to 14 per cent.</p> + +<p>White oak is found throughout Europe, yielding 10 +per cent. The price of oak bark varies a great deal. +The assortment is much more strict than in the United +States. In Austria it brings 4 to 5 fl., equal to $1.60 to +$2 per kilo. (224 lb.); in Germany, 11 to 16 marks per +100 kilos.<a name="FNanchor_1c"></a><a href="#Footnote_1c"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>The above mentioned varieties are all used for both +upper and sole leather. In Germany a great deal of +upper leather is pure oak tannage, but one seldom finds +a pure oak tanned sole leather; it is almost always in +combination with other tannics.</p> + +<p><i>Pine Bark</i>—Is well distributed and is a very +important tanning material. It bears the same relation +to oak bark here as does hemlock in America, but its +effects are quite different from hemlock. The best +Austrian sorts are those of Styria and Bohemia, but +that of Karuthen is also of good quality. The German +pine comes from Thuringia to a great extent. The +countries that consume the greatest amount of pine +bark are Austria, Germany, Russia and Italy. The +tannin contained varies from 5 to 16 per cent. Its +use is almost wholly confined to the handlers, as its +weight returns are not so satisfactory as oak or valonia. +In case it should be used for layers it is always in +combination with some better weight-giving tannic. For +upper leather its use is limited.</p> + +<p>The bark is always peeled from the felled tree, and +often the woodman accepts the bark in part payment +for his labor; he then sells the bark to the tanner or +agents who go about the country collecting bark. It +is generally very nicely cleaned. I would here like to +correct a mistake which tanners often make in their +estimations of the value of barks. A tanner usually +buys the bark of southern-grown trees in preference to +that of trees grown in northern countries, as it is a +common idea that southern vegetation contains more +tannin than that of the north. This is a fallacy, as has +not only been proved by careful analyses, but may +also be found to be an incorrect conclusion after a +moments' thought. Those trees which flourish in +southern countries grow very rapidly, and as tannin is +necessary to the development of leaf structure, etc., it +is absorbed to a greater extent than is the case with +the slower-growing tree of the north. The tannin +contained in the sap does not increase in the same ratio +as does the rapid growth, and it follows that the remainder +in the bark is less than in the tree of slower growth.</p> + +<p><i>Birch Bark</i>—Is at home in Russia, Norway, and +Sweden. It is used for both upper and sole leather, +but seldom alone. The bark is usually peeled from +the full grown tree, and contains 4 to 9 per cent. +tannin.</p> + +<p><i>Willow Bark</i>—May also be found in the above +mentioned countries and also in Germany. This material +is used for both upper and sole leather, and contains +6 to 9 per cent. tannin. It is a very delicate material +to use, as its tannin decomposes rapidly.</p> + +<p><i>Erlen Rinde</i>—Is also a native of Germany, but is +not used to any great extent. The same may be said of +the larch, although this variety is also to be met with +in Russia.</p> + +<p><i>Mimosa Bark</i>—Is obtained from the acacia of +Australia. It is a favorite in England. The varieties are +as follows: Gold wattle, silver wattle (blackwood, +lightwood), black wattle, green wattle. The gold wattle +is a native of Victoria. Its cultivation was tried as +an experiment in Algeria and met with some success. + +The trees are always grown from seeds. These seeds +are laid in warm water for a few hours before sowing. +The acacia may be peeled at eight years' growth and +carries seeds. The Tasmania bark is very good; that +from Adelaide likewise good.</p> + +<p>Sydney does not produce so good an article, but +Queensland better. The bark is marketed in the stick, +ground or chopped.</p> + +<p>Madagascar and the Reunion Islands have also a +mimosa bark.</p> + +<p>The mimosa barks give a reddish colored leather, +pump well and contain a high tannin percentage, 10 to +35 per cent.</p> + +<p>Now we will consider the fruit tanning materials.</p> + +<p>Valonia may truly be called one of the most generally +used tanning agents at present employed in Europe. +All countries consume it more or less. Valonia was +first used in England about the beginning of this century. +A few years later Germany began using it, and +still later Austria introduced it. It is the fruit of the +oak tree and is obtainable in Asia Minor and the adjacent +islands. In form it resembles the American +acorn, but in size it nearly trebles it. The fruit may +be divided into two parts, namely, the cup and acorn, +and the cup again divided into trillor and inner cup. +The acorn only contains 10 per cent. tannin, whereas +the cup contains from 25 to 40 per cent.</p> + +<p>The percentage depends altogether upon the time of +harvesting and the place of growth. The best valonia +is derived from Smyrna, and is naturally the highest +priced article. Valonia is worth from 22 to 28 florins +($9 to $11) per 100 kilos. (224 pounds) at present. The +other provinces and islands from which it is obtainable +are Demergick, Govalia, Idem, Ivalzick, Troy (this is +the best); Metelino Island, the vicinity of Smyrna. +The material sold in three grades—prime, mazzano; +seconds, una aqua; thirds, skart.</p> + +<p>The product of Smyrna generally averages:</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="product of smyrna" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr><td> </td><td>Tons.</td><td>Price.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Prime.</td><td>2,000 to 3,000</td><td>28 florins.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Seconds.</td><td>5,000 to 10,000</td><td>25 florins.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Thirds.</td><td>20,000 to 30,000</td><td> 22 florins.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The <i>Metilino</i> valonia is a product of a neighboring +island, and is a very good article. It may be easily +distinguished by its thin cup. It is harvested in September.</p> + +<p>The <i>Candia</i> valonia is nearly as long as it is wide, in +contrast to the Smyrna, which is much wider than long. +The recent harvest showed a return of 800 to 1,000 tons, +but no assortment is made. A grade called the Erstlige +is sold, this being the first which has fallen to the +ground before maturing.</p> + +<p>A peculiarity of the valonia is that it often strikes +out a sort of sugar sweat, which gives the cup a less +attractive appearance, but denotes the presence of large +quantities of tannin.</p> + +<p>Valonia is used almost wholly for sole leather, either +alone or in combination with pine or oak bark or +knoppern and myrabolams. The union of valonia and +knoppern is that in most general use. Valonia gives the +leather a yellowish appearance, as it deposits a great +deal of yellow bloom. The leather is very firm and +of good wearing qualities. The weight results are +also excellent, as will be seen below. To sole leather +there are usually given from one to three layers of +valonia. The demand for valonia is increasing more +and more every year, and the present outlook does not +indicate any relaxation of its popularity. Its use for +upper leather is very limited.</p> + +<p>Myrabolams are mainly used in England and Austria, +and give a nice light-colored leather, both upper and +sole, although rarely used alone. Their main use is for +dyeing purposes. They are indigenous to the East +Indies.</p> + +<p>Sumac is so well known that treating of it is superfluous. +Its use is very extensive, and it is a general +favorite for light, fine leather, which is mostly used +for colors.</p> + +<p><i>Gambier</i>—Is in general use in England and to some +extent in Germany.</p> + +<p><i>Catechu</i>.—Obtained from India, resembles gambier +greatly. Its use is almost wholly confined to England. +It is also consumed by the silk manufacturers in preference +to gambier, for weighting purposes.</p> + +<h3>PATHOLOGICAL.</h3> + +<p>We now leave the physiological class and take up +those tanning materials included in the pathological +class, or those of abnormal growth.</p> + +<p><i>Galls</i>.—These are not consumed to any great extent +at the present period, but formerly they were used +quite extensively. The galls are found upon the leaves +of the oak or sumac, etc. The direct cause of their +growth is that a certain wasp (cynips galles) stings into +the leaf and after depositing its egg, flies away. The +egg develops into a larva and then into a full-fledged +wasp, boring its way out of the gall which has served +as a protection and nourisher. This accounts for the +hole noticed in almost every gall. The different varieties +include Aleppo. It is found upon the same trees as the +valonia and contains 60 to 75 per cent. tannin; Istrian +galls, 32 per cent. tannin; Persian, 28 to 29 per cent. +tannin. Chinese galls, giving 80 to 82 per cent. tannin, +are the results of the sting of a louse, and make a very +light-colored leather. The dyers also use this material +for coloring.</p> + +<p><i>Knoppern</i>—Belongs to the family of galls, and is a +most important factor of commerce in Austria. The +knopper is generally found on the acorn or leaf of the +oak tree. The greatest quantity is derived from the +steel oak of Hungary. The tannin contained varies +from 27 to 33 per cent. Knoppern are not being used +so much now as formerly, and consequently the amount +harvested lessens from year to year. Its main use was +and is in combination with valonia as layers for sole +leather. Valonia gives better weight results than +knoppern, and is replacing knoppern more and more +every year. The combination of knoppern, valonia +and myrabolams is also quite popular, and gives +good results. Knoppern are seldom used alone, being +generally combined with some other tannin. Austria +is almost the only consumer at present, but Germany +used it extensively formerly.</p> + +<p><i>Bark and Wood Extracts</i>—Are becoming general +favorites throughout Europe, partly because of their +weight-giving qualities and partly as the transportation +costs so little; they can be used to strengthen weak +bark liquors.</p> + + +<p><i>Oak Extracts</i>—Are well liked, both wood and bark, +and are used extensively. Slavonia furnishes a great +deal of it.</p> + +<p><i>Chestnut Oak Wood Extract</i>—Is manufactured in +quantities, and easily finds purchasers.</p> + +<p><i>Pine Bark Extract</i>—Is also consumed in goodly +amounts.</p> + +<p><i>Quebracho Wood Extract</i>.—The wood is shipped from +Brazil to Hamburg and other ports, and the tannin +extracted there. Hamburg furnishes quantities +of it.</p> + +<p><i>Hemlock Extract</i>—Is used in Russia, and seems to +have taken a hold on the shoe buyers' fancies, as they +now make imitations of it in color. The hemlock that +is consumed is imported from America.</p> + +<p>As most leather is sold by weight in Europe, the +leather manufacturers aim to obtain as good weight +results as possible, and often, I am sorry to say, do so +at the sacrifice of quality. This is common to both +upper and sole leather. Sole leather is nine times out +of ten given false weight by forcing entirely foreign +substances into the leather, such as glucose, barium +chloride, magnesium chloride, resins, etc. Glucose and +resin are also used for weighting upper leather. Leather +is also weighted with extracts by overtanning. Leather +buyers have become very wary of late and do not purchase +large quantities before an analysis is made of a +fair sample.</p> + +<p>One more word before I close. The governments and +private individuals in Europe cultivate and raise trees +for both lumber and bark purposes. The forests are +excellently cared for by efficient foresters, and the result +is that the tanners obtain much cleaner and better +bark, and of a very even quality. Would it not be a +good idea if some individual, who would certainly earn +the everlasting gratefulness of the tanners, would look +into this matter, and see that not only the lumber side +of our forest cultivation is not neglected, but that the +bark also is preserved and cared for? Of course, we +can obtain all the bark necessary at present and for +some time to come, but the time will come when we +shall certainly regret not having taken these steps, if +the lumbermen and bark peelers go on devastating +magnificent forests. Below will be found a table of +weight results. Sole leather tanned with these materials +gives for every 100 lb. green hide the following +quantities of finished leather:</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Tannic Tanned Weights" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td> lb. </td> +</tr> +<tr><td>Oak bark</td><td>48 to 54</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oak extract</td><td>55 to 56</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pine bark </td><td>44 to 46</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pine extract</td><td> 48 to 50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Willow </td><td>45 to 46</td></tr> +<tr><td>Birch bark and oak extract</td><td>49 to 51</td></tr> +<tr><td>Quebracho wood and extract </td><td>48 to 49</td></tr> +<tr><td>Valonia </td><td>52 to 56</td></tr> +<tr><td>Knoppern </td><td>51 to 53</td></tr> +<tr><td>Myrabolams </td><td>50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Knoppern, myrabolams and valonia</td><td>52 to 53</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hemloc</td><td>55</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Specification of tanning materials used in different +countries:</p> + +<pre> + <i>France.</i> + Oak bark (kirmess). + Sumac. + Chestnut wood extract. + Quebracho " " + Some gambier. + + <i>Italy.</i> + Oak bark. + Pine " + Sumac. + Valonia. + + <i>England.</i> + Oak bark. + Divi divi. + Myrabolams. + Valonia. + Mimosa. + Extracts { Oak bark and wood hemlock. + Gambier. + Cutch. + + <i>Germany and Austria.</i> + Oak bark. + Pine " + Willow bark. + Valonia. + Knoppern. + Myrabolams. + { Oak bark and wood. + Extracts { Pine bark and wood. + + <i>Russia.</i> + Birch bark. + Willow " + Oak " + Pine " + Hemlock extract. + + + <i>Norway and Sweden.</i> + Birch bark. + Willow " + Oak " + +</pre> + +<div style="margin-left: 10em; ">WALTER J. SALOMON.<br/><br /> +—<i>Shoe and Leather Reporter.</i></div> + +<a name="Footnote_1c"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1c">[1]</a><div class="note"> +In the principal districts in America, removed from the cities, +the price of oak bark is about $4 to $6 per cord or per ton +of 2,240 lb. The hemlock bark, which gives a sole leather just as +thoroughly tanned, but of a darker and reddish color, costs the +larger tanners from $3 to $4 a cord.</div> + +<hr /> + +<a name="chem-1"></a><h2>AN APPARATUS FOR HEATING SUBSTANCES +IN GLASS TUBES UNDER PRESSURE.<a name="FNanchor_1d"></a><a href="#Footnote_1d"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h4>By H. PEMBERTON, Jr.</h4> + +<p>Chemists who do not happen to have in their laboratories +oil or air baths for heating closed tubes can +make an air bath at short notice from materials furnished +by all dealers in steam fittings.</p> + +<p><i>Order</i>:</p> + +<p>(1) One four-inch wrought iron pipe, eighteen inches +out to out, with usual thread on each end. At about +nine inches from either end this pipe is drilled and tapped +for a one-inch nipple, in such a manner that a pipe +introduced would pass, not on a line with the radius, +but about half way between the axis of the four-inch +pipe and its walls; in other words, it would be on a +line with a chord of the circle.</p> + +<p>(2) One one-inch wrought iron nipple, two inches +long, one-inch thread on one end.</p> + +<p>(3) Two four-inch malleable iron caps, drilled and +tapped for a one-inch pipe.</p> + +<p>(4) One one-inch wrought iron pipe, twenty-four +inches out to out, with a three-inch straight thread +on each end.</p> + +<p>(5) Two one-inch iron caps. A hole, one-eighth of an +inch in diameter, is drilled in the end of one of these +caps.</p> + +<p>The above order can be given <i>literatim</i>, and will be +understood by the dealer, who will furnish, at a trifling +cost, the materials, cut and tapped as ordered.</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/16-fig12.png" align="left" alt="FIG. 1." title=""> +Fig. 1 shows how the whole is put together. The +numbers on the figure correspond also to the numbers +of the paragraphs of the order as given above.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 is an end section. A cork is inserted in 2 and +through it a thermometer, the bulb of which is on a +level with the interior pipe. The whole is supported +on a few bricks at either end, and is kept steady and +in place by a couple of weights or half bricks. It is +heated by one or two Bunsen burners, according to the +temperature desired.—<i>Jour. Fr. Institute</i>.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1d"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1d">[1]</a><div class="note">Read at the meeting of the Chemical Section of the Franklin Institute +held March 17, 1891.</div> + +<hr /> + +<a name="chem-3"></a><h2>TESTING CEMENT.</h2> + +<p>An improved method of testing Portland cement has +been adopted by M. Deval, Chief Superintendent of +Bridges and Roads, who has charge, under M. Saele, +of the Public Works Laboratory of the City of Paris. +The principal difference in M. Deval's method consists +in the use of hot water for the period of hardening. The +briquettes are made in the usual way, and of the ordinary +size; and the cement to be tested is gauged with +three times its weight of normal sand, and the smallest +quantity of water possible. After preparation, the +briquettes are allowed to harden in air for a period +ranging from 24 hours for Portland cement to 30 days +for certain slow-setting hydraulic limes. After this +period, the samples are immersed in water kept at a +temperature of 80° C., in which they remain for from +two to seven days. The briquettes are then broken in +the ordinary way. After careful comparisons of many +varieties of cement hardened hot and cold, M. Deval +finds that cold tests are fallacious, inasmuch as they +may fail to detect bad material. Portland cement of +good quality will not only stand water at 80° C., but +will attain in seven days about the same strength as is +reached in the cold after 28 days. The hot test therefore +saves time. The hot test is an unfailing proof for +free lime; cements containing this constituent betraying +weakness, and cracking, swelling, and disintegrating +in a very significant manner. This last result +is regarded as a valuable quality of the new method of +testing cement, the general effect of which appears to +be to enhance the test value of really good cements, +while depreciating those of an inferior character.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN +Architects and Builders Edition</h2> + +<h4>$2.50 a Year. 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Hints on the Sale of Patents, etc.</p> + +<p>We also send, <i>free of charge</i>, a Synopsis of Foreign Patent Laws, showing +the cost and method of securing patents in all the principal countries +of the world.</p> + +<h4>MUNN & CO., Solicitors of Patents,<br /> + 361 Broadway, New York.</h4> + +<p class="ctr">BRANCH OFFICES.—No. 622 and 624 F Street, Pacific Building,<br /> +near 7th Street, Washington, D.C.</p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13358 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + + + + + + + + + + + + + |